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+{"text":" \n### NIGHTMARE\n\n'THE DETECTIVE STORY CLUB is a clearing house for the best detective and mystery stories chosen for you by a select committee of experts. Only the most ingenious crime stories will be published under the THE DETECTIVE STORY CLUB imprint. A special distinguishing stamp appears on the wrapper and title page of every THE DETECTIVE STORY CLUB book\u2014the Man with the Gun. Always look for the Man with the Gun when buying a Crime book.'\n\n**Wm. Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., 1929**\n\nNow the Man with the Gun is back in this series of COLLINS CRIME CLUB reprints, and with him the chance to experience the classic books that influenced the Golden Age of crime fiction.\n\n# ****\n\n### Copyright\n\nCOLLINS CRIME CLUB\n\nan imprint of HarperCollins _Publishers_ Ltd\n\n1 London Bridge Street\n\nLondon SE1 9GF\n\nwww.harpercollins.co.uk\n\nFirst published in Great Britain by W. Collins Sons & Co. Ltd 1932\n\nIntroduction \u00a9 Rob Reef 2017\n\nCover layout design \u00a9 HarperCollins _Publishers_ Ltd 2017\n\nFrancis Durbridge asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work.\n\nA catalogue copy of this book is available from the British Library.\n\nThis novel is entirely a work of fiction. The names, characters and incidents portrayed in it are the work of the author's imagination. Any resemblance to actual persons, living or dead, events or localities is entirely coincidental.\n\nAll rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, down-loaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins.\n\nSource ISBN: 9780008137779\n\nEbook Edition \u00a9 November 2017 ISBN: 9780008137786\n\nVersion: 2017-09-27\n\n### Dedication\n\nTO MY WIFE\n_All the characters and incidents of this novel are entirely fictitious._\nTable of Contents\n\nCover\n\nNightmare\n\nTitle Page\n\nCopyright\n\nDedication\n\nEpigraph\n\nIntroduction\n\nChapter I\n\nChapter II\n\nChapter III\n\nChapter IV\n\nChapter V\n\nChapter VI\n\nChapter VII\n\nChapter VIII\n\nChapter IX\n\nChapter X\n\nChapter XI\n\nChapter XII\n\nChapter XIII\n\nChapter XIV\n\nThe Detective Story Club\n\nAbout the Publisher\n\n## INTRODUCTION\n\nLynn Brock's _Nightmare_ is not a regular Golden Age offering. Its bleak atmosphere bears comparison with noir fiction and the disturbing, almost absurd, hopelessness of its main characters reminds one of protagonists in plays by Samuel Beckett. From a purely formal point of view, _Nightmare_ is most comparable to the fiction structure of inverted detective stories like Francis Iles' _Malice Aforethought_ or Freeman Wills Crofts' _The 12:30 from Croydon_. In all these books, published in the early 1930s, one can follow the genesis of a murder shown from the perspective of the perpetrator. They all paint a gloomy picture of the human condition, but while Iles and Crofts develop sophisticated studies in psychology in their tales, Brock seems to motivate his _Nightmare_ from an even darker and deeper source.\n\nTo those who know Brock's more traditional Colonel Gore detective novels, this ambitious book will come as a surprise. For all the others not so well acquainted with the author, it seems appropriate to start with a brief biographical outline.\n\nLynn Brock was a pen name used by Alexander Patrick McAllister, an Irish playwright and novelist born in Dublin in 1877. He also published using the pseudonyms Henry Alexander and Anthony P. Wharton. Alexander, or Alister as he was known in the family, was the eldest son of Patrick Frederick McAllister, accountant to the port and docks board in Dublin, and his wife Catherine (n\u00e9e Morgan). Educated at Clongowes Wood College, he later obtained an Honours Degree at the Royal University and was appointed chief clerk shortly after the inception of the National University of Ireland. At the outbreak of the First World War, McAllister enlisted in the military. On July 21, 1915 he went to France, where he served in the Motor Machine Gun Service of the Royal Artillery. Wounded twice, he returned to Dublin in 1918 and resumed his occupation as a clerk of the National University of Ireland. He married the same year. Once retired on a pension, McAllister and his wife Cicely (n\u00e9e Blagg) settled in London before later moving to Ferndown near Wimborne in Dorset where he lived many years and died at the age of 66 on April 6, 1943.\n\nIn Dorset, McAllister wrote his first detective novel at the age of 48 under the pseudonym Lynn Brock. This work, _The Deductions of Colonel Gore_ (1926), became a huge success. Many of his later novels featuring his title hero-detective were often reprinted and widely translated. His complex plots and witty style won the praise of Dorothy L. Sayers, T.S. Eliot and S.S. Van Dine. Against this background, his publishers at Collins had perfectly justified high expectations for _Nightmare_ (1932), which they advertised as 'one of the most remarkable books we have ever published.' Yet they would be disappointed. _Nightmare_ never saw a second edition, and it was Brock's first crime novel not to be published in the US.\n\nThough not a success in his time, _Nightmare_ is still a fascinating story and, from the perspective of literary history, his publishers' statement seems to be not entirely wrong. Reading _Nightmare_ not as another psychological crime novel with a missing twist at the end but rather as a tragedy of the human condition itself allows interpretation of the work as what may be the first philosophical crime novel. For this reason, it may be considered a milestone in crime fiction.\n\nTo explain this seemingly surprising hypothesis, it is necessary to take a closer look at McAllister's career as a writer, which did not start with the first Colonel Gore mystery in 1926. McAllister first made a name for himself twenty years earlier when his play _Irene Wycherly_ , written under the pseudonym Anthony P. Wharton, became a big success in London and on Broadway. In 1912\/14, his celebrity reached its peak when _At the Barn_ (later made into a silent movie called _Two Weeks_ in 1922) was staged in theatres on both sides of the Atlantic. Many plays and premieres followed, the last of which was _The O'Cuddy_ , staged shortly before his death. However, neither of these could revive his earlier fame.\n\nWhy is it then worth considering his career as a playwright? Because it shows his intellectual origin as a writer. Lynn Brock, one of the author's alter egos, was much more akin to George Bernard Shaw, T.S. Eliot and Frank Wedekind than to Agatha Christie, Anthony Berkeley or Freeman Wills Crofts. As with many turn-of-the-century pre-Freudian artists and writers, McAllister was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. In Schopenhauer's principal work _The World as Will and Representation_ (1818), the philosopher describes life as a dream motivated by an essence called 'Will'\u2014a mindless, aimless, non-rational urge at the foundation of everything including our instinctual drives. The world as 'Will' is an endless striving and blind impulse, devoid of knowledge, lawless and meaningless. There is no God, and there is neither good nor evil. The 'Will' causes a world of permanent struggle where each individual strives against every other individual in a 'war of all against all', and where daily life is suffering, a constant pendular movement between pain and boredom with misfortune in general as a rule. This world-as-representation is a nightmare for all individuals, staged by the 'Will' for his eternal self-involved entertainment.\n\nIt is this nihilistic and gloomy worldview that motivates Lynn Brock's _Nightmare_. Bookended by the appearance of a gramophone playing music\u2014the only art that, according to Schopenhauer, shows the metaphysical 'Will' itself\u2014the story follows the tragic misadventures of Simon Whalley and a handful of other characters trapped in an ominous house community revealing the 'war of all against all' and individual suffering in a nutshell.\n\nThough Whalley's life bears some resemblance to McAllister's biography as a playwright, the whole tale has a surreal quality. There are no distinguishable villains or heroes. All of the characters are driven by the same sinister force towards an abyss of despair, gently oscillating between daydreams of fresh starts and the inevitable nightmare-like realization of the impossibility of those intentions. All of the protagonists are doomed but Whalley, worst-hit by the cruelty of some of his neighbours, succumbs to the pressure and prepares himself for murderous revenge. The following events are predictable, and the ending is as gloomy as the setting of the story against the backdrop of the Great Depression.\n\nWhat makes _Nightmare_ truly genuine is its subtext. The plot not only unveils the motive of the crimes committed, it leads one to the metaphysical core of the human condition itself. Throughout the book the characters develop an uncanny consciousness of their nightmare-like existence in an endlessly striving and meaningless universe. They feel that 'Life itself is a silly faked-up old story', a 'bitter, merciless struggle'. They anticipate that 'everything that has been is for ever' and one 'might have to start all over again at the end of it'. Such half-hidden maxims of Schopenhauer's philosophy make Lynn Brock's _Nightmare_ an extraordinary and notable contribution to the Golden Age of crime and detective fiction, and it is to be hoped that this new edition might help to bring it up for discussion again.\n\nROB REEF\n\nMarch 2017\n\n## CHAPTER I\n\n### 1\n\nIT was a sullen, sultry afternoon in early June\u2014the unsatisfactory June of 1931\u2014and after lunch Mr Harvey Knayle, who hoped to play tennis at the Edwarde-Lewins' after tea, had retired to his bedroom for a nap. At half-past three he still lay there on his bed, slumbering soundly in the twilight of down-drawn blinds, clothed, beneath a gay dressing-gown, in gay pyjamas. For Harvey Knayle had reached an age at which an afternoon nap was a thing to be taken seriously and with all possible ease and comfort.\n\nHe was a fresh-coloured, clean-shaven, spare little man of fifty precisely, with thinning, carefully-groomed blonde hair, a high forehead, a longish aquilinish nose, good-humouredly sardonic lips, and a cleft chin. The combined effect of these details was agreeable, restful, and unobtrusively distinguished, as became the personal appearance of anyone bearing the name which was his.\n\nFor the Knayles were one of the oldest families in Barshire and intricately linked with many others of the same standing all over the west country. It is true that the particular branch of the family to which Harvey Knayle belonged had declined considerably, financially, during the past century. None the less, as things had fallen out with the help of a war, the little man who lay there sleeping peacefully, with one cheek cupped in a well-shaped hand, his knees tucked up, and a smile of child-like content upon his face, was separated by but three lives from a baronetcy, one of the largest estates in the county, and an income of fifty or sixty thousand a year. There was no likelihood whatever that he would become the actual possessor of this dignity and affluence. But it was a source of mild gratification to him that a large number of people\u2014without ill-will towards the three healthy obstacles\u2014quite sincerely hoped that somehow, some day, he would. Meanwhile he had an income of something over two thousand a year from sound investments, hosts of friends, excellent health, and an unfailing interest in the game of life. More especially, as will be seen\u2014this was one of the many reasons of his social popularity\u2014in the games played by life with other people.\n\nFor, in point of fact, his own existence had been perfectly uneventful. From Oxford he had returned to his father's house near Whanton and for a few years had lived the life of a country gentleman. But at thirty he had quickly wearied of unadulterated rurality and had migrated to Rockwood, Dunpool's most select residential suburb, where, on the frontier between town and country, he had lived ever since in bachelor content. There he had found new friends and had still been within easy reach of old ones. He danced satisfactorily, was a sound bridge-player, a reliable and good-tempered performer at tennis and golf, a sometimes brilliant shot, a good horseman, and a keen fisherman. He knew everyone in the neighbourhood worth knowing and knew everything worth knowing about them. If not a brilliant conversationalist, he was an excellent listener; if he rarely strove to say an amusing thing, he never said a malicious one. Finally he was a Knayle. And so the past twenty-five years of his life (during the War he had acted very efficiently as Adjutant of a Remount Camp close to Rockwood) had flowed tranquilly along a rut of comfortable sociability, pleasantly varied by annual trips abroad. He had found during them plenty of time to take an interest in other people\u2014an occupation which was, indeed, the principal pleasure of his life.\n\nIt is necessary, in view of subsequent events, to define his position on that drowsy afternoon, geographically, with a little greater accuracy.\n\nThe bedroom in which he lay was situated on the ground floor of a large four-storey house\u2014its number was 47\u2014in Downview Road, one of the main arteries of Rockwood. The house, detached, and formerly, like its fellows, the dignified and undivided residence of a succession of well-to-do tenants, had come down somewhat in a post-War world and had been converted into four flats, the upper two of which were reached by a steeply-pitched outer staircase of concrete built on to one side wall. At the moment the basement flat, beneath Mr Knayle\u2014one went down a little flight of steps from the front garden to its front door\u2014was let to a Mr Ridgeway, a solitary, elderly man, apparently without occupation. The first-floor flat, above Mr Knayle, was occupied by a Mr and Mrs Whalley. And the top flat, above Mr Whalley's, was tenanted by a Mr Prossip, his wife, and his daughter.\n\nMr Knayle, as has been said, liked Rockwood. It was, of course, two hours by rail from London. But, though he ran up to London very frequently and had many friends living there, he was always glad to get out of it. Dunpool, he admitted, though it was still the sixth city of England, was a dingy, untidy, shabby-looking place, solely interested in the making of money, doggedly provincial in outlook. But Rockwood was picturesque, dignified, quiet, had agreeable literary and historical associations, and was notoriously healthy. There was a pleasant variety in the people one knew there\u2014the commercial magnates of the city, people connected with the county families, retired Service people of all sorts, the men from the college and the university, people who moved about the world and did all sorts of things. It was true that a good deal of shabby gentility was hidden away in lodging-houses and boarding-houses, and that, since the War, many houses where one had dined and danced had been converted into flats in which curious-looking people lived now. But curious-looking people were everywhere now. One could always avoid seeing them. On the whole Mr Knayle thought Rockwood as good a place as any to live in. At any rate, everyone knew who one was.\n\nAt half-past three, as he had arranged, Mr Knayle was awakened by the entry of his servant, Hopgood, and opened his eyes\u2014bright blue eyes\u2014permanently a little surprised, but with a birdlike quickness of movement and fixity of gaze. They watched Hopgood let up the blinds, observed that outside the windows the gloom of the afternoon had deepened to definite menace, and closed themselves again with resignation.\n\n'No tennis this afternoon, I'm afraid, Hopgood. Looks rather like a thunderstorm, doesn't it?'\n\nHopgood, a neat, stolid, oldish man, turned to face his employer. He had been in Mr Knayle's service for many years and was permitted, upon reasonable occasion, a reasonable liberty of speech.\n\n'Well, all I can say, sir,' he replied, his usually colourless voice tinged with acidity, 'is that if there is one, I hope a good old thunderbolt will plop into the top flat of this house.'\n\nMr Knayle, opening his eyes again, smiled sympathetically upon his retainer's grimness of visage and, divining its cause, cocked an ear to catch a remote wailing which had of late grown familiar.\n\n'Mr Prossip's gramophone busy again, I hear.'\n\nSo far Hopgood, emulating his master's stoicism, had refrained from complaint of the annoyance to which they had both been subjected for a considerable time past. But, having made up his mind to complain of it, he had entered the room determined to do so, after his fashion, thoroughly.\n\n'Busy, sir?' He produced from a pocket a befigured slip. 'I'd like to ask you, sir, if you have any idea how many times that gramophone plays that same old tune in the day?'\n\n'None whatever,' replied Mr Knayle placidly, inserting his neat legs into the trousers with which Hopgood had supplied him. 'Have you?'\n\n'Well, I've been working it out this afternoon, sir, timing it and taking the average. Say it takes four minutes to play the tune\u2014including stops\u2014though there's not many stops once it starts. Very well, that's fifteen times it plays it in an hour. In the morning it plays it from eight o'clock to ten o'clock. In the afternoon it plays it from half-past one until four. And at night it plays it from ten to eleven. That's five and a half hours a day. If you multiply that by fifteen, sir, you get it that it plays it eighty-two times in the day. And it's been doing that now for seventeen days. What I make of it, sir, is that since they began that silly game up there in the top flat\u2014last Saturday week it was\u2014their gramophone has played that same blessed old tune fourteen hundred times.'\n\nHe put away his memorandum with lips tightened impressively and helped Mr Knayle into his coat.\n\n'Quite a number of times,' Mr Knayle agreed. 'Involving quite a large amount of labour for someone\u2014I should surmise some more than one.'\n\n'They all have a go at it, sir, I reckon. But it's that brazen young trollop of a maid of theirs that does most of it. I hear her running out of her kitchen to start it up when it stops.'\n\n'Why hear her, Hopgood?' asked Mr Knayle soothingly. 'Or it? I don't.'\n\n'You may say you don't, sir\u2014but you do. How can you get away from it, with the noise coming down through the well of the staircase like through a flue? I believe they've put the gramophone right over it, on purpose.' Hopgood's voice, approaching now its real purpose, invested itself with respectful reproach. 'I wonder you don't make a complaint to the landlord, sir. It's disgraceful that a quiet gentleman like you should be worried this way from morning to night. The fiddle was bad enough by itself; but this\u2014well, it's sheer torture, sir, that's what it is, sheer downright, cold-blooded torture. Any other gentleman would have complained long ago.'\n\nBut, while he surveyed his completed toilette in a long glass critically, Mr Knayle put a kindly foot upon this attempt to stampede him, and scotched it firmly.\n\n'Never allow yourself to be worried, Hopgood. And never, never let other people know that they can worry you. I admit that the same tune played fourteen hundred times begins to pall a little. But it might have been played twenty-four hundred times. The sound is hardly audible down here\u2014unless you listen for it. Let us console ourselves by the reflection that other people are having a much worse time of it than we are. A great help, that\u2014always.' He looked towards the windows. 'Yes, there's the rain. I had better get off, I think. Has Chidgey brought the car round?'\n\nAs Mr Knayle drove off in his smart coup\u00e9 to spend the afternoon with his friends, the Edwarde-Lewins, he glanced up casually towards the first floor. But there was nothing to see there. Perceiving a showy-looking young woman in coquettish apron and cap standing at one of the windows of the top flat smoking a cigarette, he smiled. The lease of his own flat would expire in September, and he had all but decided, before falling asleep that afternoon, to write that evening to the landlord giving him the agreed three months' notice that his tenancy would not be renewed. He would be away for the greater part of those three months, so that the persistency of the Prossips' gramophone, which, he was resolved, should not trouble him in the least, was of no concern to him.\n\nHe was quite determined that it should not trouble him in the least. During the past few months, he had noticed, a lot of people whom he knew\u2014quite good-tempered, placid people, formerly\u2014had developed a marked tendency to allow little things to worry them and make them irritable. He had noticed in himself a tendency to attach too much importance to trifling annoyances\u2014a lost golf-ball, or a dud razor-blade, or a little tactlessness on the part of a friend\u2014and had occasionally found it necessary to check it with some firmness. He assured himself now, therefore, that though stupid and childish and, of course, annoying for Mr and Mrs Whalley (a pity, though, that Whalley should allow himself to take it so seriously) the dogged perseverance of the Prossips' gramophone struck him as rather amusing.\n\nAs, of course, it was.\n\nSeated beside Mr Knayle, his chauffeur, Chidgey, had also glanced up to the windows of the top flat and smiled faintly. He knew all about the Prossips' gramophone and thought it a game. His smile faded almost at once, however, and his rather pleasant face became gloomy. The gear-box and the back-axle of the car should both have been refilled last week. He had not refilled them last week, nor since. He couldn't explain to himself why he hadn't, except that it was a messy job and that he had felt disinclined to do it. He had been with Mr Knayle for three years and had always taken anxious care of the two new cars which his employer had acquired in that time. It worried him that he had had this funny feeling lately that he didn't want to do jobs about the car that were a bit troublesome and messy\u2014a sort of feeling that it wasn't worth bothering about doing them.\n\n### 2\n\nAt all events Agatha Judd\u2014the brazen young trollop of the top flat\u2014was quite sure that the gramophone's persistency was amusing\u2014the most priceless lark, in fact, that had so far diverted her light-hearted existence.\n\nAs Mr Knayle's car disappeared from her view round the curve of Downview Road, once more the gramophone blared triumphantly the long-drawn closing note of 'I can't give you anything but love, Baby'. The needle slid off the record and the abrupt succeeding silence aroused her from her never-wearying contemplation of the passing traffic. But the disturbance caused her no resentment, though for two hours past, without intermission, at intervals of a few minutes, precisely similar disturbances had called her away from her window. Jamming a cigarette between her full, bedaubed lips, she flitted with hurrying eagerness out of the kitchen and along the little central corridor of the flat to where the gramophone stood on a small landing or platform at one side of the three steps descending from the corridor to the hall-door. Having started the needle once again upon its pilgrimage over the worn record, she wound up the instrument recklessly and then stood for some moments listening, her bold hazel eyes narrowed to exclude the smoke of her cigarette.\n\nShe was a slim, shapely girl of twenty-four or five and, despite her hardy allure, her powdered skin, and her salved lips, a noticeably good-looking young creature, obsessed by her own personal appearance, inefficient and lazy, equipped with the mentality of a Dunpool slum-child of ten, and possessed by a never-flagging determination to extract a bit of fun from life. At that moment, as has been said, despite the unavoidable monotony of the means, she was extracting a quite satisfying bit of it. As she stood listening, blissfully unaware of the grim fate whose scissors were already opening above her sleek little head, she smiled with vivid pleasure.\n\nStooping to the gramophone again\u2014it rested on the bare boards of the little landing, whose carpet had been rolled back\u2014she laid a finger against the edge of the record, increasing and relaxing its pressure alternately. The melody dissolved into hideous ululations, wailing and howling in dolorous insanity. She laughed softly while she continued this manipulation for a minute or so and then climbed over the balusters\u2014relics of the former interior staircase of the house, removed at the time of the conversion\u2014which enclosed the landing on two sides. Bracing herself, she sprang into the air and descended upon the boards with her full weight. The hollow, echoing reverberations which resulted\u2014for the flooring beneath her high-heeled shoes consisted merely of match-boarding\u2014widened her smile. She reproduced it with deliberation half a dozen times, then wound up the gramophone again, restarted the needle, climbed back over the balusters and, crossing the passage, entered the flat's sitting-room.\n\nIn there Marjory Prossip, a heavily-built, sullen-faced young woman of thirty, sat bent over the construction of a silk underskirt. She turned her large, elaborately-waved head as Agatha entered and rose silently from her chair. For a moment of preparation the two faced one another in the middle of the room, then, together, they sprang ceilingward and descended upon the carpet with a violence which set the windows a-rattle. This athletic feat having been repeated several times, Miss Prossip reseated herself with her work and Agatha returned humming to the kitchen, pausing along the way to start the gramophone once more. No word had passed between them. Agatha had not troubled to remove her cigarette from her lips.\n\nFor five minutes, measured by a clock upon which she kept a watchful eye, Miss Prossip plied her needle industriously. She rose then and, joined by Agatha, hopped on one foot along the corridor, into a bedroom at the end of it, around the bedroom three times, and then back along the corridor to the sitting-room, where, rather blown, she resumed her sewing. No slightest change of expression manifested itself in her sulky, sallow face while she performed these curious gymnastics, which she executed with the solemnity of a ritual. In the agile Agatha, however, the awkward heaviness of her broad-beamed superior evoked a special gaiety. As she hopped behind Miss Prossip's labouring clumsiness, she giggled happily.\n\nAnother five minutes passed and again Agatha entered the sitting-room, having again attended to the gramophone. Miss Prossip arose and faced her silently. Then, together, they sprang ceilingwards.\n\nSome time later Mr Knayle had the curiosity to make some enquiries about Miss Prossip. He learned that she had always been regarded by people who knew her as of perfectly normal intelligence and general behaviour, had been educated at the local High School, (a celebrated one) where she had been considered by her mistress a rather clever girl, if somewhat difficult and moody, was passionately fond of music and played the violin with talent, and, in general, had been considered a perfectly normal and sensible person. Mr Knayle himself had frequently encountered her in the front garden and exchanged 'good mornings' and 'good afternoons' with her. His personal estimate of her, until the outbreak of the present hostilities, had been that she was a perfectly sane, if exceedingly unattractive, young woman. Slightly more intent observation of her, in the course of the past few weeks, had afforded him no reason to revise this opinion. Nothing that he ever subsequently learned about her or her family history ever afforded him the slightest reason to revise it. And so the fact is to be accepted that Marjory Prossip was an intelligent, well-educated, well-behaved, industrious, quiet girl of thirty, an accomplished violinist, and very fond of the kind of music which abhors tunes and never says the same thing twice.\n\n### 3\n\nIn the sitting-room of the first-floor flat, directly beneath those four prancing feet, Simon Whalley sat at a small oval table near the open windows. He was tallish, black-haired, grey-eyed, like Mr Knayle, clean-shaven, in his middle-forties and rather noticeably thin. The well-cut lounge suit which he wore fitted him excellently and yet had the effect of having grown a size too large for him. On the table were an ash-tray, half full of cigarette ends, and a writing-block. Three sheets had been detached from the block and lay crumpled-up on the carpet beside his chair\u2014a severely un-easy chair, imported from the dining-room. On a fourth sheet, beneath the carefully-written heading 'CHAPTER XVII', he was drawing with a fountain-pen a design of intricate and perfectly unmeaning arabesques.\n\nOver this task, which had occupied him for the past half-hour, he was bent in concentrated absorption, thickening a curve here with nicety, rounding off an angle there, finding always a new joining to make or a new space into which to crowd another little lop-sided scroll or lozenge. At regular intervals, automatically, his left hand removed a cigarette from his lips, tapped it against the ashtray and replaced it. Whenever he lighted a new cigarette from the old one, his eyes made a curiously methodical and concerned journey round the room, beginning always at the window-curtain to his left hand and travelling always round to the armchair, which stood just beside the oval table, at his right. As they made this circuit slowly, they examined each object upon which they rested with an anxious intentness. From the armchair they glanced always to a small, stopped clock on the mantelpiece and then returned, slowly and reluctantly, to the writing-block.\n\nThe room was a large, rather low-ceilinged one, quite charming to the cursory eye with its biscuit-coloured wall-paper, bright carpet and curtains and rugs and chintzes, rows of dwarf book-cases, easy chairs and bowls of roses. It was sufficiently high up to escape serious molestation by the noise of Downview Road's voluminous summer traffic. Its windows looked out across the road, over the wide, pleasantly-timbered expanse of Rockwood Down. It was a friendly, cheerful, comfortable room, and Whalley hated it and everything in it with a hatred that was all but horror.\n\nAs he sat elaborating his futile design, his mutinous brain, refusing stubbornly to perform the functions which had once been its delight and relief, persisted in exploring, for the hundredth-thousandth time, the emotion of nauseated distrust and apprehension which the room now evoked in him whenever he entered it or even looked into it. No aim directed this vague, depressed analysis; no satisfaction or hope of remedy resulted from it. It proceeded always, however, he had observed\u2014for it had long ago become a subconscious activity, so persistent as to attract his uneasy attention\u2014along the same line.\n\nIt began always with the furtive, secret dinginess and decay that underlay the room's superficial brightness and freshness\u2014began, oddly, always with the same window-curtain.\n\nPretty curtains. But they had been up for two years now. When you shook them you found that they were thick with dust. They had faded a lot. There was a small tear in the left-hand one, at the bottom. Bogey-Bogey's work.\n\nThe windows. It must be two months at least since the windows of the flat had been cleaned. Seven-and-six... but they must be done. A nuisance, the window-cleaner, in and out of the rooms with his bucket and his sour-smelling cloths and his curious watching eyes. And then there was that broken sash-cord. And the cracked pane.\n\nThe roll-top desk. Lord, what a litter it was in! All those pigeon-holes... full of dust and rubbish. What an uncomfortable brute of a thing it was to sit at. Much too high and too narrow. And your legs were always cramped. He had paid fourteen pounds for it, and had never succeeded in writing a sentence at it...\n\nThe chintz covers. They had faded badly, too. All of them wanted cleaning, especially those of the armchairs, which were perfectly filthy...\n\nA leg of that arm-chair wanted repairing.\n\nThe rain last winter found its way through the wall up there, above the fireplace, cracked the plaster, and stained the paper. That watercolour below the stain had begun to mildew and blotch...\n\nThe fireplace would have to be seen to before the autumn; its back had burnt out, and a lot of the tiles had cracked. The chimney must be swept, too, before the autumn. That would mean that the whole room would have to be turned topsy-turvy in preparation for the sweep and cleaned right out when he had finished. A woman would have to be got in to do that job. Ten shillings. And the room unusable for the whole day.\n\nThe carpet. All right until you looked closely. Then you saw that it was dotted all over with little stains and thickly covered with Bogey-Bogey's hairs. It would have to come up and go to the cleaners, also. And one couldn't use the room without a carpet.\n\nThe Crown Derby set on the Welsh dresser. Thick with dust. A two hours' job to collect it, piece by piece, and carry it out to the kitchen and wash and dry it and carry it back and arrange it on the dresser again. He had smashed a cup last time he had done that job, three or four\u2014no, it must be six months ago\u2014before last Christmas\u2014and spoiled the set. Clumsy brute, always smashing things. It had worried him ever since, whenever he had looked at it, to think that the set was a cup short.\n\nThe portable... God, how he hated the wireless now\u2014the fatuous voices of the announcers\u2014the maudlin, insatiable music... Music... God\u2014\n\nAll those infernal dusty, stale, useless old books. Three or four hundred pounds worth of rubbish\u2014one probably wouldn't get five pounds for the lot if one tried to sell them and get rid of them. Neither he nor Elsa had opened one of them for years. And what a business it had been moving them about. What a business it would be when they would have to be moved again. And they would have to be moved again.\n\nThe settee. Ruined by the dog's paws. That must be re-covered\u2014for the dog's paws to filthy again.\n\nThe rugs. All faded, all soiled and stained and ragged at the fringes. More work for the cleaners.\n\nThat armchair. The springs gone and a castor off. He had been intending to fix that castor for over a year.\n\nExpense\u2014disturbance\u2014trouble. And all for nothing. Everything was wearing out\u2014going. Nothing would stop its going. In a few months, after all that fuss and upset, everything would be dirty and dingy again\u2014older\u2014shabbier. Hopeless to try to keep things decent with clouds of dust coming in from the road all day long and a dog messing about from morning to night and no servant. Hopeless\u2014mere waste of time. Time\u2014God, how the time flew away. The sitting-room alone took a couple of hours to do\u2014even scamping the job. And next morning it looked as if it hadn't been done for weeks.\n\nAnd yet one couldn't live in a piggery\u2014one couldn't allow Elsa to. All those confounded things must be cleaned. All those confounded small jobs must be done and paid for.\n\nFor that matter, the room would have to be done up very soon\u2014ceiling, wallpaper, and paintwork. All of them were in a bad way, and would be definitely shabby if they were let go until the spring. If the sitting-room was done, the passage and the bathroom would have to be done at the same time. One job must be made of the lot\u2014one upset. More argument and discussion and difficulty with that surly, tricky brute of a landlord\u2014more worry. Probably he would refuse again to do the work. Even if he did consent to do it, it would mean all sorts of nuisance\u2014the greater part of the flat out of action\u2014workmen about it all day long\u2014noise, smells, mess. Elsa and he would have to sleep and meal at an hotel or somewhere. More expense. And one or other of them would have to be about the flat while the workmen were in it. Lord, what a nuisance.\n\nHow pretty the room had looked when they had settled down in the flat two years ago. How sure he had felt, that first afternoon in April, 1929, when he had seated himself at the just-delivered roll-top desk, that, in that friendly, comfortable, peaceful work-room, his brain would come back again, tranquilly and obediently, to the playing of its old tricks.\n\nThat damnable, cheerful-faced clock on the mantel-piece. How many hours of bitter defeat and impotent self-reproach it had hurried away, eagerly, irrevocably. For two years of hours, each a little swifter than the last, each a little nearer to panic-speed, it had hustled him and bustled him and mocked his flurry and his failure. Cursed, smug thing... Extraordinary how loud its faint tick had grown\u2014how long he had failed to detect its power to irritate and distract him\u2014how instant had been the relief when, one afternoon six weeks or so back, a sudden impulse had caused him to jump up from his table and stop it. On that afternoon he had written nearly a whole chapter\u2014the chapter which for over three months had refused to begin itself. In the following three weeks he had succeeded in writing four more chapters, turning out four thousand words a day, still with some difficulty, but regularly. The spell had seemed broken at last. For that brief space the sitting-room had worn again the guise of its old encouraging friendliness. He had taken to hurrying in there after lunch, leaving Elsa to wash up unaided.\n\nAnd then this damnable, idiotic, maddening trouble with the Prossips had begun\u2014just when there had seemed at last, a hope...\n\nHe turned his head towards the door of the room. A thick porti\u00e8re was drawn across it and, actually, the sound of the gramophone was a faint and remote whining. No porti\u00e8re, however, could shut out its real torture, the malice of its persistency; for Whalley's ears that faint, distant whine was a savage, raucous clamour, hammering at their drums. For a little space he remained, half-turned in his chair, listening to it with rigid intentness. Then, as a heavy thump shook the ceiling above his head he flung down his pen furiously, sprang to his feet, and stood with both hands clenched before his face, glaring upwards.\n\nThe paroxysm of anger passed almost instantly\u2014before a second thump followed the first. But he remained for a space surprised by its violence and by its sudden complete obliteration of his self-control. It had produced in him for a moment an absolutely novel sensation\u2014a sensation of being on the point of surrendering his will and his consciousness to some overpowering, hostile, dangerous force. A little like the sensation when one was just about to surrender to an an\u00e6sthetic\u2014but much more violent\u2014much more eager to leave behind all the things one knew. A dangerous sensation. For a moment he realised he had been upon the point of shouting\u2014bellowing like a mad animal. He discovered that his legs were trembling a little at the knees and that his hands were still raised absurdly in the air, clenched in front of his face. When he dropped them he looked at them\u2014he had a trick of looking at his hands\u2014he saw that their palms were moist with perspiration.\n\nRidiculous. Grotesque. Shaking legs and sweating hands. That sort of thing would never do. That sort of thing, he must remember, was just the sort of thing those sluts upstairs hoped he _would_ do\u2014allow the business to get on his nerves and shout and slam doors and bang things about. Thank Heaven he hadn't shouted. Shout? Good God, he had never shouted at anyone in his life. All along, since this annoyance had begun, he had kept a close watch on himself, a tight grip on his temper. He had gone out of his way to shut doors quietly, to speak more gently to the dog. No slightest symptoms of resentment, he flattered himself, had rewarded those idiots in the top flat for all their trouble. No doubt they kept watch up there, too\u2014listened\u2014always hoping for some sound of anger or retaliation. Well, they had waited in vain\u2014they would wait in vain.\n\nNow, why on earth had that one particular thump had that strange effect upon him. They had been thumping and banging away up there for nearly three weeks now. He had heard hundreds of thumps. At least a hundred times a day, he supposed, he had heard a thump somewhere above his head. There\u2014they were at it again now. But he was able to smile now\u2014felt no anger whatever, merely an inclination to yawn. Yet that one particular thump, no louder than the rest, had swept away from him all knowledge of himself save a desire to shout madly. Funny. Too many cigarettes, probably. The afternoon was stuffy. And, of course, the thing _had_ been going on for three weeks now.\n\nThe fountain-pen had rebounded from the surface of the table when he had thrown it down and, falling on the carpet had marked it with a small inkstain. An agitated dismay seized him. He clucked, hurried to the roll-top desk, reduced its disorder to chaos with searching hands, found at last a small piece of blotting-paper in a drawer and hurried back to go down on his knees over the stain. The ink had soaked into the pile of the carpet swiftly, however, and the blotting-paper proved of little avail. He picked up the pen with another cluck, and examined its nib solicitously. It had been Elsa's first gift to him on the first day of their brief engagement\u2014a pledge of the victorious future it was to have won for them. He smiled wryly as he rose to his feet again; there had been no victories.\n\nLuckily, the pen had escaped damage. Laying it on the table, he tore off the bescrawled sheet of the writing-block and, having collected the crumpled debris from the carpet, rolled the result of his afternoon's work into a ball and dropped it dejectedly into a waste-paper basket. One more afternoon gone\u2014one more defeat\u2014\n\nThump.\n\nFuriously his face, its pallor flushing darkly, jerked upwards towards the ceiling. He shouted ragingly, ludicrously.\n\n'Stop it! Stop it, blast you! Stop it, I say!'\n\n### 4\n\nIn the top flat, as if upon an awaited signal, Bedlam had broken loose. Trampling feet were charging from room to room; doors were banging; furniture was hurtling about; a whistle was screaming; a tray was beating like a war-drum; a bucket was rolling backwards and forwards along the passage. For just an instant after he had realised in stupefaction that his own voice had uttered those three cracked, strangled cries, Whalley had hoped that the noise of the traffic might have drowned them. There had been just an instant of silence save for the traffic and the whine of the gramophone. But then exultant triumph had burst forth above him, preluded by a first long-drawn blast of the whistle. The whistle was new. The enemy had made special preparation for the celebration of victory.\n\nAs he stood at the centre of the room, dismayed by his folly, he heard the handle of the door turn and saw the porti\u00e8re ruck and sway inwards as the door opened a little beneath it. He made no movement to draw it aside; for the first time his eyes were unwilling to meet Elsa's. Lest she should edge her way in, he wiped his face hurriedly with his handkerchief in a vague attempt to obliterate its disturbance. His voice essayed bored amusement.\n\n'Having rather a field day upstairs, aren't they?'\n\n'Beasts. Did you call?'\n\n'Call? No.'\n\n'Oh, I thought I heard your voice.'\n\n'No.'\n\nIt was his first lie to her\u2014curt and clumsy. He eyed the porti\u00e8re uneasily, glad that it hid him from her clear, steady gaze. There was no suspicion in her voice when it spoke again, but it waited just too long before it did so. She knew that he had shouted, and that he had told her a lie.\n\n'You can't possibly work with that awful row going on. Let's take Bogey for a walk before tea.'\n\n'It's going to rain. It's raining already. Besides, I must do the kitchen.'\n\n'But you did it not a week ago, dear. Don't bother about it today. Let's chance the rain and go out.'\n\nYes. She had heard him shouting like a lunatic. He was certain now. Well, bad enough that she should know that he had shouted, but...\n\nHe hurried to the porti\u00e8re, pulled it aside and saw the slight, adored figure framed in the aperture of the partially opened door. Her unfathomable, enfolding smile fell upon his ruffled spirit like morning sunlight and banished all its anger and defeat and bitter self-reproach. He caught her in his arms and kissed her passionately before he blurted out his confession.\n\n'Yes. I did call out. I shouted up to them to stop\u2014like an infernal ass.'\n\nShe patted his arm, offering him just excuse.\n\n'It really is rather awful this afternoon. But we're going to keep on laughing at it, aren't we, dear? Let's go out. The kitchen can go for days still, quite well. And it's such a job.'\n\nHe hesitated, for a moment disposed to yield. But just then, startlingly, the offensive upstairs developed a new activity. Behind Elsa, as she stood facing him in the passage, was the little landing\u2014corresponding to that upon which the Prossips' gramophone rested\u2014covering in the well of the former staircase. Two of its sides were fenced in by surviving balusters, the other two by ugly partitions of painted boarding, the handiwork of the jobbing contractor who had carried out the 'conversion'. One of these partitions formed the back of the Prossips' coal-cellar, the greater part of which descended into the Whalleys' flat. This frail wall, consisting of a single thickness of match-boarding like the landing's floor, had suddenly been assailed by a wild bombardment, alarming in its abrupt violence. There was no need to speculate as to the nature of the enemy's ammunition; each furious blow upon the boards was followed by the unmistakable sound of broken coal falling. Already, where the tonguing of the boarding had split away in places, tricklings of black dust had begun to find their way through, to fall upon the rug covering the Whalleys' landing.\n\nThey stood for a little while staring at this visible invasion which, trifling as it was, held an outrage infinitely more acute than the total volume of all the outrageous noises which had assailed their ears during the past weeks. Elsa laughed at length. But for the first time her sense of humour had failed her, and her laugh was, she knew, a failure.\n\n'Idiots. Well, they'll have plenty of slack for the winter. I must rescue my rug.'\n\nShe stole on tiptoe to the landing and rolled back the rug out of danger, then stole back to him. 'I shan't be a moment getting ready.'\n\nHer husband did not appear to have heard her. He was still staring at the trickling coal-dust with a frowning, calculating absorption that made her catch at his hands anxiously.\n\n'You're not going to do anything, Si? Don't. It will only make things worse.'\n\nHe came out of his brooding reverie and laughed harshly.\n\n'Do anything? Yes. I'm going to wash the kitchen floor.'\n\n'Let me help you to move the things out. I've finished all my darning.'\n\nBut he twisted away from her, freeing himself from her hands impatiently. 'No. Don't worry me, Elsa. Just leave me to myself.'\n\nIncredulously her eyes followed him, hoping that he would turn back to her. His hands\u2014Simon's hands\u2014the gentlest, tenderest hands in all the world, had pushed her off\u2014pushed her off quite roughly\u2014so roughly that one of her elbows had struck the balusters behind her sharply. Oblivious of the deafening uproar that raged within a few feet of her, she strove with that unbelievable fact, refusing to believe it, trying to find excuse for its devastating reality. An intolerable sense of separation and loneliness fell about her like a dark mist. She became conscious of a little nervous tic beating at the corner of her mouth. With a determined effort she smiled, bracing her whole body with a deep breath.\n\nThe coppery glare that announced the near approach of the storm, passing in through the kitchen windows, reached her and detached her vividly against the darkness of the little unlighted passage. When Whalley turned at the bathroom door to ask: 'Tea at a quarter to five\u2014will that do? I shan't finish until then,' he saw her so, illuminated as if by a baleful spotlight. The whistle was blowing again now\u2014in the coal-cellar, apparently\u2014and its shrill screaming blended with the blare of the gramophone and the thudding smash of the coal in an orchestra of almost stunning viciousness. The small, trim, beloved figure, despite its erectness, seemed to him suddenly forlorn\u2014menaced. A little chill passed between her and his eyes and made her indistinct. His heart missed a beat.\n\nAbsurd. He turned about again. Her 'Of course, dear. Any old time,' had been whispered along the passage to him laughingly. Unusual lighting effects had always affected his imagination strongly... his invincible, idiotic instinct to dramatise. As for shivers and palpitations, _they_ were familiar enough. He went on into the bathroom, which he used also as his dressing-room.\n\nWhen its door shut Mrs Whalley returned to the bedroom in which she had been working and, having arranged a number of freshly-darned socks and stockings in neat pairs, put them away in her work-basket, walked slowly to the wardrobe and halted before the long mirror set in its central door.\n\nAll her life, in moments of loneliness\u2014before her marriage she had had many of them\u2014she had found comfort and company in her own reflection. It confronted her now\u2014at first reassuringly, extraordinarily unchanged by the strains and stresses of the past two years. Two tiny creases, one beneath each long eye (her eyes looked even longer than usual today, she noticed, and, because her jumper was jade and the light was dull, were bright bronze-flecked emerald) were only detectable when she bent forward until her nose all but touched the glass. There was no other line or wrinkle in the fresh smoothness of her skin, no trace of flabbiness or heaviness along the clean sweep of her jaws, about her resolute chin, or at the corners of her lips. Thank Heaven for that. She had always detested flabbiness of any sort. Her lips (she had never had any need to touch them up) had retained their warm red. Her teeth, save for an occasional stopping, had never given her any trouble. Her hair, without any doubt whatever, had grown brighter in colour and much thicker since, at last, Simon had consented to its cropping four years before. No danger of stoutness for her\u2014another good fortune to be grateful for; she was thinner and lighter than she had been at eighteen. Making allowances for short hair and short skirts, that old, tried friend in the mirror had altered hardly at all in twenty years. If at all, for the better. She had been very lucky.\n\nBut as she continued her scrutiny, a vague distrust grew in her. There _was_ some change today in that now detached and aloof image. Her eyes narrowed themselves as she searched for it. Where was it? What was it? Elsa of the mirror refused comfort and company today. Had withdrawn. Had\u2014what? It was as if an Elsa who had been had suddenly stopped being and was looking out at someone else\u2014someone different\u2014someone who, she knew, would be very different. What was it? She frowned. After all\u2014ultimately\u2014one was quite alone\u2014\n\nShe turned away from the glass and, moving to the narrow space between the two trim beds, stooped and raised the rug which she had spread over Bogey-Bogey's basket that, as was his desire, his afternoon sleep might be enjoyed in darkness. Bogey-Bogey appeared, a silken-coated black cocker, curled in a warmly-smelling knot. He had not been asleep; his tail was wagging slowly and his lustrous eyes were wide open. They regarded her with solemn reproach and then, revolving fearfully towards the uproar of the passage, refused to be enticed back to her. Nor would he raise his head from his paws. Even a kiss and the magic word 'Walky-walk' evoked from him merely a yawn and a slight increase in the tempo of his tail.\n\nA little sharply, Mrs Whalley routed him out of his basket.\n\n'Now then, young man. Pull yourself together and get that tail up.'\n\nBut Bogey-Bogey's nerves had been sorely tried recently and the new noise in the passage daunted his small soul beyond trust even in his mistress. He yawned again miserably, and then retired under her bed, reducing himself several sizes. In a vain attempt to dislodge him from this retreat, she struck her nose forcibly against the bed's iron underframe. A little warm gush of blood descended her chin and when she scrambled to her knees she saw that her jumper\u2014a recent, long-considered purchase\u2014was grievously stained. As she rose to hurry to the wash-stand and sponge away this defilement, holding her already saturated handkerchief to her nose, a crashing peal of thunder, apparently directly above the house, joined itself to the Prossips' orchestra. Bogey-Bogey yelped shrilly. Mrs Whalley realised that she had a violent headache.\n\n'Well, well\u2014' she said aloud and, to her dismay, was suddenly overcome by a gust of dry, choking sobbing. She went on, however, towards the wash-stand, her head thrown back as far as it would go, her free hand guiding her. The jumper must be saved, because it had to last her through the summer. If it was to be saved, the blood must be sponged off at once. Most urgent necessity. Simon, who was liable to come into the bedroom at any moment now that he had abandoned the attempt to work, must on no conceivable account know that misfortune had befallen his birthday gift to her. Any damage done to anything upset him so, now. _His_ hands\u2014Simon's hands\u2014had pushed her away.\n\nAt that moment, as it happened, four other people who resided in various parts of No. 47 Downview Road were thinking about Mrs Whalley.\n\nUpstairs, Marjory Prossip, who hated her passionately, was hoping, while she plied her industrious and skilful needle, that at some time in the immediate future\u2014probably that very afternoon\u2014that conceited, stuck-up little green-eyed thing in the first-floor flat would receive an extremely unpleasant surprise. Her heavy face brightened to a faint animation. What a bit of luck that that little beast of a dog had been alone.\n\nIn the ground-floor flat, the elderly Hopgood, who in bygone days had received many a half-crown from Mrs Whalley's father, and who regarded her, with a rather melancholy tenderness, as one of his last links with a past of incredible brightness now vanished for ever, was thinking about her rubbish-bin.\n\nThe rubbish bins of the other tenants were kept in the front garden, imperfectly concealed in a recess under the bottom flight of the outside staircase. Mr and Mrs Whalley, however, preferred to keep theirs on their landing of the staircase, outside their hall-door. Lately the Corporation's scavengers had been kicking up a fuss about having to go up to the landing for the bin, and, upon their last call, had refused point-blank to do so. To Hopgood's indignation, they had been impertinent to Mrs Whalley when she had remonstrated with them. As he smoked his pipe and waited for his tea-kettle to boil, Hopgood decided that he would himself carry down Mrs Whalley's bin to the front garden each Monday and Thursday afternoon and carry it up again when it had been emptied into the Corporation cart.\n\nPleased with this solution of Mrs Whalley's little difficulty, Hopgood proceeded to the brewing of his tea. He had been really shocked by the way in which the Corporation men\u2014two great, hulking, grinning young louts\u2014had spoken to her and looked at her. Especially the way they had looked at her\u2014looked at her legs\u2014looked her all over, grinning\u2014as if she was one of the young sluts they messed about with. People of that kind, Hopgood had noticed\u2014messengers, vanmen, bus-conductors\u2014in fact, the lower classes generally\u2014had suddenly become markedly uncivil and aggressive lately. He had thought a good deal about this, and, for some reason which he could not quite explain, he was somehow uneasy about it. Things had got queer, somehow. All those things in the newspapers now\u2014wars and disasters and revolutions and suicides and murders. Everything had got queer, somehow, this year. It was pleasant to see a lady like Mrs Whalley tripping in and out with her little spaniel\u2014a bit of the old times still left\u2014something you could look up to and feel sure about... Looking at her legs... The swine.\n\nBelow him, in the basement flat, the lonely Mr Ridgeway was also meditating a small service to her. In his dark, dampish-smelling sitting-room\u2014only the upper halves of its windows rose above the level of the front-garden\u2014he was re-reading once more a letter which he had written three days before.\n\n'DEAR MRS WHALLEY,\u2014I am returning, with gratitude, the books which you so kindly lent me some time ago. I have read them with much interest. Please accept my apologies for having kept them so long. But I am the slowest of readers.\n\n'Since our last meeting I have heard from a medical friend who is specially interested in your husband's trouble. I enclose some cuttings which he has sent me with reference to a new extract from which excellent results have been obtained, and hope your husband will be persuaded to give the accompanying small supply of it a trial.\n\n'Yrs sincerely,\n\n'AMBROSE RIDGEWAY.'\n\nHe laid the letter down and sat back in his chair, a stoutish, untidy man of fifty-five or so, with a rather gross and bloated face which had once been handsome and was still redeemed by a pair of very fine eyes. Presently, he told himself, he would shave and put on a clean collar and shirt and his good suit and go up the steep steps to deliver his note and his two small parcels. Perhaps it would be she who would open the door\u2014more probably her husband. Though, in the afternoon he tried to work\u2014poor devil.\n\nPresently, though. There was plenty of time, and not often something to look forward to.\n\nHis eyes rested upon the medical journals from which he had clipped the cuttings several days before. They still lay open upon a small table, grey with the dust of Downview Road. Misgiving grew again in him. Was it wise to associate himself in any way with medical matters?\n\nAfter some meditation he tore up his letter, dropped one of the parcels into a drawer, and then stretched himself on a sofa, covering his face with a dingy handkerchief. He would write just a note of thanks, returning the books.\n\nBut presently. There was plenty of time. It was raining. Tomorrow would do just as well.\n\nHarvey Knayle also was thinking just then of Mrs Whalley, in whom, as we shall see, he took an interest of a somewhat complicated kind. He was standing in Edwarde-Lewin's study, whither they had retired to discuss, before tea, a projected fortnight's fishing in Ireland, and, while his host fumbled in a drawer, he was telling about the Prossips' gramophone.\n\n'What's the law of the thing, Lewin?' he asked, jingling his loose silver. 'How many times may the chap in the flat over you play the same tune on his gramophone continuously before you can take legal action to make him stop?'\n\nEdwarde-Lewin ceased for a moment to be a genial sportsman and became a discouraging solicitor.\n\n'You can't stop him,' he replied curtly. 'He may play it all day and all night if he wants to. You have no legal redress. Unless you can prove malice.'\n\n'Now, how does one prove malice?' enquired Mr Knayle.\n\n'Just so,' snapped Edwarde-Lewin, and immediately resumed his geniality and his fumbling. 'Now, where the deuce did I put that confounded letter\u2014' He remembered that he had perused, personally, Mr Knayle's agreement at the time of his last moving. 'But the lease of that flat of yours is nearly up, as well as I remember. Noisy place, Downview Road, now. You won't stay on there, will you?'\n\nTo his own surprise, Mr Knayle suddenly abandoned a decision at which, upon prolonged and anxious consideration, he had all but arrived that afternoon.\n\n'Oh yes, I shall stay on,' he said quite definitely. 'I'm used to the noise now. Noises don't worry me. Besides, I like the look-out over the Downs. No houses opposite. Oh yes. I shall stay on.'\n\nEdwarde-Lewin found the missing letter and proceeded to read it aloud. Mr Knayle, however, although, as has been said, he was an ardent fisherman, looked out at the already soaked tennis-courts and went on thinking about the real reason which had decided him to keep on his flat in Downview Road.\n\n### 5\n\nWhile he shut the bathroom door, Whalley looked at his wrist-watch. Five past four. He had been sure that it was not yet a quarter to. The kitchen floor always took an hour and a half to do\u2014two hours if one washed the skirtings and the other paintwork. He couldn't hope now to finish before half-past five. This alteration of a quarter of an hour in his plans threw him into a flurry. He changed feverishly into the old trousers and dilapidated pullover in which he did his housework and, hurrying to the kitchen, began to move its movable furniture out into the passage.\n\nOnce a week for the past eighteen months he had performed this detested task\u2014the most detested and most troublesome of the drudgery to which circumstances had doomed him. Like that of all others, its procedure was now stereotyped\u2014a sequence of merely automatic gestures requiring no least direction from will or judgment or even consciousness. He began it, as always, by carrying out the two chairs into the passage and, as he did so, his impatience, already fatigued, rushed on ahead in desperation, foreseeing every dull, familiar detail of the labour before him, every smallest necessary movement, every trifling difficulty, every unavoidabe compromise with the ideal of a perfect kitchen floor perfectly washed.\n\nAfter the chairs, the small table by the right hand window to be carried into the passage\u2014far enough along it to leave room for the other things to follow it. Then the three baskets in which Elsa kept vegetables and fruit. Then the little cake-larder, which stood on the floor because the walls wouldn't hold nails securely. Then the set of shelves on which the saucepans and pan stood and hung. Some of them would fall and kick up a clatter. Then the small table by the sink. Then the basins stacked under it. Then the kitchen bin. (That would have to be washed out with hot water and disinfected when it had been emptied into the big bin outside the hall-door). Then the bread-bin and the flour-bin and the three empty biscuit tins under the big table. Then the big table itself (it had to be turned side up to get it through the door and even then its legs had to be screwed through one by one). Then all the small oddments kept on the floor along the walls, because there was no other place to keep them\u2014unused things, most of them\u2014obsolete trays and grids belonging to the electric-cooker\u2014old boxes and jam pots and tins\u2014kept because they might be useful some time.\n\nThe sweeping, then\u2014the same old places that took so much time to get into with the sweeping-brush, the same old snags that caught its loose head, the same old stoopings and twistings to get the same old dust and dirt out. Then the dustpan to gather up the dirt. The dustpan to be emptied into the bin. Then the bucket to be rooted out of the cupboard under the sink (it always jammed against the sink's waste-pipe) and taken to the bathroom and filled with hot water from the geyser. The scrubbing brush and floor-cloths and soap to be collected from the bathroom cupboard. The bucket to be carried back along the blocked passage to the kitchen, very slowly, lest the water should splash over\u2014\n\nAt this point, while he hurried from kitchen to passage and back again, his eyes, at each return, fixing themselves for a moment frowningly on the dresser-clock, he began again the old, never-decided debate as to the wisdom of washing the linoleum covering the floor\u2014an expensive, inlaid linoleum which had been a special pride of Elsa's in the days of the kitchen's first freshness. Someone had told Elsa that linoleum ought to be washed\u2014with a dash of paraffin in the water. Someone else had told her that it ought to be washed with Lux. Someone else had told her that it ought never to be washed on any account, but done with polish. He had tried various polishes. Certainly the linoleum had looked better when polished\u2014it always looked grey and dull after washing. But the polishes all left a greasy surface in which dirt lodged. Anyhow, the last tin of polish was practically finished now. The linoleum would have to be washed today\u2014\n\nA vibration\u2014and then a new noise rose in pitch and, piercing a way through the uproar of the Prossips' offensive, became the strident clamour of a plane, flying very low, over the house. It came into view\u2014was illuminated by a blinding flash of lightning\u2014went on its serene, unswerving way, undismayed by the crashing peal that followed. Whalley's eyes watched it until it disappeared over the tree-tops. He smiled bitterly at a vision of its pilot\u2014young, fearless, efficient\u2014a man doing a man's job while _he_ washed the kitchen floor.\n\nTwenty past four\u2014and practically nothing done yet. He fell upon the miniature dresser upon which the pans and saucepans were arranged and lifted it towards the door. A pan and two saucepans fell noisily to the floor. As he deposited his burden in the passage, the bombardment in the Prossips' coal-cellar ceased sharply and the whistle fell to silence. Footsteps had hurried from the top-flat's sitting-room; the gramophone stopped. While Whalley stood, vaguely debating the reason of this sudden cessation of hostilities, the bell of his own hall-door rang.\n\nAfter a brief hesitation\u2014for he disliked being seen in his working-clothes by anyone but his wife\u2014he descended to the door and, opening it, saw his landlord, Mr Penfold, standing in the rain beneath a streaming umbrella. The sudden lull upstairs was explained. By unfortunate chance, the enemy had observed Mr Penfold's approach\u2014no doubt had seen him\u2014from their sitting-room windows, alight from a bus opposite the front garden's gate.\n\nThere had been trouble with Penfold\u2014a truculent individual, by avocation a commercial traveller, who had inherited Nos. 47 and 48 Downview Road from an aunt deceased some few years before. The Whalleys had moved into the flat rather hurriedly, accepting a merely verbal assurance that it would be 'done up' in the following spring. But when the following spring arrived, Penfold had refused to remember having given any assurance of any kind as to doing anything. There had been interviews and, subsequently, correspondence, in the course of which he had passed from evasion to incivility and from incivility to impertinence. Finally Whalley had had the kitchen, the dining-room, and the bedroom repainted and repapered at his own cost, and had consoled himself by the fact that he had never since seen his landlord's face.\n\nIt was a large, heavy-jowled face, out of which a pair of cunning little eyes looked at him now with unconcealed hostility. Without moving any part of it visibly, Penfold said at once:\n\n'Afternoon. What's this I hear about that dog of yours?'\n\n'I've no idea,' replied Whalley. 'Do come in, won't you?'\n\nIgnoring the invitation to enter, Penfold surveyed the old trousers and pull-over at his leisure and sniffed. Then, taking a fresh stand with his square-toed boots, he transferred his gaze to the cover of the rubbish-bin.\n\n'Oh! You've no idea. I see. Well, I'll give you an idea, then. I have received complaints from the other tenants of these flats that your dog has been molesting them\u2014attacking them and causing them annoyance and nuisance.'\n\n'Who has complained, Mr Penfold?'\n\n'Never you mind.' Penfold's hand swept the question aside. 'That is what I am informed. And I'm satisfied that I'm correctly informed. So we won't argue about the point.'\n\n'I haven't the slightest intention of arguing about it,' Whalley retorted sharply. 'Or about anything else. If you have any complaint to make, put it in writing and I'll pass it on to my solicitors\u2014if I think it worth while doing so.'\n\nHighly amused, Penfold threw back his head and guffawed. He turned then and feigned to depart, but stopped and delivered his ultimatum over a shoulder.\n\n'Now, listen here, Mister Whalley\u2014as you're talking about solicitors. According to your agreement, you are permitted to keep a dog in this flat only on the condition that it causes no annoyance to any of the other tenants. Your dog has caused such annoyance. It attacked one of the other tenants savagely. Jumped up on her and tried to bite her hands. It alarmed her so that she was obliged to remain in bed for two days with a heart attack. I give you notice now to get rid of it immediately. If you fail to do so before this day week, I will instruct _my_ solicitors to take action to compel you to keep to the terms of your agreement.'\n\n'You can start taking them now, damn you,' snapped Whalley.\n\nAgain Mr Penfold surveyed the old trousers and pullover exhaustively as if expecting to extract from them an explanation of his tenant's childish ill-temper. He sniffed again, then, and turning away irrevocably went down the steps with threatening slowness and heaviness. As Whalley slammed the hall-door, a voice, humming with exaggerated blitheness above his head, informed him that the interview had had an audience. He made his way slowly back along the crowded passage towards the kitchen, revolving wrathfully this latest man\u0153uvre of the Prossips.\n\nThe crude but effective ingenuity of it exasperated him\u2014all the more because its malice was feminine and, he knew, had aimed itself more especially at Elsa. For Bogey-Bogey, though he tolerated a master, had but one god and was entirely the property of his mistress\u2014her inseparable companion and, as the Prossips could not have failed to learn from the daily observation of the six months for which they had occupied the top flat, the light of her eyes. They had struck at her most vulnerable point\u2014at his, because the blow was aimed at her.\n\nSavage attack.\n\nThe facts were that one day about a week before, Bogey-Bogey, the gentlest and best-tempered of creatures, had escaped into the front garden and, encountering Mrs Prossip and her daughter there, had, after his inveterate habit of doing the wrong thing, rushed at her joyously and jumped up on her skirts. The Prossip girl had jabbed him savagely with her sunshade and he had fled back whimpering to Elsa, who had witnessed the incident from the kitchen and had hurried out to his rescue. She had met the female Prossips on the steps, but they had made no complaint at that time. It had obviously taken them some days to discover that Bogey-Bogey had placed a new weapon in their hands and to induce that brute Penfold to wield it for them. Not that he was likely to have required much inducement\u2014swine. God! What a face\u2014what eyes.\n\nVictoriously, refreshed by its rest, the gramophone resumed its blaring. He walked slowly back along the passage until he stood almost directly beneath the sound, and stood looking up. Its position could be calculated almost exactly.\n\nOut of the question, of course, to think of parting with Bogey-Bogey... unthinkable. Probably the threat was merely spiteful bluff on Penfold's part. Though he was quite capable of trying to carry it out. Of course, he couldn't carry it out. Still... suppose they had to turn out of the flat...\n\nYes. One could calculate the position of the gramophone almost exactly. The landings of the two flats, of course, corresponded precisely in size and position. The Prossips would have placed the gramophone where it could be most conveniently reached by anyone who had to go to it repeatedly, either from the kitchen or their sitting-room, close to the balusters, two steps down the little stairs from the passage to the hall door. For, of course, they had to lean over the balusters to get at it and would do so where their rail, following the fall of the stairs, first became sufficiently low to place the gramophone within comfortable reach.\n\nHe decided upon a knot in the under-surface of the Prossips' match-boarding. Just there. A line through that knot\u2014say, from the centre of his own landing\u2014ought to pass through the near side of the gramophone. If a hand was restarting the needle, and if a face was bent over it as it did so, the line would just about catch them both\u2014some part of both of them. It would have to be a little oblique, of course\u2014yes, starting from the centre of his own landing\u2014that would be just about right...\n\nWasn't there something in the agreement about the landlord being able to take steps to recover possession of the premises if the tenant violated any of the terms of the agreement?\n\nOne would be able to time it exactly, too. The footsteps would come hurrying\u2014stop\u2014count one\u2014and then the face would be bent over the record\u2014the bullet would rush up at it out of the record, smash into it, stop its sniggering and grinning.\n\nPerfectly simple. The only difficulty was that the bullet might strike the motor of the gramophone and get deflected, or stopped.\n\nHe continued to stand, looking up, calculating absorbedly. One couldn't possibly do it, of course. The risk would be too great. No one would believe for a moment, knowing of the quarrel with the Prossips, that it had been an accident, though there _was_ , if you came to think of it clearly, no reason why he shouldn't just happen to examine his old service revolver one day out in the passage of his flat and why it shouldn't just happen to go off. That sort of thing was always happening...\n\nAnd, if one could do it safely, of course, it would be so perfectly simple.\n\nOnce more the gramophone's blaring ceased. Once more footsteps hurried to it\u2014stopped. Once more the accursed torment began. Five o'clock? What the devil had he been thinking about\u2014standing there like a fool? Too late to do the floor now.\n\nHe began to carry back the things which he had carried out of the kitchen, replacing them exactly in their former positions. Tomorrow or next day they would all have to be carried out again.\n\n### 6\n\nIt is clear that Mr Knayle was right and that Whalley was taking this silly, childish feud with the Prossips altogether too seriously. The curious thing is that Whalley had been living on a sense of humour for the greater part of twenty years.\n\n## CHAPTER II\n\n### 1\n\nIN August, 1918, as he lay in the white, stunning peace of the hospital-ship which was carrying him to England, a matter which for four years had appeared to him of no practical importance whatever began to invest itself with a faint interest. Suppose that rumour at last spoke the truth and that the incredible was to be believed. Suppose that the Boche _was_ finished and that peace was coming some time within the next six months, what was Simon Whalley (Capt., D.S.O.) going to do for the rest of a life which, after all, might continue for a considerable time.\n\nThe shrapnel wounds in his head and shoulder were not very serious, he had been told; but it would probably take a year at least to make the shoulder a serviceable one again. It was at all events a possibility that, so far as he was concerned, the War had finished. If it had, what was going to happen him next?\n\nHe was then thirty-two years of age. With the exception of some remote Lancashire cousins whom he had never seen and a married sister in the Malay States, he had no living relatives. There no longer existed anywhere in the world for him any place which he could regard as home. He had been called to the Irish Bar a few years before the War, but he had never received a brief\u2014had, even in his student days, regretted that he had committed himself to a legal career\u2014and had now no least intention or desire to resume the old weary, fruitless hauntings of the Dublin Law Library\u2014if there was still such a thing. For that matter he had now no desire to return to Ireland. His parents (his mother had been Irish; his father, retired with a crippled leg and the rank of Major, after Spion Kop, the solitary descendant of an English family which had transferred itself from Lancashire to Co. Meath in the eighteen-fifties) had both died during the War. His brother had been killed in it\u2014a fate which had also overtaken a dismaying number of the contemporaries who had been his more intimate friends both in Meath and in Dublin. Things had changed in Ireland\u2014they were likely, it seemed, to change very greatly. The old days over there were gone\u2014for good. Whatever was going to happen to him, he foresaw, would probably happen to him somewhere else.\n\nUpon his demobilisation he would receive a bounty, he supposed, of two or three hundred pounds. A sum of nearly six thousand pounds stood to his credit in the Bank of Ireland, on deposit. His mother's few thousands had gone to his sister\u2014his father had died with an overdraft. There was no source from which he could hope to augment his limited capital, save his own abilities. These, upon consideration, appeared so unpromising that, by the time a stretcher carried him on to Dover Pier, he had dismissed all but one of them as quite unreliable.\n\nAn English public school had made of him an average public schoolboy, decently educated and decently proficient in games. The University of Dublin had given him an entirely useless Honours Degree in Classics. Apart from his law studies he had received no special training in anything. The world, he had already divined, would shortly be very full of smatterers looking for jobs\u2014and of trained men who would crowd them out of them. There was schoolmastering\u2014but his classics were already half-forgotten and no longer held a spark of interest for him. There were the colonies; but even to the colonies he had no talent or aptitude to offer beyond average health and physique and intelligence, discounted by the fact that he was two years past thirty. But one means of acquiring some more money, reasonably quickly, appeared within his possible reach. He had already written\u2014shortly before the War\u2014a couple of comedies, one successful, one very successful. The most hopeful occupation of his immediate future appeared to be the attempt to write others.\n\nNearly five years\u2014four of them crowded with the almost entirely physical experiences of the War\u2014now separated him from that brief, completely detached period of his life during which he had been a writer of plays. Looked back to now, it still remained utterly unaccountable, utterly dissociated from the rest of the past\u2014a phenomenon as isolated and self-contained as an attack of measles or a passing interest in chess or wood-engravings. Neither his father's family nor his mother's\u2014both had belonged to the small landed gentry class for several generations back\u2014had had any known association with the theatre. His own previous interest in it had always been of the most casual and spasmodic kind, the interest merely of the average theatre-goer who regards it as one means of passing an occasional evening more or less agreeably. Until his twenty-fifth year he had never spoken to any person directly connected with it, never read the text of any play of later date than the eighteenth century, never\u2014with the exception of schoolboy essays\u2014attempted or thought of attempting, literary composition of any sort. The desire to write plays, together with the ability to write them, had both presented themselves to him abruptly at an almost precisely definite moment of a particular night. He could recall the moment quite clearly. He had just then been passing the brightly-lighted entrance of the Shelbourne Hotel and, before he had reached the darkness beyond he had decided that he could write a play and that he would begin to do so before he got into his bed that night.\n\nThat had been in the September of 1911. A very popular actress-manager had paid a visit to Dublin with a comedy which had played in London to crowded houses for eighteen months. Whalley had gone with some friends to see her at the Theatre Royal and had been disappointed in the piece, which had appeared to him weak and quite unamusing. It was as he walked towards his rooms in Mount Street, after parting with his friends, that the idea of writing a comedy really worthy of Miss Louie Storm's talents had suddenly suggested itself to him. Within ten days the project had been carried into execution. Within three months the piece had been accepted and produced in London with brilliant success.\n\nThis first improbable adventure as a playwright had made him, for a fortnight or so, something of a celebrity. It had not, however, brought him in much money. The syndicate\u2014three Jews\u2014which was then backing Miss Storm, had quickly discovered his entire inexperience in the matter of dramatic authors' contracts. The agreeable, clever young man from Ireland, who was so surprised and amused that his play had been accepted, had been without difficulty induced to accept a flat three per cent. The total sum which he had received in royalties from the eleven months' London run of _That Mrs Mallaby_ had been a little under fifteen hundred pounds. The ease and quickness with which this sum had been earned, however, had consoled him for the too-late acquired knowledge that he had been treated shabbily. He would strike while the iron was hot, write another play, and employ an agent to drive a much better bargain with one of those eager managers who, he had gathered, were only waiting to scramble for his next masterpiece. This prospect was all the more agreeable since his father's financial affairs had recently fallen into unexpected embarrassment\u2014as far as could be elicited from that charming but impulsive and simple-minded gentleman, through rash investments embarked upon under no more reliable guidance than a desire to obtain fifteen per cent. instead of five. The recent paternal remittances had been grievously reduced from their former generosity. Whalley had bought himself a typewriter, taught himself to use it, given up frequenting the Law Library, and settled down confidently to the composition of his second play.\n\nThe writing of the first had been a matter as simple and as effortless as walking or talking. Its plot, ready-made and divided neatly into three acts, had taken him something less than an hour to evolve and had required no subsequent adjustment or alteration whatever. Its characters had been born with its plot in that single hour of travail, clear-cut and definite. Patches of its dialogue, even, had already shaped themselves as he had scribbled down hurriedly a table of the scenes of each act, showing merely the characters on the stage during each. From this very simple scenario he had proceeded at once to the actual writing of the play, the only difficulty of which had been the inability of his pen to keep legible pace with his eager thought. From first to last the whole business had been joyous, absorbed, unhesitating, and care-free\u2014a swift, certain progress to a certain goal. Before sending the manuscript to the typists, he had made a clean, revised copy; but most of the trifling emendations at first inserted in this version had subsequently been repented of and the original word or phrase restored.\n\nThis happy experience had not repeated itself. It had taken him six months to find an idea for his second play and, even then, the idea had for a long time refused to reduce itself to three acts. The writing and re-writing of the piece had, with intervals of loathing abandonment, taken another five months, in the course of which the dialogue, the characters, and even the plot itself had undergone countless revisions and remodellings and repolishings. A well-known agent had, it was true, placed the play almost immediately with another leading lady backed by Israelitish money, upon quite satisfactory terms. But a further seven months had elapsed before _The Vanity Bag_ had been produced. It had had a mildly successful run of six months or so and had produced for its author royalties amounting to eight thousand pounds.\n\nWith this reward, Whalley had told himself he had every sensible reason to be satisfied. Eight thousand pounds had fallen into his hands just at a moment when they were urgently needed. He had by this time emerged from a rather prolonged phase of vague disillusionment and self-distrust, spent several months abroad, returned then to the ordinary habits and interests of his life, resumed his vigils in the Law Library, lowered his golf handicap, and recovered his normal cheerful and untroubling outlook. Humdrum and, so far, unencouraging as Law had appeared to him, it had seemed on chastened consideration to offer a more secure future than playwriting. Briefs would come\u2014he had now money enough to live on until they did. If he wrote another play or other plays in his spare time, well and good. But playwriting would remain strictly a side-line\u2014the possibly profitable amusement of an amateur. The business of his life must be the profession to which he had been trained.\n\nAnd so, as abruptly as it had begun, his career as a dramatist had ended. He had never made any subsequent attempt to write anything\u2014never felt the least impulse or desire to do so, though his father's means had now become seriously straitened and it had been necessary to lend him twelve hundred pounds, with little prospect of the loan's repayment. Occasionally the sight of his typewriter's dusty cover, stowed away in a corner of his sitting-room, had caused him a smile of amused reminiscence. When, from time to time, his agent had written as to the likelihood of another play, he had sometimes experienced a momentary pang of regret for opportunities neglected. His reply, however, had always been that he had been frightfully busy lately.\n\nThen the War had happened. He had received a commission in October, 1914, and had gone into the trenches for the first time in February, 1915, near Fleurbaix. Subsequently he had been wounded three times\u2014twice severely\u2014gassed, and blown into the air by a mine, had suffered from trench-foot, lice, a particularly loathsome kind of itch, cold, wet, occasional attacks of blind fear, and, towards the end, an intolerable fatigue and boredom. As the hospital-train rolled smoothly up through Kent, he told himself that, for him, at all events, the War had been a damned silly, tiresome business and that he was damned glad to be out of it\u2014if he was out of it. The best of it had been the marvellous cheerful patience of the men. The worst of it had been that of all the countless jobs that had fallen to him to do, there had been no chance or possibility of doing a single one properly and thoroughly. He had inherited from his mother a punctilious conscientiousness which had always insisted upon the exact performance of detail, and the eternal, unescapable scamping and shirking and botching which he had seen going on around him for the past four years had irritated him profoundly. That, despite himself, he too should always have been compelled to scamp and shirk and botch, had been in the end an exasperation. Yes. He was damned glad to be done with it all.\n\nHowever, parts of it had been interesting. He had met some wonderful human beings, and, without undue complacency, he could feel satisfied that he had done his bit as well as the next chap. He knew that he had been a smart, smart-looking, efficient and reliable officer, satisfactorily plucky, popular with the men, if a little suspect of his fellow T.G.'s on account of his passion for thoroughness, his lack of interest in whisky and smut, and his capacity, on occasion, for mordant retort. If he had not felt the part, he had contrived to play it not too badly. He supposed that, some time, it would give him some satisfaction to look back to that.\n\nHe made an effort to turn his thoughts again towards the future, but there was only a past from which he had escaped. What had he been thinking about? Oh yes\u2014those two old plays he had written... donkey's years ago. Awful tripe\u2014especially the second one\u2014as well as he remembered. Plays... after _that_...\n\nHis memory suddenly recalled vividly a very large packing-case which he had seen just before the Christmas of 1911 in a corner of a room at Miss Storm's theatre. The room had been the office of Miss Storm's official reader, a bored, sardonic young man who had raised the lid of the packing-case and exhibited its contents with a grin. It had been filled to overflowing with tattered typescripts\u2014hundreds of them\u2014churned, it had seemed to Whalley, deliberately, into hopeless confusion. 'The Great Unactable', the sardonic young man had explained, and had torn a page from someone's Act II to light a cigarette with at the fire.\n\nThe kind, considerable purr of the train was delicious. Whalley shut his eyes upon that chilling memory and went asleep.\n\n### 2\n\nAfter a fortnight in London he was transferred to Ducey Court, the residence of a large estate a little distance outside Rockwood, converted temporarily into a hospital for officers. A few minutes after he had been deposited in one of the cots of a small upstairs ward, the door of the room re-opened and a slim girl in V.A.D.'s uniform appeared, bearing a laden tea-tray. While one hand had reclosed the door behind her, her long steady eyes took stock of the new arrival gravely and then smiled. In that moment, they were both ever afterwards agreed, they both fell in love.\n\nWith this artless _clich\u00e9_ they were compelled, ultimately, to rest content, though, naturally, they made afterwards the usual attempts to define exactly what had really happened to them in that miraculous instant. At all events, whatever had happened, they both knew beyond all thought of doubt, had been waiting from the beginning to happen and would go on happening until the end. This decided, in a little over a week\u2014with a total actual acquaintance of less than twenty-four hours\u2014they resolved to marry one another, and did so\u2014Whalley's shoulder having made unexpected progress\u2014in the week following the Armistice.\n\nElsa Barnard was then twenty-five. As regarding family ties, her isolation was almost as complete as Whalley's own. Her mother had died during her childhood. Her father\u2014of Barshire family and, like Whalley's, a soldier\u2014had rejoined his old battalion at the outbreak of the War and been killed in the third week of it. Two brothers and no less than seven cousins had been swept away in the following four years. A married sister and a widowed and childless uncle\u2014her mother's elder brother\u2014in whose house and charge she had lived since her father's death, were her only living relatives.\n\nWhalley was duly introduced to them, received with cold politeness, and, after some cross-examination, given to understand that they both washed their hands of Elsa's unwisdom in marrying an individual of whom she knew nothing save that he had a disabled shoulder, no occupation, no friends in England, and no prospects save a hope that he might write plays. They both attended the quiet little wedding, however, and Mr Loxton, the uncle, gave the bride away, having previously presented her with a cheque for a hundred pounds.\n\nThe Whalleys spent their short honeymoon at a little Surrey inn under the lee of the Hog's Back. Towards its close they discovered, just outside Puttiford, the adjoining village, a tiny seventeenth-century cottage whose tenant, desiring to spend the following year abroad, agreed to let it to them, furnished, for twelve months, beginning from the following January. This impetuous arrangement completed, they returned to Rockwood\u2014Whalley to Ducey Court for further treatment pending his demobilisation, and Elsa\u2014no offer of hospitality having been made either by her uncle or her sister\u2014to the house of some friends. As she no longer attended the hospital and as his hours of escape from it were still strictly limited, they saw, for nearly a month, very little of one another. During that period of intolerable separations he found ample time to realise what he had done\u2014and what he had to do. The first realisation amazed him; the second transformed his amazement to stupefaction.\n\nInto the paradise in which Elsa and he had strayed for the past two months the serpent \u00a3 s. d. had been permitted to make but one brief intrusion. On the afternoon on which they had become engaged, as they returned slowly towards the hospital along one of the drives of the park, they had halted to watch the deer drifting in the September sunshine.\n\n'It doesn't seem of any real importance, somehow,' Elsa had said. 'But I suppose we shall have to eat and wear clothes and live in some sort of a house. I've been taking it for granted that you have some money, Simon. I have none, you know\u2014just fifty pounds a year my mother left me. Poor pater died without a red.'\n\nHe had laughed and said, with perfect confidence and tranquillity, as his arm had drawn her slenderness closer to him, 'I have a fountain pen and about six thousand pounds to buy ink with. We ought to be able to write quite a lot of plays before all that ink is used up, you know. If you really feel that we shall want to eat, one winner ought to supply us with a square meal a day for ten years or so. Naturally, we will write the winner first. Don't tell me that you've begun to repent already, Elsa. I've used the fountain pen, you see. They'll never take it back at the shop.'\n\nThere had been no further discussion of ways and means. In those few airy words of his he had disposed of all the stupendous difficulties of their future. It was amazing. Not once during the past two months had he caught a glimpse of the chill, dangerous actualities that lay in wait outside his warm, tender, sunlit dream. He had lived spellbound by all the marvellous, lovely, gracious things that were Elsa\u2014her eyes, her hair, her smile, her voice, her way of holding her fork, her skill in shaving him\u2014ten thousand lovelinesses. In the bright aura of courage and confidence that surrounded her he had basked\u2014content, self-complacent, blind to everything beyond. All things had seemed possible, easy, certain. Amazing, for, all his life, he had always foreseen difficulties. Amazing.\n\nWell, the music had to be faced. No more airy talk of writing plays\u2014some time or other. He must throw off the spell\u2014shut himself out from it, tear his mind out of its lazy happiness and start it out on the cheerless, lonely quest for an idea. Now\u2014at once.\n\nHe found a deserted, dark little room beyond the operating-theatre, filled with stacked cane-bottomed chairs, and, escaping from the cheerful clamour of the wards, retired there in the mornings as soon as the masseuse had finished with his shoulder. Sometimes he sat there for three hours on end, staring at the dusty chairs, and smoking cigarette after cigarette. Nothing came of these seances, however. His mind appeared capable of two functions only\u2014spasmodic reminiscence of detached experiences during his War service, and impatient eagerness to be with Elsa again. After ten days of this fruitless discipline, he abandoned it and spent his mornings wandering about the park. He had never been able to think constructively, however, out-of-doors or when moving about. Having decided that there was no hope of settling down to work until he had a quiet, comfortable room to work in, he became rather irritably impatient for his demobilisation, which, for some unknown reason, had been postponed.\n\nOn one of these morning promenades he had for the first time an experience which was subsequently to become familiar to him\u2014a sudden sick dizziness, accompanied by a sensation that every drop of blood in his body had turned to lead. His legs sagged under him. He came to a stop struggling with an onset of violent depression, bodily and mental. These curious disturbances, however, passed away almost instantly. He attributed them to a too hearty breakfast and the coldness of the December morning, continued his walk, and had forgotten all about them before he reached the hospital.\n\nA week or so later he had another attack of the same kind after his bath. Altering his diagnosis, he cut down his smoking for some days. There were more important things to think about than little attacks of dizziness and shivers. His long-delayed demobilisation had been rushed through and he was a free man once more. And Mr Loxton, relenting of his inhospitality, had invited Elsa and her husband to become his guests until their departure to Surrey.\n\nMr Loxton had weighed a good deal on Whalley's mind lately. He was a squarely-built, brusque man of sixty-two, a prominent figure in the public life of Dunpool, one of the leaders of its commercial plutocracy, and still the active senior partner of the most important firm of iron-founders in the west of England. He lived in an imposing house in the outskirts of Rockwood, entertained lavishly, got up at six o'clock every morning, neither smoked nor drank anything stronger than water, and never spoke without stating a fact or asking someone else to state one. He was childless; after her father's death Elsa had lived with him, managed his house for him, and been regarded by him, generally, as a daughter. One did not desire Mr Loxton's death; but some time, probably within the next fifteen years, he would die. The reasonable supposition was that he would leave some considerable portion of his money to his two nieces. The thought that his own unsatisfactoriness as a nephew-in-law should have endangered Elsa's personal prospects had worried Whalley seriously since their return to Rockwood.\n\nMr Loxton, however, was geniality itself during the short visit. After dinner on Christmas Day he held up a glass of water and abandoned the 'Whalley' to which 'Captain Whalley' had already been softened.\n\n'Well, Simon, my boy, here's to those plays of yours. Don't forget that I'm to have a box whenever you have a first night.'\n\nAnd on the last day of December, just before they started for Surrey, he handed Elsa a cheque for five hundred pounds.\n\n'I expect you'll want a car of some sort, young woman. If that isn't enough let me know. If it's too much, spend what's over on a perambulator.'\n\nElsa's sister, Mrs Canynge, remained, however, cold. Her husband\u2014he was, Whalley discovered, the managing director of the firm of Loxton & Ferrier, Ltd.\u2014took the trouble to display a marked incivility. Elsa's personal friends, however, were all charming to him. Amongst them was a cheery, pleasant little man of thirty-seven or so, named Knayle, of whom he was to see more later on, and who, he learned, had known Elsa all her life. Mr Knayle, whom she called 'Harvey', addressed her as 'Elsa'\u2014apparently as a matter of course\u2014and was much interested to learn that her husband had written _That Mrs Mallaby_ and _The Vanity Bag_ , both of which he remembered having seen and greatly enjoyed. He invited them to tea at his flat and proved the most entertaining and sympathetic of hosts.\n\n### 3\n\nThey arrived at the cottage at Puttiford in the dusk of a frosty afternoon. It was a veritable homecoming. The red curtains of the little latticed windows were all lighted up. Silhouetted in the porch stood the maternal woman from the village who was to 'do for' them. They went into the cosy little sitting-room, and found a crackling fire of pine logs and a sumptuous tea awaiting them. Hand in hand, like two happy children, they stood looking about them silently until Mrs Hidgson had finally withdrawn, then, attracted by the hooting of an owl just outside one of the windows, drew aside its curtain. Whalley's best efforts, however, failed to open the window, and he drew the curtain across again with a puckered frown. During tea he was a little abstracted and, half-way through the meal, rose to make another trial of the window, equally unsuccessful.\n\n'Always the way with these picturesque old houses,' he said, returning to her. 'The windows won't open\u2014or, if they open, they won't shut. I wonder if there are any tools in the place. We must get that window right straight away.'\n\nAnd immediately after tea, before he unpacked, he hunted down an aged screwdriver, repaired its haft, and eased the jammed sash. From her chair before the fire Elsa watched him with amusement and some surprise. Afterwards, however, they spent an evening of rapturous contentment.\n\nElsa revealed herself as the most capable of cooks and managers. Mrs Higson proved the most efficient of 'doers for'. The little house was kept as neat and bright as a new pin. Its equipment\u2014including gas-supply and indoor sanitation\u2014was entirely satisfactory. The local tradespeople were obliging. The Guildford shops were but half an hour away by bus. London could be reached in an hour and a half. Puttiford's delightful common and golf-links began at the front door. All the loveliness of Surrey lay around them. They bought a small car, joined the golf-club, made friends with the score or so of agreeable people who were their neighbours, and ran up to town every week for a theatre or a concert. Everything, in fine, connected with their cottage was delightful except that, after a couple of months, Whalley discovered that he couldn't write plays in it.\n\nOn the morning of the second day after their arrival he shut himself up in the tiny room between the kitchen and the sitting-room which he had arranged as his own special sanctum. Its one little window faced north, however; the sun never came into it; it was rather damp, and it had no fireplace. The oil stove smelt and he put it out, chilled down, became oppressed by the smallness and darkness of the room and the busy clatter of the kitchen next door. He adjourned to the sitting-room; but a clothes-horse draped with airing-sheets had been drawn across its fire. After half an hour of disjointed musings, he went out and inspected the garden, which, he decided, would want a lot of tidying-up. Then he remembered that his foot had caught in the bedroom carpet when he had entered it on the preceding night. Failing to find either tacks or hammer, he went off to the village to procure them. On his way he met the genial secretary of the golf-club and was easily persuaded to return to the cottage, collect his clubs, and play a very pleasant eighteen holes.\n\nIn the afternoon Elsa and he went for a long walk, returning just in time for tea. After tea he remembered the tacks and the hammer and hurried off to the village. The bedroom carpet, he discovered, required tacking down all round. To do this it was necessary to move most of the furniture. Descending to the sitting-room he found Elsa in the firelight. They sat there until it was time to change for the meal which they had decided to call supper. Afterwards he retreated again to his sanctum and for nearly an hour sat there, endeavouring to entice his thoughts away from their endless retracings of the past four months. They refused, however, to submit to any control\u2014jumped to and fro, from his first walk with Elsa to their walk that afternoon\u2014to the car they would have to get\u2014to Mr Loxton and the unlikelihood of his living beyond seventy-five\u2014to his own father's death at sixty-eight\u2014back to Elsa. Some day\u2014incredible, desolating horror\u2014one of them would die and leave the other. Every moment that he lived must be lived for her\u2014with her. She was alone now\u2014in there in the sitting-room. He had left her alone for a whole hour. But he must leave her alone\u2014sometimes. It was impossible to think except of her when he was with her. And yet... that hour had gone from them. Yes\u2014there was a deuce of a lot to be done in that garden. But the garden mustn't be allowed to interfere with the things that really had to be done. Nor golf. It had been a very jolly game that morning\u2014that iron of his at the seventeenth had been rather a beauty. Pleasant chap, the secretary. He had said that his wife would call. He mustn't forget to tell Elsa.\n\nHe went back to the sitting-room and kissed Elsa passionately. They were drowsy after their long walk and went off to bed before ten.\n\nThe days slid away. The weeks began to slide away. There was always something to be done\u2014something that had been done to think about. Sometimes for a week on end the one thing that must be thought about\u2014that must be done\u2014disappeared completely from view. Then, as they returned from a walk or a drive or a mild bridge-party, an abstracted silence would fall on him, and he would quicken his pace, or speed up the car. Arrived at the cottage he would hurry into the little sanctum, light the oil-stove and a pipe, and seat himself with Elsa's pen and a writing-block. Mrs Higson's curiosity was aroused by the elaborate designs drawn on the crumpled sheets which she found in the sanctum's waste-paper basket. She had believed that the master was a literary gentleman, but formed now the conclusion that he was an artiss or something.\n\nNo other tangible result was produced by these spurts of industry which gradually became more and more widely spaced. Whalley, of course, explained to Elsa humorously what happened to him when he shut himself up in his lair.\n\n'I sit down and think that I have got to think of an idea for a play. I immediately stop thinking about anything for a bit. Then I begin to think about you. I draw curlimacews until I think again that I have got to think about an idea for a play. Then I think that it is utterly impossible to _think_ of an idea for a play. The darned thing must come of its own accord. One has nothing to start from\u2014one hasn't the faintest idea where one wants to go. I draw a lot more curlimacews. Then I think that I have _got_ to think of an idea for a play\u2014that I must start earning some money straight away, and that, whether it is impossible or not, I must think of an idea for a play before I leave that room. I immediately stop thinking about anything. Then I begin to think about you and draw curlimacews until I think again that I have got to think of an idea for a play. It goes on like that until you open the door and tell me that it's teatime. It's exactly like trying to make a blind mule drink out of a bucket that isn't there. There's no use worrying about it. The darn thing must come of its own accord... Oh, I wanted to oil the lock of the garage.'\n\nReturning from a call one afternoon towards the end of February, Elsa found him standing in the garden regarding the cottage with a curious frowning intentness. A drizzling rain was falling. She reproached him for standing in it without a raincoat.\n\n'The little shanty got on my nerves suddenly,' he explained, rather shamefacedly. 'I felt I had to get outside. It's such a little box of a place. The ceilings are so low. I've felt all along, somehow... stifled... cramped...'\n\nHer voice trembled a little.\n\n'But I thought you were quite happy here, dear.'\n\n'Happy? Yes, yes, dear, absolutely happy\u2014you know that, don't you. It isn't that. But... It's so difficult to explain\u2014so perfectly idiotic. It's all right so long as I am with you, but when I'm alone... That little den of mine gives me the horrors now. When I go into it, all I want to do is to get out of it again as quickly as possible... Oh, there's that washer for the scullery tap. I shall have time to fix that before tea.'\n\nHe abandoned the sanctum altogether. Spring came and was gone. Summer came. Surrey was a garden of drowsy enchantment. The cheery, decorative young people at Myrtle Cottage had made themselves very popular. They played a lot of golf and tennis\u2014had nearly always some engagement for their afternoons. They worked in the garden. Whalley had always some small job to do about the house. Elsa's eyes lost the watchfulness that had grown in them for a little while following that incident in February. He appeared absolutely happy. Nothing else really mattered.\n\nAt the beginning of September, however, his interest in the links and the garden declined noticeably. 'We've got to get out of this place, Elsa,' he said abruptly as they drank their early tea one morning. 'Puttiford, I mean, for a bit, anyhow. It's no use to us. It's a backwater\u2014a blind alley for us. These people who live here in those houses in among the trees\u2014well, they're very nice and kind, and so forth\u2014but, you know, they're dead. Stuffed. Nothing ever happens to them. Nothing _could_ ever happen to them. They're determined that nothing will ever happen to them. That's why they live at Puttiford. We've got to get away from them... get round... see people who are alive and do things. Anyhow, for a bit.'\n\nThey left the cottage in Mrs Higson's care and took the car up one side of England to Scotland, and down again along the other side, travelling by short stages, and staying at a number of alarmingly expensive hotels. If the people whom they encountered along the way were not dramatically inspiring, most of them were at all events alive and amusing. The two months' holiday was a gratifying success and had a gratifying sequel. Within a month from their return to Puttiford, Whalley wrote a play.\n\nTrue\u2014it was not a comedy, but a historical play\u2014and a historical play whose theme and characters had been used before by many other dramatists. Nor had any original idea been born to Elsa's fountain-pen. Whalley had merely been strongly impressed by that tragic little room at Holyrood and had decided to write a play about Mary, Queen of Scots. However, it was a play, and, he thought, quite a good one. Elsa considered it perfectly wonderful. They celebrated its departure to Whalley's old agent by a weekend at Brighton.\n\n### 4\n\nThe ice was broken. Before the time came to leave their little cottage two more plays had been written\u2014one a rather gloomy War drama, the other a four-period comedy with a first act set in the 'sixties.\n\nThe parting from Myrtle Cottage was, at the last moment, a severe wrench. Some encouraging news from the agent, however, consoled them. His New York office had succeeded in interesting a well-known manager in the comedy. After some weeks in rooms in Guildford, they found a tiny flat in Chelsea to let furnished for three months, and installed themselves there. Whalley wrote another comedy, but soon found London distracting. They returned to Surrey in the spring and spent the remainder of that year at a very comfortable little inn at Albury. Another comedy was written there.\n\nFor another year they moved on from one small hotel to another, then settled, successively, in a furnished bungalow near Gillingham, lodgings at Bournemouth, and a boarding-house at Folkestone. Nine plays of various sorts had now been sent off to the agent. From time to time he wrote regretting his failure to place any of them. The New York manager had paid a thousand dollars for an option, but had then faded out. Serious encroachments had been made upon Whalley's six thousand pounds. Those curious spasmodic attacks of dizziness and depressed exhaustion to which he had now grown accustomed, became more frequent and of longer duration. He began to lose appetite and weight and to suffer a good deal from sleeplessness and a chronic soreness of his tongue which robbed smoking of all pleasure. Two doctors failed to alleviate this trouble, which remained with him for the next seven years.\n\nIn the spring of 1922\u2014they were living in rooms at Guildford then\u2014he became definitely anxious, and decided to write a novel. Working at feverish speed, he succeeded, without difficulty of any sort, in carrying out this project within the space of three months. The English publishers who accepted the book paid a hundred pounds in advance royalties and its 'fresh and delicate humour' received an unhoped-for number of kindly notices from the press. It fared still more fortunately, for a first novel, in America, where the sales amounted to nearly 5,000 copies. Altogether it brought to Whalley royalties amounting to about \u00a3400.\n\nHe put aside those golden visions which he had seen so clearly on that September afternoon on which Elsa and he had watched the deer in the park at Ducey Court. \u00a3400 a year was not to be sneezed at. His sales would increase as his name became known. In a few years he might hope to be earning a steady \u00a3700 or \u00a3800 a year. And one could write two novels a year\u2014easily.\n\nHe wrote a second\u2014a third\u2014in all, nine. They were all alike. His agent assured him that his publishers and his public expected them to be so. They all achieved the same limited success. Between the years 1922 and 1927, they furnished him with an average income of \u00a3550.\n\nIn the summer of 1927\u2014they were back at Puttiford, staying at the inn\u2014he had a severe attack of neuritis, brought on, he then believed, by over-violent tennis and subsequent carelessness in sitting under an open window. Three weeks of agonising pain and sleepless nights left behind a sudden swift wasting of the muscles of his shoulders and his arms, and for a couple of months he was unable to brush his hair or put on his clothes without great difficulty and fatigue. Radiant heat and ionisation proved ineffectual. Gradually, however, if very slowly, he recovered a restricted use of his arms, though his shoulder muscles remained wasted. The Guildford doctor who attended him affixed the label: 'peripheral neuritis' to the attack, was interested in his tongue trouble, and a little vague in his acceptance of the tennis-and-draught theory. Finally he advised a nerve specialist.\n\nWhalley went up to London and paid five guineas to a nerve specialist who told him that there was nothing whatever wrong, organically, but that rest and change were necessary. The book for the following spring had been begun and Whalley was unwilling to move until it was at all events well on towards completion. They remained on at Puttiford. One day, while he was writing in the hotel garden, he became aware of a point of sharp pain at the tip of his right thumb. Next day the tips of the fingers of both hands were numb. In a week the numbness had spread to his feet, which felt as if jagged sprigs were stretched along their soles, inside the skin. He had grown so used to partial disablement now that these new symptoms did not perturb him greatly. But he decided that it was time to look for some air more bracing than that of Surrey, and they set off, rather hurriedly, for the little inn on the Quantocks, at which they had engaged rooms by wire.\n\nStealthily, yet with incredible swiftness, his body began to wither. At the end of a month he was unable to ascend a short flight of stairs without utter exhaustion. His ribs became compressed as if by an iron corset, and he crawled about, bent like a man of eighty. Chronic indigestion and nausea, accompanied usually by violent palpitation, assailed him. His sunburn faded to a yellow pallor. From his waist to his toes he was numb, yet always sensible of incessant jarring, aching discomforts. Despite a ravenous appetite, his flesh wasted until it seemed that his bones must burst through the tautly-strained skin. Sitting was an intolerable agony; he could lie in no position for longer than a few minutes at a time; when he stood upright the weight of his pelvis and his legs exhausted him. Elsa, in consternation, at last summoned two doctors from Bridgwater. They were obviously completely perplexed, advised absolute rest, and prescribed a nerve tonic. Whalley, however, went on with his book, Elsa typing from his dictation. He had lost all interest in everything\u2014his own symptoms included\u2014save the necessity of finishing the novel. Within a cloud of sick impotence, his brain still continued to perform one function with extraordinary accuracy and swiftness. Sometimes he dictated five thousand words in a day.\n\nOne afternoon, while they were working, he collapsed like a punctured tyre. Elsa telephoned to Dunpool for an ambulance and carried him off to a nursing-home in Rockwood, where a blood-test revealed that he had pernicious an\u00e6mia. He had probably had it for a number of years back, they told her; his supply of red corpuscles was down below two million. Yes\u2014he might die, but they hoped not. The new Minot-Murphy treatment had proved very successful in America, even in bad cases. Liver... and hydrochloric acid... he began to eat liver\u2014eight ounces of it a day\u2014two platefuls of grey, greasy, rank-smelling little lumps of offal which froze to the plate before a quarter of them had been forced, one by one, down his gulping throat. Each gorge was followed by the pungent horror of the hydrochloric acid and violent cramps in which he lay sweating, sometimes for an hour, unable to move a muscle. At the end of a week the mere sight of the loathed stuff made him retch. He chewed away grimly, however\u2014there was no other salvation. After thirteen weeks of the nursing-home\u2014at seven guineas a week\u2014he was able to walk, very slowly, across his room and insisted upon leaving. Half an hour after arriving at the near-at-hand lodgings in which Elsa had been living, he asked for the typescript of the unfinished novel and for a while turned over its pages desultorily and with increasing speed.\n\n'My God,' he said listlessly, 'what tripe. Well, I suppose it's got to be finished.'\n\nThree chapters, only, remained to write. Less than ten thousand words more would secure four or five hundred pounds, defray the expenses of the nursing-home and of the long breathing-space which, he had been warned, would be absolutely essential. Twenty times a day he settled himself on the sofa with a writing-block. But words had ceased to be significances that flowed from the point of his pen in formed phrases and sentences. They had become little, detached, unmeaning weights which had to be lifted on to the paper one by one\u2014odd, useless pieces of some immense, futile old puzzle the rest of which had been lost. He became doubtful about their spelling\u2014perplexed by their sound and meaning. 'When,' for instance. W-h-e-n. An extraordinary-looking word, when one really looked at it. An extraordinary sound, when one really listened to it. 'When.' What _did_ one mean when one said 'when?' He could never arrange the little weights in sentences. When he had lifted eight or nine of them on to the paper he always saw that it would take at least thirty or forty more of them to bring the sentence to an end\u2014crossed out what he had written, and cast about for another beginning. But a new little weight at the beginning completely obliterated the vague thought with which he had started and replaced it with another equally vague. Another sentence entangled itself hopelessly. An immense, yawning fatigue overpowered him. He dropped the block to the floor, picked it up again, began again to lift the little weights one by one. He could see them as he lifted them\u2014little visible blocks of letters, very heavy for their size.\n\nHe chewed away at his liver doggedly\u2014six ounces a day now. Elsa cooked it herself, on an oil-stove in their sitting-room and the sickly smell hung about the room all day. He made steady progress, however, though he knew now that for the rest of his life he could hope for no more than a thirty-per cent bodily efficiency. The damage to nerves and muscles was irreparable, they told him. His hands and legs and feet and spine would remain numb and partially crippled, and, of course, he would have to eat liver until he died. But the summer had come. Elsa drove him all over the West Country; it was good to be alive. Gradually a placid, cheerful calmness replaced the dejected anxiety of his early days of convalescence. In the autumn he would rattle off those last few chapters; his publishers had written sympathetically. They still had over two thousand pounds. Once more for a little while they were perfectly happy. Except, perhaps, about Mr Loxton.\n\nMr Loxton had called at the nursing-home once or twice to make enquiries. His sympathy with Elsa in her trouble had, however, been almost at once clouded over by a chilly offence, whose cause, she had divined, had been resentment of the fact that a niece of his should live in lodgings in Rockwood. For a long time the Whalleys had heard and seen nothing of him. Later he had expressed a wish that they should dine at his house on Sundays\u2014a command with which prudence had advised compliance. But, while ostentatiously avoiding any slightest reference to their affairs, past, present or future, he had remained solemnly disapproving. Occasionally, in place of his usual curt, 'Whalley,' he elected to employ a 'Mr Whalley' of icy remoteness. When he looked directly at him\u2014he rarely did so\u2014he pursed his lips and looked at him exactly as if he were a doubtful egg. His conversation during dinner was addressed almost exclusively to Mrs Canynge and her husband who, exhaling wealth and success, usually attended those weekly functions. Whalley and Elsa, with their two thousand pounds and their dog-eared typescript, sat listening to easy, intimate talk of a South American contract for a hundred thousand\u2014a deer-forest for which Canynge and a friend had paid twenty thousand\u2014a new Rolls that had cost \u00a32500\u2014extensions of premises and plant at the firm's Cardiff branch. 'It will run us in, I reckon, just a quarter of a million,' Canynge estimated, while he selected a cigar from the box which Mr Loxton always offered him first. Mrs Canynge, always in the very latest of frocks and hats, had a trick of regarding her sister's modest toilettes through half-closed eyes. The Canynge's chauffeur watched the departure of the shabby little old two-seater with a contemptuous leer. It took a lot of starting now. Sunday was rather a trial.\n\nIn July they decided, somewhat hastily, to get a dog, and paid four guineas for a very handsome, well-bred cocker pup, then aged ten months. Because of his blackness, his erect top-knot and his trick of gazing ferociously at imaginary enemies, they called him Bogey-Bogey. He was an affectionate, immaculately clean little creature, and in twenty-four hours became the engrossing interest of their lives. After three days, however, he discovered that he disliked aprons and, whenever the maid entered, rushed at her, barking furiously. At the end of a week their landlady asked them to find rooms elsewhere.\n\nThis was a serious upset. Their lodgings had been comfortable; the cooking had been good; Whalley's books had arrived from Ireland in thirteen large packing-cases and been arranged in book-cases. They would have to be repacked\u2014and unpacked again. It was difficult to find good rooms where a dog was permissible, and, within a few days of their installation in fresh quarters, their new landlady gave them notice. She couldn't have cooking done in her best sitting-room, and she couldn't have a dog with paws the size of a young elephant's trespassing all over her house. The books were repacked\u2014unpacked in another sitting-room. Bogey-Bogey upset Elsa's pan of boiling lard during her absence from the room. He escaped scatheless, but Whalley paid fifteen pounds for a new carpet, and had to pack his books again. Another sitting-room\u2014another unpacking. Their fourth Rockwood landlady, they discovered too late, kept two dogs and Bogey-Bogey hated other dogs even more than he hated aprons. All day long he barked and growled at his enemies in the basement. A fifth flitting seemed inevitable. Whalley began to talk of looking for a small flat.\n\nAutumn came and went. One morning at the end of October a bulky packet arrived from the agent. It contained all the typescript copies of the nine plays, for none of which, it was regretted, an opening seemed now probable. Although Whalley had long abandoned all hope of them, this formal final damnation of the plays dejected him a good deal. He became silent and restless\u2014got out the battered typescript of the unfinished novel and brooded over it\u2014wrote some pages of a new chapter and tore them up.\n\n'You know, old thing,' he said one night in the darkness, just as Elsa was falling asleep, 'these books that I've been writing have been the most fearful rot. They're all about nothing\u2014just odd people and things we've come across faked up into a weak, would-be-funny little story. I can't go on writing that sort of stuff. I'm sick of it. I've got to make a fresh start\u2014get in touch with actual life\u2014write about people who live and suffer\u2014write books with some meaning and purpose in them... something to say...'\n\n'Well, but, dear,' urged the practical Elsa, 'all the stories are silly old stories. They're all faked\u2014all as old as the hills. Life itself is a silly, faked-up old story. What does it matter so long as you give pleasure for a little while to a few other people? The great thing for us is that they bring us in enough money to live on, isn't it?'\n\n'No. I can't go on with it. I know now that the reason I can't write is that I know the stuff I've been writing is rot\u2014weak, silly, dishonest piffle. Death... I can't go on with it.'\n\nFor three or four weeks he wandered about the east end of Dunpool, exploring its grim, dingy squalor, getting into talk with dock-labourers and factory-hands, bribing foremen to smuggle him into deafening workshops, straying through festering courts and alleys and still more heartrending warrens of little houses, all the same, where thousands of people, all the same, lived the same, drab, ugly, hopeless lives. He was shown over a gigantic workhouse reeking with disinfectant\u2014waylaid some of the inmates of its casual ward\u2014caught glimpses of a degradation beyond the belief of sanity. After a fortnight of these investigations the world became a hive of mean, dirty streets, half-smothered in the smoke and stench of huge, threatening factories, peopled by burly, sullen-eyed, foul-tongued men, slatternly, shrill-voiced women, swarms of screaming children\u2014all clothed in the same shapeless, sour-smelling shabbiness. Beauty, grace\u2014all those useless illusions of the spirit\u2014all those artificial decencies... of what account were they? _This_ was life\u2014its business. Dismay fell upon him. For the first time he realised how slight a barrier stood between him and Elsa\u2014and a destitution of appalling horrors. Two thousand pounds\u2014a sick brain\u2014a body that could not earn even the wages of a common navvy. He turned his back upon the gloomy, menacing landscape of realism. There was nothing for him in that wilderness of grime and noise and stench and bitter, merciless struggle. Nothing at all\u2014except amazement that human beings endured living in it. To Elsa's great relief, he abandoned his slumming.\n\n'After all,' he said, 'it _is_ something to amuse a few other people.'\n\nAnd he got out the unfinished typescript once more, asked Elsa to retype the tattered first pages, and made several attempts to begin a new chapter. Elsa caught a bad cold, however, just before Christmas and Bogey-Bogey for some weeks fell to Whalley's sole charge. It was always time to take Bogey-Bogey out\u2014to prepare Bogey-Bogey's dinner (it was cooked in the sitting-room) or supper\u2014to comb him and brush him\u2014to make up his bed. December's ending was very wet. After every outing (he had five a day, regularly, beginning at 7.30 a.m. and ending at 10.30 p.m.) Bogey-Bogey's paws had to be washed and his coat dried with a towel. The towel had to be dried. The typescript of the novel was thrown one day, somewhat irritably, into the sideboard and remained there until, in February, the Whalleys again changed their lodgings.\n\nOnce more Bogey-Bogey had done the wrong thing\u2014he had found in the hall a large meat-pie belonging to one of the other lodgers and, in a few miraculous seconds, had eaten all of it save one very small piece of gristle. Another sitting-room\u2014another unpacking of the books. Meeting Mr Knayle one afternoon at a friend's house, Elsa happened to mention to him that her husband and she were looking out for a small flat\u2014preferably, for the sake of Bogey-Bogey's exercisings, close to the Downs. Mr Knayle happened to know of quite a nice little flat above his own, which, he believed, would become vacant at the end of March. He undertook to make more exact enquiry.\n\nOn the last day of March, 1929, the Whalleys moved once more. By that time their new quarters had been furnished and looked very gay and fresh and homelike, though some repapering and repainting would be necessary presently. This the landlord had promised to do in the following spring. Mr Knayle came up the steep outside staircase and had tea with them one day shortly after their arrival. For some reason on the occasion of this visit he substituted 'Mrs Whalley' for 'Elsa' and adhered to this form of address ever afterwards.\n\nTheir rent was \u00a3100 a year, and their lease was for three years. It would be necessary to get in a woman for some hours each day, at an estimated \u00a31 a week. Their weekly housekeeping account could not be expected to amount to less than \u00a33 a week. They had spent nearly \u00a3200 of their capital upon furniture and equipment and they had committed themselves, for three years, to an annual expenditure of over \u00a3300, which did not cover clothes, amusements, or possible doctor's bills. There would be the garaging of the little old car\u2014its licence\u2014running costs\u2014repairs. And their income at the moment was Elsa's \u00a350\u2014and save for some small driblets of royalties from past books\u2014nothing at all.\n\nBut Whalley had decided that they must gamble\u2014must have a place of their own\u2014space, quiet\u2014their own things around them. He had been all eagerness. He had bought a roll-top desk. It had always been such an infernal nuisance, in lodgings, having to put away one's papers and things. You just slammed down the cover of a roll-top desk, leaving everything as it was\u2014out of sight. Then, when you wanted to go on again, there was everything just as you had left it.\n\nFor a little while, at the last moment, he had hesitated over the prospect of spending three more years in Rockwood. Rockwood was dull\u2014dowdy\u2014suburban\u2014a long way from London. Two important considerations, however, had prevailed\u2014Mr Loxton and liver, Elsa must keep in touch with Mr Loxton; and it might be difficult, he had discovered, to find elsewhere a butcher who would supply liver with the daily regularity of the shop at which they dealt in Rockwood. Rockwood decided upon, he was as enchanted with the flat as was Elsa. No more landladies\u2014no more pilfering, perspiring sluts of maids\u2014no more complaining fellow-lodgers. For their \u00a3100 a year they had now at their disposal a large sitting-room, a good sized dining-room, a large bedroom, a bathroom, and a delightful little kitchen. Bogey-Bogey, despairing of occupying all these possessions simultaneously, retired, on the day of their homecoming, to one of the gay eider-downs of the bedroom. Whalley dislodged him rather peremptorily and smoothed out the eider-down carefully.\n\n'We can't have him messing up everything, dear. He mustn't be allowed to get up on the beds or the chairs. He has marked this quilt already.'\n\nThe roll-top desk arrived just then. When the men had gone away and Elsa had admired and returned to her kitchen, he seated himself at it with her pen and a writing-block and the typescript of the unfinished novel. The part of it on which one wrote was a little higher than he had expected. And one couldn't cross one's legs comfortably in the narrow recess into which they had to fit. He always liked to cross his legs when he was working. But he would get used to it.\n\nHe lighted a fresh cigarette from the old one and wrote, very carefully and largely, the heading:\n\n### CHAPTER XXI.\n\nHe looked round the room. How delightful it all was\u2014gay and fresh\u2014and their own. How extraordinarily sure and shrewd Elsa had been about everything\u2014measurements and materials and colours. How quiet the room was\u2014one heard only the pleasant hum of the passing traffic. Above them, they had discovered, lived a quiet, elderly couple named Hobson; below them lived the quiet Mr Knayle; below Mr Knayle lived a very quiet Mr Ridgeway. It was delightful to raise one's eyes and look out on the sunlit Downs. The trees were dusted with green already. Just the sort of room he had always wanted.\n\nThen he remembered that Elsa wanted some hooks put in along the edges of the kitchen dresser's shelves, to hang cups and jugs on.\n\nMr Loxton\u2014he was surprisingly vigorous and young-looking for seventy-three\u2014came to lunch at the flat one day\u2014thought everything very nice indeed, praised Elsa's cookery, and was, generally, quite affable.\n\n'Writing away, I suppose, Simon,' he said just before he went away. 'Reeling it off...'\n\n'Yes, yes.' Whalley smiled brightly. 'No rest for the wicked.'\n\n### 5\n\nThey became the prisoners of an unavoidable routine.\n\nJustice required that Bogey-Bogey should be taken out not later than 7.30 a.m. At 7 Whalley rose, made tea, shaved and bathed hurriedly and took Bogey-Bogey for his promenade on the Downs, returning at 8 to breakfast, which Elsa had prepared meanwhile. After breakfast she departed to market for an hour. Mrs Grant, the daily help, was busy already with her brushes and dusters, scurrying and blowing and sighing. The sitting-room was topsy-turvy. Any attempt to work was out of the question until her departure at 1 o'clock. Whalley read the _Morning Post_ , did some odd jobs, and went out with Bogey-Bogey for a constitutional on the Downs. Two slow miles were the limit of his walking powers. Bogey-Bogey's murderous hatred of the countless other promenading dogs was an incessant anxiety; he returned fatigued and white to the flat to find Elsa busy with the lunch which was actually dinner, and rested or did other odd jobs until it was ready at 1. When they had washed up, Elsa retired to the bedroom to darn and sew and, having taken Bogey-Bogey for another short walk, Whalley shut himself up in the sitting-room until teatime. After tea they went out together with Bogey-Bogey for another walk on the Downs. Their evening meal was at 7; Elsa had to get back to the flat to prepare it. At 8 Bogey-Bogey had another run out of doors and they settled down in the sitting-room until 10.30, when he was taken out for his final outing. By 11 he had been combed and brushed; by 11.30 they were asleep.\n\nIt took Whalley some little time to realise that this tranquil programme was practically incapable of variation. Bogey-Bogey had to be taken out\u2014Elsa's cooking had to be done\u2014he had to try to do his own work. These necessities compelled an unalterable time-table which took complete control of life. Save for the Sabbath dinner at Mr Loxton's, occasional visits to or from Elsa's friends, and a still more occasional cinema or concert, each day was an exact replica of the other, lived within the same narrow boundaries. The earth contracted to the Downs and the flat. Its entire population, for all practical purposes, consisted of Elsa, Whalley himself, Mrs Grant, and Bogey-Bogey.\n\nPresently, of course, Whalley became aware of this imprisonment and of its inevitable results. In three months his brain, still an\u00e6mic and fatigued by months of failure and growing anxiety, became a mere stagnant morass haunted by a few weary, stale old thoughts always the same. He sickened of them\u2014of his failure\u2014of himself\u2014of that always-happening moment when, after lunch, he entered the sitting-room and shut its door behind him.\n\nTime flew. Towards the end of the summer he abandoned the unfinished novel definitely and, to Elsa's dismay, destroyed the typescript. Another novel was begun in September and came to a standstill at its third chapter. At the end of 1929 his two thousand odd pounds had dwindled to sixteen hundred and forty, and he and Elsa decided that the daily woman must be dispensed with. She had cost a good deal more than they had anticipated. Whalley saw no reason why he shouldn't be able to do the housemaiding of the flat in the mornings\u2014do it just as well and with much less fuss and noise than Mrs Grant. As a matter of fact, he had noticed that she had scamped a good deal. For instance, she had never once moved the roll-top desk so as to get at the dust in the angle behind it.\n\nElsa undertook to reduce the weekly bills a little. No other economy in their housekeeping appeared feasible. However, a little light work in the mornings, Whalley thought, was probably just what he wanted\u2014exercise\u2014distraction\u2014something to take his mind off things for a while.\n\nOn New Year's Day, after breakfast, he changed into his oldest clothes and began his new duties by taking the Hoover into the sitting-room. Mrs Grant had always done the carpets with the Hoover, rapidly and, it had appeared, satisfactorily. But after a very little while he discovered that it failed to pick up some shreds of tobacco near the roll-top desk and, arming himself with dustpan and brush, went down on his knees to collect them. He saw then that the carpet was still thickly covered with Bogey-Bogey's hair, and attacked it vigorously with the brush. A little cloud of dust rose from it. Why, the darned thing was filthy...\n\nInch by inch he went over the carpet with the brush, pausing from time to time to glance upwards uneasily at the dense mist of dust which filled the room. All that dust would settle on the ceiling, the walls, the book-cases, the curtains. But the carpet _must_ be done thoroughly. He found a number of small stains on it, and spent a lot of time removing them with soap and hot water. Returning from her marketing about eleven o'clock, Elsa found him on a step-ladder, dusting the ceiling with a feather-brush.\n\n'Don't overdo it, dear... What about Bogey? It's time for your walk, isn't it?'\n\n'I shan't be able to get out this morning. I must get this room done before lunch... Oh, very well, dear. I'll take him out. Rather a nuisance, though. I shall have to change...'\n\nThe sitting-room was finished by midday next day. It looked almost exactly as it had always looked. And of course there had been no time to do anything to the other rooms. Whalley began to see why Mrs Grant had rushed about and scamped corners. But, then, on the other hand, one knew now that the sitting-room had been thoroughly done.\n\nTwo days later he thought it advisable to run over its carpet lightly with the dustpan and brush. It was thickly covered with Bogey-Bogey's hairs, and at the first touch of the brush, a little cloud of dust sprang out of it.\n\nHe remained on his knees for some time looking at it. It ought to be brushed, but the dust would settle on everything. The whole room would have to be gone round with a duster\u2014every photograph and flower-bowl moved\u2014a couple of hours' work. There were still the dining-room, the bathroom, the hall, the kitchen to do. The sitting-room must be left. Reluctantly he transferred his paraphernalia to the dining-room, but the dust which he had left in the sitting-room carpet worried him until, three days later, all the other rooms had been done and he was able to attack the sitting-room again.\n\nDust became an active, mocking, invincible enemy. Soon, when he looked at a chair in passing, he saw only the dust in the angles and small interstices of its back. When he switched on a light he saw the dust on its shade and made a note to clean it next morning. Greatly as he came to hate it, the collection of dust afforded him a curious satisfaction. He even preferred that the dust should be thick. It was a pleasure to watch the dust-pan filling\u2014to watch its contents fall into the dust-bin when he emptied it. There was one variety of it which he hated, however. It was found in the bedroom only, under the beds\u2014long woolly wisps which flew before the brush like thistledown and were difficult to capture. They stuck to the brush when one did capture them and had to be picked off and dropped into the dustpan, from which they kept escaping.\n\nHe was always looking at a clock or his wrist-watch. There was never time to do things properly and thoroughly. Yet if one didn't do them thoroughly it was hardly worth doing them at all. He had believed that if all the rooms were once thoroughly done to start with it would be a simple matter to run over them all in the morning. But he found that, really, every room required a thorough doing-out every day. He could never catch up with this ideal. He was always looking at his watch\u2014always in a flurry. The brass plate on the front door had taken him twenty minutes, because the Brasso had caked in the ornamentation of the letter-box's flap and had refused to be dislodged. In the end he always had to scamp\u2014just do what showed.\n\nOf course he saw the absurdity of his over-scrupulousness and joked about it with Elsa. Five minutes later she would find him 'making a thorough job' of the bathroom linoleum.\n\nFor a couple of weeks he made no effort to write. Then alarm seized him. For three days he did no housework, and shut himself up in the sitting-room morning and afternoon. Then he discovered that every room in the flat was filthy\u2014everything covered with dust...\n\nTime flew. He was always looking at his watch. When he sat staring at his writing-block he thought of dust under the beds or finger-marks on the doorplates. While he polished the linoleum in the hall he thought of the time which he was wasting\u2014time which should have been spent in there in the sitting-room\u2014doing the one thing that mattered... that could avert disaster... extinction.\n\nTime flew. It was always hustling him and bustling him. And it was always time to take Bogey out. One had stop in the middle of something and change one's old clothes.\n\nClothes had become a serious problem. Everything he had was wearing out. The laundry frayed collars\u2014tore shirts and handkerchiefs and vests and drawers. Only one of his suits was now really presentable, only one hat. His shoes had been resoled to the limits of their endurance. His older hats and suit would be soon too disreputable even for the Downs. The lining of his overcoat was torn beyond Elsa's powers of repair. Simultaneously everything had fallen into shabbiness and decay. Nothing could be replaced\u2014every shilling had to be thought of. As soon as he returned to the flat he changed back into his oldest things\u2014put on the collar of the day before to save the clean one put on before going out. All this changing took an immense amount of time.\n\nHe had always been particular about his clothes\u2014abhorred trifling defects in his underwear. Shabbiness and dinginess depressed him; he came to loathe the old things which he wore about the flat. Before shutting himself up in the sitting-room he changed into his second best suit, which was reserved strictly for this purpose. His best suit was worn only on Sunday, when they dined at Mr Loxton's. It was three years old now and Canynge always looked it over while he nodded his casual 'how-d'you-do'.\n\nSoon even it would become too shabby to wear out-of-doors, despite every care to husband it. And it could not be replaced.\n\nFear began to whisper to him as he swept and dusted and polished.\n\nThe curtains began to fade\u2014the chintzes soiled\u2014the cushions lost their trim, firm shape\u2014the corners of mats became permanently crumpled-up, their fringes began to come off. Bogey-Bogey's big, tumultuous paws had left their marks everywhere. Everything in the flat retreated into a haze of dinginess. Cups and plates had been broken; the sets were incomplete. The landlord had failed to keep his promise. A lot of the paint was in a really shocking condition, and in places the wall-paper had actually peeled off.\n\nEverything was fading\u2014decaying. And nothing could be replaced...\n\nHe had long ago admitted the truth to himself: he had nothing to write about, no real talent for writing, no real desire to write save in order to make money. The material which he strove to work into trivial, artificial incident and laboured dialogue was all old stuff\u2014the stale thoughts of ten years back\u2014largely, he suspected, reminiscence of novels read before the War. His invincible desire for exactness tortured him. Sometimes he spent a couple of hours over the construction of a sentence of ten words. What he had written with laboured anxiety appeared to him ten minutes later flat, childish, utterly amateurish. He writhed and grew cold when he read it, laid down the writing-block and stared at it in a consternation which was all but panic.\n\nTwo more novels were begun during that year. The first was abandoned definitely, the second temporarily in September. On the last day of 1930 Whalley went through his bank-book and found that he had thirteen hundred and sixty pounds. However, he had begun to write again now fairly steadily, and hoped to finish the novel on which he was working early in February.\n\nOn the afternoon of that New Year's Eve the Hobsons\u2014the quiet elderly couple in the top flat\u2014moved out of it, and on the following day some new tenants named Prossip (Mr and Mrs Prossip, their daughter and their rather too smartly-dressed maid) moved into it.\n\n### 6\n\nFrom Mr Knayle, whom they encountered frequently in the front garden and who sometimes came to tea with them, the Whalleys learned something of their new neighbours.\n\nMr Prossip, it appeared, was one of three brothers who had inherited an old and very select and prosperous tailoring business in Rockwood. After a very short time, however, he had sold out his interest (there had been difficulties, Mr Knayle believed, with his brothers owing to his uncertain temper and his partiality for whiskies-and-sodas) and had now been for many years a gentleman at large, and a well-known figure in Rockwood. He had married money\u2014the daughter of Dunpool's best-known fish-merchant\u2014and owing to the habitual richness of his attire, his monocle, and his distinguished walk, was known, generally, as 'The Duke'. Mr Knayle rather thought that the Prossips had\u2014like many other people\u2014lost some of their money lately, since they had sold a very large house to move into a small top-floor flat.\n\nThe Whalleys' own observations informed them that Mr Prossip was a large, heavily-built man of incipient elderliness, always clothed in apparently brand-new suits of ultra-fashionable cut and material. He walked with a little troubled strut, sticking out his posterior, and looking straight ahead of him through his monocle with a fixed and rather truculent scowl. His voice\u2014the Whalleys soon became familiar with it\u2014was a booming drawl prone to sudden quickenings into irritability. Almost every day, after breakfast, he went off in a new suit of plus-fours, carrying an enormous bag of golf-clubs, and was not seen or heard again until lunch-time.\n\nBoth Mrs Prossip and her daughter, too, were also large, heavily-built, and always superbly dressed. Mrs Prossip walked very slowly and ascended the outside staircase with frequent pauses. Subsequently the Whalleys learned that she had heart trouble of some sort which perhaps accounted for the fact that her thin, peevish face wore always a bluish flush. She was evidently nervous about dogs. Meeting Whalley in the front garden on the day following her arrival, she waved him away with her umbrella and stopped.\n\n'I hope you and your wife will keep that dog of yours under control when he meets me or Miss Prossip in this garden.'\n\nUnable to resist temptation, Whalley replied, a little tartly, 'Me and my wife will do our best.'\n\nAfter that first meeting Mrs Prossip always passed him without looking at him.\n\nMiss Prossip\u2014a sallow, sullen young woman of thirty or so\u2014played the violin. For the first week or so, while the new tenants were settling in, she played it spasmodically and for very brief periods. At the beginning of the second week, however, it became clear that what the Whalleys had hoped an occasional dilatory amusement was a serious study. Twice a day for two hours at a time, the violin squeaked scales and arpeggios, wailed passionate double-stoppings, always slightly out of tune\u2014squeaked and grunted in the effort to play an accompaniment and a melody simultaneously. Sometimes a passage of a few notes was repeated thirty or forty times. Whalley began to cluck when he heard the sound of its long-drawn preparatory tuning.\n\nOther noises overhead, too, made him cluck. The Hobsons had been inaudible; the Prossips were heard all day long. They were all large, heavy, apparently flat-footed, and apparently incapable of remaining still. From morning to night they thudded to and fro\u2014it was impossible to conjecture for what purpose\u2014shouting to one another from different rooms, slamming doors, pushing furniture about with furious energy, opening windows and shutting them again immediately, switching on a wireless set and, after a space of aimless howlings, switching it off again. They all hummed; their maid whistled; in his bath Mr Prossip bellowed like a bull. At night their voices rose\u2014violent quarrels broke out\u2014they all shouted together\u2014doors banged. It was evident that Mr Prossip absorbed too many whiskies and sodas of evenings. His booming rose above Mrs Prossip's nagging hum. 'Oh, shurrup, will you. I'm shick of it.' At half-past eleven Mr and Mrs Prossip thudded into the bedroom over the Whalleys' and resumed their argument. It went on interminably, sometimes until two o'clock in the morning, with incessant trampling of feet and slamming of drawers. One night there was a scuffle. 'Shurrup, damn you,' roared Mr Prossip. Someone fell. Mrs Prossip sobbed loudly.\n\nTwice a week the Whalleys' sleep was further curtailed. Mrs Prossip was an ardent church-worker and church-goer. On Tuesdays and Fridays she got up at 6 am. and, before departing to early service at a neighbouring church, charged about for half an hour, slamming drawers and doors and windows. Mr Prossip's boom protested vainly. 'Oh, do shurrup that damn row, Emma, will you.'\n\nFrom the landing outside the Prossips' hall-door their pert, whistling maid emptied ash-trays and shook mats on to the Whalleys' landing, filled their dustbin with her garbage, and one day tossed the still lighted end of a cigarette on to Elsa's fur coat as she passed beneath. The cigarette-end stuck and burned a small hole before Elsa discovered it. Meeting Mr Prossip one day in the garden\u2014they had passed with guarded 'good-days' until then\u2014Whalley ventured upon mild remonstrance.\n\n'I should be awfully obliged, Mr Prossip, if your maid wouldn't throw cigarettes and dust her mats on to our landing. And, as regards the dustbins, perhaps you will kindly ask her not to put her stuff into our bin. Yesterday she filled it with cardboard boxes\u2014'\n\nMr Prossip scowled.\n\n'May I ask, sir, are you instructing me what orders I am to give my servant?'\n\nWhalley stiffened. 'Not at all. But I should be greatly obliged it you would ask her to take a little more care.'\n\n'And I should be greatly obliged if you would mind your own business,' said Mr Prossip, 'and leave me to mind mine.'\n\nWhalley smiled, and the interview ended there. From that forward the Prossips scowled and glared. Their maid continued to empty ash-trays and shake mats on to the Whalleys' landing. They moved their bin up from the front garden, however, and kept it outside their hall-door. It smelt a good deal, and the Corporation men made some difficulty about coming up the staircase for it. But at all events it was now available for their own use again.\n\nProbably, Elsa surmised, because he was not getting enough sleep, this slight friction worried Whalley a good deal. Hitherto relations with the tenants of the other flats had been of the most placid and tranquil kind. Mr Knayle was friendliness itself. The Hobsons had never been heard, rarely seen\u2014had always stopped to exchange agreeably the usual remarks about the weather. The solitary Mr Ridgeway in the basement flat, too, was practically invisible; occasionally during the past two years Elsa had thought it kind to linger, when she met him in the garden, for a brief, hurried little chat. But he was shy, and clearly afraid that he was detaining her, and kept edging away while they talked. Sometimes he was not seen for weeks. The Prossips were always going in or coming out; it was impossible to dodge their ostentatious hostility always. And even when they were not seen, Whalley thought of them above his head, scowling and glaring. He kept watch so that Elsa could slip out without meeting them on the staircase or in the garden.\n\nFor some weeks he toyed with the idea of trying to obtain some sort of clerical employment. But he knew that the project was a futile one. In Dunpool, as elsewhere, staffs were being cut down. He was a stranger\u2014without introductions and recommendations\u2014over forty\u2014in bad health. He refused to consider Elsa's suggestion that her sister's husband might perhaps find some place for him at the foundries. It was bad enough to have to put up with Canynge's supercilious smile as an equal. He resumed his efforts to write, feverishly.\n\nTime flew. It was always seven o'clock\u2014the factory sirens were screaming down in the city. He dreaded awakening... Another day... Today the bedroom and the bathroom must be done. Elsa's weekly cheque must be written\u2014two pounds five. The electric-light bill _must_ be settled\u2014three pounds five... The same old round... Bogey-Bogey and the same old walks... The same old Downs... The same old clothes... The same old liver... The same old noises overhead... Everything fading\u2014decaying\u2014going. His pyjamas had slit down the back again. He sprang out of bed and saw the long, still drowsy eyes that smiled up at him. Her hands came out from beneath the bedclothes and drew him once more into the warm fragrance of her arms. He bent and kissed her eyes and remained for a little space in that world of sunlit courage in which her spirit lived and laughed. But then his head twisted to see the little clock on the table between the beds. Five past seven. Bogey-Bogey was whimpering and scratching at the door, impatient for his walk, damaging the paint. There was no time\u2014even for _her._ He picked up his ragged old dressing-gown. The sunlight faded. Overhead Mr and Mrs Prossip had begun an angry argument in bed...\n\nThe novel, after many falterings, came again to a standstill at the end of April. Whalley spent a long time over the _Morning Post_ now and sometimes brought home other papers over which he brooded in the afternoons. The housework fell into arrears and was completely neglected sometimes for days on end. Elsa found him one afternoon standing in the passage looking about him vaguely.\n\n'Don't tell me that you're thinking of repapering the passage, Si?' she smiled.\n\nHe shook his head, still looking about him. 'No. I wasn't thinking of that.'\n\n'Of what, then?'\n\n'I don't know really. I've had a funny feeling lately about this flat somehow\u2014a feeling that there's something hidden in it somewhere\u2014waiting for some frightful disaster that is going to happen to us. I can't shake it off. Oh! _damn_ that fiddle...'\n\n'Sh. They can hear, you know...'\n\nThe noises overhead began to worry him acutely. Miss Prossip had gradually extended her hours of practice, and when, at the beginning of June, he resumed the novel with renewed hope, he decided to offer a protest. To avoid personal collision with Mr Prossip's truculence, he put his remonstrance in writing.\n\n'DEAR MR PROSSIP.\u2014Would it be possible for Miss Prossip to shorten her violin-practice somewhat for at all events some weeks to come? I am endeavouring to complete some literary work, and you will understand, I feel sure, that the practically continuous sound of a violin overhead renders concentration upon mental work of any sort very difficult. I think it possible that you are not aware that sounds from your flat are very clearly audible in ours, and trust that you will not consider my request unreasonable.\n\n'Yrs. sincerely,\n\n'S. WHALLEY.'\n\nHe went up one Saturday morning and dropped this missive into the Prossips' letter box. A couple of hours later he found it in his own box, enclosed in a crested envelope addressed 'Whalley', and torn into small pieces. While he and Elsa were still standing in the dark little passage, discussing this discovery in undertones, a gramophone began to play in the Prossips' flat, just above their heads. It was a raucous, powerful instrument, and the sudden outbreak of its blaring startled Bogey-Bogey into a yelp of alarm. The Whalleys had not known that the Prossips possessed a gramophone. Their eyes rose towards the sound sharply and remained fixed on a small square of white-painted boarding which in one place broke the plaster of the passage's ceiling. The gramophone, they divined, stood on the upper surface of this boarding.\n\nThey recognised the tune which it was playing, an air popular with messenger-boys a couple of years back. A nasal baritone sang the refrain, 'I can't give you anything but love, Baby.' The banal melody was repeated and came to a blaring close. Instantly the same tune was begun again. When again it ended, it began again. Again it ended\u2014began again... ended, began again. The Whalleys retreated to the kitchen and listened. At the end of the tenth repetition there was a brief silence. But footsteps hurried from the Prossips' kitchen along their passage. The dismaying blare burst out again.\n\nElsa laughed, not very successfully. 'Well, I must get on with my lunch. Don't get worried, dear. They'll soon tire of it. Take Bogey-Bogey for his walk.'\n\nShe busied herself with her pots and pans. Whalley went out into the passage again and listened.\n\nThe gramophone did not tire. It played that day from eleven o'clock until lunch-time\u2014from two o'clock until half-past four\u2014and from five until half-past six. It played always the same record and each performance was continuous. Whenever its blaring ceased for a moment or two, footsteps hurried along the Prossips' passage, usually from their kitchen, but sometimes from their sitting-room. Long after it had ceased to play, the Whalleys heard it still playing.\n\nDuring the following day\u2014a Sunday\u2014nothing was heard of it. But on Monday morning it began at eight o'clock and played until ten. It began again shortly after one o'clock and played until four. At ten o'clock it began again and played until eleven. It played always the same record, and when it stopped Miss Prossip's violin began.\n\nOn Tuesday, with slight variations of hour, this programme was repeated\u2014on Wednesday\u2014on Thursday. On Friday Whalley wrote a letter of complaint to Mr Penfold, the landlord. But there had been trouble with Mr Penfold over his failure to keep his promises as to repainting and repapering. There was little hope of help from him. He tore his letter up. Besides, the Whalleys agreed, the wisest and most effective course was to avoid letting the Prossips see that the gramophone annoyed or disturbed them in the least. The Prossips had to pay pretty dearly for their amusements. They would tire of it. They must tire of it soon. The mere labour of keeping the gramophone going was enormous. It was incredible that at all events the elder Prossips could stand its noise much longer. And the performance of the gramophone had necessarily cut down the performance of Miss Prossip's fiddle. She, too, would tire of it very soon. Much the best plan was to grin and bear it.\n\nSo the Whalleys argued. The incredible went on happening however. The gramophone continued to play. When it had played for eleven days Whalley forgot his counsels of prudence and consulted a solicitor. The solicitor was doubtful, but wrote a guarded letter of complaint to Mr Prossip, to which Mr Prossip's solicitors replied in a letter of guarded defiance. Further letters were exchanged, the solicitors held conferences; Whalley had to attend one of them. It was a day of heavy rain, and his raincoat and umbrella were too shabby to face the solicitor's office; his best suit suffered considerable damage. Growing alarmed at the prospect of a large bill, he paid five guineas and withdrew his complaint. The only result of this serious expenditure was a further addition to the disturbances overhead.\n\nNot a word had been written since the gramophone had declared war. His mind was a mere prickling, impotent irritation, incapable of any coherent thought that did not lead to the gramophone. He knew that it was entirely useless to attempt to work. None the less, every day after lunch he put on a clean collar, changed into his second-best suit, and shut himself up in the sitting-room, to sit there until tea-time in vacant torpor, scribbling on his writing-block.\n\nHe was sitting there on the afternoon following his final interview with his solicitor when a violent thump shook the ceiling of the room and set its windows a-rattle. Someone had jumped violently on the floor of the room overhead.\n\nThump. Thump. Thump. Thump.\n\nHe half rose from his chair, but sat down again, looking upwards, waiting.\n\nThump. Thump. Thump... \n\n## CHAPTER III\n\n### 1\n\nMR KNAYLE heard a good deal of Rockwood gossip at the Edwarde-Lewins' that thundery afternoon. One piece of news which concerned Mr Loxton interested him particularly and made him rather thoughtful during the remainder of his stay. Before he left he took his hostess into the garden and induced her to cut off a large number of her cherished roses.\n\nAs he drove homewards his blue eyes remained fixed upon the big posy whose fragrance filled the coup\u00e9. Their habitual slight surprise was more marked than usual and tinged with doubt. For he was both surprised and doubtful\u2014surprised that he intended to present Mrs Whalley with a large bunch of roses, and doubtful that, in the end, he would do anything of the kind. His whole state of mind had suddenly\u2014within the last couple of hours\u2014become surprised and doubtful\u2014restless\u2014fluid\u2014unsteady\u2014utterly different from the calm, stable, reliable equilibrium in which his standards of judgment had balanced themselves for half a century. He seemed to have no standards. He couldn't judge things. He didn't want to judge them, really. He wanted to do things without thinking whether it was prudent or becoming to do them. He wanted to do things without thinking of what other people would think of them\u2014of what their consequences might be. He didn't know what things\u2014just things generally. He felt at once uneasy and extraordinarily gay and happy and a little silly. From time to time he smiled at the roses somewhat fatuously, then became dubious and perplexed again.\n\nThere they were in his hand, and he was bringing them to her. He had no clear idea now why. After tea, while he had been chatting with Vera Edwarde-Lewin as they strolled round the garden, a sudden warm, tender eagerness had flooded him\u2014a delightful, even thrilling, sensation\u2014and he had asked her to give him some roses for his sitting-room. He had encouraged her to make the bunch larger and larger\u2014pointed out the finest roses. At the time it had seemed to him perfectly clear why he was doing this, but now, though he was striving to do so, he could recover nothing of that tender, eager warmth\u2014no explanation that satisfied common sense. He had no clear idea at all why he had done it.\n\nThere had been that piece of news which he had heard concerning old Loxton. That had come into it. It had seemed to him that it would be a kind, sympathetic, consoling thing to bring her some roses. An absurd idea. As if the gift of a few roses from a friend could in any way soften a blow like that when it fell. Perhaps it had fallen already. Perhaps she had heard the news about old Loxton. He had not spoken to her for some days. Though, from behind the curtains of his sitting-room he had seen her twice that morning in the garden, going to and returning from her shopping. She had appeared, as always, bright and smiling and happy. No. Probably the blow was still to fall. Old Loxton, it seemed, had kept the whole thing very dark...\n\nA serious blow for her and her husband\u2014a very serious blow, he was afraid. Things were going badly with them. Apparently Whalley was never going to recover anything like decent health. He looked badly, poor devil\u2014white and strained and haggard. No wonder, leading the life he did, shut up there all day long except when he went out to prowl about for a bit on the Downs. Knew no one, apparently. Finding difficulty, too, with his writing, he said\u2014especially since this business of the gramophone had started. Not much money in writing\u2014except for a few lucky ones\u2014at the best of times. And now, of course, with this depression in every business... Whalley appeared to have 'world-depression' on the brain\u2014always brought it up when one stopped to chat to him for a minute\u2014seemed possessed by the idea that a general crash was coming. Quite strung up about it. Partially Irish, of course... and the artistic temperament. He must be pretty hard-up to wear those shabby clothes, and not to be able to afford a servant of some sort. Jolly hard on her. Possibly no private means... constant anxiety... probably no provision for her if anything happened him. No doubt he had built all along on old Loxton. It would be a very serious blow indeed... Not much use in bringing her a bunch of roses...\n\nWell, well\u2014these things happened. What was it to _him_ if things were going badly for her.\n\nYes. That was the point. He was coming to it now.\n\nWhat was she to _him?_ Why had he begun to think of her so often of late? Why had he begun to watch her from behind his curtains as she went in or out\u2014to contrive meetings with her in the garden? Why had he been so concerned, on her account, by the spiteful hostility of the Prossips? Why, on her account, was he concerned about her husband's ill-health and inability to earn money... about this business of Mr Loxton? What had been the real truth and essence of that warm, delicious, urging, reckless impulse that had suddenly moved him to bring her a bunch of roses? Had he... there it was; it must be answered... had he, after over thirty-five years of entirely platonic friendship, suddenly fallen in love with her?\n\nNaturally, Mr Knayle did not speak his thoughts aloud, but he heard the words 'in love with her' distinctly, and their sound was like the pealing of triumphant clarions. He saw them distinctly, too, written across the cream and crimson splendour of the roses. The perfume of the roses became intoxicating. His eyes closed for a moment. A dancing rapture surged upwards within him. He wanted to dance and snap his fingers and sing: 'I am in love with her.' His body had no age\u2014no weight\u2014no substance. His mind was a marvelling exultation in the thing that had happened to him. Actually, he hummed a little, lest his chauffeur, Chidgey, should detect some outward symptom of his agitation. He ceased to look at the roses, for it was decided now\u2014he knew. He was bringing them to her because he was in love with her. Impatiently he watched the well-known houses and lamp-posts and side-streets go by. In a few minutes he would be giving them to her... close to her... touching her little cool hand with his...\n\nIt was marvellous. For\u2014yes she must be thirty-eight now\u2014and he had known her since she could walk. Longer than that\u2014he must have seen her often in her perambulator down at Whanton, though he had no recollection of it. For that matter all his recollections of her were rather indistinct, until the period during which she had lived in Rockwood. Even then, for a long time, he had merely been aware of her as one of the daughters of an old friend of his own parents\u2014a flapper, like other flappers. Then had come a period when he had met her at dances and other functions of the sort\u2014grown-up\u2014grown slight and very pretty and gay... But no. He had admired her, certainly\u2014thought her a charming girl and all that, but no, he couldn't recall having taken any but the most ordinary of friendly interests in her. During the War he had met her much less frequently. He could not recall that her marriage had had any but the most ordinary of friendly interests for him either. After that she had disappeared from Rockwood for ten years. He could not remember having even thought about her during all those years. Certainly he had been sorry, a couple of years ago, to discover that her husband was seriously ill. Certainly he had been very glad to assist her in finding a flat. And certainly, during the past two years, he had enjoyed casual meetings with her, and occasional visits to her flat. But no... there had been no change in his views of her during those two years... until...\n\nUntil when?\n\nMr Knayle's memory travelled back, eager to discover the first moment of enchantment. It came to a pause, provisionally, at a morning, about three weeks back, on which he had found himself standing by one of the windows of his sitting-room, concealed behind one of its curtains, and keeping watch on the front garden. Never before in his life had he kept watch from behind a curtain. And his breakfast had been cooling in his dining-room. But he had continued to stand there until a trim, slim little figure in jade had flitted down the garden and out through its gate. He had had then, he realised now, no idea at all why he had allowed his breakfast to become uneatable that morning in order to see her depart to her marketing. He had simply found himself watching. None the less it was almost certainly the marvellous truth that he had turned away to his congealed bacon and eggs a lover.\n\nFor three weeks, then, this stupendous secret had been locked away within him, and he had guessed nothing of it. When he had started for the Edwarde-Lewins' that afternoon he had guessed nothing of it. He remembered that he had looked up to her windows as he drove away from his flat and thought merely that it was a pity that Whalley was taking the feud with the Prossips so seriously. The first premonition of the astounding truth had come, he saw now, when, to his surprise, he had told Edwarde-Lewin that he would remain on at 47 Downview Road. How utterly inconceivable it was now that he could have even contemplated separating himself from her...\n\nIt was marvellous\u2014a revolution\u2014the birth of a new Harvey Knayle\u2014a whole new world. He was neither unmanly nor selfish nor cynical, and he had known thousands of charming women, many of them intimately. He had liked them, admired them, respected them, sympathised with them, found in them all the virtues, but no magic. None of them had been able to make this marvellous, delicious, painful thing happen to him. He had believed that it couldn't happen to him\u2014to regard it as a thing that happened to other people and led, generally, to unprofitable and troublesome consequences. And now it had happened to him, and he didn't care a jack straw what the consequences might be\u2014so long as he could serve her. That was it\u2014he wanted to serve her\u2014to help her\u2014to shield her.\n\nChidgey slowed up behind a 'bus, approaching a dangerous corner. 'Get on, get on,' commanded Mr Knayle impatiently.\n\nChidgey opened his throttle, passed out, and rushed round the corner at thirty miles an hour, narrowly escaping a cataclysmic collision. But he didn't care if he did have a jolly good old smash-up. When he had left Mr Knayle at the Edwarde-Lewins' he had returned to the garage with the car, resolved to do the gear-box and the back-axle. But in the end he hadn't done them. He never would do them again. 'Get on, get on'\u2014as if he couldn't be left to drive the car as he thought right. Suddenly he decided that he would give Mr Knayle notice. Yes\u2014and give it to him straight away. What the blinking hell did it matter if he did give up a good job? What did anything matter so long as one dropped all the old stuff and got on to something new...?\n\n### 2\n\n'Very well, Chidgey,' said Mr Knayle. 'I shall be very sorry to lose you. But, of course, you know your own business best. I shan't want you again this evening.'\n\nHe went up the outside staircase, subduing his ascent to sedateness. Rather annoying about Chidgey. Very annoying in fact. Chidgey appeared to have no reason for wishing to leave. Really, it _was_ rather extraordinary the way people did things now without having the slightest reason to do them. They had been talking about it at the Edwarde-Lewins'. Idiotic things\u2014and perfectly sensible people did them.\n\nAs he ascended, a confused medley of sounds became audible. The gramophone was blaring away, there was a violent hammering and smashing, a whistle was blowing, a tin can or something was being beaten.\n\n'Tsch,' Mr Knayle exclaimed indignantly. 'Well, really, what a damned shame.'\n\nThen he saw her. She was standing with Whalley on the landing of the staircase outside their hall-door, holding on with both hands to the arm which he was trying to free from her grasp. Her eyes were fixed imploringly on his face\u2014a set white mask whose frozen desperateness was turned upwards towards the Prossips' door. All her slight strength was strained in the effort to keep her hold. Neither of them saw Mr Knayle, who stopped, dismayed.\n\n'Darling, don't\u2014please. What's the good? Simon\u2014look at me. Don't look like that. We'll go away\u2014right away from Rockwood. We'll go back to Surrey. You were happy there. We can sublet the flat. Don't look like that, dear...'\n\nMr Knayle retreated down the steps with his posy stealthily. Arriving at the recess beneath the steps in which the rubbish-bins were kept, he paused and lifted the lid of his own bin. He felt very elderly and futile and out of everything. After some meditation, however, he replaced the lid, and went on into his flat, still carrying his roses. She would go away... he would see no trim little figure flitting through the front garden. Of course, now, he wouldn't stay on when his lease terminated. He couldn't now. Still, the wonder remained\u2014he loved her. His heart had leaped at the sight of her. His secret would remain to him\u2014for a few days the roses would share it with him.\n\nChidgey was waiting in the hall, eager to withdraw his resignation. 'Very sorry I made such a fool of myself, sir,' he concluded.\n\n'That's all right, Chidgey,' said Mr Knayle kindly. 'We all do foolish things occasionally. It makes a bit of a change. Have a bottle of beer with Hopgood and forget it.'\n\n### 3\n\nMr Knayle could not get to sleep that night. Towards two o'clock he was lying in the darkness of his bedroom, still wide awake, revolving vaguely an idea which had occurred to him. Whalley could probably not afford to take any legal steps to obtain redress. But why should not he himself do so? Why shouldn't he instruct his solicitors to write to Prossip, threatening application for an injunction if the nuisance of the gramophone was not abated. Prossip would probably get frightened\u2014he was a mere blusterer. The noise in the top flat would stop. The whole thing would blow over\u2014and the Whalleys would not go away.\n\nAnd, of course, he _did_ hear the gramophone in his own flat. No matter if he only heard it partly\u2014no matter what Edwarde-Lewin said.\n\nAt this point he became aware that he heard at that moment a sound which had no business to be heard in his flat at that hour of the morning\u2014the sound of water splashing. He listened for a little space, then rose, slipped into his dressing-gown and went out into his hall. A considerable portion of the hall was awash, and from one point in its ceiling\u2014the boarding covering in the old staircase well\u2014a small but steady trickle of water was falling into it. He routed Hopgood out of his bed, and they held counsel for a little space. Obviously the water came from the flat above. They listened\u2014no sound was audible overhead. Ultimately Mr Knayle brushed his hair, put in his two false teeth, lighted a cigarette, ascended the outside staircase and rang the Whalleys' bell. After some delay Whalley opened it.\n\n'Awfully sorry to disturb you, my dear chap,' began Mr Knayle, 'but have you had an\u2014?' His eyes took in the little lighted interior, and his unnecessary question died away. The hall and the passage were two glistening ponds connected by a miniature waterfall which was descending the little flight of stairs. From the ceiling three small cascades were falling as if from three open taps. In the background Elsa was hurriedly removing saturated coats from a hanging cupboard. Carpet, rugs, mats, furniture, walls, everything was sodden\u2014splashing. Bogey-Bogey splashed as he gambolled excitedly. One cascade rebounded from the balusters of the stairs and splashed Mr Knayle's face. Elsa's slippers splashed as they moved hurriedly. (How adorable she was in her dressing-gown and pyjamas and the little net cap which, evidently she wore at night to keep her hair from tossing). 'Hullo, Harvey,' she said vaguely. 'I suppose it has gone through into your flat.'\n\n'Dear, dear,' Mr Knayle exclaimed in consternation. Then the light fell on Whalley's face and his tone changed sharply. 'Now, now, my dear fellow. Take it quietly. They can't possibly have done this on purpose. I'll go and knock them up.'\n\nHe slipped past Whalley adroitly and went up and rang the Prossips' bell several times, without success. Descending, he met Whalley hurrying up the steps and urged him downwards again.\n\n'No, no\u2014it's no good. I've tried. They're either asleep or they don't want to hear. There's a tap running up there. Somewhere near their front door. In their bathroom, I rather fancy. Take it quietly, old chap. It must be an accident. Their hall must be in a flood, too. We must turn the water off at the main, that's all. The tap of the main is in Ridgeway's flat. I'll go down...'\n\nHe descended and returned a few minutes later with Mr Ridgeway and Hopgood. Elsa and Bogey-Bogey had disappeared. Whalley was standing looking up at the ceiling stonily. 'We'll mop this up in no time,' said Mr Knayle cheerily, 'when the water has stopped coming through. I wonder if they _are_ upstairs. Funny they didn't hear the bell. I rang about twenty times.'\n\nHe prattled on cheerily. No one else said anything, however, and gradually he too subsided into silence. The four men stood clustered at the hall-door, looking at the swimming desolation within, listening to the tinkling, dreary splash of the water as it fell into the two buckets which Hopgood had carried up. For a long time it continued to fall steadily. When at last the three cascades had dwindled to three drips, they set to work, and by four o'clock had restored some semblance of dryness. Dawn had come. Elsa reappeared and gave them coffee gaily in the kitchen. Mr Knayle began to prattle again. Mr Ridgeway, in a dingy old dressing-gown and looking very blowsy in the early light, smiled at Elsa with his fine, tired eyes and suddenly told two very funny stories. Bogey-Bogey performed his three tricks. Hopgood, standing respectfully at the door while he drank his coffee, made a pretty speech. 'Well, I must say, madam, you do keep your kitchen a treat.' Whalley, however, remained outside this concluding cheerfulness and sat staring at his cup as if, Mr Knayle thought, he was alone. Mr Ridgeway's attention was also attracted by his absorbed silence. He reached out a hand suddenly and laid it on Whalley's wrist, feeling with the other hand for a watch which was not in a waistcoat which he was not wearing. His bristled, sagging face became confused and alarmed, and his hands retreated hurriedly to his cup. But no one, to his relief, had noticed their abrupt movements. Whalley continued to stare at his cup, unaware that a hand had caught his wrist.\n\nHopgood went off with his buckets to mop up Mr Knayle's hall and shortly afterwards, disclaiming gratitude, Mr Knayle and Mr Ridgeway went down the outside staircase, whose railing was festooned with sodden mats and strips of carpet. Though they had been neighbours now for over four years, their only contacts hitherto had been the occasional exchange of salutes in the front garden. But the adventure of the night had made them for the moment intimate.\n\n'They're leaving, I understand?' said Mr Ridgeway, looking back over a shoulder in the direction of the hall-door which had just shut behind them.\n\n'So I understand,' said Mr Knayle. 'I think they're wise.'\n\n'Yes, yes,' agreed Mr Ridgeway. 'I suppose so.' They went on a few steps. 'A sweet little creature, Mrs Whalley, I always think. One will miss her going in and out with that little cocker of hers.'\n\n'Yes, yes,' agreed Mr Knayle.\n\nThey reached the front garden, paused at the head of the short flight of steps leading down to Mr Ridgeway's hall-door, looked at one another, and then decided, quite unnecessarily, to shake hands. Then, as if the handshake had had no significance whatever and as if important business awaited them within, they hurried into their respective flats.\n\n### 4\n\nThe inundation, it may be said here, remained for Mr Knayle a mystery. He had a talk with Mr Prossip about it a couple of days later, but Mr Prossip (he was nervous and shaky, Mr Knayle noticed\u2014the strain of the vendetta had evidently begun to tell on his bluster) could or would throw no light upon it. He and Mrs Prossip had been in London that night. His daughter Mawjery had given Agatha, the maid, permission to spend that night at her own home. Mawjery herself had spent it at her Aunt Maggie's, having felt nervous about sleeping in the flat without male protection. There had been no one in his flat that night. Mawjery hadn't left the bath-room tap running\u2014the maid hadn't left it running. Mawjery had found no water about the flat when she had returned to it on the following morning. Mr Prossip couldn't understand the damned thing. When Mr Knayle suggested, urbanely, that a few words of polite regret might ease matters a little, Mr Prossip said he was damned if he would apologise to any b\u2014y penny-a-liner. Mr Knayle decided to drop the matter.\n\nThe Whalleys had apparently arrived at the same decision. They were out a great deal in their shabby little two-seater. The gramophone\u2014which played only when they were in their flat\u2014was sometimes silent until evening. Mr Knayle went off to fish in Wales for a fortnight with the confident hope that the whole ridiculous business was going to blow over.\n\nOn the evening on which he and Hopgood returned, he went up to deliver a twenty-pounder which he had brought back for the Whalleys. The Prossips' saucy maid met him on the outside stairs and flashed a bold smile at him.\n\n'If you're going up to the Whalleys, they're left.'\n\n'Left?' repeated Mr Knayle vaguely.\n\n'Yes. They cleared out last week. Their flat's to let\u2014by what I hear Missus say.'\n\n'Oh,' said Mr Knayle. 'I see. Thank you.'\n\nHe sent the salmon to a hospital. One can't share a secret with a fish.\n\n## CHAPTER IV\n\n### 1\n\nTHERE were no further demonstrations in the coal cellar and the thumpings overhead, though always expected, became dilatory and less violent. The gramophone, however, continued to play. It played while they dressed, while they ate, while they sat talking, despite themselves, in daunted undertones. Its blare pervaded their lives; they heard it in their sleep and awoke, to lie awake thinking about it.\n\nThe landlord's solicitors wrote demanding that they should immediately get rid of 'your savage and noisy dog.'\n\nAnd then the blow over which Mr Knayle had meditated fell like a thunderbolt. On the Sunday following the flooding of their flat they learned that Mr Loxton was to be married, very shortly, to a Mrs Gaythorne, of whose existence they had been until then unaware.\n\nThey were introduced to Mrs Gaythorne in the garden before dinner\u2014a good-looking, hard-eyed, smart woman of forty-five or so, whose presence remained unexplained for a moment or two of silence, while Mr Loxton smiled with mysterious archness. Then, dismayingly, he slid his arm into Mrs Gaythorne's and she patted his wrinkled hand. All the dignity, the acute intelligence, the masterful self-sufficiency of this man who had transformed a small local firm into an immense business with ramifications all over the world disappeared; he grinned foolishly, a senile dotard.\n\n'I don't know whether you have heard the glad tidings already, Elsa?' he enquired jocularly.\n\nThere was another little silence. 'No, Uncle Richard,' Elsa said at last.\n\nHe wagged a finger. 'Guess, then. Guess.'\n\n'I'm afraid I can't.'\n\n'You can't? You can't see that you are looking at the happiest and luckiest man in the world? You don't hear joy-bells ringing? You don't see favours fluttering in the wind? Well, well, well. Look at us again. Don't we look like two people who are going to do the most wonderful thing that has ever been done? Now?'\n\nOver Mrs Gaythorne's plump shoulder Elsa's eyes met her sister's.\n\n'Oh?' She smiled valiantly. 'Uncle\u2014you sly old thing\u2014'\n\nMrs Gaythorne detached herself from Mr Loxton and took Elsa's hands in hers. 'My dear,' she said with careful intensity. 'Tell me that you and I are going to be very, very great friends.'\n\nThe gong rang and the party moved towards the house. From Mrs Canynge Elsa received some hurried enlightenment as to Uncle Richard's love-idyll. Mrs Gaythorne was the widow of a naval commander. She lived at Bath. Uncle Richard had met her at a garden-party there only three weeks before. She had no money. And she had three children\u2014a daughter of twenty and two sons in their teens.\n\n'Silly old creature,' said Mrs Canynge. 'That little cat will lead him a dance. Harold and I are perfectly furious about it. I expect you and Simon are too. We have to run away as soon as this ghastly meal is over. But do come over and have a talk about it. It's too devastating... Any time.'\n\n### 2\n\nThe Whalleys were silent as they drove home. There was nothing to say. They had left Mrs Gaythorne behind them in the garden, already its mistress, planning a new herbaceous border. This clever, determined woman with no money and three children held Uncle Richard and his million, they had seen, in a grip of steel. Her hard, vigilant eyes had scarcely troubled to conceal their cool triumph; she had captured this foolish, amorous old creature of seventy-five and no niece or niece's husband (she had snubbed Canynge during dinner so adroitly that he had become quite friendly with Whalley) was going to dispute her prize with her. Uncle Richard had already ceased to be. That ultimate dependence which, in spite of recurring doubts and distrusts, had remained a background of reassurance had been swept away. When Uncle Richard went there would be\u2014for Elsa\u2014Aunt Gladys, with her alien interests, her hard smile and her three children, to deal with. There was nothing to say.\n\nWhen they reached the flat Whalley looked about him vaguely, heedless of Bogey-Bogey's rapturous welcome.\n\n'We must get out of this, Elsa,' he said abstractedly. 'This book simply must be finished. It's no good\u2014but it must be finished. We must get out of this at once. I hate asking you to leave the flat. But it's our only chance. I can't work here. We must sub-let the flat and go somewhere.'\n\nShe bit her lip to stop its trembling. The flat had been her little kingdom\u2014despite all troubles, her little paradise. She had made it. Every chair and mat and cup and saucepan (she had chosen them all so carefully) had shared all sorts of thoughts with her.\n\n'Where, dear? To Surrey?'\n\n'No. I've thought it over, coming back. We'll buy a piece of land out there at Camphill\u2014where we sat yesterday\u2014on that slope. We'll buy a piece of land there. There was a board saying that it was for sale in lots. Quite a small bit will do\u2014an acre or so. Or two acres. I expect the land out there is cheap. We'll put up a hut and some sort of garage for the car. We can get water from that cottage down the hill. We shall be right away from everything out there. It's not twenty minutes walk down the hill to that village\u2014Clapenham. There's a sort of general store there and a butcher's shop. We can run into Rockwood for other things\u2014it's only half an hour\u2014barely ten miles...'\n\nHe developed his idea, pacing up and down the little passage, looking at his watch, seeming not to hear her when she suggested some obvious difficulty. For him his plan had no difficulties; he saw it already accomplished. With a simplicity which hardly hesitated, he arranged a complete uprooting of their lives. She was familiar with this curious, primitive na\u00efvet\u00e9 which contemplated difficult and complicated undertakings as if they were already performed. Sometimes it took him a whole week to decide to write a letter of a few lines. But she had known him jump up in the middle of breakfast and begin the writing of a novel of 90,000 words, whose plot had occurred to him while he buttered his toast. So, she divined, he had decided to write plays. So he had decided to live by writing novels. So, perhaps, he had decided to marry her. But she would not have it otherwise\u2014it was Simon; and he was right. His voice and his eyes always made her feel that he was right in spite of everything. They must leave the flat. The novel must be finished; it was three years since a book of his had been published\u2014authors' names were soon forgotten. There would be difficulties, but they must be faced. How was liver to be got every day? But it must be managed. It would be lovely out there in the early mornings... And perhaps if the novel was sold, they might be able to come back\u2014\n\n'Very well, dear, let us just think it over for a day or two.'\n\nBut he was looking at his watch again.\n\n'We shall have time to run out there before tea. The agents' name was on that notice-board. I'll show you the bit I think we ought to try for\u2014from the edge of the wood up to the gap where we went in through the hedge. We'll have our gate at the gap. We shall have only three sides to fence. The hedge will fence the other side...'\n\nWithin a week his vision was accomplished fact. No conveyance had yet been signed, but Whalley had agreed to pay ninety-six pounds for two acres of land, paid a deposit of fifty pounds, and obtained immediate possession. The living-hut and the garage and the fencing had been erected by a Dunpool firm. A gate had replaced the gap in the hedge. Arrangements had been made as to water-supply, delivery of letters, and meat and groceries from the village shops. A hundred and twenty-five pounds had been spent\u2014the chestnut fencing had proved an expensive item\u2014and a further liability of forty-six pounds\u2014not including lawyers' fees\u2014contracted. But everything had gone smoothly; everyone had been obliging and helpful\u2014there had been every encouragement to spend money.\n\nThe piece of land which they had bought lay some ten miles south of Rockwood, on one slope of a high, densely-wooded ridge, which had once formed part of the Ducey estate but had been sold towards the end of the war to various small speculators hopeful of large profits from the sale of the timber. The war had ended unexpectedly\u2014the woods had remained, save for some small gashes, uncut. Through them wound, for two miles, along the ridge's crest, a narrow deeply-rutted track, formerly used by the wood-cutters' carts. One end of this debouched into a secluded by-road; the other came to an abrupt stop at the little cottage from which the Whalleys had arranged to procure water, a quarter of a mile beyond their new gate. For centuries the ridge had been a mere preserve of game, aloof from the fertile valleys which it divided, and this silent remoteness still made of it a wilderness. A bare inch of soil covered the limestone. Nothing but the pines, the gorse, and the brambles had ever found a living there; the fields of the lowland farms had never crept up the steep, stony slopes. Save for the cottage, there was no habitation nearer the Whalleys' huts than the straggling houses of the little village, a mile below them and hidden by the woods from their view.\n\nThe sub-letting of the flat had been entrusted to a house-agent. They shut its hall-door silently behind them one afternoon and drove off in the two-seater, followed by a small lorry laden with their personal belongings. Just before they left, Whalley went round the flat, looking into each room from its door. No housework had been done during that hurried week. Every room was thick with dust, disordered by the hasty packing, stripped of things that had always belonged to it. He shut each door reluctantly; all the rooms ought to have been done thoroughly\u2014left in apple-pie order for the eyes of a possible tenant. But there was no time, and all that was done with. There would be no rooms to do out at Camphill.\n\nBogey-Bogey made a last trial of the closed doors. They puzzled him. He whimpered and had to be carried out. Elsa kissed her hand, 'Good-bye, little flat. Coming back.' As they went down the outside staircase, the gramophone began to blare exultantly.\n\nBut when the last houses of the suburb had fallen behind and they were driving through the undulating, fertile countryside to southward of the city, their spirits rose. The heavy rain of the night and morning had left behind a delicious, soothing freshness. The sun-bathed fields and placid farms seemed set in an everlasting security into which they themselves were being received. The Prossips and their malice faded into childish absurdity. They were able to laugh over Uncle Richard's amorous playfulnesses. All the difficulties and anxieties which had threatened them for the past two years dwindled\u2014receded\u2014were left behind. They were making a new start. They had escaped.\n\nThree miles out from Rockwood one of the aged tyres of the car punctured. Whalley gave the driver of the lorry explicit instructions as to the remainder of his somewhat complicated route and, when he had driven off, began to unfasten the two-seater's spare wheel. The tyre of the spare wheel was deflated. Investigation revealed that the rubber of its valve had perished. There was no valve-rubber in the dilapidated repair-outfit. The two-seater bumped forward slowly until, two miles further on, it reached a little roadside garage whose proprietor appeared to have never seen a punctured tyre before. Whalley kept looking at his watch. When at length they started off again in pursuit of the lorry, they were an hour and a half behind it.\n\nTwo miles further on they left the main road, twisted for another mile along deserted by-roads, and turned then into the narrow, darkling track which was their avenue. The by-road had not dried. The track was a bog. The two-seater crawled on, skidding perilously, until, at length, it reached the new gate. No lorry was in view, but a small car stood near the gate, over which a burly, unshaven elderly man was leaning, rubbing his nose with the bowl of his pipe contemplatively. When he turned, the Whalleys recognised him as Mr Denman, the Dunpool builder from whom they had bought their two acres.\n\n'Afternoon,' he said curtly, when Whalley had alighted. 'I see you've put up a gate here, and put up two huts as well, eh? And fencing.'\n\nHis air, unexpectedly, was hostile. Whalley's reply was guarded.\n\n'Yes, Mr Denman. You have no objection, I hope? It was agreed that I should have immediate possession.'\n\n'Possession?' smiled Mr Denman. 'Possession, yes. But it wasn't agreed that any structure should be erected on this land, was it, until I conveyed the land to you and it was yours?'\n\n'Well, I took it for granted\u2014'\n\n'Took it for granted? You've been taking a lot for granted, Mr Whalley, what I can see of it.' Mr Denman turned to the gate and pointed. 'Look here. Look at that fencing you've put up there. Who gave you permission to put that fencing up on my property? Possession or no possession, you have no right to put up anything on my property until the land has been marked off by a surveyor and the conveyance has been signed. That fencing and them huts and this gate's got to come down\u2014that's what it comes to. And the sooner they come down the better.'\n\nIt was impossible to mollify him or to elicit the real reason of this change of front. During the negotiations of the week he had been civil and friendly, had seemed even anxious to sell the piece of land, and had raised no difficulty whatever regarding its immediate occupation. Now he was an enemy, bitterly suspicious, surly to the verge of abusiveness. He didn't want to sell the land, although, Whalley divined, he was getting an exorbitant price for it. He was sorry that he had agreed to immediate possession. He had thought he was dealing with a gentleman. The best thing would be for him to return the deposit and call the deal off.\n\nHe pointed again to the line of chestnut fencing which had offended him.\n\n'Look at that fence,' he said. 'Where does it start from? Where does it go to? That's what I want to know.'\n\nVainly Whalley explained that he had, personally, measured his plot off with a chain and that, in actual fact, his fencing contained something less than the agreed-upon two acres. Mr Denman scoffed. ' _You_ measured it\u2014?' He went off saying that he would see his solicitors about it, and left the Whalleys to look at one another ruefully.\n\nThey opened the gate and drove the car on to the scrubby grass inside. After a few yards it slewed violently and came to a standstill. Whalley opened the throttle until the engine roared menacingly. The back wheels spun round. He got out\u2014got in\u2014the engine roared\u2014the back wheels buried themselves to their hubs. After a quarter of an hour of vain pushing and heaving, the Whalleys took two battered suitcases from the dickey and carried them up to the living-hut. The door of the hut refused for a long time to open; the rain had swollen the badly-seasoned wood. Inside there was a smell of damp earth and cresote. A snail was climbing one wall. The flooring was still muddy with the boot-marks of the workmen. They set down their suitcases and went out into the sunshine again. Whalley examined the door of the hut.\n\n'I must get that right. And we shall have to make some sort of drive for the car. Stone it. We shall want a wheelbarrow and a sledge.'\n\nThere was no alternative but to await the now doubtful arrival of the lorry, and they made a tour of their little demesne, Whalley planning improvements as they went. At the top of the steep slope, by the huts, some young beeches and ashes and pines had survived Mr Denman's clearing operations of fourteen years before. But the greater part of their two acres was bare, burnt scrub, pocked with pine-stumps and strewn with loose stone. At the end remote from the huts was a jungle of gigantic thorn-bushes. All this would have to be tidied up, the stumps taken out, the loose stone collected and broken down for the construction of the drive, the thorn-bushes cut down. They found a large number of bottles, broken thermos flasks, fragments of crockery, and rusty tins. Evidently the place had been extensively used by picnickers; it would be necessary to put up notice boards. They came on a headless rabbit. 'Stoat,' said Whalley, and they turned and went back toward the huts.\n\nBut the view out over the valley to the silver river and the mountains beyond was even lovelier than they had believed it. They sat in the car and smoked cigarettes and looked at it until, at seven o'clock, hunger drove them down to the cottage in search of tea and eggs. But there was no one at the cottage. They returned to the car and sat there until the woods disappeared and the stars grew chilly. Then they wrapped themselves in rugs and lay down on the floor of the hut. Before they fell asleep they heard a rabbit squealing lamentably.\n\nHowever, the lorry arrived early next morning and by midday the hut had been transformed to cheerful, if somewhat crowded, comfort, its door eased, the car safely garaged, and the course of the projected drive marked out. The Clapenham butcher had undertaken to supply liver, but not to deliver it. Whalley descended to the village by a sheer, tortuous path through the woods. The return journey took him half an hour. At half-past two he began to collect loose stones and carry them up the slope.\n\nThe day was sultry, perspiration streamed from his face. Elsa remonstrated, but nothing would induce him to stop. The drive must be made at once\u2014if it rained, the car would be unusable. Each time that he went back down the slope empty-handed he looked at his watch.\n\nAfter tea he hurried off down the slope again.\n\nIt rained that night. No gutters had been fitted to the huts; no one had thought of gutters. They lay awake listening to the never-ending patter and splash. 'We must get gutters,' Whalley said. 'And butts to catch the rain-water in.' Next morning he went down to the village and telephoned for their immediate delivery.\n\nThey arrived on the following day. The men were in a hurry to get off\u2014paid, they said, only to deliver the stuff. When they had gone Whalley discovered that both butts, owing to their height, would have to be sunk some four feet, and set to work upon this task at once. It was a tremendous business. An inch below the turf was solid rock, which had to be broken out, piece by piece, with a pick and a crowbar. As the narrow hole deepened the movements of the tools became more and more circumscribed. It took him five days to get the two butts into position.\n\nThe butts and the gutters had cost him another eight pounds. But when they got things into some sort of order, he would set to work on the novel. Money did not seem to matter at all out there, under the sky all day long, with the wind blowing one's thoughts away...\n\nThe days flew by. There was always something to do\u2014he was always rushed for time. There was the water to get from the cottage\u2014two trips of half a mile each. Three times a week he went into Rockwood for supplies; that took up the whole morning. There were interviews with his solicitor about Mr Denman, who still refused to sign the conveyance and insisted that that fence began nowhere and went nowhere. It took a whole day to stone three yards of the drive thoroughly\u2014lay the stones\u2014break them down\u2014pound them in\u2014level them neatly. Of course he had to take a breather every few minutes. And the sledge was a bit too heavy for him. Still, it took a deuce of a time...\n\nIt was a long hot walk to the village and back. The Clapenham butcher, finding that his new customer did not call for liver regularly, ceased to keep it for him regularly. Elsa grew uneasy and bribed an elderly drunkard from the village to bring it up each morning. Invariably he arrived an hour late and disorganised the remainder of Whalley's day.\n\nShe, too, was busy all day long, and, on the whole, happy, except when she thought of the flat and its deserted rooms. No prospective tenant had yet applied for an order to view, the house-agent reported. She could not always help hoping that none would. No one else would understand her things...\n\nBy-and-by she would make a little garden\u2014wire it in, on account of the rabbits\u2014grow roses for the hut. And by-and-by they must have daffodils in the grass\u2014perhaps by the spring after next.\n\nBogey-Bogey, too, was happy, though, because of the adders, he was not permitted to escape from sight. However, there were always the rabbits that were not there, and the dog that had passed the gate three weeks ago...\n\nThe days flew. Whalley began work at five o'clock. They had been out there a whole month and practically nothing had been done. The thorns had still to be cut down, the pine-stumps uprooted, the ashes thinned. The drive had to have a second coating of stone\u2014the first had sunk in. Paths would have to be stoned round the huts; in wet weather the place was a quagmire. The huts would want another coat of creosote. Elsa's garden must be fenced and dug. Those gaps in the hedge must be wired. But by the middle of August everything ought to be pretty shipshape. Two months would finish the novel, once one could settle down to it, knowing there was no job to be done.\n\nThey never saw a newspaper. At first, friends of Elsa's drove out to inspect the encampment; but Whalley disliked being caught in his old working-clothes, and Elsa ceased to encourage visitors. They heard no news. The world trembled around them. Elsa went on cooking liver, and Whalley went on breaking stones.\n\nMr Denman had been worried about things for a long time back. The caving-in of the building boom had left him with a lot of land and empty houses on his hands. There was a lump in his throat which his doctor thought ought to come out. His wife had been nagging at him to buy a new car. And he had had a good deal of trouble with his men since the Labour Government had come into office. One day, towards the end of August, after eating a hearty dinner, he went up on to the roof of his own house and jumped off it, head first. Curiously enough, the last thing he did before eating his last dinner was to sign the conveyance of the Whalleys' piece of land. Whalley paid the balance of forty-six pounds to the executors. He had now a little over nine hundred pounds.\n\n## CHAPTER V\n\n### 1\n\nTOWARDS the end of August Mr Knayle began to sing in his bath and hum as he moved about his flat. He had no voice and no ear and he had never learnt the whole of any one tune in his life. His humming began to get on Hopgood's nerves. In the morning Hopgood sometimes glanced at the bathroom door with one eyebrow cocked, as he passed, and muttered, 'My God...'\n\nMr Knayle had begun to find it quite difficult not to worry about things. He continued to scoff amiably at the gloomy predictions of his friends and had cultivated for their benefit a brisk brightness of air and voice which was at times a little aggressive. But things certainly did look queer. Snowden's speech about the Budget\u2014the May Report\u2014Germany on the verge of another crash\u2014France crowing, America draining our gold away\u2014the Socialists threatening all sorts of insanities\u2014three million unemployed\u2014trade at a standstill\u2014a nigger in a loin-cloth kicking us out of India. The _Morning Post_ was no longer a pleasant, comfortable accompaniment to eggs and bacon. Mr Knayle read it with puckered brow and sometimes forgot about his eggs and bacon altogether. There was no doubt about it, everything was in an appalling mess. No one seemed to be able to do anything about it; everyone seemed to be trying their hardest to make the mess worse. Mr Knayle gulped down his chilled coffee and hummed a little tune of his own, took the _Morning Post_ into the sitting-room to re-read the money article. He sat now with his back to the sitting-room windows; he had not looked out through them for weeks.\n\nThen there was the noise of the traffic. All day long the cars and the 'buses and the char-a-bancs and the motor-cycles swished and banged and hooted past the front-garden gates. Mr Knayle grew very tired of them. The traffic in Downview Road increased every summer. He regretted acutely that he had agreed to renew the tenancy of his flat, although the reason why he had done so remained part of that moment of rapturous wonder. Next year the noise would be perfectly unbearable. He would have to leave.\n\nHe had grown very tired of the Downs, too. All day long they were covered with family parties from the east end of the city, who littered them with papers, bottles, abandoned food, orange peel, and empty cigarette-packets. Swarms of children shrieked and shouted. Bands of young hooligans slogged cricket-balls and threw stones, bawling indecencies, easing themselves publicly. After dusk every bush and every dip in the ground held a prostrate couple; the Downs became a brothel. Sinister, mad-eyed creatures prowled, watching. Save in the early morning, Mr Knayle never walked on the Downs now. Even then they were strewn with paper and haunted by prowlers questing in the hollows and under the bushes. This year no attempt had been made to collect the litter. The mounted police, who had formerly patrolled with vigilant regularity, were now seldom seen and, when seen, saw nothing. Seats were smashed, branches of trees broken off. Mr Knayle had seen one day a respectable elderly man tear a whole newspaper into flitters and scatter the pieces deliberately along one of the paths. No one had seemed surprised. He was concerned by all this; things had got curiously lax. Formerly the Downs had been a peaceful, orderly pleasaunce; their complete surrender to the proletariat perturbed him. The proletariat were, in the main, quite good, decent people, but he preferred them in their own place. Lately, it seemed to him, they had been allowed to get out of it. And, unfortunately, it looked now as if they were never going to be put back into it. There were too many of them. In twenty\u2014perhaps ten\u2014years there would be only one place, and they would have it. They knew it. Mr Knayle had seen the eyes of the picnickers on the Downs looking at him curiously\u2014expectantly\u2014with amusement. And one afternoon four young louts, walking abreast along one of the paths, had elbowed him off it, and, when he had looked at them in reproof, had made obscene noises at him. This had upset him a good deal.\n\nThen there was Chidgey. It had been necessary to speak sharply to Chidgey about the Prossips' maid. Mr Knayle had happened to require his car late one night and, when he had gone round to his garage, had come on Chidgey and the Prossips' maid sitting in the car, smoking cigarettes. The car had not been running at all well lately, and sometimes had not been cleaned. Chidgey had been rather impertinent when spoken to, and would probably have to be dismissed.\n\nA number of his friends had died during the past twelve months\u2014one of them had shot himself in a public lavatory in Dunpool at the beginning of August. Also, some of his July dividends had been seriously reduced this year; three of them had been passed. He had sold his two hunters and had decided not to go abroad. Although he had felt no least inclination to go abroad this year, this departure from the habit of twenty-five summers had been upsetting. For the first time in his life he had had to consider seriously the spending of money and refrain from doing something which he considered himself entitled to do. This year many of his friends had not gone away for the summer. But he found people of his own age preoccupied now and, somehow, flattened\u2014their young folk inanely boisterous. An afternoon party at the Edwarde-Lewins' had developed suddenly into a pillow-fight, in the course of which Edwarde-Lewin's youngest girl had assaulted him with maniacal violence and broken his dental plate. Everyone\u2014Edwarde-Lewin and his wife included\u2014had screamed with delight as he had extracted the broken pieces of the plate. Since this episode he had spent most of his time in his flat, reading desultorily and thinking about things. The club was deserted. The men who dropped in to see him all said the same old gloomy things; he did not press them to stay.\n\nHe read a number of depressing books about Russia, and, in an omnibus volume dealing with recent movements in scientific thought, he came on things called hormones and four-dimensional continuums which somehow made it seem quite an unimportant thing to be a Knayle.\n\nAfter some weeks of this seclusion he made three discoveries. He was getting old. He didn't matter in the least to anyone. And there was nothing whatever he wanted to go on living for. It was about this time that he began to sing in his bath and hum as he moved from room to room. And for some little time he took a vegetable laxative every second night.\n\nDespite the noise of the traffic the house was extraordinarily quiet. Since the departure of the Whalleys the gramophone had not played; Miss Prossip's violin practice had dwindled to an odd half-hour. No sound whatever rose from Mr Ridgeway's flat. Mr Knayle was undisturbed\u2014save by the silence over his head.\n\nSometimes he thought he heard footsteps moving about up there, and listened. The silence became very loud then, until, gradually, the noise of the traffic blotted it out and, gradually, Mr Knayle's eyes returned to his book.\n\nOddly, he always pictured her up there\u2014never in her new surroundings, though with these he was in some measure familiar.\n\nShortly after his return from Wales he had met Mrs Canynge and had learned that the Whalleys were living in a hut out at Camphill. He had shot over Camphill many times before the war, and had often lunched, he believed, on the very slope on which their piece of land lay. Sometimes he was tempted to run out there. But the distance was just too great\u2014the place itself just too isolated; an uninvited visit would seem, not a casual friendliness, but a deliberate intrusion. After all, his acquaintance with Whalley was very slight. And, after all, what was the use? They wanted to be alone. They were probably quite happy out there, with one another. Probably she had never even thought of him since she had left Downview Road. The temptation always faded into the most depressing of his three discoveries. He didn't matter in the least to anyone.\n\nHe joined a flying-club and in a fortnight became an expert if somewhat reckless pilot. One of his first solo flights took him over the little enclosure at Camphill, and he saw the Whalleys erecting a fence of wire netting round a patch of freshly-dug ground. They were absorbed in their work and did not raise their eyes towards the plane, though it was flying so low that Mr Knayle could see a bundle of small shrubs lying on the ground close to them.\n\nHe met Mr Prossip in the garden on the last day of August and learned that Mrs Prossip had had a rather bad heart-attack on the preceding afternoon while ascending the outside staircase.\n\n'We shall have to leave that damned flat,' said Mr Prossip. 'Those cursed steps are too much for her. I told her all along that they would be. But you can't argue with my wife. She's as obstinate as a mule. She's got angina, you know. Not the ordinary angina, but something\u2014I forget the damn name. _I_ shan't be sorry to get out of that rabbit-hutch up there. I've lived in dignified houses all my life. I can't stand these pokey little flats. Fact is, that flat up there's got on my nerves since this infernal row with the Whalleys. This whole place has got on my nerves. Why, my God, you never see a man in Rockwood dressed like a gentleman now. Present company excepted, of course. But you know what I mean. I want to get somewhere near London\u2014not in London\u2014but somewhere you can run up from in half an hour when you feel like it. What I have in my mind is one of those good-class residential hotels\u2014sort of place where you'll come across decent people and see a bit of stir and life. You know the sort of thing I mean...'\n\nMr Knayle disliked Mr Prossip\u2014had disliked all the Prossips so acutely since the flight of the Whalleys that he had taken pains to avoid meeting them. But, as he looked at Mr Prossip's twitching lips and glaring eyes (the beggar reeked of it\u2014at ten o'clock in the morning) an idea occurred to him, and he became brightly helpful. He knew exactly the sort of thing Mr Prossip wanted and thought that he knew where Mr Prossip could find it. Some friends of his had spent part of the preceding winter at a delightful residential hotel outside Guildford, run by an aged naval officer and his wife, and had found it very gay and smart and comfortable. At the moment Mr Knayle could not recall the exact name of the place, but, at Mr Prossip's request, undertook to procure it without delay.\n\n'Reason I'm in such a hurry, ole chap,' explained Mr Prossip, patting him on the shoulder, 'is that I'm afraid the Missus'll try to rush me into another flat here in Rockwood. I've had enough of Rockwood, and enough of flats. Lucky I only took this one for a year. I'll have it on my hands for the balance of the term, of course; but I'd pay twice the money to get out of it. You'll let me have that address, then, Knayle? Right. I'll run up and take a squint at the place.'\n\n### 2\n\nAbout a fortnight later Mr Knayle went down the little flight of steps leading to Mr Ridgeway's hall-door, one afternoon after lunch, and rang the bell. Since that early morning handshake of two months back, they had not met half a dozen times and had never stopped to speak. But Mr Knayle had news which, as he ate his cutlets, he had decided Mr Ridgeway should share.\n\nAfter a prolonged delay Mr Ridgeway, collarless and wearing his seedy old dressing-gown, opened the door, yawning.\n\n'Oh,' he said. 'I thought it was the laundry. Hope you haven't been ringing long. My char goes at one. I was asleep. Come in.'\n\nMr Knayle followed him into a dark, untidy sitting-room, apologising for his intrusion.\n\n'I thought it might interest you to hear that the Prossips are leaving,' he explained. 'They're going to Guildford, I believe, in a very few weeks.'\n\nMr Ridgeway yawned.\n\n'Oh yes,' he said. 'Sit down.'\n\n'No, no, thank you,' said Mr Knayle. 'As a matter of fact I'm going out to Camphill\u2014the Whalleys are living out there, you know\u2014to tell them about it. I don't know what their plans are, of course, but I don't suppose they contemplate spending the winter out there. It's a bleak place, and they've only got a wooden hut. I should think they'll be very glad to come back to a comfortable flat in October.'\n\n'Oh, yes,' yawned Mr Ridgeway again. 'Do sit down.'\n\nMr Knayle sat down. 'I wondered if you'd care to run out there with me this afternoon and see them. It's quite a pretty run. We can get back easily before five.'\n\nA little flush spread over Mr Ridgeway's sagging cheeks. His tired eyes brightened. He made an effort to subdue the excited eagerness of his voice.\n\n'That's very kind of you, Knayle. Very kind of you indeed to have thought of it. When do you want to start? Now? I shall have to change. I shall have to shave. Can you wait?' He hurried out of the room, peeling off his dressing-gown as he went.\n\nMr Knayle lighted a cigarette and waited for half an hour, smiling sometimes as he looked round the comfortless, shabbily-furnished room. On a dusty table lay some dusty newspapers and after some time he strayed over and, picking one up, saw that it was an old number of the _British Medical Journal._ A cutting had been made from one of the pages which lay open. A little surprised by Mr Ridgeway's taste in literature, he returned to his chair and continued to wait until Mr Ridgeway reappeared, freshly shaven, resplendent in a light-grey suit smelling strongly of naphthalene, and ten years younger. Curiously, as he re-entered the room, his eyes went first to the table on which the newspapers lay\u2014a little uneasily, Mr Knayle fancied. But he hurried on to an aged escritoire and picked up a small brown-paper parcel which lay on it, then put it down again.\n\n'No,' he said. 'I won't bother about that. Some books which Mrs Whalley lent me. I had thought of taking them out to her. But if they're coming back to their flat... I shan't want gloves, shall I? Perhaps I had better take them. I must say, Knayle, it's extremely kind of you to have thought of it. No. I won't take gloves. Does this suit look very creased? I haven't worn it for eleven\u2014for some years.'\n\nThey were very gay as they drove along in the sunshine. They had bought a large box of chocolates and some illustrated newspapers in Rockwood and Mr Ridgeway held these tightly in his gloved hands\u2014he had decided, after all, to bring his gloves\u2014while his eyes remained fixed on the furthest visible point of the road. Mr Knayle began several little things of his own but was too happy to finish any of them.\n\nHalf-way along the track through the woods, they met a rough-looking fellow with a couple of terriers, and stopped to enquire the exact position of the Whalleys' huts.\n\n''Bout a mile on, sir\u2014right at the end of this track. I just been down there now, helping Mr Whalley to look for his dog. It got lost last night. So when I heard about it this morning I thought I'd go down and give them a hand to look for it with these two dogs of mine.'\n\n'You found it, I hope?' Mr Knayle asked. 'I know that Mrs Whalley sets great store by that little cocker of hers.'\n\n'Yes, we found it all right,' said the man. 'The dogs found it in the wood. It was dead, though. Must have gone for a stoat, I reckon. Its head was et off. The gen'lman and me just buried it near their huts\u2014where it used to sit, the lady said. She's in a bad way about it.'\n\nWith considerable difficulty, Mr Knayle turned the car round and drove back to Rockwood. He took Mr Ridgeway into his flat and there, over a whisky and soda, they composed a telegram to a well-known dog-breeder at Whanton.\n\n'Wanted immediately, handsome thorough-bred male black cocker dog, 10 mos. over distemper; write tonight sending photos if possible, go to twenty guineas.\u2014Knayle, 47 Downview Road, Rockwood.'\n\nMr Knayle perused his draft. 'I wonder,' he mused. 'Perhaps we had better wait a little.'\n\n'They won't stay out there now,' said Mr Ridgeway.\n\n'I don't know about that. Perhaps they will stay out there\u2014now.'\n\nThey discussed the matter for a little while over another whisky and soda and finally the draft was torn up. When Mr Ridgeway went away, Mr Knayle opened the windows of the sitting-room to let out the smell of naphthalene and his eyes fell on the garden path. To his horror, he had a vision of a little black satin-coated thing. He turned away from the windows, humming and poured himself out another little whisky.\n\nNo. She wouldn't come back now\u2014she'd stay out there. Of course old Ridgeway couldn't understand that. Funny old beggar, Ridgeway. Quite badly cut up about the dog. Must be five or six and fifty. Rather amusing, this subterranean tendresse of his. She had been lending him books, then. What on earth did he do down there all day? Funny to think of him sitting down there, in that filthy old dressing-gown of his\u2014thinking about her. Thinking what about her? For that matter, what did one think, oneself, about her? Anyhow, what did anything matter? She would stay out there, now.\n\nMr Knayle finished his drink and went off to the \u00e6rodrome.\n\nMr Ridgeway let himself into his flat and, without stopping to take off his hat, entered his sitting-room and went straight to the table on which the newspapers lay. He stood looking down at them, frowning; he was almost certain that there was some slight change in the position of the _BMJ_ , although the two _Lancet_ s appeared not to have been disturbed. Every day for two months now, he had intended to get rid of them; but they had continued to lie there, so long that now the slightest alteration in their appearance would, of course, catch his eyes at once. Some slight alteration had caught his eye, when he had returned to Knayle, after changing, he had noticed it immediately he had entered the room. Knayle must have moved the _BMJ_. Probably he had looked about for something to read while he waited, and had seen the newspapers.\n\nBut, after all, Knayle would think nothing about it. He was not that sort. He might have been a little surprised to find medical journals lying about; but he would think nothing about it\u2014forget it at once. A curious, jumpy little chap. Never spoke two sentences about the same thing\u2014kept changing the subject. Not a bad sort of little chap in his way. Cut up about the dog. Rather annoying, that way he had of smiling when he spoke about her, as if he knew something about her that no one else knew. No. He would think nothing about the papers. There was nothing to be uneasy about. They must be got rid of, though\u2014taken out and put in the rubbish-bin. It was only a few yards away. But not now. Presently. There was plenty of time.\n\nA filthy business about the dog. Everything ended that way. In the end the stoat pulled you down...\n\nShe'd never stay out there now. Of course, Knayle couldn't understand. A funny, insensitive little chap\u2014limited\u2014probably had never suffered anything worse than a toothache in his life. Two false teeth; his plate wobbled sometimes. But she'd never stay out there now; she'd come back. And when she did, it must be done. It must be got over. She must be told.\n\nPresently Mr Ridgeway took off his grey suit and put it away in a travelling trunk, packing its folds with naphthalene balls. Then he went back to his sitting-room and lay down on the sofa in his old dressing-gown, covering his face with his handkerchief.\n\n### 3\n\nHe had left them. They had been working in the dusk, finishing the fencing round Elsa's garden, and had not seen him go. Something had called him\u2014perhaps that enemy which his liquid eyes had watched so long. He had been found quite a long way off in the woods. He had left them\u2014that was the worst bitterness of it.\n\nHe was gone; no trace of him was left. Everything that had belonged to him\u2014his basket, his pillows and cushions, his collar and lead, his two dishes, his brush and comb, his ball\u2014had been buried with him. He might never have been.\n\nAnd yet they had never been so aware of him, never seen him so vividly. He was always lying there, near the door of the hut, watching, listening, sometimes scratching his ear, wagging his tail when one or other of them passed near and chirruped to him or said, 'Hullo, old chap,'\u2014too busy to stop. It would have been so easy to stop and pat his little satiny head, throw his ball for him, make a fuss of him for a moment or two. But there had been so many other things to do.\n\nIt would pass. They decided not to speak of him and found that there was nothing else to speak about. The little enclosure had become intolerably desolate. There was no spot in it, however bare, from which something had not gone for ever\u2014save the jungle of thorn-bushes at its further end. This had always been forbidden territory for Bogey-Bogey, and after supper, now, they took two camp-chairs up there and sat, waiting until it was time to go to bed.\n\nOne evening in the second week of September Whalley decided to cut down the thorns and, having procured a bill-hook from the garage, set about this formidable task forthwith, Elsa aiding him to withdraw the severed tendrils after each sweep of the hook. Considerable force was necessary to free them and their hands suffered severely. Ultimately they decided to postpone the work until hedging-gloves had been procured from the village stores.\n\nTwo days later Elsa complained of slight pain in the centre of her right hand. They examined the hand, somewhat perfunctorily, extracted several thorns with a needle, but could find none at the painful spot, which, however, looked a little angry. She washed the floor of the hut that day and, growing accustomed to the slight discomfort, thought no more of the matter until the following morning when, on awakening, she saw that the hand had swollen noticeably. They painted it with iodine, but by evening it had swollen so much that it seemed incredible that so ungainly and shapeless a thing should belong to her fine slenderness. They walked down to the village and interviewed a harassed elderly doctor whose telephone bell rang three times while he examined the hand with grubby fingers, recommended hot fomentations, made up a little package of boracic powder, and got rid of them with the assurance that there was nothing whatever to worry about. Elsa passed a feverish night and was awakened by shooting pains in her right arm, which had also begun to swell.\n\nWhalley grew a little uneasy. The village doctor had assured them that, at that time of the year, swollen hands were as common in the neighbourhood as blackberries. It seemed, however, prudent to have the hand inspected by less cursory eyes and, after lunch they drove into Rockwood and had a suddenly disquieting talk with the kindly practitioner who had attended Whalley during his own illness. Mrs Whalley would have to go into a nursing-home at once. A small operation\u2014probably with a local an\u00e6sthetic, merely would be necessary. There was no need to be unduly alarmed. But the matter was serious; the hand ought to have been attended to at the first symptom of trouble.\n\nOver his telephone the doctor arranged with a nursing-home, while the Whalleys, in a hurried undertone, strove to adjust their plans to the practical necessities of the moment. He hung up the receiver and turned to them again. 'Yes, Mrs Whalley, Mr Hilton can operate at three o'clock. He is at the home now and would like to see you.' They embraced in the hall of the nursing-home under the placid, interested eyes of the matron, and Whalley scurried back to Camphill to pack the two battered suitcases. When, towards five o'clock, he reached the home again, he was shown into the matron's room. The placid, capable-looking woman looked up from her tea-tray and rose, brushing a crumb from her lower lip.\n\n'Well?' he asked hurriedly. 'Is the operation over?'\n\nShe laid a podgy hand on his sleeve.\n\n'Yes, Mr Whalley. Mr Hilton operated at three. But\u2014you will be very brave, won't you\u2014Mr Hilton and Mr Carruthers decided at once that it would be necessary to amputate the arm.'\n\nHe stared at her speechlessly. Amputate\u2014cut off Elsa's arm... Elsa without an arm? Christ. What had this woman said? What had they done to her?\n\n'Sit down for a moment,' the matron advised. 'Perhaps you would like something? Naturally, it is a great shock for you. But it was absolutely necessary. The operation has been most satisfactory. Mrs Whalley was very plucky. She's still asleep, of course. Oh, her things are in that suitcase, I suppose?'\n\nMost satisfactory...\n\n'When can I see her?' he asked at length.\n\n'Well, perhaps you will ring up in the morning. We shall be able to judge better then. Are you on the telephone, in case\u2014? No? Very well, then, you'll ring up in the morning. Good afternoon, Mr Whalley, I'm so very sorry.'\n\nThe matron went back to her tray. She was a kindly woman and she was sorry for the plucky little thing in No. 14\u2014just as she was sorry for the cancer case in No. 13 and the tetanus case in No. 15. But, one way or another\u2014as probationer, nurse, theatre sister, and matron\u2014she had had thirty years of it now. And, really, if one allowed oneself to think of patients as anything else\u2014a little to her annoyance, she discovered that her tea had grown too strong and that the hot water was tepid.\n\nFrom the little hotel at which he had engaged a bedroom Whalley rang up Mr Loxton's house. Mr Loxton, however, was in Belgium, on business, and was not expected to return for some days. The Canynges were in Scotland; he sent off a wire to Mrs Canynge and then rang up the nursing-home. 'Mrs Whalley is going on quite satisfactorily,' a cheerful voice informed him, and then changed its tone. 'Oh, Nurse White, Matron wants clean sheets in number 4.'\n\nAt ten o'clock he rang up again and received the same reply. The dreary smoke-room of the hotel was lighted by a single whistling gas-jet and reeked with the cigars of two commercial travellers who eyed his restless silence with suspicion as they talked knowingly. A little after eleven he went out, and after some aimless wandering made his way to the nursing-home.\n\nIt was past midnight. The quiet street was already asleep, save for the lighted windows of the home. Outside it waited half a dozen big cars, whose chauffeurs dozed in their seats or read their evening newspapers by the light of a headlamp. 'Say, Bill\u2014what's this yere gold standard they're makin' such a fuss about?' one asked. Whalley stood, looking up at the windows, for a little time, wondering which was hers. Was she awake? Was she in pain? Was she safe? Had they finished with her? Her arm\u2014Good God, what had become of it\u2014her arm that had strained him to her\u2014he caught at the railings to steady himself. The chauffeurs looked at him with a grin.\n\nTwo doctors came down the steps, laughing. '\"Oh, no,\" she said. \"But it's the first by my second husband.\"' Whalley went back to his hotel to lie awake all night, listening to the gurgling of the cistern in the lavatory next door.\n\nThe matron was grave next morning. Another operation had been necessary. Mrs Whalley was unconscious; but Mr Hilton hoped that everything would be all right. No. It was out of the question that he should see her. But would he leave the telephone number of the hotel?\n\nHe was lying on the still unmade bed towards midday when the boots came to summon him to the telephone. The matron's placid, capable voice answered his curt 'Whalley speaking.'\n\n'I'm afraid I have very terrible news for you, Mr Whalley. Your wife died a few minutes ago. She never recovered consciousness. She had no pain. I'm very sorry. Will you come?'\n\nHe heard someone's voice say, 'Yes. I'll go.'\n\n## CHAPTER VI\n\n### 1\n\nMR KNAYLE heard the news that afternoon on his way to play bridge at the Grevilles'. As he passed the Canynges' house, Mrs Canynge, emerging from them in a sporting two-seater, all but ran him down. She pulled up with screaming brakes and leaned out to him as he approached the car.\n\n'Have you heard, Harvey? Elsa is dead.'\n\n'Dead?' he repeated, watching her dab her eyes with her handkerchief.\n\nShe blubbered for a little space while he patted her hand vaguely. There was no trace of sisterhood with Elsa in her full, rather heavy face; she was a Loxton. He had never liked her very much, and he knew that she and her husband had been jealous of Elsa before her marriage, frigid towards her after it. She looked very plain when she blubbered, he reflected. Blubbering was the only word for it. He could think of nothing to say, could feel nothing but impatience for further information. How long would she consider it necessary to go on blubbering? He wouldn't say, 'Good God,' or 'My God,' or repeat 'Dead?' He mustn't think of the shock to himself\u2014of what he himself was thinking. He must think that _she_ was dead and feel terribly sorry for her\u2014because she was dead. 'Good God!' he said at length. 'Dead?'\n\n'She died this morning in St Margaret's nursing-home,' sobbed Mrs Canynge. 'I\u2014I haven't been kind to her\u2014since her marriage, Harvey. I shall never forgive myself.'\n\nThinking of herself. 'But what happened? A motoring accident?'\n\n'No. She got a thorn in her hand\u2014out at that dreadful place. She must have neglected it. They took off her arm\u2014but it was too late. Oh\u2014'\n\n'Good God.'\n\nAnother 'Good God.' She was dead and he could only say 'Good God.' And now he was thinking about himself again and what he could say and couldn't say.\n\nMrs Canynge blew her nose and dropped her handkerchief to the level of her nose, holding it ready, and looking at him over it. 'Harold and I were in Scotland. We only got back an hour ago\u2014we've heard practically nothing yet. I'm so stunned that I don't know what I'm saying or doing. Poor darling. Unlucky thing. What an ending\u2014no one with her\u2014no one she loved\u2014no one who loved her. They've taken her to the mortuary chapel at St Jude's. Oh, it's too perfectly ghastly. Well\u2014now I have to go and get things\u2014'\n\n'Where is Whalley? In Rockwood?'\n\n'Yes. I haven't seen him. I don't want to see him. He's staying at an appalling little hotel\u2014the something-or-other Arms, in one of those little side-streets off the Mall. Can you believe it, Harvey\u2014he refused to see us when we went there. Refused point-blank to see us. When we sent up a message to ask when the funeral would be, he sent down a note saying that there would be no funeral\u2014that she would be cremated and her ashes scattered out at that awful place he took her to at Camphill. Uncle Richard is perfectly furious. Harold got him on the 'phone. He's coming back at once from Brussels by air. I needn't tell you that we won't hear of any ghastly mummery of that sort. I must go now. Good-bye, Harvey. You've been just sweet to me.'\n\nMr Knayle went on slowly towards the Grevilles' house. The road was a very quiet one; the few big houses whose grounds bordered it were concealed from view by tall trees, already turning to gold and russet. There was no one in sight. He stopped, bowed his head, and covered his eyes with his hands.\n\n'My dear. My poor, lovely little dear\u2014'\n\nHis hand dropped and he raised his eyes. It was a mild, yet crisp, afternoon, the shrubberies had a pungent, faintly musty smell; the first gentle melancholy of autumn was in the air. She had always been fond of trees, and she would never see the autumn tints again. No funeral. He was glad of that. She had been light as air. The air would bear her up for ever.\n\nHe went on to the Grevilles' and won thirty shillings\u2014he was very punctilious regarding the keeping of engagements. On his homeward journey he called at Whalley's hotel to leave a card of sympathy. A portly, melancholy man, whom he recognised as Rockwood's most select undertaker, saluted him in the fusty little hall. From him he learned that the ceremony at the crematorium would take place on the following morning. Then he went to a florist's.\n\n'I want,' he said, 'all the jolliest, gayest, brightest flowers you have in the shop.'\n\nHe was on foot that afternoon, because his car had developed gear-box trouble and had gone into a garage for repair that morning. On his way to Downview Road he met a number of people to whom he told his news. They were horrified, shocked, grieved or interested for a moment or two and then, in most cases, had some other Rockwood calamity to tell him about, connected with themselves or their friends By the time he reached his flat his news was old for him and dulled by other peoples' woes; she had been dead a long time. He didn't want to tell anyone else about it. Chidgey was waiting at the flat with the report that the car would not available for three days; two pinions would have to be replaced. He was short with Chidgey about this.\n\nWhen Hopgood brought him tea he told him about it. Hopgood said, 'Dead, sir? Good God.' And, after a moment, 'Major Turill rang up to know if you'd play golf with him tomorrow morning at Dobury. Have you everything you require, sir?'\n\nHopgood told Chidgey, and Chidgey said, 'Dead? Gawd.' As Chidgey went away he found the Prossips' maid emptying a bucket into one of the rubbish-bins and told her. She said, 'Dead? Go on. You're kiddin'.' The Prossips were packing and Mr Prossip was busy nailing down a packing-case when she told him. He said, 'Dead? Well, I'm damned.' And sucked one of his thumbs which a nail had torn slightly a few minutes before. 'Better put some iodine on that,' he decided, frowning uneasily. 'Bring me the bottle from my wash-stand, will you.'\n\nAfter tea Mr Knayle went down and told Mr Ridgeway about it. Mr Ridgeway threw back his head and laughed with savage sharpness, and then sat down on his old sofa and said nothing for a long time.\n\n'I took the liberty of putting your name with mine on the card which will go with some flowers to the mortuary-chapel,' Mr Knayle said at last. 'I thought that perhaps you'd like to send some flowers.'\n\n'I'm sorry you did that, Knayle,' said Mr Ridgeway unexpectedly. 'It was kind of you to think of doing it. But I'm sorry you did it.'\n\n'Why?' asked Mr Knayle reasonably.\n\n'Well\u2014simply because my name isn't Ridgeway.'\n\nHe pointed to the little table on which the dusty newspapers lay.\n\n'When you were alone here\u2014that afternoon we went out to Camphill\u2014you picked up one of those newspapers, didn't you?'\n\n'I believe I did,' Mr Knayle admitted, rather taken aback.\n\n'Perhaps you were a little surprised to find that it was a medical journal?'\n\n'I believe I was. Though\u2014forgive me\u2014are you a medical man?'\n\nMr Ridgeway nodded, then looked straight before him, producing phrases in little harsh, staccato chunks. 'My real name is Winsley. I had a very large practice in Manchester. I don't know why I'm telling you this. Or, yes\u2014I do know\u2014though you wouldn't understand in the least. You see\u2014I always intended to tell her. I got into trouble\u2014oh, it's a long time ago now. Eleven years ago. A woman, of course\u2014a woman I cared nothing about\u2014a good, stupid poor creature. I lost my head\u2014performed an operation\u2014and she died. They struck me off the register, of course, and I went to gaol for two years. No. It was simply a rotten, silly, ugly business. All my own fault. You needn't try to say anything polite. But I always meant to tell her. The first day I saw her\u2014the day she and her husband came with you to look at the flat upstairs. I met you in the garden\u2014but you don't remember. She smiled at me\u2014and I knew then that there was someone in the world I could tell about it and who could wipe it away\u2014clean me of it\u2014forgive me for it. I see you don't understand. But I see you're trying to understand. You were fond of her, weren't you?'\n\n'Yes,' said Mr Knayle. 'I was very fond of her.'\n\n'I always meant to tell her. I hated that she should speak to me and smile at me and not know. Well\u2014that's why I wish you hadn't put Ridgeway on that card. However, it was very kind of you to think of it. There is to be no funeral, you say? Hell! I'm thinking that I should have had to buy a silk hat. Are you going away now?'\n\nMr Knayle was not even faintly surprised to find that he was not in the least shocked. He simply noted the fact: illegal operation\u2014prison. Two months ago he would have been horrified to have found himself in the sitting-room of a man who had performed an illegal operation, talking to him intimately. But in that short space of time his whole outlook had altered\u2014humbled itself. He was no longer a spectator, aloof and safe. Life had tapped him on the shoulder and told him that all kinds of queer things might, and probably would, happen to him. He had pictured himself scrambling for a place in a food-queue, for example\u2014fighting for it with athletic young louts like those who had pushed him off the path that day. The things that happened in life had become imminent and acutely interesting. He was acutely interested in the fact that Mr Ridgeway's hands had performed an illegal operation. He found himself looking at Mr Ridgeway with something that was almost respect, as a man who had passed through dangerous and desperate experiences. And this strange desire to confess to her\u2014that was very interesting. So that was what he had been thinking about her, down there...\n\n'No, no,' he said. 'I'll stay and smoke one of your cigarettes, if I may. Yes. I was very fond of her. I knew her when she was so high. Better still\u2014let's go along and change that card.'\n\n### 2\n\nThe news had spread quickly through Rockwood and next morning the little mortuary chapel was smothered in flowers. A theatrical young curate declaimed some prayers; the undertaker's men shouldered their burden. Whalley watched them put it into the motor-hearse and deck it carefully with the largest and most ornate wreaths and crosses. He got into the car which waited behind the hearse and, to the horror of the undertaker and his aides, lighted a cigarette. The two vehicles drove off into the morning mist, followed by the disapproving eyes of the curate, whose attempts at fraternal consolation had been received with a blank stare. Mr Knayle and Mr Ridgeway, too, lighted cigarettes and went home to breakfast.\n\nThe crematorium lay four miles away, at the further side of the city. As the little cort\u00e8ge descended from Rockwood it was swallowed up in a dense fog. The houses and streets disappeared; it moved on slowly, interminably, noiselessly, through a world of dirty cotton-wool. Glaring eyes appeared\u2014hooted or clanged, angrily disappeared. The air in the big limousine smelt of countless deaths. Would it never end? Would she never have done with it?\n\nThey were stopping at last. A pillared fa\u00e7ade looked out of the fog. The undertaker opened the door of the car commandingly and he got out, followed up the steps. The undertaker's men had her\u2014she was their business, their property. He followed, an unimportant detail of their solemn, high-class interment ritual. If he rushed at them and tried to wrest their burden from them, they would push him off for a madman\u2014never dreaming that they were mad.\n\nWhat was this cold, ugly, pitiless place? Half an imitation temple, half a Turkish bath, with a few shrubs in pots. They were putting her on a kind of little altar now, shaped like one of those high tombs one saw in old country graveyards. Now they were covering her with a purple cloth with a white cross\u2014arranging it very carefully. They were going away from her now\u2014they had finished their business with her.\n\nThe purple cloth was moving\u2014it was going down, very slowly\u2014terribly slowly\u2014terribly silently. It had stopped now\u2014it lay flat. But she had gone on. Where? To what?\n\nHe sprang up from his knees with a strangled cry. They took him out into the fog and put him into the limousine and waited at its door until he lighted another cigarette. They left him then, silently.\n\nThe undertaker was at the door again, carrying something\u2014exhibiting it. 'The casket, sir. Where shall I say?'\n\n'To Camphill.'\n\n'Camphill? Very well, sir. I trust that everything has been to your satisfaction? Good morning.'\n\nThe fog had thickened and settled down for the day. Out at Camphill everything was lost in muffled blindness. He opened the gate and went in, undecided still, strayed forward, lost his bearings and stumbled into the incinerator. He strayed on, still undecided. Her garden? But no. The wire netting would shut her in. What did it matter where, so long as she was free?\n\nThe undertaker's car had set him down at the head of the track and returned to Rockwood. When he had burnt the casket, he made his way to the hut, which his hasty packing of the suit-cases had left in disorder. The clock had stopped; he wound it up and then attempted to sweep some clothes from a deck-chair. A gigantic hammer fell very softly upon his head and he pitched forward, pulling down the chair with him.\n\n### 3\n\nNext morning Mr Knayle called at the little hotel behind the Mall and, having learned that Whalley had not returned there since the preceding morning, decided to hire a taxi and drive out to Camphill. He found Whalley lying where he had fallen and brought him back to his flat.\n\nFor two days he lay in Mr Knayle's bed, in a suit of Mr Knayle's pyjamas, sometimes rambling, sometimes groping to the edge of consciousness, but slipping back always into a motionless stupor. There was not a great deal to be done. But Mr Knayle was curiously happy sitting hour after hour by his bed, interrupting his reading now and then to rearrange the bed-clothes or stir the fire very softly. Sometimes, when the doctor had gone away, Mr Ridgeway came up, lifted one of the patient's eyelids and felt his pulse, and then sat down by the fire with a newspaper for a little while.\n\nThey were sitting there together on the third morning when the gramophone began to play. The sound was very faint, barely audible above the rustle of the newspaper and the gentle crackle of the fire, and they went on reading until an abrupt movement behind them turned their heads towards the bed. Whalley had raised himself on an elbow and was listening.\n\nThe two men glanced at one another and then rose hurriedly.\n\n'It's all right, old chap,' said Mr Knayle. 'They're leaving today, damn them. Don't trouble about it. Come on\u2014lie down. That's it\u2014that's it.'\n\nAgatha Judd, very smart in a bowler and a long black coat which accentuated the curves of her now, she feared, not so slim figure, stood in the passage of the top flat, waiting for the taxi which was to carry her and her trunk to her new situation. Her face was flushed beneath its powder, her breathing was quick, and one toe tapped the passage-carpet. She had just told Ma Prossip what she thought about her bed. But she had forgotten a lot of things.\n\nHer eyes fell upon the gramophone. It had not been played for several weeks and Mr Prossip had strictly forbidden that it should be played. Well, just to annoy the old rotter, she would play it before she went.\n\nMr Prossip heard the gramophone while he was taking off his plus-fours and, as soon as he could button up his trousers\u2014his hands were always slippery and fumbling now\u2014he came to the bedroom door and scowled out into the passage:\n\n'Oh, it's you, is it? Now then\u2014stop that damn thing.'\n\nAgatha stuck her arms akimbo.\n\n'Stop it yourself, you old blighter. Don't give me any more orders. I'm not your servant any longer. And look here\u2014don't you forget what I said to you last night on the steps. Don't think, because you're going to Guildford, that you're going to wriggle out of it. If you don't\u2014'\n\n'Sh, damn you,' hissed Mr Prossip, advancing in his socks along the passage, his face turned towards the door of the sitting-room. 'She's in there. I told you I'd send you the money.'\n\nThe hall-door bell rang and Agatha picked up her bag and her umbrella.\n\n'All right, old cock. The sooner the better. You have my address. Ta-ta. Be good.'\n\nWhen her trunk had been carried out, she followed it, slamming the hall-door. Well\u2014that was _that_. No more Prossips. She was fed up with them\u2014fed up with their barging and their nagging and their tinned food and their ugly faces and that rotten old fiddle and their rotten little flat, stuck up there, away from everything. She had had two and a half years of them and she was sick of them. No matter what happened, she was going to have a change\u2014change\u2014have a bit of fun\u2014anyhow, for a while. Perhaps, after all, she was mistaken\u2014just had the wind up. She had often missed a month before\u2014though never two running. Anyhow, what did it matter? It happened to other girls\u2014let it happen to her. It was worth trying it on with the old blighter, at all events. Other girls she knew had pulled it off all right\u2014why shouldn't she? He was properly frightened, the old sneak, with his bad breath\u2014he'd pay something, anyhow. But, anyhow, she was done with the Prossips and that rotten little bed you could never turn over in without all the clothes slipping off. There were three man-servants at this new place...\n\nShe whistled blithely as she went down the outside steps and caught sight of Chidgey, who had just brought back the car from the repair-garage and had come to report the fact to his employer. Since the guv'nor had caught him canoodling with her in the car that night, Chidgey had avoided her, and now he feigned solicitousness as to the condition of one of his tyres, bending down so as to avoid seeing her. It occurred to her suddenly that it would be a bit of a lark to give Bert a jolt-up too, just to see what he would say.\n\nShe stopped beside him.\n\n'Hullo, my pet. Very rude to turn your back on a lady. Got a puncture or something?'\n\n'A bit soft, that's all.'\n\nShe prodded his bent back with the handle of her umbrella.\n\n'Look here, Bert. I can't talk to you here, with that old Hopgood watching us from behind the curtains. But there's something I want to tell you about. You know the place I'm going to\u2014the Grevilles'. Old Knayle goes there often, you told me. You'd better come over there some night soon and we'll have a talk about it. I'll send you a p.c. to say what night, when I know.'\n\nHe raised a gloomy, uneasy face to her, still stooping over the tyre.\n\n'What do you want to talk about?'\n\nShe lowered her tone, and cast down her eyes. 'Well\u2014you remember that day you took me the sharrybang trip to Cleeveham?'\n\n'Yes. Well?'\n\n'Well\u2014I'm afraid there's going to be consequences.'\n\n'Consequences?'\n\nIt had given Bert a proper old jolt-up, she saw. He had gone white, and his mouth was open like a fish's.\n\n'Yes. Anyhow, we've got to have a talk about it. I'll send you a postcard. And, look here, Bert\u2014can you lend me ten bob? I'm stony till I get my wages. I owe every red the Prossips gave me.'\n\nHe laughed, half in fear, half in anger.\n\n'Ten bob? Like that? What do you take me for, my girl? You go and ask old Prossip for ten bob\u2014and talk to him about consequences.'\n\nHis anger angered her. He got good wages, Bert\u2014three pounds a week. She wouldn't just give him a jolt-up for a joke\u2014she'd try it on with him, too, the mean little skunk. Her eyes darted venomous hate at him, while her scarlet lips smiled contemptuously. She made every curve of her body a threat\u2014cunning, vicious, and experienced.\n\n'You come over, Bert. You and me's got to talk business, see? Ta, now.'\n\nChidgey stood kicking the tyre gloomily until two taxis drove up and came to a halt behind the car. In these the Prossips departed presently with their luggage. Before he went, Mr Prossip ran in to say farewell to Mr Knayle.\n\n'Well, we're off, old chap\u2014and jolly glad I am of it. Many thanks for kind assistance and so forth. Oh, look here\u2014I wonder if I might leave one of the latch-keys with your chap, so that he could round up occasionally and see that everything's going on all right, I mean, until the flat's let. There's been a lot of breaking into flats in Rockwood lately.'\n\n'Certainly,' said Mr Knayle, stiffly, accepting the key. 'You're letting your flat furnished, then?'\n\n'Going to try to, anyhow. I hear you've got Whalley staying with you. A bit knocked out by his missus's death, I suppose.' Mr Prossip smiled. 'We're not taking our gramophone with us. Any time he wants to cheer himself up with a little tune, you can lend him the key. All the best, old sport.'\n\nHe held out his hand; but Mr Knayle was busy opening the door and did not see it.\n\n### 4\n\nTwo days later Whalley was up and able to discuss his plans for the immediate future with a calm matter-of-factness which at once relieved Mr Knayle and made him a little uneasy. One expected self-control\u2014manful acceptance\u2014the stoicism due to oneself and to others. But one hardly expected a man who had just lost\u2014well, even the most ordinary of wives\u2014to sit down and make out a neat list of things to be done\u2014to haggle over the telephone as to the charge to be made for the lorry which was to bring in a load from Camphill\u2014to remember that chimneys wanted to be swept and windows cleaned\u2014to think of giving Hopgood sixpence for the messenger who would bring up a suit-case from the nursing-home. Whalley's calmness struck Mr Knayle as being too calm, somehow\u2014his matter-of-factness too deliberate. Whalley knew that he had known her all her life. He might have made some little reference to her\u2014not tried to keep all the sorrow to himself\u2014as if he was the only person in the world who had any right to be sorry. But when one tried to lead the conversation towards her, he began immediately to talk about something else\u2014the General Election, or the Prossips, or so on. Oddly enough, he seemed to have no feeling at all about the Prossips now\u2014had been quite interested to hear how it was that they had decided to move to Guildford. 'We lived at Guildford,' he had begun. But, because the 'we' had included her, he had stopped there, and gone off to ring up the house-agents' and ask them to send up the key of his flat.\n\nMr Knayle was hurt by his exclusion. It had seemed that so tremendous an event should have produced some tremendous sequel. But there was no sequel. The stone which had fallen with such tragic violence into the placid pool of his life had sunk. The ripples that had been stormy waves for a moment were slowing into sluggishness. The whole dreadful, poignant thing was ending in flat dullness. Already she was being forgotten. Whalley had begun to eat heartily; Mr Knayle's own appetite had been unusually good during the past few days. There was no help for it\u2014one just went on living and forgetting until one forgot.\n\nOn the third morning after the Prossips' departure he accompanied Whalley to the foot of the outside staircase and stood there until he heard the door of the first-floor flat shut. Then he went back into his flat and looked into his bedroom, which Hopgood had already re-arranged for his own use. The smaller bedroom in which he had been sleeping was rather draughty and dark in the morning; it would be pleasant to get back to his own bedroom again, with the compactum, and the dressing-table in a good light, and the new reading-lamp over the bed. But the obliteration of Whalley's tenancy of the room seemed to him the end of his brief and, after all, futile romance. Some friends of his were to start a few days later upon a month's pleasure-cruise to the Mediterranean; he went to the telephone and arranged to join the party, taking Hopgood with him. Hopgood looked as if he wanted a change too. During the last few days he had developed a rather trying habit of sighing as he moved about.\n\n### 5\n\nThe letter-box had overflowed. When Whalley opened the hall-door, it pushed back a little mound of envelopes addressed to him in unfamiliar handwritings. He stared at them in surprise for a moment, then, realising that they were letters of condolence from Elsa's friends, stooped and picked them up. They would all have to be answered\u2014fifty or sixty of them. But there was plenty of time. He stacked them neatly on the landing and then went up the little flight of stairs, set down the two suit-cases which he had carried up with him, and stood looking at the closed doors of the rooms. The last time he had looked at them had been when Bogey-Bogey was running from door to door, whimpering. He hadn't wanted to leave. They had had to carry him out, struggling and whimpering.\n\nWhat had she said\u2014there, at the hall-door\u2014'Good-bye, little flat. Coming back.'\n\nWell... now...\n\nNow he was shut in there in the stillness\u2014alone again. He could sit down and plan it out, without Knayle's silly babbling and curious smile to disturb him.\n\nHe opened the door of the sitting-room and looked across at the small oval table by the windows. There\u2014he would sit there and plan it all out and pat it into shape. No more weary, useless strugglings. No more tricking with words\u2014no more faking and padding. That was all done with. No plot to invent. This plot was ready-made, with only its four chapters to arrange. He moved towards the table, but turned back. There was plenty of time. No hurry. He must guard against hurry.\n\nAnd, first of all, everything must look as she had always seen it\u2014everything must be done as if she was in there in the kitchen, busy with her pots and pans, moving about swiftly in her gay overall. He moved from room to room, opening the windows and then, having unpacked some old clothes from his suit-case, changed into them and set to work upon the tidying of the flat.\n\nIn a week everything was spick-and-span. Everything had been brushed and dusted and washed and polished, the sitting-room chimney had been swept, all the windows cleaned, all the curtains taken down and shaken, every corner visited. The brasses shone like gold, the linoleum was perilous to walk on. The lorry had brought in its load from Camphill; Camphill, locked up and sodden with the October rain, was finished with. Every item on that neat list of which Mr Knayle had disapproved a little unreasonably, had been ticked off.\n\nAll the letters of condolence had been answered save one. Mr Loxton, who had interrupted the negotiations for an important contract to return for his niece's funeral, had returned, a day too late, to discover to his horror and indignation that there had been no funeral. He would refrain now from useless protests. But it must be understood that he could never forget or forgive the deplorable\u2014he might say, the outrageous\u2014slight which had been offered to his niece, himself, his family, and every person of decent and religious feeling in Rockwood. There would be certain matters to be discussed with his solicitors in reference to his niece's estate. Whalley would please communicate with them at his convenience; but any personal meeting with Mr Loxton himself, he must please understand, was and would remain out of the question. Whalley threw the letter into the rubbish-bin. Mr Loxton, too, was done with. And the Canynges, and the Sunday dinners. There would be all Sunday to think and plan\u2014pat it into shape...\n\nAt seven the scream of the factory-sirens down in the city awoke him. For a moment he lay, paralysed by the horror that surged back into his brain. It was not an evil dream\u2014he was awake, back in it. He sprang up and bent down over the pillows of the other bed. 'Good-morning, dear.' There must be no moment of the day in which she was not remembered.\n\nIn the mornings he worked about the flat. The bedroom was done every day\u2014both beds aired and re-made\u2014all the little trifles on her dressing-table dusted and replaced exactly. The other rooms were done in rotation. He worked calmly and methodically, scarcely ever looking at his watch or a clock. The days seemed endless.\n\nFrom Elsa he had picked up sufficient skill in cookery to prepare the simple food which supplemented his daily ration of liver. He cooked and ate the liver now without any repugnance; it was part of his rite of remembrance\u2014part of his plan. The click of the switches when he turned on the electric-cooker always vividly evoked her gay overall. Though it hung behind him from a hook on the kitchen door, he saw it there by the cooker, bent a little forward.\n\nOne day he saw her. He was busy in the kitchen when he heard her voice call 'Si.' He hurried to the door and saw her in the darkness of the passage, close to the balusters enclosing the little landing, looking, not towards him, but towards the bathroom. The illusion was so vivid that he went along the passage and touched the balusters. He went back to the kitchen, looking over his shoulder. She had stood just there, he remembered, that afternoon of the thunderstorm in June. There had been something that had attracted his attention, so that he remembered her standing there that afternoon. Something about the light. But he couldn't remember.\n\nSome trick of his nerves. He must be careful about his nerves\u2014there would be strains for them to meet; they mustn't be allowed to play tricks\u2014cause any oddnesses of look or manner or movement that might attract attention. He must try to make his body as efficient as it could be made now\u2014eat more\u2014take exercise\u2014get out into the open air\u2014learn to move about amongst people without looking as if he was alone. That attracted attention.\n\nUnconsciously, however, whenever he passed along the narrow passage, he left a space between him and the balusters, as if someone stood there.\n\nMr Loxton's solicitors wrote to him in reference to his wife's will. He wrote back saying that she had made none and formally renouncing inheritance of the fifty pounds a year which had been paid to her in quarterly cheques signed by Mr Loxton, her trustee. He received an acknowledgment and heard no more of the matter.\n\nMr Ridgeway came up one afternoon to see how he was getting on. It was a raw afternoon and, before he rang the bell, the caller blew his nose. As he did so his attention was attracted by some sounds within the flat\u2014the same sound repeated several times rapidly, as if a cushion or a pillow, he thought, were being beaten with great energy. When Whalley opened the hall-door he appeared somewhat out of breath.\n\n'Hope I haven't disturbed you,' said Mr Ridgeway, in his gruff, abstracted way. 'You seem to have been indulging in rather violent exercise. Not overdoing things yet, I hope. By the way\u2014while I think of it\u2014I wonder if you've seen anything about this new method of absorbing liver? Intravenous\u2014injections of liver extract. Saves having to eat the beastly stuff. You find it rather an ordeal, don't you?'\n\nThey went into the sitting-room and talked about pernicious an\u00e6mia for a little while, and then Mr Ridgeway held out the small brown-paper parcel which he had brought up. He had debated anxiously as to how he should speak of her, and for a moment or two he resumed the debate. Finally he said, very gently:\n\n'I brought back some books which your wife lent me.'\n\nBut Whalley merely thanked him and put the brown-paper parcel aside. They went for a walk on the Downs, now deserted and melancholy in the October twilight. Mr Ridgeway found it difficut to keep up with his companion's stride and, observing that Whalley's wind appeared to be perfectly normal, surmised that he was keeping himself fit by using a punching-ball.\n\n## CHAPTER VII\n\n### 1\n\nHIS determination had been formed in the flash of a thought. It had been an inspiration\u2014a revelation; he had not considered it or reasoned about it. It had stated to him, once and for all, an unchangeable sequence. They had killed her\u2014he would kill them. They had driven her out of the flat\u2014driven her out to Camphill\u2014driven her to her death. They were for him now the incarnation of the malign spirit which, blow by blow, had beaten down her happiness and crushed her laughing spirit to dust. They had killed her\u2014he would kill them. She had died in pain and fear; her lips had been twisted in bitter agony; they would die in pain and fear. All four. One by one they would pay their debt to her. His momentary vision had seen four figures standing in space waiting to be struck down\u2014then three\u2014then two\u2014one\u2014none. The thing had been already accomplished.\n\nIn the afternoons, as he sat by the windows of the sitting-room, he saw his project almost as one of those skeleton schemes which he had been accustomed to construct before beginning the writing of a play\u2014a brief jotted note of the central action of each act. As yet there were no details, but the outline was definite. He might have scribbled on his writing-block:\n\nAnd then turned over and written on the next page:\n\nSCENARIO\n\nAct 1. Sc. 1.\n\nAlready his imagination was busy with details, but it weighed them and pondered over them with almost complete detachment from reality. Already it was foreseeing difficulties; but they were the difficulties of a play which would be adjusted within the enclosure of the sitting-room walls, just as so many difficulties in the plots or characterisation of his novels had been adjusted. There was hardly any thought of possible interference from outside agencies in the long, motionless reveries of his afternoons. His plot was framed by the four walls that had shut in all his creative thoughts for two years. The world with its suspicion and its vigilance lay outside, an irrevelance.\n\nEven when he went out into it, his plan, always in his thoughts, remained apart from it. He had begun to walk regularly, selecting usually the most frequented streets and roads of the neighbourhood. The faces that passed him, depressed, anxious, or merely blank, betrayed no awareness of him; the eyes that rested on him for a moment glanced on to a shop-window or a passing car. He was surprised when, one evening, a glove which he had dropped that afternoon when alighting from a 'bus at a crowded corner nearly a mile distant from Downview Road was returned to him at his flat by an elderly man whom, to his knowledge, he had never seen before.\n\n'I was in the 'bus,' the visitor explained, 'and saw you drop the glove as you got out. As I happened to know where you lived, I thought I'd take charge of it and bring it along to you the first time I was coming this way.'\n\n'How did you know that I lived here?' Whalley asked.\n\n'Well, I saw you one day a couple of weeks ago, coming into this house. And so, of course, I recognised you in the 'bus. I'm like that. I never forget a face once I've seen it. Mother was the same...'\n\nThe 'of course' arrested Whalley's interest for a moment; this man took it for granted that he should remember every face he had seen once. But the incident was soon forgotten as the merest of accidents. There would be no accidents\u2014everything would be foreseen\u2014patted into perfect shape\u2014made accident-proof. It was simply a matter of adjustment while one sat at the little oval table and drew curlimacews.\n\nSometimes, when he had sat for an hour without any movement save the lighting of a new cigarette from an old one, he got up and went into the bedroom. It was the place in which most of her survived for him. He opened the door of her wardrobe and touched a frock or a jumper, trying to conjure up places in which she had worn it, pressing the material to his nostrils to assure himself that her perfume still clung to it. Or he picked up some knick-knack from her dressing-table and tried to see her fingers using it. For some reason unknown to him, she had always kept her best pair of shoes at the foot of her bed instead of in the boot-press in the passage. They still stood there and there was always a little dust to flick from their toes before he went back to his chair in the sitting-room.\n\n### 2\n\nKnayle had prattled away. There had been no difficulty in finding out where the Prossips had gone; he had volunteered the information that their maid, according to Hopgood's account, had found a new place as housemaid with his friends, the Grevilles. Whalley had known that her name was Agatha; Knayle had supplied the surname Judd. The Grevilles, he had added, kept a large staff of servants; Miss Agatha Judd's new situation would be an improvement upon her last.\n\nThe Grevilles had been old friends of Elsa's and Whalley had occasionally accompanied her on her visits to the house, of which his mind contained a definite picture. He saw it as he and Elsa had always approached it. One turned right-hand out of the dullness of Durston Road into Abbey Road\u2014a quiet, almost rural road whose further end was already in the country. In the whole length of the road there were not more than a dozen houses, all of them large and standing in extensive grounds whose trees concealed them, he fancied, entirely from view. Dense shrubberies bordered the road on both sides, separated from the pathways by low ornamental railings. Little traffic passed along it; it led nowhere in particular and existed almost solely for the purposes of the wealthy residents who lived there in select seclusion. Sometimes one met a large car or a tradesman's van and saw a solitary pedestrian disappear round a bend. Usually the road was deserted\u2014though, doubtless, in the evenings there would be occasional courting couples straying along the footpaths.\n\nOne went along for nearly half a mile. The third gate on the left-hand side was the Canynges'. The fourth, two or three hundred yards further on, was the Grevilles'. The gates had always been open when he had seen them, and he saw them open. A narrow drive ran away from them through a shrubbery, overhung by the trees. It curved twice, and then one saw the house some fifty yards ahead\u2014heavy, ugly, pretentious, but saturated with wealth and security. A man-servant out of one of Pinero's plays opened the hall-door...\n\nIf one went back to the gates and looked up the drive\u2014the shrubbery grew very thick on either side\u2014one could stand upright amongst the shrubs without being seen. What were they? Laurels, some of them; he remembered the smell on hot days. Round the first curve of the drive one was out of sight of both from the road, through the gates, and from the house. There...\n\nHe must go and look at it\u2014one day soon, now\u2014and verify his picture. Perhaps go up the drive to the curve and make certain that the shrubbery was as dense as he remembered it\u2014perhaps decide which side of the drive he would select. It would be necessary to do that twice\u2014in the daylight and after dark.\n\nThe Grevilles kept a lot of servants. No doubt they were well treated and had afternoons and evenings off, probably twice a week. One would have to be careful. It would be necessary to keep watch in order to discover on what evenings she went out\u2014at what hour she returned. There would be other servants coming down and going up the drive in the evenings\u2014curious, observant girls, suspicious men. One would have to be careful. One would have to wear different clothes.\n\nBut all that could be adjusted. And who would\u2014who could\u2014suspect? No one\u2014not even she herself, if by some accident she saw him and recognised him. But there would be no accidents.\n\nProbably on her evenings off she would have to get back to the house by half-past ten at latest. Some night\u2014a Wednesday night or a Friday night\u2014she would come back in the darkness along Abbey Road, (were there lamps along Abbey Road?) hurrying because she was late and the road was lonely. Probably she would have spent the evening at a cinema with some young fellow. But Abbey Road would be too far out for him at that hour; he would almost certainly leave her, at latest, at the 'bus halt in Conyngham Place. She would come hurrying along Abbey Road alone, turn in through the gates, hurry up the drive, turn the first bend, see him step out from the shrubbery\u2014and stop. She must see him and recognise him before he struck\u2014she must know what was going to happen to her\u2014and why. That was a difficulty, because she mustn't be allowed to scream. It would be very quiet out there at that hour. One would have to think over that and adjust it and pat it into shape. It was simply a matter of tiny moments\u2014of position...\n\nThen, when it was done and when he had made certain that it was done (one would have to make quite certain) and she was lying in among the shrubs, he would go quietly back along Abbey Road, turn in to Durston Road, and who would\u2014who could\u2014suspect? No one.\n\nHe would come back to the flat and sit down there by the sitting-room fire and begin to think about Act II.\n\nOne afternoon he walked to the further end of Abbey Road and back again. Some fifty or sixty cars and vans passed him before he reached Durston Road again. He met thirty or forty people, including the Edwarde-Lewin girls, who bowed to him, and Mrs Canynge, who cut him dead. The trees had thinned and the upper windows of some of the houses, including the Grevilles', were visible from the road. The shrubberies, he discovered, were not all so dense as he had fancied them. There were lamps along the road. They were widely-spaced, it was true, but one of them stood only a little away from the Grevilles' gates. A patrolling policeman was a rarity anywhere in Rockwood\u2014a phenomenon in its outskirts; but he met a policeman that afternoon as he turned the corner into Durston Road.\n\nOn the following afternoon he repeated the same walk. Not a single car passed him in Abbey Road; the only persons he met there on foot were two small boys from the College, who passed him under one of the lamps, absorbed in a discussion concerning reinforced concrete.\n\nHe slackened his pace as he approached the Grevilles' gates on his return journey and listened. Excepting for the hooting of a tug down in the river there was no sound. He walked up the drive until he reached its first bend and then made a hurried exploration of the shrubbery. On both sides it ran back for a considerable distance from the drive. There was no necessity to explore it to its further limits; it was sufficient that, near the drive, it formed an entirely satisfactory hiding-place. He decided upon the right-hand side as he faced towards the house. His left hand must be the nearer to her as she came up the drive.\n\n### 3\n\nFrom the first he had told himself that he must guard against hurry. There must be an interval, sufficiently long to dissociate the Prossips and Agatha Judd from the top flat. They must be given time to settle down in their new surroundings, to develop new habits and associations, to forget to talk about things that had been of interest and importance to them in June. Nearly four months had already intervened; another two, or, at the outside, three, would, he estimated, completely detach them from all possible connection with himself.\n\nAs the interminable, eventless days went by, however, it began to appear to him that this estimate was excessive. In a few days a girl like Agatha Judd\u2014unusually good-looking, pert, assured, and feather-brained\u2014would have established herself as a conspicuous feature of the Grevilles' household, squabbled with her fellow-maids, set up flirtations with the men-servants, and forgotten all about the Prossips and their flat. In a few weeks she would have become a familiar figure in Abbey Road and its immediate neighbourhood\u2014the Grevilles' pretty housemaid. Probably her vanity would restrain her from talking to her fellow-servants about her last place; to do so would involve the admission that she had been a general maid in a small flat.\n\nThough Mrs Greville, of course, would know who her last employers had been and where they had lived. There was that to think over. But why should anyone think of enquiring as to her last situation, when she had been with the Grevilles for two months? Or, for that matter, a month?\n\nA doubt arose in his mind. His plan had supposed Agatha Judd fixed permanently in her new setting. But was she?\n\nShe was an impudent, careless, malicious girl. Mrs Greville might decide that she was unsuitable and dismiss her. If that happened, it would be very difficult to trace her to a new place. She might leave Rockwood\u2014go to Bath, or Cleeveham, or even to London. Knayle was a great friend of the Grevilles, but Mrs Greville would be extremely unlikely to discuss the whereabouts of a dismissed housemaid with him. And one would have to be careful with Knayle. That smile of his was curious.\n\nPerhaps Mrs Greville had already dismissed her.\n\nHe meditated upon this anxiety for an afternoon and then went out to buy cigarettes. His way to the tobacconist's led him past Knayle's garage and he saw her standing in the doorway, talking to Chidgey. When he passed again on his way back to the flat, Chidgey was still standing in the doorway\u2014alone now\u2014and saluted him gloomily.\n\nIn the earlier part of the year Chidgey had lost the effective use of a raincoat under rather unusual circumstances. He had left the raincoat lying over the saddle of his motor-cycle at the side of a country road while he refreshed himself with sandwiches in a near-by field. Returning to the motor-cycle he had found a cow eating his raincoat. He had interviewed the owner of the cow without any satisfactory result and had subsequently consulted Mr Knayle as to his chances of obtaining compensation. Mr Knayle had laughed and said, 'Better ask Mr Whalley, Chidgey. I understand that he's a person learned in the law.' Recalling this remark of the guv'nor's, Chidgey threw away his cigarette and overtook Whalley with an urgent 'Beg pardon, sir. May I speak to you for a moment?'\n\n'Certainly.'\n\n'You'll excuse me asking you, sir, but are you connected with the law? Mr Knayle happened to mention to me one day that you were.'\n\n'Rather distantly,' Whalley replied in some surprise. 'However\u2014Well?'\n\n'Well, it's like this, sir. That young woman you saw me speaking to\u2014you know who she is, sir, of course\u2014she's been threatening me\u2014charging me with being responsible for her being in a certain condition\u2014which I know for a fact I'm not responsible for it and couldn't have been responsible for it. And I know who is responsible for it, what's more\u2014that old swine with the eyeglass\u2014Prossip. She as good as told me so herself a while back, before she started this game with me, though she won't admit it now. Well, what I wanted to ask you, sir, and how you may be kind enough to help me is\u2014can I go into a police-station and lay a charge against her of trying to extort money from me by threats which I can prove on oath are false? For it's blackmail she's after, sir, that's what her game is. You'd never think she was the dangerous little\u2014I'll show you a letter I got from her yesterday.'\n\nHe produced a soiled sheet of paper from his hip-pocket and came round to Whalley's side to exhibit it. Whalley glanced at it and, when he had seen the address at the top, shook his head.\n\n'If you mean to do anything, Chidgey,' he said, turning away, 'see a solicitor. Take my advice, however, and do nothing.'\n\n'It's killing me, sir,' said Chidgey. 'My life isn't worth living. I can't eat and I can't sleep and I can't read. I can't do anything without thinking about it. Sometimes I feel like going down and chucking myself into the river. Well, thank you, sir. You'll excuse me for troubling you, I hope.'\n\nBut Chidgey was relieved. For a moment he had made up his mind to take even the most desperate of steps to rid himself of the fear that had made his life a poisoned hell for the past three weeks. But the moment he had begun to tell his story aloud and put it into words he had realised that he couldn't face it\u2014that he couldn't walk into a police-station and say, 'I want to charge a girl with accusing me falsely of having got her in the family way'\u2014that he didn't want to do anything. And now he had been advised, by a lawyer, to do nothing. To do nothing was no longer funk; it was the right thing to do\u2014advised by a lawyer. He had always liked the look of Mr Whalley\u2014one of the right sort. He went back to the garage comforted, and a little regretful that he hadn't thought to say a word about poor little Mrs Whalley.\n\nShe was still there, then...\n\nBut the anxiety remained. At any moment she might leave Abbey Road and disappear completely. To find her again, even if she remained in Rockwood, might easily prove an impossibility; one would have to depend almost entirely upon chance. The search for her would involve delay. The Prossips, too, might leave their present quarters\u2014perhaps leave Guildford. They, too, would have to be found again.\n\nShe had been a month with the Grevilles now. Why wait? What was there to wait for?\n\nHe strove with his impatience. But his days were weeks\u2014the month had been a year. For ages and ages he had spoken to no one, except to Ridgeway and the assistants and messengers of the shops at which he dealt. No one had spoken to him. No one was aware of him. He was forgotten.\n\n### 4\n\nOn the whole Mr Prossip was pleased with Guildford and the Deepford Residential Hotel. He liked the High Street and walked up one side of it and down the other twice every fine morning before he went to play his nine holes and twice every fine afternoon before he went back to the Deepford's lounge to play bridge until dinner-time. He liked the people you saw shopping in the High Street\u2014smart live women and men who, though they dressed a bit carelessly, were unmistakably sahibs. He liked to turn into the Angel for a sherry and bitters on his way back from the links. And he had already had some very pleasant little trips to London\u2014very pleasant indeed. Though London wasn't what it had been.\n\nThe Deepford was very gay and comfortable and the cooking not at all bad, though his table in the dining-room was just beside a door and always in a draught. The guests came and went, but there were always a number of bright young things and always some unmistakable sahibs of his own age to play bridge with and hob-nob with in the bar. To these he had conveyed that he was feeling a draught of another sort and had decided to shut up his place down in Westshire until things cheered up\u2014if they ever did. It was damn pleasant to sit in the bright little bar and talk to unmistakable sahibs about the Land Tax and his bit of shooting and what the Duke had said to him one day out with the Beauforts. Damn pleasant, too (though, of course, that five-point-nine had ended _his_ dancing days), to watch the bright young things dancing\u2014glued together\u2014not caring a damn who saw them. Gave you something to think about in bed, instead of worrying about things. The bright young things liked his little jokes and his paternal winks. On the whole, he thought, he was about the most popular person in the hotel.\n\nMawjery, as usual, was making herself a bit of a nuisance. She was sulky because she was plain and a rotten dancer and because the management had objected to her violin. However, fortunately she had raked out some school-friends in Farnham who went in for music and all that, and spent most of her time with them. He had bought her a second-hand Baby to encourage her to go to Farnham as often as possible. The more she was away from the Deepford the better. He didn't want more rows about her violin-playing; he had had enough of that sort of thing.\n\nHe supposed he'd never get rid of Mawjery now. Thirty\u2014and plainer every time he looked at her. None of the young chaps at the hotel took the slightest notice of her. As long as he lived he would be saddled with her sulks and her scraping. Christ\u2014what a prospect for a chap...\n\nHowever\u2014one good job\u2014he had a bedroom to himself again now. When Emma got up at six o'clock in the morning, now, he didn't hear her banging and thumping about the room like a hippopotamus. She had started that business up here, now, found out some oily-voiced canoodler or other, he supposed, like that beggar in Rockwood she used to go to confession to. Damn keen about him, too, evidently. No joke riding a bicycle on these dark, cold mornings.\n\nHe thought a good deal about Emma's bicycle. She had bought it without saying anything to him about it\u2014solely, it seemed, for the purpose of her early church-goings\u2014the church to which she went being some distance outside the town, along the Leatherhead Road. He had made no reference to it\u2014though perhaps he should have said something about its being unwise for her to ride a bicycle with her heart. But, anyhow, it would have been quite useless to have said anything\u2014only have led to a row. It was her own look-out.\n\nThere was no doubt that riding a bicycle on a cold morning might very easily bring on one of those attacks of hers. It was all very well to say to yourself that you oughtn't to think of such a thing\u2014but one morning Emma _might_ fall off her bicycle and die on the London road. Funny to think about that\u2014Emma being dead. What would one do\u2014?\n\nSometimes Mr Prossip's meditations upon his wife's bicycle caused him regret, and one day he surprised her by entering her room\u2014she had spent most of her time in her bedroom since her arrival at the Deepford\u2014and embracing her with tears in his eyes. She concluded, however, that he had had too much whisky and, disengaging herself from his hold frigidly, went on burnishing her nails. After that he thought about her bicycle as entirely her own look-out.\n\nOne day towards the end of October he received a disagreeable reminder of a matter which had begun to fade into the somewhat musty twilight in which he kept the things that were a damn nuisance to remember. A threatening scrawl arrived from Agatha Judd.\n\nIvanhoe,\n\nAbbey Road\n\nRockwood, Dunpool.\n\nMR PROSSIP\u2014As you havint kept your promise im writing to say that if you dont let me have a hundered pounds by return ill go to Guilford and inform your wife of your conduc to me mind i mean what I say dont think im a fool or because im a poor servant girl you can put it across me and throw me to one side after runing me for life i have friens who will see that im treated fair and square and unless you want to see me landing into your hotel and exposing you to your wife and everyone you better come down here and bring the money with you in cash mind as I want no cheques or any more trouble about it having trouble enough god knows which you are the cause of so youd better come to Rockwood and meet me somewhere if not ill go up to Guilford this day week as certain as im writing these words so now no more for the present but behave like a gentleman and there will be no more about it you can rely on it.\u2014Agatha.\n\nMr Prossip drank a great many whiskies and sodas and found courage to do nothing until, two days later, he received a telegram:\n\nNOT HAVING HEARD FROM\n\nYOU GOING GUILFORD SATURDAY.\n\nHis nerve went and he wired a reply arranging a meeting at half-past seven on the evening of that day\u2014a Thursday\u2014at the junction of Abbey and Durston Roads. He reached Dunpool a little before seven and arrived at the place of rendezvous in a taxi a minute before the arranged time.\n\nThe interview which followed was brief and, for Mr Prossip, extremely unpleasant. He had gulped down two large whiskies in the restaurant at the terminus and when Agatha, having greeted him with an amicable 'Hullo,' turned and went back along Abbey Road, he followed her unsuspectingly, trying to recall the little oration which he had composed in the train. But he could only think of bits of it, here and there.\n\n'Now, my girl,' he began, when she had slackened pace a little and he was level with her again, 'this is a very serious business, you know. Very serious.'\n\nWhat came after that?\n\n'Very serious. I don't know whether you are aware that when you wrote me that letter you were committing a very serious criminal offence. In fact, a crime. Perhaps you are not aware that the punishment for\u2014'\n\n'Oh, come off it,' snapped Agatha contemptuously. 'Have you brought the money? That's what I want to know.'\n\n'Now, my good girl, don't speak to me like that. And I may as well tell you that the first thing you've got to do is to get it out of your head that because, for your own sake, I've come all the way down here from Guildford to have a talk with you\u2014'\n\nAgatha turned towards the road and called, 'Jim. I want you.' A figure emerged from the gates of a house at the opposite side and, moving obliquely and very rapidly, cut off Mr Prossip's retreat to Durston Road. The newcomer, a husky young man in a tight-fitting jacket which he buttoned with leisurely menace, spat preparatorily.\n\n'Well,' he asked, 'what about it, cocky? Brought that stuff along all right, eh?'\n\nMr Prossip decided to make a bolt for it and received a blow on his jaw which sent him reeling against the low railing which separated the footpath from the bordering shrubbery. He was jerked into erectness again and held by one of Jim's hands while the other punched his face and his body several times. While a car passed his throat was imprisoned in a grip of steel. He was whimpering a little when he produced a little wad of notes from his breast-pocket and handed them over to Agatha in dizzy silence. She counted them, puffing with anger.\n\n'Ten quid? What's this for, you dirty dog?'\n\nShe slapped his face. He was punched again and kicked excruciatingly as he tried to rise to his feet. When they were satisfied that nothing more was to be got from him, they left him with the warning that they had only begun with him, and went off laughing, towards Durston Road. Mr Prossip, leaning against the railings, saw them turn the corner, two bobbing, derisive silhouettes, and then, while he endeavoured to climb the railings in search of his hat, was violently sick.\n\nHe found his hat at length and tried to decide what he would do. In the expectation that he would catch the 8.40 back to Reading, he had brought nothing with him for the night; but he couldn't face the train and the Deepford and Emma with his face in the state which he felt it was in. It felt like a huge, bursting bruise; his nose was still bleeding, and at least one of his eyes, he was sure, was already black. Of course, he could go to the flat in Downview Road; but he had left the key with old Knayle's man, and he didn't want old Knayle to see him in that state. There was still some loose silver in his trousers pockets. He would find some small hotel.\n\nIn a public-house in Rockwood he had two more large whiskies and then remembered a girl who had had a room over a small shop in Gorrall Road. A quiet girl with a cough. Perhaps she would be able to do something for his face.\n\n## CHAPTER VIII\n\n### 1\n\nAT first Whalley kept watch from the road, crossing from side to side whenever he heard anyone approaching and avoiding the light of the lamp near the gates. At the hour upon which he had decided\u2014from half-past six to half-past seven\u2014Abbey Road was almost completely deserted. But, since his movements were necessarily limited and retraced always the same short stretches of footpath, they began very quickly to seem to him conspicuous, even when there was no one to observe them. The figures which emerged from the gates (he had been right, he found, in surmising that the servants went out about seven o'clock on their evenings of liberty) emerged at a smart pace and went off towards Durston Road rapidly, looking neither to right nor left. The interests of an evening off lay ahead of them, down in the city. Which of them, as it came down the drive, had turned towards the laurels? It would be much easier and simpler to wait in there\u2014wait where he would wait.\n\nOn the third evening of his vigil\u2014a Thursday evening\u2014as he sat on a little heap of twigs in the pungent darkness of the shrubbery, Agatha Judd came down the drive with one of the men-servants. He recognised her voice; she was talking about a dog which had been run over. He looked at his watch. Twenty-five past seven.\n\nHe waited in his hiding-place until her shrill chatter died away, tempted to follow. The important thing was to discover at what hour she returned to the house. If, as was probable, she was bound for one of the cinemas, the intervening time could be spent there, near her, keeping her in sight. But, on the other hand, perhaps she was going to her home or to some other house\u2014or going to meet someone. It would be necessary to keep watch on the house or loiter behind her along brightly-lighted roads\u2014perhaps only to see her carried off by a 'bus. It was far simpler and far easier to wait there, at the point to which she must return.\n\nHe waited for nearly four hours, lighting one cigarette from another to avoid the striking of a match. Few people passed along the road; sometimes for half an hour no one passed. He listened to the footsteps as they approached and receded, picturing their owners vaguely. Every pair of feet made a different noise. It was chill and damp under the laurels. In collecting the twigs for his seat his hands had become smeared with cold, clammy earth, and their palms and fingers stiffened after a little while. Occasionally he sat up a little and drew his overcoat closer to his body, then bent forward again, his elbows resting on his knees.\n\nAt eight o'clock a car came down the drive and, as it turned the curve, the beam of its lamps found its way into his hiding-place and, for an instant, flooded it with daylight. From his ankles upward he remained in darkness, but the ends of his trousers and his boots were brightly illuminated. For an instant he saw the boots with satisfaction. They looked immense\u2014utterly unlike any other boots he had ever worn. He had bought them some days before in a little second-hand shop in east Dunpool, kept by an old Jew with a large wen on his neck over which a few straggling grey hairs crawled. Immense\u2014gigantic. He had had to put on a second pair of socks to prevent them from slopping as he walked. The heel of one of them rested, he had time to see, on a large stone half buried in the clay and twigs. Then was back in a darkness darker and chillier than before. The car passed on, sounding its deep Klaxon warningly as it passed out through the gates. The Grevilles going to dine somewhere.\n\nA long time after, someone came down the drive, smoking a cigar. Its fragrance came in under the laurels after he had passed, soured a little by their pungency, but still a fragrance. A good cigar. The smoker walked slowly\u2014stood awhile at the gate, cleared his throat, and then went back slowly.\n\nA dog came up the drive, questing\u2014growled, went out through the gates again growling. It was high tide down in the river; the sirens and whistles blew continuously.\n\nA quarter-past nine\u2014\n\nA little after ten someone came up the drive, hiccoughed, threw a cigarette end in among the bushes and went on towards the house, muttering to himself. The man-servant who had gone out with her, probably.\n\nA quarter past\u2014twenty past\u2014not half-past yet.\n\nHe laughed savagely. If Elsa who had known him as he had always been for her, saw him now\u2014sitting there on a heap of twigs, hiding under the shrubs.\n\nHer feet had passed up and down the drive many times. Many times she had passed the place where he sat now, hiding under the bushes. The annihilation of everything that he had seemed to her filled him with a murderous fury, and his clenched hands rose above his head as it dropped to his raised knees. He sat motionless, his heart beat thundering in his ears, a mere desire to kill.\n\nWhy wait?\n\nIn a few minutes, now, she must come. Why not now, in a few minutes, and finish with her?\n\nWas it certain that she would go out always on Thursday evenings just because she had gone out this Thursday evening? If she came back at eleven tonight, she might come back at ten next Thursday night. There would be more long hours of waiting there\u2014never any greater certainty than that of now.\n\nWhy not now?\n\nBut he sat up again and tightened his overcoat about him once more. He wasn't ready\u2014he hadn't come prepared. His plan must be carried out exactly as he had conceived it. The first blow must silence that shrill voice of hers for ever.\n\nWhy hadn't he brought it? He had thought of bringing it, so as to grow accustomed to the feel of it in the sleeve of his overcoat\u2014\n\nThat stone\u2014where had he seen it? Under the heel of one boot.\n\nAs he bent forward, groping over the wet clay with numb fingers, he heard her coming\u2014hard, hurrying little heels that were already at the gates\u2014through the gates\u2014in the drive. She was whistling, the little evil devil, with those mocking lips of hers...\n\n### 2\n\nHe turned into Durston Road and stopped to light a cigarette. It was a quiet suburban road, whose lamps were separated by a distance of over fifty yards, but by comparison with Abbey Road it was brilliantly lighted. He was in the open now. He must accustom himself again to being seen.\n\nAlong Abbey Road all his faculties had been occupied in watchful scrutiny of the darkness ahead of him and behind him, and in struggling with the impulse to run. But now thought began to emerge through thoughtless instinct. As he lighted his cigarette he noted that the hand which held the match was perfectly steady and that, though it was vaguely painful, it had not been cut in any way. As he had come along Abbey Road he had brushed his overcoat with his gloves and scraped the clay from his boots against the kerb of the footpath. There must be no trace of that clay left. The coat must be thoroughly brushed and the boots thoroughly cleaned when he got back to the flat. The day after tomorrow, as he had decided, he would take the boots out to Camphill and burn them in the incinerator. His hat must be brushed, too, and the ends of his trousers, as he had decided. He must get back to his plan again, and do things exactly as he had arranged to do them\u2014not get hurried and carried away. He had waited too long in there, listening to her whistling, and had had to hurry as he moved towards her whistling through the laurels. She had heard him and begun to run towards the house... There must be no more hurrying.\n\nBut it was done\u2014very simply, and, in the end, very nearly as he had imagined it. He went on, concealing his soiled hands in the pockets of his overcoat and trying to subdue the clumping of his feet. When he had cleaned the boots and brushed his clothes, he would go into the sitting-room and sit down before the fire. The fire would probably be out, but he would relight it. He would get back to his plan\u2014begin to think of Marjory Prossip's ugly, sullen, white face.\n\nIn fear and pain... \n\n## CHAPTER IX\n\n### 1\n\nMR KNAYLE returned to his flat on the afternoon of the first Friday in November. The Mediterranean cruise had not been a great success so far as he had been concerned; his new plate had been exceedingly troublesome and there had been a number of noisy young people on board who had talked an exasperating jargon of their own, danced every night until four o'clock in the morning, and nicknamed him K'tack. He had left the ship at Marseilles\u2014heard in Paris that a revolution had broken out in the north of England\u2014experienced some rather humiliating difficulty in settling his hotel bill\u2014found London in the throes of the General Election\u2014and sighed with relief when, at last, he found himself driving in his own car through the drab streets of Dunpool. It was pleasant to be back.\n\nHopgood had left London two days before him; everything at the flat was prepared for his reception. While he sipped his tea before a blazing fire his eyes strayed round his sitting-room resuming possession of it. It was deucedly pleasant to be back in one's own place, amongst one's own things and one's own memories. The past month had been all noise and fidgety restlessness. For four weeks he hadn't had a moment to himself. And his bed was in there next door\u2014the bed of good, long sleeps. No saxophones tonight.\n\nThe morning papers lay neatly folded in their accustomed place on a small table within reach of his accustomed arm-chair. He had already seen the London papers; he stretched an arm and picked up the Dunpool _Daily Times_. There would be nothing of interest in it which he had not already read in the _Post_. But it would be pleasant to see the familiar old-fashioned type and run an eye over the obituary notices. Some Rockwood landmarks, he had heard in London, had been removed during his absence\u2014old Sir James Filsham and his low-crowned hat\u2014old Miss Bruce\u2014 What would become of those three black pugs of hers?\n\nWhile he was adjusting his glasses, Hopgood came in to remove the tea-tray. Observing the newspaper in Mr Knayle's lap, he lingered to put some coal on the fire.\n\n'You haven't looked at the _Daily Times_ yet, sir, have you?'\n\nMr Knayle looked at him over his glasses. 'No.'\n\n'You remember that girl of the Prossips', sir\u2014their maid, I mean?'\n\nThe Prossips and their maid were a long time ago for Mr Knayle. He had begun to wonder whether he wouldn't dine at the Club that evening.\n\n'Yes?'\n\n'Well, she's been murdered, sir. She was murdered last night, over in Abbey Road\u2014in Mr Greville's drive.'\n\n'Oh,' said Mr Knayle. 'Murdered? By the way, Hopgood, I think I'll dine at the Club tonight. Ask Chidgey to bring the car round at half-past seven, will you?'\n\nHopgood retired with the tray, disappointed, and Mr Knayle settled himself again in his chair and opened the _Daily Times_. Murdered, eh? Very unpleasant for the Grevilles. Oh yes\u2014of course she had gone to the Grevilles from the Prossips. Very unpleasant for the Grevilles.\n\nROCKWOOD TRAGEDY\n\nHOUSEMAID BATTERED TO DEATH\n\nIN\n\nABBEY ROAD\n\nBattered to death\u2014h'm.\n\nWhen had he seen that girl (what was her name?\u2014Agatha something) last? He had seen a lot of things since but after a moment or two he remembered. It was that day the gramophone had begun to play\u2014the day the Prossips had gone away. He had left Ridgeway with Whalley in the bedroom and come into the sitting-room for another book and seen her talking to Chidgey outside the gates, beside the car. Yes. That was the last time he had seen her\u2014talking to Chidgey beside the car. She had looked very smart in a long coat and one of those abominable bowler hats.\n\nHe arranged the newspaper conveniently and read the quarter column devoted to the tragedy on the last page. A housemaid named Agatha Judd, in the employment of Mrs Greville at 'Ivanhoe', Abbey Road, had left the house at half-past seven on the preceding evening. Her subsequent movements had not yet been traced. Mr and Mrs Greville and their daughter had dined with some friends and returned in their car shortly after midnight, when their chauffeur had noticed, by the light of his headlamps, a purse lying in the drive close to the gates. When he had put away the car he had gone back along the drive with a pocket-torch and, while picking up the purse, had noticed that the shrubs bordering the drive had been pushed aside at one spot so as to leave a narrow path along which some large heavy object been dragged recently. His curiosity had been aroused and, after a brief search, he had come upon the body of Agatha Judd lying beneath the bushes some ten yards in from the drive. Neither the purse, which had been identified as hers, nor the bag from which it had fallen or been taken, and which had been found close to her, appeared to have been disturbed by the murderer. The hurried report, which was given in the 'Late News' column, concluded with the statement that the police were already in the possession of sensational information.\n\nVery unpleasant indeed for the Grevilles\u2014the police coming to the house, asking questions, people gaping in through the gates\u2014Mrs Greville, a nervous woman, might have to attend the inquest. What a nuisance for them.\n\nThere hadn't been a murder in Rockwood for a long time now. It was rather interesting that, when one did happen, the heroine of it should have lived in the same house with one for quite a considerable time. Hopgood had seemed to think that she had been largely responsible for the performance of the gramophone\u2014an impudent-looking little piece. Battered to death\u2014h'm. But really there was so much of that sort of thing now...\n\nNot a murder for robbery, apparently\u2014though the chap who killed her might have got frightened and thrown away the purse. But more probably one of those murders that had been committed all over the country during the last year or so\u2014women attacked in lonely places. Just the sort of girl that sort of thing might happen to\u2014good-looking, ready to pick up with anything in the shape of a man. She had got hold of Chidgey\u2014persuaded a sensible chap like Chidgey to take her into the garage at night.\n\nSo that sort of thing had begun to happen in quiet old Rockwood now. Already in possession of sensational information. But the police always were in those cases\u2014and then nothing happened. There had been a list in the _Post_ a couple of days ago\u2014ten or eleven recent murders which had baffled the police completely.\n\nSomeone moving about up there\u2014\n\nMr Knayle dropped his newspaper to his lap and looked up at the ceiling of the sitting-room when he had taken off his glasses. A gentle melancholy mingled with his comfort. How often he had listened, looking up at the ceiling from his armchair. He waited, glasses in hand, half hoping, half fearing that he would feel again the stilling desolation which had descended upon him when he had looked up at it last\u2014on the morning on which he had started on his trip. But he felt only a gentle melancholy which was not altogether disagreeable. He was disappointed. Often, sitting in his deck-chair looking up at the unfamiliar stars, he had thought about what he would feel when he sat in his sitting-room and looked up at its ceiling. He had expected something sharp\u2014a pang. But the ceiling interfered somehow with what he felt and made it dull and soft.\n\nBut he had only just got back.\n\nHe must run up and see Whalley tomorrow or next day\u2014give him a day's shooting now and then\u2014persuade him to come down for a game of bridge now and then.\n\nAnd old Ridgeway, too. He must look up old Ridgeway one day. Was he lying down there on his sofa now in his old dressing-gown, thinking that he would never tell her that he had performed an illegal operation and been in prison? Poor old devil\u2014not quite normal, of course.\n\nWell, well, it was very pleasant to be back. Perhaps the wipe-out of the Socialists did mean something more than that the country was panic-stricken. Perhaps old England was going to wake up.\n\nMr Knayle rose, switched off the lights and then settled himself again comfortably in his chair before the fire. He hadn't slept at all well in London; he never did sleep well there. He dozed off gently.\n\nWhat had Hopgood's voice said? '... see you.'\n\nHe opened his eyes, turning his head sharply, and saw Hopgood standing by the switches regarding him doubtfully.\n\n'A police-inspector to see you, sir.'\n\n### 2\n\nInspector Bride, a stalwart kindly man in mufti, with completely expressionless grey eyes, came to the point at once when he had seated himself at the other end of the hearthrug. His eyes had taken possession of Mr Knayle the moment they had fallen on him and Mr Knayle was a little annoyed to find that their fixity made him slighty uneasy.\n\n'I've come to make some enquiries, sir, about a man named Albert Chidgey, whom you have in your employment at present as chauffeur.'\n\nChidgey? Before Mr Knayle's eyes grew a vision of Chidgey's face as he had seen it that afternoon outside the station\u2014white and peaked and pinched.\n\n'Yes. My chauffeur's name is Chidgey.'\n\n'He has been with you for some time as chauffeur, I think?'\n\n'Yes. For over three years.'\n\n'May I ask, Mr Knayle, what sort of character you would give him\u2014generally?'\n\n'Character? Oh, an excellent chap. A good driver\u2014very steady\u2014most satisfactory in every way.'\n\n'Does he drink? I mean, have you ever known him the worse for liquor?'\n\n'Never.'\n\nThe inspector rubbed his forehead with two fingers for a moment, and then glanced at the newspaper which lay on the arm of Mr Knayle's chair.\n\n'I believe you have been abroad for the past month or so, sir\u2014so your man told me just now?'\n\n'Yes, I only got back this afternoon.'\n\n'You may have seen that a young woman named Agatha Judd was found murdered in Abbey Road last night.'\n\nConfound those eyes. 'Yes,' Mr Knayle replied stiffly. 'I have just read the account.'\n\n'For some time, I am informed, she lived in the top flat of this house, during the past year, as servant of a Mr and Mrs Prossip who occupied the flat from, I think, January until the end of September. You probably knew her by appearance?'\n\n'I remember that the people in the top flat had a maid, yes.'\n\n'Naturally you wouldn't pay any great attention to servants belonging to the tenants of the other flats. This was a good-looking girl\u2014very smart in her appearance\u2014'\n\n'Yes, yes. I remember.'\n\nThe inspector was discouraged. There was nothing in Chidgey. He hadn't thought there was anything in him. His head was aching a good deal. There had been trouble down in East Dunpool during the elections and he had received a severe blow on the forehead from a stone which had left behind an ugly dull pain behind his eyes. And anyhow the case would be taken out of his hands and passed on to the Detective Division.\n\n'What I wanted to ask you, sir, was, whether you had any reason at any time\u2014say within the past six months\u2014to suppose that there was any sort of intimacy between your chauffeur and this girl?'\n\n'Intimacy?' Mr Knayle's tone sharpened. This was really too much of a good thing\u2014the very afternoon one got back. 'No. I've seen him talking to her occasionally out there in the garden. Nothing more than that. Why do you ask?'\n\n'Well, I may as well be frank with you, sir. One of the maids at the house where this girl was employed has stated that Agatha Judd told her that she was going to be married to Chidgey. This other girl knows Chidgey well, owing to his having been at Mr Greville's house when he drove you there in your car. She states that she saw Chidgey on three occasions lately talking to Judd near the house at night\u2014twice in the road, outside the gates, and once in the drive. Now, the medical report is that Judd was going to have a child. So that you'll understand, sir, that we've found it necessary to make full enquiries about Chidgey and his relations with her.'\n\n'Yes, yes. Of course.'\n\n'I've seen Chidgey, and he denies that he was going to be married to her or that he had anything to do with her being pregnant, though he admits having been with her over in Abbey Road at the times when the other maid says she saw him. According to his statement, from what Judd told him herself, another person\u2014I won't mention his name\u2014was responsible for her condition. Of course, that's only Chidgey's statement\u2014though we have information, I may say, which goes to show that it may be the fact. I'm bound to say that Chidgey strikes me as a respectable, decent fellow. Your man Hopgood, too, gives him a good character, and says he never noticed anything at all special between him and Judd. However, there it is, sir. You understand, of course, that we have to follow up every clue in a case like this. I may take it, then, that so far as you are aware, there was no special intimacy between Chidgey and this girl\u2014say, round May and June last.'\n\n'None whatever, so far as I am aware, Inspector,' said Mr Knayle, pulling down his waistcoat and rising.\n\nHe was annoyed by this stupid, large alien force that had taken possession of his sitting-room and his rights interrupted the comfort of his homecoming. He was annoyed by his big stupid, shapeless hands and his fixed, expressionless eyes\u2014annoyed by his dogged questions and his habit of rubbing his forehead with his fingers when one answered them, as if to see that he didn't believe one. Let him get on with his clumsy prying and poking. What was he looking at now? The ceiling? What the deuce was _he_ looking at the ceiling for?\n\n'Who lives above you, sir?'\n\n'A Mr Whalley.'\n\n'Does he keep any servants?'\n\n'No.'\n\n'And underneath?'\n\n'A Mr Ridgeway.'\n\n'Does he keep any servants?'\n\n'No.'\n\n'Mr Prossip occupied the top flat. It's to let at present, your man tells me?'\n\n'He would know.'\n\n'Very well, sir, thank you. I needn't trouble you any further. Good afternoon.'\n\nMr Knayle settled himself again in his chair before the fire. But his comfort had gone. A crumb had lodged between his plate and his gum; the fire had died down, and, when he picked up the _Daily Times_ , he saw only Chidgey's face\u2014a close-up of Chidgey's face\u2014dirty-white, set, and shadowed under the eyes. It was absurd to think of Chidgey battering the life out of anything\u2014raining one ferocious blow after another\u2014 And yet, without doubt he had been carrying on with her in the car that night\u2014\n\nCurious that the last time he had seen her she had been with Chidgey.\n\nWhat an infernal nuisance\u2014the very day one got back.\n\nHopgood came in to ask if Mr Knayle would like the lights off again.\n\n'Did _you_ ever notice anything between Chidgey and the Prossips' maid, Hopgood?'\n\n'No sir.' Hopgood permitted himself a faint smile. 'He didn't get anything out of _me_.'\n\n'Quite,' said Mr Knayle. 'Yes. You can switch them off.'\n\nIt was quite dark outside, and Inspector Bride stopped at the head of a little flight of steps leading down to the basement flat to light his pipe and think about things for a moment. There was no reason he could think of why, if Mr Knayle and his man had seen anything going on between Chidgey and Judd, they shouldn't have told him so. But they had both choked him off. There had been something\u2014and they both knew that there had been something. Well, he wasn't going to be choked off. He didn't think that Chidgey had the guts for a job of this kind. And it was certain that\u2014quite apart from Prossip\u2014she had had a number of chaps hanging after her\u2014that clerk at the West Counties Bank, a fitter at the Oriel Garage, this chap she used to talk about as 'Jim,' a tram conductor named Allenby, a young fellow with a green and yellow sports car. But, on the other hand, where had Chidgey been last night from half-past seven on? At a picture-house, he said, alone. Of course he _would_ say that.\n\nHe'd have to go up to Guildford and see Prossip about that wire of his. Prossip looked fishy. The wire hadn't been signed, but it had come from Guildford\u2014and Prossip was living in Guildford now. Nice place Guildford; nice up along the river in a canoe on a summer evening\u2014\n\nSomeone coming down the steps\u2014probably the Mr Whalley who lived in the first floor flat. The inspector's pipe had not lighted properly and he struck another match as Whalley passed close to him. No use asking him. He kept no servants\u2014he'd know nothing about Judd's carryings on with Chidgey.\n\n'Good evening, sir.'\n\nWhalley stopped. 'Are you looking for anyone?'\n\n'Well, I am, sir.' Inspector Bride laughed. 'But I don't think you can help me to find him. Turned cold now.'\n\n'Yes. Quite sharp.'\n\n### 3\n\nA little way down Downview Road Whalley looked back. A large figure stood outside the gates of No. 47, facing towards him. A little way further on he glanced back again. The figure was following slowly. But when he looked back a third time it had turned and was moving away from him.\n\nHe had remained indoors all day, waiting until the evening papers would be selling in the streets, working desultorily about the flat, and smoking continuously. The sudden encounter at the foot of the steps had startled him for a moment. Only the striking of the match had averted actual collision with the darkness that had suddenly become a man. What had he been doing there? Why had he laughed that way? Hopgood had come back; perhaps a friend of Hopgood's, waiting for him. His voice and face had belonged to that class\u2014a respectable-looking fellow, like a small shopkeeper. But if he was looking for Hopgood, why hadn't he asked where he would find him? Why had he stood there, waiting? Why had he laughed that way as if it was a joke of some sort that he was looking for someone?\n\nBut he hadn't been following. Probably merely trying to make up his mind which way he would go. If he _had_ been following, one oughtn't to have looked back. That must be remembered.\n\nPerhaps someone looking for the Prossips. But no one had gone up the steps to their door. Why had he been waiting?\n\nThe report in the evening newspaper was merely an elaborated version of the _Daily Times_ story. He read it in a little restaurant while he swallowed tea and stale buns, propping the paper against a vase filled with artificial asters and turning it over whenever the waitress approached the table. As she made out his bill her eyes rested on it.\n\n'That's a dreadful business over in Abbey Road, sir, isn't it? Two buns? I was along there myself only two nights ago with my young man and we were only just saying what a lonely road it was at night. Two pats, isn't it? Thank you very much, sir.'\n\nJust what he would have made a waitress say.\n\nMr Knayle came up to see him next day and thought him looking much fitter. The conversation concerned itself chiefly with Mr Knayle's trip and it was only when he stood outside the hall-door again that he made any allusion to the Abbey Road tragedy in his own thoughts. He had come up resolved to make no reference whatever to the Prossips or anything connected with them. But as he turned away to descend the steps he forgot his resolution for a moment\n\n'By the way, Whalley, did you have a police-inspector up here yesterday afternoon?'\n\n'No. Why?'\n\n'Oh, I had a chap bothering me with enquiries about my shover\u2014you know him\u2014Chidgey. Er\u2014I thought he might have come up to you. Now, look here, I shall be seeing Burdon at the club tonight. Do let me tell him that I'm bringing another gun out on Tuesday. He'll be delighted. Do you no end of good, my dear chap. You'll come? Good. That's a fixture, then.'\n\nWhalley shut the hall-door and stood looking at it as if this sudden danger stood at its other side. At once the connection which had seemed to him impossible had been made. At once they had viewed that thing which they had found under the Grevilles' laurels not as Grevilles' maid, but as the Prossips'. At once they had begun to search for her killer, not in Abbey Road, but in Downview Road. The first time he had gone out he had found a searcher\u2014outside the door\u2014waiting.\n\nChidgey\u2014how was it possible that he hadn't thought of Chidgey?\n\nBut Chidgey would be able to clear himself. He would be able to account for his movements that night. They would have found plenty of footprints to compare with his; that would clear him\u2014he was a small man. And when they had failed with Chidgey they would turn away from Downview Road. No searcher would come up the steps. If Chidgey talked about Prossip, the Prossips were in Guildford.\n\nFor a few days the sharp whirr of the hall-door bell stiffened every muscle of his body. Sometimes he waited until the tradesman's messenger rang a second time before opening the door. When he went out, he went down the outside steps slowly, despite himself, expectant of a burly figure standing waiting at its foot. When he returned, he went up them slowly. The top flight cut off his view of his own hall-door until he was within a few feet from it. There was, however, no personal apprehension in this vigilance; his fear contemplated solely the possible disruption of his plan. He slept well, ate well, felt his body and his mind stronger than he had felt them for several years. To occupy his time, he re-papered the bathroom.\n\nThe days passed, and nothing kept happening. The Abbey Road murder disappeared from the _Daily Times_. He had his day's shooting with Knayle and shot well. On the way home Knayle told him that Chidgey's little trouble had passed over, and then began to talk about something else.\n\n'What about another day next week?' he asked as they parted outside his flat. But Whalley said that he would be away for the following week\u2014Mr Knayle understood, at Bournemouth, though he was not quite sure about this because Mr Ridgeway came up his little flight of steps just then and began to tell them about the mice which had suddenly become very troublesome in his kitchen. When Whalley left them and went up the steps, the two elder men looked after him.\n\n'He looks better, don't you think?' said Mr Ridgeway. 'He's able to bang a punching ball about, at all events. Everything passes.'\n\n'Oh no, no, no, no,' laughed Mr Knayle cheerily as he turned towards his own door. 'Everything that has been is for ever.'\n\nHe was a little dejected by Mr Ridgeway's platitude, and a little interested to hear that Whalley was using a punching-ball to keep himself fit. He had wondered as to the explanation of some peculiar sounds which he had heard occasionally over his head during the past week or so.\n\n## CHAPTER X\n\n### 1\n\nON the morning on which he went up to Guildford Whalley's preparations for his journey were all completed an hour too soon. His old suit-case stood in the passage; his old overcoat hung over the balusters. He wandered from room to room slowly; but there was nothing to do\u2014everything was spick-and-span. While he was straightening the mat outside the sitting-room door, the hall-door bell rang. He went down the stairs slowly; the whirr of the hall-door bell still tautened his muscles and made the movements of his numb legs and feet stiff and difficult.\n\nBut it was only Penfold, endeavouring to look friendly and sympathetic as he held out his hand.\n\n'Good morning, Mr Whalley. I just happened to be up this way and thought I'd drop in and see you for a moment. I'm sorry to hear that you've had a bereavement.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'I know what it is. I've been through it myself. I lost my own wife last year, and... well, the way it is, it's only when people are gone that you know what they were to you. Yes. Well, what I wanted to see you about, Mr Whalley, was about that bit of papering and painting you wanted done a while back. Perhaps I might have a look round, just to see what's necessary\u2014'\n\n'No. I don't think you need bother about it, Mr Penfold. My tenancy has only a year to run. I'm quite satisfied to let the flat go on as it is.'\n\nMr Penfold was rather hurt. He was not in the habit of offering people something for nothing and money was precious tight just now. Number 48 would have to be done up in the spring. It had taken him a fortnight to decide that he would offer to do that bit of papering and painting\u2014after all, for no more reason than that this chap Whalley, who had been damned overbearing and cocky with him, had lost his wife too. It would cost a tenner, at least. Not a word of thanks.\n\n'Well, yes, I know,' he said, tilting his bowler to the back of his head. 'But of course there's the question of keeping the property up. I got to consider that. Do I understand that you intend giving up the flat at the end of the year?'\n\n'I don't know at all.'\n\nMr Penfold tilted his hat forward again. 'Well, but\u2014how it is, you'll have to give me notice in June what you intend to do. I'll be wanting to find a new tenant for it. It'll have to be put in good order before June, you see, so that when people come to look at it\u2014 I suppose you wouldn't think of terminating your tenancy now? It can't be very agreeable for you now. I'd agree to that, if you had any idea that you'd like to have it off your hands. In fact, I believe I could find a new tenant for it tomorrow. Anyhow I had better have a look round and see what's to be done.'\n\nHe stuck at it, edging his way in, determined now to do that bit of papering and painting, gradually resuming his normal surly truculence. When at last he went away, sniffing and hostile, Whalley went up the stairs and stood looking about him, disquieted. His solitude\u2014the hiding-place in which he had been able to shut himself in with all that was still his\u2014was threatened. Already they were trying to drive him out of it\u2014thinking of a time when he and his thoughts and his secrets and his plans would be gone from it, when the very last trace of her would have been swept away. Already they were preparing for the time when there would be nothing left of her or him and what they had been and loved and suffered and lost. They were trying to drive him out into the open\u2014where he couldn't think and plan\u2014where everyone would see him. Already the bell was whirring, eagerly, peremptorily; but they could do nothing. For a whole year his hiding-place was his. A year\u2014that was for ever. Long before that it wouldn't matter whether the bell whirred.\n\nHe opened the door of the sitting-room, looked in, and shut it again, thinking of the set of Crown Derby on the Welsh dresser. What would become of it when they had forced their way in? What would become of all the things that had been hers and his? There would be no one to claim them\u2014no one with the right to sell them. Perhaps Mrs Canynge would claim the Crown Derby set\u2014it had come to Elsa from her mother. And Elsa's jewellery... Some time he must make a will. St Dunstan's... The things wouldn't fetch much, but St Dunstan's would be glad to get a few pounds. But even then her things would still go on being\u2014scattering, wandering into all sort of queer alien places\u2014handled by people who did filthy things with their hands\u2014\n\nHe strayed into the bathroom and looked round it doubtfully. It had always been the eyesore of the flat, and Elsa and he had discussed many times the advisability of having it repapered and repainted, like the bedroom and dining-room and kitchen, at their own expense. Now, with the new wall-paper, despite the dinginess of the paint and the cracks in the ceiling, it looked bright and cheerful. She would have liked it so. But he regretted now that he had repapered it; it was no longer as she had known it. His eyes fell on the geyser which had dulled a little, and he glanced at his watch desultorily. There was plenty of time to do it.\n\nThe polishing of the geyser had always been a troublesome business\u2014one of those small jobs which had taken up a lot of time and whose useless, endless repetition had at times produced in him an actual physical nausea. Now, however, the intricacies of the pilot-jet and the tap, the difficulty of getting at the back of the cylinder owing to its proximity to the wall, and the impossibility of removing altogether the small marks on the lacquer, produced in him no emotion whatever save in so far as the mechanical movements of his hands formed part of the purpose for which his consciousness still continued. He stepped back to look at the results of his polishing critically, tidied away his cleaning things, put on his hat and coat and, picking up his suit-case, let himself out into the tepid colourless morning. Its greyness pleased him a little; his old overcoat had grown so shabby that people looked at it sometimes as they passed. But he had decided that it wasn't worth while buying a new one now.\n\nDuring the last stage of his journey, from Reading to Guildford, he was alone in his fusty smoker and he resumed his dispassionate musings upon the enterprise which lay before him, peering out occasionally through the fogged windows to discover the train's whereabouts.\n\nThere had been no Deepford Residential Hotel, so far as he could recall, when Elsa and he had lived in Guildford, all but ten years before. Knayle's description of it, however, had fixed its position fairly definitely in a limited area of quiet residential roads lying some little distance outside the town, along the rising ground which ran up towards Merrow Down. His recollections of the eastern outskirts of Guildford had grown vague; but he recalled that many of the roads in that particular area had then been newly made and that along some of them building had not yet been begun. He saw a typical quiet, newly-made suburban road, with widely-spaced villas, tree-bordered footpaths, a car standing outside a gate, a straying dog, an elderly man prodding a piece of paper into the gutter with his walking-stick before he strolled slowly on. Somewhere along it was the Deepford, a large, quiet, dull-looking house standing in from the road, beyond a lawn dotted with small trees and shrubs. The quiet road led into other quiet roads; it was all quiet out there. He saw only this limited area of quietness ignoring all the rest of Guildford, its busy streets, its thirty thousand inhabitants, and all the complicated organisation which watched over their safety. Along that quiet road one could pass and repass a dozen times slowly without meeting the same person twice\u2014loiter\u2014stop to read a newspaper. After dark it would be almost as deserted as Abbey Road. All the difficulties to be contended with, all the advantages that would help, were contained within a patrol as limited as that which he had kept, for two nights only and for an hour only each night, outside the Grevilles' gates. The advantages lay uppermost in his detached calculation of chances; difficulties would be dealt with as they had been, simply and with complete success. It was merely a matter of patience\u2014adjustment of small working details. No hurrying. This time everything would be as sure and sharp and accurate as the snap of a lock.\n\nAt Guildford station his confidence received a sudden shock.\n\nHis carriage was at the end of the train and, when he rose to leave it, his legs, as always when they had remained for any length of time in one position, were cramped and painful. As he passed along the platform, left behind by the rapidly-moving stream of passengers making for the exit, two men, who had been standing with their backs towards him, laughing as they looked up at a poster representing a bottle of stout, turned, still laughing, and looked at him. There was no resemblance between them either in face or figure, but both pairs of eyes made the same guarded, deliberate scrutiny of him\u2014took in his hat, his face, his overcoat, his suit-case, his trousers, his shoes, his stiffness and slowness of gait, and then left him, as something judged and noted provisonally. At once he had recognised one face vaguely. Someone, he concluded, who belonged to ten years ago\u2014probably one of the tradespeople (he looked like a shopkeeper) with whom Elsa had dealt when they had lived in Guildford. But, as he gave up his ticket, an abrupt realisation turned his head over his shoulder. The face belonged to now. It was the face which he had seen by the light of a match\u2014coming out of the darkness suddenly.\n\nHe stiffened as if the hall-door bell had whirred.\n\nThe police-inspector who had visited Knayle\u2014who had waited at the foot of the steps in the darkness\u2014here\u2014at Guildford, waiting. A Dunpool police-inspector here in Guildford. _The_ Dunpool police-inspector here in Guildford\u2014waiting to look at him the moment he got out of the carriage.\n\nBut at once an obvious explanation suggested itself\u2014became the only possible explanation. Naturally the Dunpool police would hope that the Prossips might be able to furnish some information concerning Agatha Judd which would help them\u2014and naturally the Dunpool inspector in charge of the affair would come up to Guildford where the Prossips were. Whalley decided completely that the encounter had been a mere coincidence. By no possibility could anyone have known that he himself was coming to Guildford. The man had looked at him attentively, but, he felt sure, had not recognised him. Probably he was merely waiting for a train to take him back to Dunpool. Certainly, if he was not already on his way back there, he would return there in a day or two. There would be nothing to keep him in Guildford once he had interviewed the Prossips. For a day or two it would be necessary to expect to meet him unexpectedly. But he was a big man. One would recognise him easily some little distance off.\n\nHe waited near the wicket, pretending absorption in the time-tables, and saw the two men shake hands and separate. The Dunpool inspector disappeared down a subway, reappeared on another platform, and was carried away in a train from which he waved a farewell to his friend. Whalley picked up his suit-case and left the station, smiling grimly. What was it the fellow had said? '... I don't think you can help me...'\n\nHe decided to postpone the selection of lodgings until the exact position of the Deepford had been ascertained. When he had engaged a room at a small hotel in North Street, he hurried out again, anxious to avail himself of the last chill light of the afternoon; but the roads along which he strayed, unwilling to ask direction, were absolutely familiar. When at last he found the Deepford, standing at one angle of a busy cross-roads, darkness had fallen and two powerful arc-lamps guarded the gate-pillars of its entrance. Two more guarded the wide steps leading up to a revolving door inside which a liveried hall-porter stood in a blaze of light. The short drive and the strips of bare lawn that flanked it were flooded with light. All the four rows of windows were lighted up. In the bay of the drive a noisy party of young people stood clustered by two large cars whose headlamps glared out at him defiantly. There were lights everywhere. From the brightly-lighted cross-roads four brightly-lighted roads ran away, bordered on either side by small new houses of the villa type, whose lighted windows made of them avenues of cheerful, confident vigilance. The pathways were not crowded, but there were always figures arriving at all the angles of the cross-roads, pausing, looking to right and left, and then hurrying to escape from the lights of a car. A policeman passed the gates of the Deepford, looked in, went on to stand at the angle to watch the crossing of the traffic. Whalley turned away and went back to his hotel, disconcerted. The Prossips lived in the town\u2014in daylight.\n\nNext morning he transferred himself to lodgings near the London Road station and began the difficult task of keeping the Deepford under observation. It was a fatiguing and monotonous business, involving an immense amount of walking and, for some days, complete disappointment. Twenty times a day he passed the entrance of the hotel, halted a little way up the road, then went on slowly to stray along the adjoining roads until he judged his last passing forgotten by anyone who might have noticed it. Too frequent goings and comings would have aroused the curiosity of his landlady; he was on his feet for hours at a stretch, returning to his lodgings too exhausted to eat the tepid chops which a slatternly maid slapped down in a dingy table-cloth with a curt 'Yer dinner.' At the end of a week he had discovered merely that Prossip went off most mornings about ten o'clock in the direction of the town and returned to the hotel a little before two. Of Mrs Prossip and her daughter he had seen nothing.\n\nThen, however, a slight alteration in the hour at which he returned to his uninviting midday meal brought Marjory Prossip into view. He had breakfasted late that morning and it was a quarter-past two when he reached the entrance of the Deepford for what he had decided should be the last time that day. Marjory Prossip drove out through the gates in a small car, passing suddenly so close to him that he could have touched her. Her attention was divided, however, between the traffic of the road and her violin-case, which stood upright on the seat beside her. She had not seen him.\n\nOn three afternoons during the following week he saw her drive off at the same hour towards the town, always with her violin. He arrived at the conclusion that these regular departures pointed to some regular objective\u2014presumably at some distance away. Possibly, he conjectured, she was giving violin lessons somewhere in the neighbourhood. He decided to return to Rockwood and bring up his own car. His plan had now abandoned the Deepford and was following a blue Baby Austin with a crumpled wing, which went off towards the town on alternate afternoons a little after two o'clock and returned a little before half-past seven.\n\nAnd in a car one could wait anywhere, sitting.\n\nIn a chemist's shop one morning a hand touched his sleeve and a voice said, 'Mr Whalley, isn't it?' He had given the name 'Webster' at his lodgings and the sound 'Whalley' whirred an alarm. But in the end he decided to turn. It was the buxom, cheerful landlady of the lodgings of ten years ago, so shrunken and so forlorn that only her timid 'Mrs Rankin' enabled him to recognise her. Probably he had passed many people who had remembered him, but whom he had failed to recognise. Twice, between his lodgings and the Deepford he met the man who had seen the Dunpool inspector off at the station. And in the High Street, one afternoon, outside a tobacconist's shop, he had a curious meeting with Prossip.\n\nHe was standing, looking in at the gay window-display, debating the purchase of a pipe, when an alteration in the light reflected from a long mirror attached to the wall beside the door of the shop attracted his attention to it. Prossip's image stood there, attired in a new, tightly-waisted overcoat, smoking a cigar as if he hated it, and regarding him with an intent scowl. He had been aware that someone had stopped outside the window, just behind him but, it had seemed to him, casually; but now, as he realised that it was Prossip who had stopped, the stopping appeared suddenly to have been deliberate and of definite purpose. For a long time Prossip's reflection glared and then the strip of mirror was empty and bright again. There had been no sign of recognition in the glare; but the incident was disquieting. The doubt would always remain.\n\nIn half an hour he was completely certain that Prossip had not recognised him. His purpose was a Juggernaut which rolled over all doubts and left them behind, flattened and squeezed of all threat. No one was aware of him, or knew what his curlimacews were planning and patting into shape. Sometimes he smiled at the stupidity of the people who jostled him along the narrow, crowded footpaths of the High Street.\n\nHe went out to Puttiford that afternoon by 'bus, timing his arrival so as to reach the cottage just after darkness had fallen. The little red-curtained windows might be lighted up; a stout motherly figure might stand silhouetted in the porch. But the lane which had led to Myrtle Cottage was now a road and a row of ugly little houses passed over the place where, astoundingly, it was no longer. It had been burnt down, he heard in the village, a good bit back\u2014getting on for two years now.\n\nAnother encounter which disquieted him a little occurred on the last afternoon of his stay in Guildford. He had gone up on to Merrow Down by the Leatherhead Road and struck across the golf-links towards a seat on which Elsa and he had often sat and discussed their plans for a future which had already begun to threaten. The seat stood at a high viewpoint on the crest of a long slope, some distance off the fairway of the course and sheltered by a high hedge which enclosed it on three sides; no one had disturbed their talks. They had sat there, he remembered vividly, the morning on which it had been decided definitely that he should abandon play-writing and try his luck with a novel; his tongue had been very sore just then and he hadn't been able to smoke. As he neared the seat\u2014it had stood there all those days of those years\u2014a young woman came along the path which passed in front of it and, after a frigid glance in his direction, sat down on it.\n\nHis feet stopped in the long, coarse grass for the time of a step. She was there\u2014not ten yards from him\u2014at his mercy. Three strides would reach her. He glanced swiftly back along the long bare slope which he had just ascended. Far away, down by the road, the houses were already indistinct. No one in sight there. No one along the last hole. No one to the left, back along the path. No one to the right. What was beyond the hedge at the other side of the path? A field of some sort. Elsa and he had looked through the hedge... cabbages... There would be no one in a cabbage-field at this hour.\n\nBut he turned away from the seat. Nothing was ready. There must be no hurry this time\u2014no botching. Fifty yards from the seat, round a curve of the path, he met two farm labourers clumping home. Each of them carried a muddy cabbage tucked under his arm.\n\n### 2\n\nWhen Marjory Prossip had one of her headaches, her left eye kept twitching. It was twitching now as she sat looking down the slope towards the little distant houses along the Leatherhead Road. It had been twitching, on and off, ever since the last time she had sat on this seat. For a whole fortnight she had had a headache\u2014nothing but a headache. That was all that had been left behind by the most extraordinary, terrible, enthralling, untellable thing that had ever happened her\u2014a headache as dull as ditchwater and a twitch under her left eye. What rotten little houses those were down there\u2014smelly little backyards where hens picked at old cabbage-stalks...\n\nA Mr Chappell\u2014he had been the first Claude she had ever known\u2014had come to stay at the Deepford two weeks before\u2014a quiet, middle-aged man with a limp and a charming voice which had been able to say quite extraordinary and\u2014well uncomfortable\u2014things in a detached, casual, cultured way which had made them seem the most ordinary things in the world to talk about. His voice had been the most noticeable thing about him. He had been rather plain, though his smile, in profile, had sometimes been quite attractive, and a little out of it at the Deepford on account of his limp\u2014the result, he had said, of a shooting-accident in Burmah where he had owned plantations of some sort. They had had a long talk in a quiet corner of the lounge one evening, about all sort of things\u2014Freud and birth-control and homosexualism and totemism and infinity and things of that sort\u2014and he had promised to lend her a novel by someone called D. H. Lawrence. Next day he had proposed an afternoon walk, and after tea they had come up on to the Down by the back roads, slowly on account of his limp, talking about something called the Mendelian Theory and the Berlin night-clubs. It had been quite dark when they had arrived at the seat.\n\nShe had been telling him about her mother's heart-attacks when, suddenly, he had gone mad. Mad was the only word she could find for it\u2014ferocious, panting, grunting, glaring-eyed mad. His arms had grabbed her and pulled her off the seat down on to the grass and there, while they struggled in the darkness, he had grunted and panted insane, crude, beastly things which, after a while, had made her feel vile and debased and willing to surrender. He had torn her clothes and bitten her\u2014she had nearly stopped struggling then. But she had kept her head and jabbed both her thumbs into his eyes. That had ended the affair. He had uttered a little childish, frightened cry and let her go. She had left him there, sitting on the grass in the darkness, and, somehow, got back to her bedroom at the hotel, with a violent headache and a twitch under her left eye.\n\nMr Chappell had gone away next day. She had not seen him again\u2014probably never would see him again\u2014never wanted to see him again. He had come into her life to do that to her and leave her with the worst headache she had had for years. He was simply a part of the headache.\n\nAnd yet it had certainly been a most extraordinary, terrible, exciting thing while it had lasted. It seemed impossible that it could have happened for no purpose\u2014with no result. That sort of thing had never come near her before. There had been no necessity to keep it away; men's eyes had always told her that they had no use for her. That man who had come up across the grass just now had turned his back after a glance at her. These two working men coming up the path\u2014they would glance at her, tell her that she was no use for that sort of thing, and look away at once. A curious thing that one man should appear, try to do that sort of thing to her, and disappear.\n\nThat sort of thing had often happened on that seat, she supposed. Dreadful, gawky, smirking young men from the town and dreadful squealing little shopgirls must often come up there in the evenings and maul and carry on... Disgusting.\n\nShe thought of her violin lying in its nest of amber velvet, the rich, soft brown gleam of its varnish, the clean, sharp strings, the familiar smell of resin and varnish when she opened the case. Dear old friend\u2014always there to go back to; honest, clean, pure; far, far away from all that sort of thing. _It_ knew what poor old plain, pasty, lumpy Marjory really was.\n\nHer walk had done her headache no good\u2014if anything the headache was a little worse. She didn't know why she had come up to this beastly old seat. Heaven knew who had sat on it last\u2014some tramp perhaps; she had passed the workhouse on her way up.\n\nShe sprang up, brushed her broad stern vigorously with both hands, shook herself, and hurried off down the slope towards the road to catch a 'bus which would bring her back to the Deepford in time for an hour's practice before dinner. She _would_ practise in her bedroom. They might kick up a fuss, but they wouldn't stop her. They wouldn't silence that one dear old, kind, trusty friend.\n\nMr Prossip had been having a hell of a time of it for the past three weeks or so. The police had been pestering the life out of him about Agatha Judd and that trip of his to Rockwood. He had had to tell them that he had been thrashed and that he had been drinking in public-houses and that he had spent the night with the girl with the cough. They had treated him, not at all as a sahib, but as a liar and a drunkard and a seducer of servant-maids. They had conveyed to him that, if they came back to the Deepford and asked him the same questions often enough, they would be able to treat him as a murderer. They had come in plain clothes and he had smuggled them up to his bedroom, but he had felt, and felt now, perfectly sure that the whole hotel knew that they had been policemen. The manager had become distant and he had found difficulty in getting a game of bridge. In the end he had had to tell Emma who those queer-looking men had been and what they had come pestering him about. That had been a hell of a thing to have to do. Emma hadn't spoken to him since. Marjory hadn't spoken a word to him either for days. It was the very devil to have to sit opposite their two glum faces all through dinner and feel that everyone in the dining-room knew why they didn't speak to him.\n\nHe was standing by his dressing-table, scowling at his thoughts and wondering whether he wouldn't run up to town for a show, when he heard Marjory's violin. For the past three weeks he had felt cowed and bullied, and now a savage impulse to cow and bully someone else sent him pounding along the corridor and into Marjory's bedroom. He snatched her violin away from her chin, wrested it from her hand, and threw it on the bed.\n\n'Now, damn you,' he snarled. 'Will you stop it? Do you want to have us turned out of the hotel? Do you? Do you, I say?'\n\nFor a moment Marjory stared at the violin, then she turned, picked up the carafe from the washstand and threw it at him. It missed him, passed out through the open door, and crashed against the opposite wall of the corridor. The crash excited her to bare-gummed fury and she followed the carafe with the soap-dish and the tooth-glass. They were struggling for the possession of the slop-pail-cover when the boots intervened.\n\n### 3\n\nMr Knayle hadn't been able to settle down. The weather since his return had been depressing\u2014a succession of grey, damp days on which he hadn't felt inclined to do anything in particular. His time had been frittered away in visits to his dentist, his oculist and his optician, his bank-manager, his stockbroker, and his tailor, and almost every day, at an inconvenient hour, he had had to keep some appointment which had involved waiting in more or less depressing surroundings and produced more or less depressing results. There had been no time to do anything of any real pleasure or interest.\n\nA curious and rather sinister thing had been happening to him since his return. As if they had lain in wait for his home-coming, several causes had suddenly combined to compel him to an uneasy interest in his body.\n\nIt had been necessary to get another new plate and have three teeth stopped. The dentist had been gloomy about the failure of his first effort and had attempted to lay the blame for it on Mr Knayle's mouth. After fifty, he had said, everyone must expect that his mouth would change and keep on changing\u2014shrinking processes set in. Mr Knayle had been depressed by the idea of his gums keeping on shrinking indefinitely and by the prospect of never being able to eat again with complete comfort and grace. The dentist had observed his depression and becoming cheerfully vindictive, had tapped two back teeth and said they would probably have to come out very shortly. That, of course, would involve another new plate.\n\nThe oculist had also been depressing. He, too, had spoken of changes which must be expected when a man reached fifty, and had not only prescribed more powerful lenses for reading purposes, but, to Mr Knayle's consternation, had told him that the wearing of glasses for long-distance ranges would be henceforward an imperative necessity. He had been quite exultant over his discovery that Mr Knayle's astigmatism had grown much more pronounced since he had last examined it, two years before, and had used the ominous word 'atrophy.' It had never occurred to Mr Knayle before that his eye-muscles, or any of his muscles could atrophy and keep on atrophying quietly without his being able to do anything to stop them.\n\nHis tailor had been rather familiarly jocose concerning an increase of an inch and a half in his waist measurement. His hair-dresser had found some dandruff in his hair, advised him to part it in a new place, and, without asking permission, had snipped away the hairs in his ears\u2014a thing which no hair-dresser had ever done or offered to do to Mr Knayle's ears before. A 'bus conductor had helped him on to the step of a 'bus\u2014another thing which had never happened to him before. He had discovered a small patch of eczema under one of his eyebrows. And, suddenly, one morning in his bath, he had noticed his toe-nails. He had always taken meticulous care of his toe-nails, but, in the course of a few weeks, in which he had not been able to pay so much attention as usual to them, they had gone utterly to seed. Some of them had split, others had begun to grow into the skin of the toe, most of them had turned yellow, all of them had developed a hard, chalky inner growth which had forced them outwards and twisted them in the most repulsive way. It had not been possible to dislodge this unpleasant substance with any degree of satisfactoriness. He had thought of going to a pedicurist, but had been able to discover no male pedicurist in Rockwood. The exhibition of those distorted yellow ruins to a female of any sort had appeared to him out of the question.\n\nHis body had always conducted its affairs satisfactorily; he had never had to think about it. But now it had suddenly become unreliable and treacherous. He thought about it at night in bed\u2014of all the complicated, disagreeable things that were hidden under the deceptive envelope of his skin\u2014any of them liable to break down at any moment. The discovery of definite symptoms of decay had merged themselves into and pointed the vague dissatisfaction with himself awakened by close contact for three weeks with a number of healthy, vigorous, quick-minded young people. He had thought about those young people on the ship a great deal since\u2014about their smooth skins, their tireless limbs, their elastic movements, their gay indifference to risks, the quick play of their minds, their capacity for liking and disliking strongly and vividly. There was no doubt about it, they had thought of him as old. They had been quite nice and jolly about it, but they had decided at once that he was done with it and out of it\u2014something between a nuisance and a joke\u2014something that was merely in their way. It was useless to argue that they had been merely thoughtless, stupid young people; he knew that their thoughts had been as clear as crystal, their judgment unerring. They, who owned life, had told him that he was old and would have no more share in it. He was, and always would be now, old and out of it. Eyes going, teeth going, toe-nails going, hair going from where it should be and coming where it shouldn't be, a pot sticking out in front. Good God! What an old scarecrow\u2014falling to pieces...\n\nThen a most distressing thing had happened at the club. He had been talking to Charlie Housall and some other men in the smoking-room about the extraordinary number of well-known people who had died in the neighbourhood that year. Poor old Charlie (he had been at Winchester with Mr Knayle) had said 'Good-night,' walked out into the hall, and dropped dead while a waiter had been helping him into his overcoat.\n\nHis income tax for 1932 had already become an anxiety. He had never overdrawn his bank-account since he had had one; but a very considerable overdraft would be absolutely necessary in January unless he sold some of his securities\u2014at a very serious loss. His stockbroker, on the whole, had been of opinion that securities would continue to depreciate gradually until the crash came\u2014perhaps at the end of February.\n\nAnd so, as he sat in his sitting-room, Mr Knayle's thoughts had darkened. When they looked out on the world through the _Morning Post_ they saw only a ghastly mess. When they looked at Mr Knayle they saw only his toe-nails. And when they looked up at the ceiling they saw only a ceiling.\n\nNot a pang had fallen from it\u2014only a gentle, painless regret, like the regret one felt when one thought of steady, cold rain pattering down on some place that one had known in sunshine. Some times it was quite impossible to remember what she had actually looked like\u2014what the total effect of her face had been. And there was always the feeling that one had forgotten a little more of her\u2014that it was safer not to tease and test what one still remembered.\n\nWell... one could think of others...\n\nA sprinkling of elderly people, contemporaries and friends of his parents, many of them invalids and most of them in reduced circumstances, still lived in Rockwood. He found them out in their lodgings and boarding-houses, brought them boxes of chocolates and magazines, and drank their washy tea while they maundered on of people and things which he had forgotten for thirty years. When he discovered that Charlie Housall's widow was in difficulties over the payment of succession duties and probate fees, he sold some of his stock and lent her three hundred pounds. Meeting Whalley in the garden on the day after his return from Bournemouth, he had another kindly thought. There was room in his garage for a second car, and no sense whatever in Whalley's paying ten shillings a week unnecessarily. He was extremely glad that he had thought of making this little suggestion. Whalley had been wearing a most deplorable old pair of shoes.\n\nOld Ridgeway... What little kindly thing could one think of for him?\n\nMr Knayle bought a set of chessmen and a board and a book of the rules and invited Mr Ridgeway up for a game. Neither of them had played chess for forty years. It was a massacre. They made wrong moves, recalled moves, forgot where they had moved from, upset the pieces and put them back on the wrong squares. Their knights sprang round corners like boomerangs. For a long time Mr Knayle used his bishops as queens, and at one point, in a moment of excitement, took Mr Ridgeway's king with his own. Ultimately only the two kings were left stalking round the board, and they began afresh with portentous caution, considering each move with paralysed intentness, losing in the end all notion of what they were attempting to do, and subsiding into drowsy boredom. They gave it up finally and seated themselves by the fire and Mr Knayle talked for a while about his trip and the National Government, which he considered doomed to failure.\n\n'Had any more visits from the police?' Mr Ridgeway asked presently, as he refilled his gurgling pipe.\n\nMr Knayle laughed. 'No. They've been worrying Chidgey a bit, but I think they've given him up as a bad job now. He was able to produce some friends who saw him in a cinema that night. And they had a violent disappointment over his garage-boots.'\n\n'Garage-boots?' Mr Ridgeway repeated, yawning. 'I didn't read the accounts. What had Chidgey's garage-boots to do with it?'\n\n'Oh, they found a lot of footprints. Whoever did the job wore an out-size in boots, apparently, and so my friend, Inspector Bride, had a bright idea and made a bee-line for Chidgey's garage-boots. Unfortunately, however, they didn't fit the footprints, so I rather think he's decided to leave poor old Chidgey in peace.' Mr Knayle poked the fire. 'No. I must say this whole question of war debts and reparations is extraordinarily difficult. Of course, one can quite understand France's attitude, looking at it as a Frenchman would look at it...'\n\nMr Ridgeway lighted his pipe and threw the match into the fire. Extraordinary jumpy little chap, Knayle, always changing the subject that way... What on earth did anyone ever want to play chess for?... Big boots? What had he thought about big boots lately? Where had he seen big boots lately? Or had he seen them\u2014or only heard them\u2014and thought that they must be very heavy, big boots? What was Knayle chattering about now. Unemployment in America. Well, let him chatter away. All one had to do was to say 'yes' and 'I suppose so.'... Big boots? Bo\u2014the sound of big boots, going up...\n\nThen Mr Ridgeway remembered. It had been that night that he had gone up to the top of his little flight of steps to smoke another pipe before he smoked another pipe and went to bed. Whalley had come into the garden from the road and passed him and gone up the outside staircase, and his boots had made a large, heavy, clumping noise as they had gone up. Mr Ridgeway remembered that he had looked up the steps after them and thought that they must be a very large, heavy pair of boots. A curious thing\u2014that must have been the night of the murder. It had been the night before the night on which Knayle had come down and told him about the murder and about a police-inspector having come bothering him\u2014What on earth was Knayle talking about _now?_ What did it matter what he was talking about? It wasn't even necessary to say 'yes' and 'I suppose so.' _He_ hadn't known what shame and fear and searing, hopeless remorse were. _He_ hadn't skulked in the ashpits of hell for eleven years. Let him chatter away. A grunt would do.\n\n'Whalley's going away again, he tells me,' said Mr Knayle, eyeing Mr Ridgeway's pipe and trying to think that others were entitled to smoke gurgling pipes if it helped to make their lives a little happier. 'Going to Bournemouth.'\n\n'Um,' grunted Mr Ridgeway.\n\n'A very tragic thing happened at the club,' said Mr Knayle. 'I don't think I've seen you since. A very intimate friend of mine\u2014a man called Housall\u2014dropped dead\u2014well, practically at my feet. Quite a young man\u2014my own age. A charming chap. Gave us all a tremendous shock, I needn't tell you. Though, of course, if they had the choice, I suppose most people would be glad to die that way. I've often wondered\u2014the majority of people who die in the ordinary ways\u2014pneumonia or cancer or diabetes, or so on\u2014at the last moment, do they... er... do they realise that they're going to die\u2014or are they usually unconscious?'\n\n'Oh, usually,' yawned Mr Ridgeway.\n\n'It's the pass-over that's such a curious thing to think about,' said Mr Knayle. 'The sudden change. Now, Charlie Housall was putting his arm into the sleeve of his overcoat when he died. I suppose he was thinking about putting his arm into the sleeve of his overcoat\u2014and then he was dead. One... er... one can't imagine the actual pass-over. I mean\u2014have you ever thought about\u2014about what's on the other side, Ridgeway?'\n\nMr Ridgeway laughed harshly.\n\n'Thought about it? I've thought about it for eleven years, anyhow. Nothing, I think personally.' His fingers groped in a waistcoat pocket and took out a little metal case. He shook it, looked at it, and then replaced it in its pocket. 'Some day, or some night, I hope I'll feel sure about it. I always keep these little beggars handy, in case\u2014 But, it's funny\u2014at the last moment I always funk it. Why? You're quite satisfied with Harvey Knayle, aren't you? I'll bet you can't think of anything you'd sooner be.'\n\nMr Knayle's blue eyes had remained fixed up on his guest's waistcoat speculatively. 'What is it?' he asked at length.\n\n'Cyanide of potassium.'\n\n'Oh. Very quick, isn't it?'\n\n'A minute or so. A long time, a minute, though, Knayle. And you _might_ have to start all over again at the end of it.'\n\n'Well,' smiled Mr Knayle, 'I hope I shall start with a new set of toenails. Mine have got into a perfectly horrible state. Gout, I suppose.'\n\nThey talked about toenails and Mr Ridgeway yawned and suggested linseed oil and shambled towards the door, picking up the 'Rules of Chess' as he passed, opening it, and dropping it on the table again. He halted at the head of his little flight of steps when Mr Knayle's hall-door had shut with a bright 'Good-night,' and looked up at the stars.\n\nThey were very large and bright and they had come nearer to watch. They seemed to him to be quivering with impatience for some ending. It came into his mind suddenly that he would set off into the darkness as he was, in his slippers and without a hat, and walk out along those long miles of road to Camphill and do it there, in company, with the impatient stars watching him. He would never do it alone; he knew that now. But she was out there. The air that held her dust would envelope him with her forgiveness until he fell. He would find courage for that minute\u2014think of nothing whatever\u2014just count 'One\u2014two\u2014three\u2014four\u2014'\n\nBut he could never walk ten miles now. And when he got out there he would take out his little case and funk it again, as he had always done. And then there would be ten miles to walk back\u2014in slippers and without a hat. He might meet a policeman and have to answer questions\u2014say who he was and where he lived.\n\nAs he turned slowly to go down to his hall-door, feeling for his keys, the outside staircase passed across his view. Big boots\u2014Rather curious that he should have noticed the bigness of a pair of boots on that particular night. Maddening little chap, Knayle\u2014always changing the subject. Begun to think about having to die evidently\u2014wondering if there wouldn't be some way to dodge it. Ah well, the stoat would get him in the end, fasten on his little neck and pull him down.\n\nBut not a bad little chap in his way.\n\nMr Knayle sighed faintly as he returned to his sitting-room; thinking of others was rather uphill work. He came to a pause before his writing-desk and picked up a letter which he had received that morning.\n\nDeepford Residential Hotel,\n\nGuildford,\n\nNov. 17, 1931.\n\nDEAR HARVEY,\u2014Many thanks for the birds which arrived quite safely. Your friends the Prossips have left, under a cloud of some sort. No one seems to know exactly what the cloud was made of, but some of the hotel's crockery was mixed up in it. We all miss Mr Prossip's eyeglass so much. Tolly Duckett's widow is living in Guildford; she comes up to feed with us sometimes. A perfectly sweet thing; everyone here adores her. Not a red, and a small boy\u2014the very image of poor old Tolly. A lot of the people we met here last winter have come back this year, and we shall probably stay on until the spring. Do run up for a weekend some time. Bill says do, too.\u2014Yrs., GRACE FARNOLD.\n\nMr Knayle put down the letter and looked round the sitting-room. It was filled with the reek of Mr Ridgeway's pipe and held no comfort or significance whatever. He was simply standing there, boxed up by four walls\u2014a funny little two-legged thing decaying under its funny little clothes, without use or purpose.\n\nWhy not run up to Guildford for a week? The place was evidently quite cheerful and comfortable; the Farnolds wouldn't have gone back there if it hadn't been. And the Prossips had left. There would be a lot of young people there, of course\u2014but one would have to learn not to flinch\u2014to accept the fact that life was theirs. Mr Knayle decided to turn the matter over, wrote the words 'Linseed oil' on a memorandum block and went to bed. It would be interesting to see if linseed oil would loosen that hard stuff.\n\nHopgood was also thinking of oil just then. He was sitting on the edge of his bed, pulling off his socks and looking at a photograph which stood on his mantelpiece beside the alarm clock and which he had found in Mr Whalley's rubbish-bin that afternoon. He still carried the bin down to the front garden on Mondays and Thursdays, because he had felt that he would like to go on doing it, and that afternoon it had been so full of torn paper that the lid wouldn't sit down properly. When he had raised the lid he had seen the photograph lying on top of the papers and had slipped it into his pocket, though it wasn't at all a good likeness of poor little Mrs Whalley and was badly stained with oil of some sort in one corner. When he wound up his alarm clock at night it would remind him of the good old days down at Whanton when half-crowns were plentiful. He was wondering whether methylated spirit would remove the oil in the corner.\n\nThe photograph was actually an enlarged snapshot of one of Mrs Whalley's fellow V.A.D.'s at Ducey Court, and Hopgood failed to get the oil off it. But for quite a long time he thought about half-crowns every night while he undressed.\n\n## CHAPTER XI\n\n### 1\n\nTHE little old car took ten hours to do the journey to Guildford, going by Odiham and Farnham. There was not a square inch of it without its own tireless squeak or squeal or rattle or jingle, each with its own tempo, indifferent to the chattering growl and grind of the engine. Everything passed it. Uphill it stood still while everything leaped over the crest. But it churned on and on, hour after hour milestone after milestone, bent on its work relentlessly. Good little old car\u2014on and on and on. No hurry\u2014let them go by, swishing and swooping. Whalley sang snatches of war songs sometimes. Another milestone\u2014fifty-three miles more. Fifty-three miles more to churn and churn\u2014steadily, steadily, round the curve, up the hill, down the hill, through the village, past the post-office, under the bridge, round the curve. Another milestone\u2014good little old car.\n\nAt two o'clock on the following afternoon the car took up position some fifty yards from the entrance of the Deepford against the kerb at the opposite side of the road. Whalley sat in it at his ease, reading and lighting cigarette after cigarette. But at half-past three he folded his newspaper and drove away with a cluck of impatience. It was a Tuesday and the Blue Baby Austin had failed to come out through the gateway. Now it would not come until Thursday.\n\nBut it would come on Thursday.\n\nOn Thursday he waited until four o'clock. It was raining heavily and the dilapidated hood split while he was putting it up. His newspaper was a sodden rag when at last its advertisements became intolerable. But she would come on Saturday.\n\nAt three o'clock on Saturday a policeman passed close beside the car, glancing back at its front number plate, and paused at the cross-roads to make an entry in his note-book. Whalley's nerves whirred an alarm. But the policeman had not passed previously since the car had taken up its station and could not have known how long it had stood there. The entry in his note-book had had no reference to the car whatever. Whalley resumed his newspaper tranquilly.\n\nIt was not until the Thursday of the following week that a growing suspicion became a certainty. He rang up the Deepford and inquired whether Mr Prossip was in.\n\n'Mr Prossip and his family went away last week,' a curt voice answered.\n\n'Oh? Have they left Guildford?'\n\n'I've no idea.'\n\nA violent attack of dizziness assailed him as he replaced the receiver and for some minutes he stood leaning against the side of the call-box, mustering up sufficient self-control to face the bustling street again. His plan had crumbled. The last traces of that quiet road had vanished and there was no new picture to go round and round with an outline always a little blacker and clearer and surer. He had had his chance and he had botched it\u2014failed, as he had always failed, except by the merest accident. And now, what? Which way to turn when he shut the door of the call-box and had to decide whether to go up the street or down it? It was impossible that, in over a week, he should have seen none of the Prossips if they were still in Guildford. He had seen none of them; they had escaped.\n\nBut, as he neared the little hotel in North Street where he had stayed the first night of his previous visit, he saw Prossip come out, insert his monocle in his eye solemnly, and walk very slowly towards the head of the street. Prossip had evidently been refreshing himself somewhat incautiously in the bar of the hotel and swayed from side to side of the footpath as he walked. Finally he decided to leave the footpath and walk in the gutter, completely absorbed in the effort to keep a straight line. There was no difficulty in keeping his orange-hued tweeds in sight. Whalley became incautious and was only some ten yards behind him when Mrs Prossip came round a corner and, after a swift glance, grabbed her husband by the arm and endeavoured to pull him on to the footpath. There was no time to stop or cross to the other side of the road. As Whalley passed them, looking straight before him, he was aware that the two figures in the gutter had ceased to struggle petulantly and had turned towards him. Prossip's booming growl said, 'Well, I'm damned.'\n\nBut in twenty steps he was completely sure that the Prossips had paid no attention whatever to his passing. Their arms had simply ceased to struggle just then and Prossip had decided to return to the footpath of his own free will. He had said, 'Well, I'm damned,' simply because his wife had grabbed at his arm in the street and attempted to make him walk on the footpath so that people wouldn't notice that he was tight. Whalley looked back and saw the orange tweeds following Mrs Prossip sulkily down the side-road from which she had emerged. They had not seen him.\n\nA little distance down the road\u2014its name, he saw, was Burford Avenue\u2014they entered one of the respectable, dull little two-storeyed houses, when Prossip had dropped his walking-stick twice in the effort to find his key. Whalley went past the house presently and saw the name 'Hindhead' on a plate affixed to the gate of the little dank front garden. A violin was wailing in one of the upper rooms. They were all in there, safe again.\n\nA dull, ugly little road of little stupid, useless people. Thousands and thousands of roads like that in thousands of dull, ugly towns and cities. Ugly respectable women strealing to the town and strealing back with parcels. Husbands in offices in office coats and cuff-protectors. Perambulators in front gardens. Bird cages in windows. Imitation lace curtains. A smell of cabbage and cat and furniture polish in the hall. All useless\u2014no plan.\n\nLodgings... Perhaps some poor devil in there with a writing-block\u2014lifting, lifting, lifting, lifting, lifting. He was still thinking of lifting little heavy weights. But there had been a gap... A rather pretty woman with a slight squint had come out of the lodging-house and was looking at him while she opened the garden gate. But he hadn't seen her come out of the house or come down the garden, though he was looking into the garden. And he wasn't moving\u2014he had stopped and was holding on to the railings. He went on uneasily. That sort of thing wouldn't do.\n\nBy the end of the following week his new picture was quite definite. Some fifty yards below 'Hindhead' a short narrow lane-way ran back from Burford Avenue between high walls, and led to a little cul-de-sac which turned off at a right-angle to it at its further end. In there, in a small rectangular space, shut in from all view by the walls of the surrounding gardens, a diminutive shed of corrugated iron stood amidst a collection of evil-smelling rubbish heaps. No one went up the lane except Marjory Prossip. A little before half-past seven on Tuesday and Thursday and Saturday evenings, her Baby Austin had turned into it from the road and disappeared at its further end. One could hear it stop\u2014hear the padlock of the shed being unlocked\u2014hear the Baby being driven in. One would run up the lane, then, while she was switching off the lights, turning off the petrol, and getting out, penned in in the narrow space between the car and the side of the shed. One would reach the doors of the shed just as she leaned into the car to take out her violin-case\u2014pull them to as one crept in. Her ugly white face would come out from beneath the hood. Her torch would swing up and see\u2014\n\nBut every sound must be timed\u2014every move reduced to exact schedule\u2014everything as sure as the snap of a lock. He decided to take his car back to Rockwood; there was no necessity to follow the Blue Baby now, and without a car to think about... afterwards... everything would be simpler and safer. The Guildford police took a disquieting interest in noisy engines.\n\nThe simplicity and compactness of his new setting gave him satisfaction; it was all seen in a glance and confused by no distracting irrelevance. Each sound, too, was sharply definite\u2014each move a matter of seconds.\n\nThe little old car churned back, squeaking and rattling and growling\u2014mile after mile\u2014round the curve\u2014under the railway-bridge\u2014past the post-office\u2014up the hill\u2014through the village\u2014down the hill\u2014another milestone. Good little old car\u2014a mile nearer.\n\nThe garage at which the car had been stabled hitherto had been at an inconvenient distance from the flat and, having decided to accept Knayle's offer and the key which had accompanied it, he had closed his account there before his departure for Guildford. Knayle's garage was empty and, as he drove into it, his lamps lighted up a shallow box which lay in one of its inner corners. He got out and stood considering its contents for a little space before he picked up a heavy, short-handled hammer, whose battered head stuck out from a jumble of rusty tyre-levers, old spoke-brushes, discarded oil rags and other miscellaneous rubbish.\n\nIn that narrow space between the wall and the Baby's hood one would have very little room; one would want something that would do its work with a half-swing. He swung the hammer tentatively and then held it to a lamp to examine the name stamped on its head. 'Vulc\u2014' and a blur. Oh yes\u2014Vulcan. Evidently not used. And in any case it would go back into the box. Gloves\u2014there were some old gloves in the...\n\nKrank... Gelump.\n\nHe was leaning over, looking down. Gradually his dizziness gathered swimming planes of dimness into recognition. He was bending over the railing of the outside staircase, looking down into the little area of the basement flat, and holding his suitcase between his body and the rail. Perplexity held him motionless while he strove to understand how he had come there, and why he was leaning over the rail. It was only when the suitcase slipped a little that one of his hands told him that it had just dropped something.\n\nA robed figure appeared below him, silhouetted against the light of a hurriedly opened door.\n\n'Hullo, Whalley,' said Mr Ridgeway. 'I thought I heard you going up. Dropped some of your property into my area?'\n\n'Yes,' Whalley replied, and began to descend towards him. 'Don't bother to come out.'\n\n'No bother, no bother,' Mr Ridgeway yawned, striking a match. 'I've got it.'\n\nWhen he had shambled up his little flight of steps and handed over Whalley's hammer, he turned and shambled down them again quickly because he had left a saucepan of milk on the kitchen gas-ring and he was afraid that it might boil over.\n\n'You've been away, haven't you?' he asked before he shut his hall-door. There was no reply from above. But he knew that Whalley had been away and, shutting the door, shambled on to the kitchen, where he discovered to his annoyance that the saucepan had boiled over. Whenever he boiled anything in a saucepan something always took his mind off it and it boiled over.\n\nWhalley left his suitcase and the hammer in the flat and then went back to the garage. The doors stood open and, inside, the little old car was churning with all its lights on.\n\n### 2\n\nMr Knayle went up to Guildford by road on a very raw day and caught a slight chill during the journey. As he crossed the Deepford's lounge towards the fireplace at which Mrs Farnold sat toasting her hands, he sneezed loudly and very nearly ejected his plate. Every head turned sharply; a hostile and condemning silence fell, and after a moment someone tittered. He was a little pink when he reached Mrs Farnold's armchair.\n\nShe flapped a handkerchief at him and enveloped him in an atmosphere of eucalyptus\u2014a smell which he had always disliked acutely.\n\n'Wretch. Don't come near me. There. Sit there and breathe towards the fire. Good Heavens\u2014you've gone into blinkers. Do take them off. They make you look like a professor of phrenology. And what on earth have you done to your mouth? It's all fallen in or something. You look about fifty years older than the last time I saw you.'\n\nWith a final desperate effort Mr Knayle restored his plate to its rightful place and mustered up a philosophic smile.\n\n'Ah, well,' he said rather hurriedly. 'We can't all hope to remain young and beautiful for ever.'\n\nMrs Farnold had just shaken off a slight attack of influenza and was aware that she was looking her full forty-seven. 'Well, there's no necessity to be pathetic about it,' she said rather tartly. 'How unfortunate that you selected this week to come up. Billy's away. He's had to go up to Yorkshire. His uncle's dying again\u2014he does it every November. Oh, by the way, I'm awfully sorry, but I could only get you a room on the top floor. The hotel's full up. I told you that the Prossips had left, didn't I? Why on earth did you send them here? Of course they claimed us at once as friends of their dear old pal Harvey Knayle. Billy was awfully put out. Fortunately I got influenza and retired to bed.'\n\nShe talked about influenza. Someone had brought it back from London and it had spread through the Deepford like wildfire. Everyone in the hotel had had it or was having it or lived in dread of having it. Two of the guests had retired to nursing-homes with pneumonia, half the staff were on the sick list; influenza, it became clear, was the Deepford's all-engrossing interest. Mr Knayle understood why the sneeze which had announced his arrival had attracted such uncomfortable attention. But he couldn't persuade himself that there had not been some special personal absurdity connected with his entry. That titter still made him a little pink. He looked round the lounge and formed the conclusion that the people staying at the Deepford were rather a cheap-looking lot. Gracie Farnold, too, had become exceedingly plain and\u2014well\u2014vulgar. That semi-humorous bluntness of hers had become downright rudeness. It had been all very well fifteen or twenty years ago. But now she was simply a rude, fattish elderly woman with a reddish nose\u2014like everything else, falling to pieces. Billy away, too, and the hotel full of 'flu. Mr Knayle decided that he wasn't going to find the Deepford at all amusing.\n\nHe never recovered from that unsuccessful _debut_. There were no opportunities to play the part of the resigned old buffer; he was one. From the first, disconcertingly, the Deepford decided that he was a resigned old buffer and left him to make the best of it. The elderly bores of the smoke-room and the bar accepted him simply as another elderly bore. The younger people took no notice of him whatever. Suspecting that Mrs Farnold's bluntness had spoken truth and that his new glasses really did give him rather an air of professordom, he left them off for a couple of days. No one, however, seemed to notice any difference in his appearance and, remembering the oculist's warnings, he began to wear them again. This newly-developed self-consciousness made him pettish. He refused to play bridge, although he wanted to play bridge; he refused to dance, although he wanted to dance. The uncle in Yorkshire died and Mrs Farnold went up for the funeral. He was left absolutely alone amidst the indifferent clatter of some seventy or eighty people who bored him to extinction.\n\nThe fact that he had been relegated to the top floor increased his sense of isolation. He was the only guest who slept up there, the other bedrooms on that floor being occupied by the hotel staff. The partition walls were very thin and his neighbour on one side was a waiter who muttered all night and at intervals uttered a blood-curdling groan. Every night Mr Knayle had to leave the cheerful brightness of the third floor and disappear up a dark, narrow staircase without a carpet. This nightly eclipse began to worry him a good deal. The people who were saying good-night on the third floor looked at him with faint amusement.\n\nThen a rather annoying thing happened about Chidgey. One morning he found Chidgey waiting for him in the hall with a puffed cheek and a badly scratched nose.\n\n'Hullo, Chidgey,' he asked. 'What have you been doing to your face?'\n\n'I'm sorry to say, sir, I've had some more trouble. I thought I'd better let you know at once what happened, in case anything should come of it. It was this way, sir: I happened to turn into the Castle Hotel in North Street for a drink last night, and who should I find there but that old swine Prossip\u2014'\n\n'Mr Prossip,' corrected Mr Knayle. 'Well?'\n\n'Well, sir, him and me had some words.'\n\n'Words? What about?'\n\n'About that Agatha, sir. It was him as set the police on to me about her\u2014I know it was\u2014trying to put off his own dirty work on me. I told him so to his face, before the whole bar.'\n\n'Well?'\n\n'Well, the long and the short of it is, sir, I let him have it in the jaw, and then we had a bit of a scrap. They turned us out into the street and a crowd got round us, and the end of it was a bobby came across from the station opposite and took our names. I suppose I'll be summonsed. Just my luck\u2014out of one trouble into another.'\n\nThe Deepford's office was unable to supply any information as to Mr Prossip's new address, and Mr Knayle's first impulse to write a little note of personal regret was put aside from day to day and eventually abandoned. Chidgey had received no summons and the Deepford had at last provided Mr Knayle with an interest. He had been introduced to Tolly Duckett's widow.\n\nThe Farnolds had returned from Yorkshire and one afternoon Mrs Duckett came up to tea. She was a dainty, still girlish little thing with a bright, sweet smile and rather long grey eyes which were sometimes almost green. There was something in the smile and the shape and colour of the eyes that called up other eyes and another smile. Her voice was very quiet with an undertone of brave loneliness, which somehow excluded the Farnolds but at once admitted Mr Knayle to intimacy. After tea the Farnolds joined some friends at the other end of the lounge and he was left alone with her. When he moved his chair so that her eyes and smile faced him directly, he discovered that the smile was sometimes a little twisted and that one eye had sometimes a slight cast. But the cast and the twist came and went. They were not there when he lighted her cigarette for her and touched her little cool hand. Something warm and eager stirred in him when, after a long, silent scrutiny of him, she said, 'You know, you are exactly as I've always thought you must be.'\n\nAfterwards he escorted her to her lodgings in Burford Avenue and in the darkness she talked of her unhappy married life. As he went back along Burford Avenue he was a little glad that it had been unhappy.\n\nHe was still endeavouring to appraise the exact quality of Mrs Duckett's soft 'Good-night' when he reached the mouth of a laneway which ran back from the avenue at some little distance from her lodgings. To his surprise, Whalley came out of the lane, looking at his watch, and after a hasty glance in his direction, hurried away before him. Mr Knayle's surprise was so great that he came to a stop for a moment. There was at first no doubt whatever in his mind that he had seen Whalley. But almost at once his first certain impression began to break up. Whalley was at Bournemouth. If he had been able to recognise Whalley, Whalley would have been able to recognise him and would have stopped. Of course he was wearing his new glasses\u2014and Whalley had never seen him wearing them. But had he recognised Whalley? It was too dark to recognise a face at nearly ten yards distance\u2014he had merely had a general impression that the figure and walk were Whalley's. He decided that he had been mistaken and went on, quickening his step as a clock in the town struck a half-hour. Half-past seven. Mr Knayle always shaved for dinner, and there were still shades of that soft 'Good-night' to explore.\n\nMrs Duckett came up to tea with the Farnolds several times and one day brought her little boy Cyril, a silent elf of five, whose large, wistful eyes still looked back at another world. Mr Knayle plied him with cakes and took him on his knee and told him stories by the fire. Cyril's little warm, fragile hand held his tightly during the walk to Burford Avenue and at parting he held up his face to be kissed. Mrs Duckett's laugh was mysteriously soft and tender. Fleeting visions of tranquil domesticity strayed through Mr Knayle's thoughts as he went back to the hotel. Here was a purpose and a usefulness. Dear little chap\u2014 That little nestling hand had asked for protection\u2014those wistful eyes knew the cruelties and treacheries that lay ahead. One could do so much\u2014form that little soul\u2014prepare it for its battle. And there would always be something to go back to...\n\nCyril came again with his mother two days later and again Mr Knayle was left alone with them by the fire. He realised suddenly that the Farnolds always left him alone with her, and his blue eyes fixed themselves upon her with uneasy speculation. The cast and the twist were very noticeable today. There was no resemblance at all really\u2014just something that was a little annoying because it was nearly a resemblance.\n\nAnd why on earth did she keep on about Tolly Duckett and the discomfort of living in lodgings and the difficulties as to Cyril's future and then back to Tolly again?\n\nCyril began to play. He crept round one side of Mr Knayle's armchair and jabbed him in the ribs and then crept round the other side of the chair and did the same thing. He went on doing this and when Mr Knayle said, 'That'll do, old chap,' he put out an immense tongue and squawked, 'That'll do, old chap. That'll do, old chap.' For half an hour he punched Mr Knayle's ribs, and each time he punched he screamed, 'That'll do, old chap.' Then, fortunately, Mrs Farnold returned and, pleading some letters to write, Mr Knayle made his escape.\n\nThere was no one in the writing-room and he stood for some time before its fire, surveying the hearthrug blankly and retracing, step by step, the alarming path along which he had been led towards catastrophe. It was now perfectly clear that Grace Farnold had set a deliberate trap for him. She had inveigled him up to Guildford for the purpose of marrying him to this hard-up friend of hers with a cast and a crooked mouth and a loathsome little beast of a boy. It amazed him that such crude, audacious cunning should have been able to trick him so easily. Grace Farnold's perfidy shocked him. And worse than the knowledge that he had made a consummate ass of himself was the feeling that he had been disloyal. That thought twisted his face into a grimace. 'Oh you little old cad,' he said aloud.\n\nThe hearth-rug failing to supply any consolation, he arranged at the office to give up his room next morning, and then went up to town to see _The White Horse Inn_.\n\n### 3\n\nIt was raining heavily when he got back to Guildford that night a little after midnight, and, as he opened his umbrella outside the station, he looked about for a taxi. There was only one in sight, already engaged by a heavily-built man who was endeavouring to climb into it on his hands and knees while the driver watched him from his seat with a sardonic grin. As Mr Knayle neared him, he abandoned this attempt and, subsiding slowly backwards, came to rest in a sitting position on the muddy footpath. It was Mr Prossip, very drunk and very blasphemous.\n\nAided by the driver, Mr Knayle at length got him into the taxi and then got in himself. Having given his address, Mr Prossip fell asleep and left Mr Knayle to muse a little over the fact that he must have frequently passed the Prossips' new residence. From this thought he passed on to Mrs Duckett and he was still thinking of her twisted smile as he rang the bell of 'Hindhead's' hall-door.\n\nMrs Prossip, in a dressing-gown and a state of irritable anxiety, opened it. Her eyes took in Mr Knayle in surprise and then fastened themselves on her husband contemptuously.\n\n'Oh it's you, is it? Here's a nice business. Marjory hasn't come back.'\n\n'Hasencomeback?' repeated Mr Prossip. 'Wharyoumean?'\n\n'I mean that she hasn't come back.'\n\n'Oh, she'll comeback, allri',' said Mr Prossip with bitter confidence. 'Mawjory'll comebackallri'. Donyouworry.'\n\n'You drunken brute,' exploded Mrs Prossip. 'How dare you talk that way of your own daughter, when she may be lying dead at this moment?'\n\n'Tha'lldo, tha'lldo,' retorted Mr Prossip, waving his muddy hand. 'Dongetsited. No use standing here in the rain anyhow.'\n\nThey went in and Mrs Prossip explained the cause of her anxiety. Her daughter Marjory had gone to Farnham that afternoon in her car to see some friends named Reid. As she had not returned by nine o'clock Mrs Prossip had telephoned to the Reids and ascertained that Marjory had left them a little before seven. At latest she should have reached 'Hindhead' at half-past seven. But it was now getting on towards one o'clock in the morning and Marjory had not appeared.\n\n'Oh, she'llcomeallri',' said Mr Prossip again. 'Donyou worry, Emma. I know. Ringupospil.'\n\nBut Mrs Prossip had already rung up both Guildford and Farnham hospitals. Mr Knayle had an idea while he strove not to yawn.\n\n'Perhaps your daughter has gone somewhere in Guildford. She may have put up her car. Where does she garage?'\n\n'Round in a lane off this road. It's only just a little shed.' Mrs Prossip was silent for a moment while she scratched the back of her neck. 'The funny thing is that I thought I heard the car about half-past seven from my bedroom, going up the lane. I wonder, Mr Knayle, if you'd mind going round and looking through the window. If I gave you a torch you'd be able to see whether the car was inside. You can't mistake the lane. It's only a little way down the road\u2014to your right from our gate.'\n\n'I believe I know it,' said Mr Knayle, thinking that it was a little curious that he should have thought that he had seen Whalley coming out of a lane in which Marjory Prossip garaged her car.\n\nBut he was merely bored sleepiness, when he reached the little shed and, as he flashed his torch over its doors, stumbled a little over some object with which both his feet had collided. When he lowered the beam of the torch to the ground he saw that he had walked on a hammer, the head of which was bound about with a thick winding of, he thought, insulation-tape. It was very muddy and wet and he left it there, concluding that it was Marjory Prossip's property and that it was no affair of his if she left her tools lying about outside her garage. There was nothing to be seen through the window of the shed which was curtained on the inside with a piece of sacking. When he had reported his failure to Mrs Prossip, he went off in the taxi thinking that it had been rather cool of her to send him up a muddy, smelly lane for nothing.\n\nHis thoughts became drowsy and disconnected. Out of Burford Avenue now\u2014done with the Prossips\u2014he would never come across the Prossips again, please God. Done with Mrs Twisty-lips. Tomorrow done with the Farnolds and the little dark staircase and the muttering waiter. Done with all the Deepford tomorrow and going back\u2014going back to what? What _was_ he going back to? To sit and brood and fall to pieces. And nothing to bring back, now\u2014nothing of her left\u2014the last of that sacred, secret wonder sullied and trampled under foot. Nothing of her left anywhere, except in a bloodless fish and a fusty old abortioner\u2014\n\nHe cancelled that last thought hurriedly. It had not been a thought. Those savage, ugly little labels had merely sprung into his mind and sprung out again. They had never been his\u2014merely things that other people with unpleasant minds might have said or thought about Whalley and Ridgeway\u2014but not he. He had never thought of ugly, savage little labels for people. He knew that beneath Whalley's cold curtness lay a grief that could find no help or use in words or friendship\u2014that beneath Ridgeway's old dressing-gown lay beauty.\n\nWhen the taxi stopped at the Deepford he was planning a long, low, snug house\u2014somewhere in the Cotswolds, perhaps, but within reach of a good butcher\u2014with three little bachelor suites. There would be a cosy common sitting-room with three big armchairs. They would sit there awhile in the evenings\u2014not talking much, but together. The fire would crackle and the wind would sigh outside the windows. Sometimes they would talk about her and keep her\u2014\n\nHopelessly impracticable, of course. That overdraft in January. Perhaps everything going smash in a few months. The world in ruins and fury\u2014guns roaring and searchlights flickering and wheeling\u2014Harvey Knayle scrambling for a place in a food-queue. Still, it was something to have thought of. He resolved, somehow, to get closer to Whalley and Ridgeway.\n\n## CHAPTER XII\n\n### 1\n\nMR RIDGEWAY was scraping a muddy pair of boots in front of his subterranean hall-door one foggy Thursday morning when someone addressed him by name. Raising his eyes, he was momentarily surprised to see Knayle standing looking down at him with a newspaper in his hand. The voice had not sounded like Knayle's.\n\n'Hullo,' he yawned. 'You've got back, then?'\n\n'Yesterday afternoon,' replied Mr Knayle. 'I say, Ridgeway\u2014'\n\n'Had a pleasant time?'\n\n'Oh, so-so. I say, Ridgeway\u2014have you seen the paper this morning? The Prossip girl's been murdered.'\n\n'Oh,' said Mr Ridgeway, when he had picked up the other shoe.\n\n'A most extraordinary thing,' went on Mr Knayle. 'I very nearly found her. As a matter of fact, I did find the hammer she was murdered with.'\n\n'Oh?' said Mr Ridgeway.\n\nFortunately Whalley came down the outside staircase just then. Mr Knayle felt that his adventure deserved at least intelligent attention.\n\n'Good morning, Whalley. When did you get back?'\n\n'On Monday.'\n\n'Have _you_ seen the paper this morning?'\n\n'No.'\n\n'The Prossip girl's been murdered. A most shocking business, poor creature. Battered to death with a hammer. I was just telling Ridgeway\u2014a most extraordinary thing\u2014I very nearly found her\u2014I actually did find the hammer. That is to say, I saw it. Of course I didn't know at the time that it was the hammer. But I actually saw it lying outside the shed. She was actually lying dead in the shed when I\u2014'\n\n'Well, but where did all this happen, Knayle?' asked Mr Ridgeway. 'Why can't you tell the thing consecutively? Don't jump about that way. Where was she murdered? Where was this shed you're talking about?'\n\n'In Guildford,' replied Mr Knayle. 'You know Guildford, Whalley\u2014'\n\n'I used to know it.'\n\n'Well, the Prossips are living in a road called Burford Avenue\u2014perhaps you know it. The shed was in a lane off the road. The unfortunate girl kept her car there.'\n\n'Good,' said Mr Ridgeway. 'Well, then, she was murdered in a shed in a lane off a road called Burford Avenue in Guildford. Who murdered her?'\n\n'Oh, well,' expostulated Mr Knayle. 'I can't tell you that. But as I say, the extraordinary thing\u2014'\n\n'When was she murdered?'\n\n'The evening before last\u2014some time round half-past seven, they seem to think. Of course, when I\u2014'\n\n'Wait now. Don't jump. She was murdered with a hammer, and you saw the hammer. When did you see the hammer?'\n\n'Oh, much later\u2014about one o'clock that night.'\n\n'So you were in a lane off Burford Avenue in Guildford at one o'clock that night. And you saw the hammer lying outside a shed, and the Prossip girl was in the shed, murdered. Well?'\n\n'I don't think it's a matter for facetiousness, Ridgeway,' protested Mr Knayle severely. 'It's really a most shocking business. After all, you knew the poor girl\u2014well, you knew her by sight.'\n\n'I did,' said Mr Ridgeway dryly. 'And now that I think of it, I always thought she was the sort of person someone would murder with a hammer.'\n\n'I didn't know that the Prossips were living in Guildford,' said Whalley after a silence.\n\n'Oh?' said Mr Knayle. 'I thought I had told you. Yes. They've been living there since they left Rockwood. Oh\u2014by the way\u2014you weren't in Guildford last week, were you?'\n\n'I?' Whalley repeated in surprise. 'No. Why?'\n\n'Oh, I thought I saw you one night\u2014curiously enough\u2014coming out of the very lane where this thing happened.'\n\nWhalley shook his head. 'I see you're wearing glasses now.'\n\n'Yes. I've got some little trouble. Nothing at all serious; but I've got to wear these confounded things. They make me feel like a professor of phrenology.'\n\n'What I want to know, Knayle,' demanded Mr Ridgeway from his little area, 'is, what were you doing in this lane at one o'clock in the morning? It seems devilish fishy to me, the whole business. You were there, and the Prossip girl was there\u2014dead or alive, I'm not clear yet which\u2014and now you say Whalley was there. Was I there?'\n\n'Oh don't be an ass, Ridgeway,' said Mr Knayle a little acidly. He opened his newspaper and began to re-read the account of the murder, endeavouring to find the thread of his narrative; but Mr Ridgeway's hall door shut and Whalley had already reached the garden gate. There was nothing to do but shut up the newspaper and go back to a second cup of coffee which was now undrinkable.\n\nHis extraordinary adventure had gone quite flat; Ridgeway's tomfoolery had turned it into the silliest of jokes. There had been nothing at all extraordinary about it. The whole thing had happened in a perfectly ordinary and uninteresting sequence. He had seen Prossip home because there had been no other taxi, and Mrs Prossip had asked him to go round to the shed and he had gone and seen the hammer. He hadn't even found the hammer. He had simply seen it and left it there. Not only that\u2014but it had been stupid of him to leave it there and not guess that there was something wrong. He had known that Marjory Prossip had not come home and that Mrs Prossip had been anxious about her for several hours. Anyone with a spark of intelligence, seeing a hammer lying near the shed, would have guessed that there was something wrong. And he had simply left it there\u2014with the result that the murder hadn't been discovered until ten hours later. The police would want to know why he had left the hammer lying there and given the murderer another ten hours, instead of telling the Prossips that he had found a hammer lying outside the shed\u2014or doing something of some sort about the hammer. Everybody would want to know. He had had no extraordinary adventure. He had simply done something infernally stupid.\n\nAnd yet Mr Knayle's adventure had appeared to him the most extraordinary when he had jumped up from his breakfast-table with the intention of going down to tell Ridgeway about it. He was a little upset because his story had fallen flat and he groped about for justification of the impulse which had sent him hurrying out in search of someone to tell it to. He was still sure that there had been something extraordinary in his adventure and after a little time he decided that the extraordinary thing about it was, not that he had seen the hammer, but that it was _he_ who had seen the hammer. He had gone up to Guildford\u2014a hundred and twenty miles away\u2014and by an extraordinary chance had\u2014well, very nearly discovered the murdered body of someone who had lived in the same flat with him in Rockwood.\n\nBut no\u2014that was not quite it. Mr Knayle's mind groped on and suddenly rounded a rather startling corner. That maid of the Prossips... His visit to Guildford had obliterated Agatha Judd as completely as it had obliterated his dining-room carpet. But now he remembered that that girl who had been the Prossips' maid had been murdered. Hopgood came in just then to say that the car was outside and Mr Knayle raised abstracted eyes from his newspaper.\n\n'You know, Hopgood, this is rather an extraordinary affair\u2014this about Miss Prossip.'\n\n'Extraordinary, sir?'\n\n'I mean\u2014well, it's only a few weeks ago that that girl\u2014that maid of the Prossips\u2014was murdered. I only thought of that just now.'\n\n'It is a bit queer, sir,' Hopgood agreed. 'That very thought came into my own head when I was reading about it. I was saying to Chidgey just now that it was a bit strange. A funny thing that you should have been in Guildford when it happened, sir\u2014'\n\n'Funny?' repeated Mr Knayle sharply. 'Why funny?'\n\n'Oh, well, I don't mean funny, sir, of course\u2014'\n\n'I don't think it's funny at all.'\n\nHopgood, however, continued to look as if he thought it funny.\n\n'I forgot to tell you, sir, that that police-inspector called here yesterday wanting to see Chidgey.'\n\n'Oh, confound him,' snapped Mr Knayle testily, picking up his newspaper and putting it down again.\n\n'I told him that Chidgey had gone up to Guildford with you, sir. I hope that was right.'\n\n'Right? Of course.' Mr Knayle's tone became elaborately casual. 'Er\u2014tell Chidgey I want to see him, will you?'\n\nChidgey's hands became a little fidgety when he realised what the guv'nor wanted to see him about. But he was able to account satisfactorily for his last afternoon in Guildford. He had felt a bit seedy and thought that he was in for a go of 'flu. Mr Knayle had said that he wouldn't want the car that day, so he had gone to bed and stayed there until the following morning. The people at his lodgings, he was sure, would be able to say that he hadn't stirred out after one o'clock.\n\nThis was a relief.\n\nMr Knayle hadn't really thought for a moment that because Chidgey had assaulted Mr Prossip he had also beaten Mr Prossip's daughter to death with a hammer. That idea was, of course, ridiculous. Still, Chidgey had already been suspected of battering someone to death\u2014and that someone had been the Prossips' maid. It was certainly a bit awkward that Chidgey should have been in Guildford and had that row with Prossip. And Hopgood had looked mysterious in that idiotic, owlish way of his. It had seemed to Mr Knayle just as well to find out where Chidgey had been that evening; he had had quite enough trouble about Chidgey and told him so.\n\n'What does this confounded police-inspector want to see you about?'\n\n'I don't know, sir,' replied Chidgey nervously. His face had grown steadily whiter and thinner during the interview and his hands refused to keep still. Mr Knayle eyed them over his glasses and found himself on the very point of saying, 'Blast you, why can't you keep your hands quiet?'\n\n'Has Mr Whalley put his car in the garage yet?' he asked, picking up his newspaper again.\n\n'Yes sir.'\n\n'Look after it for him, will you? I shan't take the car out this morning. It's too foggy. That will do.'\n\nMr Knayle went off to see his dentist about his new plate and in the fog was nearly run over by a confectioner's van, the driver of which shouted a most objectionable remark at him. When he tried to tell the dentist about a most extraordinary experience which he had had in Guildford the dentist kept saying: 'Heh. Wid-ah,' and he had to give it up. At the club everyone was talking gloomily about some rather alarming rioting which had taken place in Dunpool on the preceding day. Six thousand unemployed had overwhelmed the police, set a factory on fire and invaded the City Council Hall. When at length he succeeded in telling how he had found the hammer a man whom he disliked extremely said: 'Well, I think you showed uncommon presence of mind, Knayle.' He lunched alone at a small table in a remote corner and no one seemed to care whether he did or not. His waiter, who was wondering whether he was going to win ten bob on the three-thirty, forgot him several times and it was necessary to speak rather sharply about the condition of the cruets.\n\nDuring lunch, however, he decided to go round to the garage on his way home and say a soothing word or two to Chidgey. Chidgey had looked rather like a small lost dog.\n\n### 2\n\nWhen Mr Ridgeway had arranged his scraped shoes before his sitting-room fire to dry, he stood looking down at them meditatively with his fine, tired eyes. They were a large, heavily-soled pair of shoes which he used for his early walks on the Downs in wet weather, and he was thinking about the noise they made on his little flight of steps when his charwoman, Mrs Dings, brought in his breakfast from the kitchen.\n\n'I've just heard a rather interesting bit of news, Mrs Dings,' he said, turning.\n\nMrs Dings sniffed. 'What's that, sir?'\n\n'Your friend Miss Prossip has been murdered.'\n\n'Murdered, sir?' Mrs Dings put down her tray and sniffed three times rapidly. 'Well, I never. Murdered? Well, that's a queer thing.'\n\nThere was only vivid interest in Mrs Dings' battered little face; in her heart was a vague stirring of faith that in the end God always dealt with people as they deserved. She had complained to Miss Prossip one day in the garden that that Aggie called her 'Sniffy' when they met at the rubbish-bins, and Miss Prossip had treated her like dirt.\n\n'Well, I never. Don't let your haddock get cold, sir. Well that _is_ a queer thing. Why, it's not a month ago since that Aggie was murdered.'\n\n'You think it's a queer thing, Mrs Dings?' Mr Ridgeway asked.\n\n'Well, you can't deny of it, sir,' replied Mrs Dings.\n\nMr Ridgeway contemplated his charwoman's little shiny, bumpy forehead for some moments before he turned again to the fire. Behind it lay the brain of a rabbit. But Mrs Dings had instantly made that connection and thought it a queer thing.\n\nOf late Mr Ridgeway had grown a little doubtful that things which appeared queer to him were really queer.\n\nMrs Dings knew his little ways and had a lot to do before she went away at one o'clock with her half-crown. She left him looking at his boots and sniffed back to the kitchen. She knew that she sniffed. But she had always sniffed and it was a great help.\n\n### 3\n\nVery slowly Whalley went down the garden and crossed the road. His legs moved with the rigidity of steel stilts, yet they trembled and sagged with their hate and fury. All his body was an aching passion to turn and rush back to that little dapper mannikin with the newspaper and catch him by his little babbling throat and choke his life out. Ten yards in on the grass of the Downs the houses were mere blurs, hardly darker than the fog. He shook his fist towards them ragingly and whispered:\n\n'Mannikin. Mannikin.'\n\nThe Irish terrier from number 48 came out of the fog, shied violently away from his gesture, and disappeared, uttering little rumbles of alarm. He laughed boisterously at its sudden swerve and went on muttering.\n\n'Mannikin. Mannikin. Puny Mannikin. Puny smirker\u2014'\n\nAs his feet strayed on his eyes glanced from side to side restlessly with an uneasy vigilance that in two days had already become habitual to them. For now it was always necessary to keep watch. Every bush and every tree on the Downs were familiar to him, seen in relation to other bushes and trees. But this morning there were no points of reference. The world was a small circle of wet grass capped by a dome of sightless silence that moved with him. A tree loomed up alone, and had never been seen before. He stopped, turned about, could not tell in what direction he faced or from which direction he had come, and broke into a hobbling trot until he reached a seat which he recognised at length by its broken back. The icy clamminess of its iron arm was safety. He stood holding on to it, panting from his short run, furious that he had yielded to panic. Had it been panic\u2014or had he lost himself again? Was he standing by this broken seat, holding on to its arm and panting. Was it he\u2014and did he know that it was he? What was there to tell him?\n\nGradually his bewildered alarm allayed itself and he began to pace in narrow circles round the seat, unwilling to part from its anchorage. His eyes clung to its broken back, as to an established fact by which all other facts could be recovered and rearranged. All this about Knayle\u2014that would all arrange itself in a clear, solving thought\u2014cease to be a rain of dancing spots that ran together and made a little mannikin with a newspaper and then broke up into dancing spots again.\n\nThink\u2014think... A clear thought. The mannikin and the hammer in the lane together. Just a cunning, smirking trick, that\u2014not a blinding flame that turned to ice. Full of tricks, the mannikin\u2014coming and going. But think and confuse him and talk about his glasses. That had been very clever\u2014very quick. Only a very clever, subtle mind could have thought of that\u2014a mind altogether different from Mannikin's\u2014keen and quick as rapier\u2014dancing about Mannikin and confusing him.\n\nHe lighted a cigarette and sat down, reassured. His anger had passed and left behind thoughts\u2014two thoughts that did not slide and melt. Somehow Knayle had seen him in the lane\u2014a danger so incredible that his mind still refused to deal with it as a reality. But this was a new anxiety that would gnaw and fret the hours to come. For now\u2014for this little space in which he sat there, smoking safely in the fog\u2014an old anxiety was gone. For countless centuries it had lived with him, a torment of doubt. But now he knew that he had left the hammer outside the shed.\n\nHad he meant to leave it there\u2014or had he forgotten it? He would never know now.\n\nFor the millionth time he strove to remember. It was all clear until he reached the turning of the lane and began to unwrap the brown paper. Her keys jingled\u2014she was unlocking the padlock. And then nothing\u2014until the subway at Guildford station. He had been dabbing his chin with his handkerchief when, suddenly, he had missed something.\n\nHe hobbled up the lane again and unwrapped the brown paper, crouching against the wall. Her keys jingled... No\u2014nothing. Ten million times he might crouch against the wall, but he would never know. Not he, but someone else, had turned the corner.\n\nBut the hammer had been left\u2014not carried through the streets. No need to worry about that.\n\nBotched again, though. Always a botch in the end. And now, always, that other one to watch\u2014the one who stole away round the corner and forgot. Churn, churn, rattle and squeak and jingle\u2014the good old faithful noise; but who would hold the steering wheel?\n\nAnd Knayle\u2014little dapper, pop-eyed Knayle\u2014suddenly dangerous. Puny but cunning, coming and going and watching and finding the hammer... Mad, mad\u2014mad as a hatter. But he would have to be watched and thought about. Think about Knayle, not dancing spots falling like rain\u2014\n\nMr Ridgeway came out of the fog, wheezing, and halted by the seat while he refilled his pipe.\n\n'A bit too thick for me this morning. I shouldn't stay out in it, Whalley, if I were you. What are you rubbing that eye for? Got something in it?'\n\n'Cigarette ash, I expect,' Whalley replied without interest. When he had looked at the eye for a moment or two, Mr Ridgeway took out a pocket-lens and examined it more attentively.\n\n'Umph,' he said, putting away the lens. 'You've got an ulcer there. Better get a shade over that eye and see an oculist at once.'\n\n'An ulcer?' Whalley repeated sharply.\n\n'Yes. A fairly common symptom with your trouble. Well, I'll get in, I think.'\n\nMr Ridgeway was not greatly surprised when Whalley broke into a fit of hysterical sobbing. He smoked his pipe until the paroxysm had passed, and then went away, yawning. You got that sort of thing, too, very frequently in pernicious an\u00e6mia cases. And his chilblains were bad that morning.\n\n### 4\n\nInspector Bride read the report of the Guildford murder at breakfast and immediately connected it with the murder in Abbey Road. The Abbey Road murder had given him a lot of trouble for nothing. Every clue had petered out, and he was beginning to feel rather fed-up with it. But the name Prossip awoke his interest. It seemed to him queer that Prossip should have been so intimately connected with two murders.\n\nAlmost instantly he thought of Chidgey. He still didn't think that there was anything in Chidgey, but he had never been quite satisfied about him. For one thing, one of the friends who had stated that he had seen Chidgey in the picture-house that night had since admitted that he hadn't seen him and that he had said that he had seen him merely because Chidgey had asked him to do so. Inspector Bride had called at Mr Knayle's flat to see Chidgey about this, but had been informed that Chidgey was away with Mr Knayle. He recollected now that Mr Knayle's man had said that Mr Knayle had gone to Guildford, and it seemed to him queer that Chidgey should have been in Guildford at the time of a second murder connected with Prossip. Nothing in it probably, but he thought he'd take a stroll up towards Downview Road that afternoon and see if Chidgey had come back.\n\n### 5\n\nTo his annoyance, when he arrived at his garage Mr Knayle found Inspector Bride there, note-book in hand and holding Chidgey imprisoned against a wall with his glassy stare.\n\n'Well, well,' demanded Mr Knayle, 'what's the matter now? I can't have this sort of thing, Inspector. You can't come here interrupting this man in his work constantly like this.'\n\n'I've got to do my duty, sir. This man has committed a serious offence. He has incited another person to give false information to the police. I've come here in pursuance of my duty to ascertain\u2014'\n\n'False information? What about?'\n\nInspector Bride referred to his notebook.\n\n'I have information that he called at the house of a person named Eustace Shawley on the night of November 11th and asked him to state to the police that he had seen him in the Rockwood Palace Cinema on the night of November 5th, knowing at the time that he had not seen him\u2014'\n\n'Oh\u2014he\u2014him!' exclaimed Mr Knayle impatiently. 'Why the devil don't they teach you chaps to speak English? What's all this, Chidgey? Did you ask this man to say that he saw you?'\n\n'Yes, sir,' Chidgey replied miserably.\n\n'Did he see you?'\n\n'No, sir. But he might have done. He was in the Palace that night.'\n\n'Oh, dammit,' said Mr Knayle. 'I'm sick of this, Chidgey.'\n\nInspector Bride put away his note-book very carefully and allowed a little silence to pass before he took Mr Knayle down another peg. He knew the effect of little silences.\n\n'There's another matter, sir. I believe you've been away in Guildford for the past fortnight or so, and that you took your car with you. Am I right in supposing that you were in Guildford on the evening of last Tuesday? I mean the Tuesday of this week\u2014the evening before last?'\n\n'Quite right. And if you want to know where Chidgey was, he was in his lodgings\u2014in bed. You were in bed ill, Chidgey, weren't you?'\n\n'Yes, sir. I went to bed after me dinner, Inspector, and stayed there till the next morning. The people at the lodgings will tell you that.'\n\n'I see,' said Inspector Bride, taking out his notebook again. 'Now, where might these lodgings be in Guildford?'\n\n'32 Springfield Road.'\n\nThe stumpy pencil wrote the address with ominous deliberation and Chidgey's voice wilted into a cowed whimper.\n\n'If you're going to make inquiries about me, I'd better tell you I had a row with Prossip in Guildford.'\n\n'I see,' said Inspector Bride, after another little silence. 'A row, eh? What was the row about?'\n\n'Now this is quite irregular, Inspector,' interrupted Mr Knayle. 'I won't have my servants bullied and cross-examined in this way. What is the object of these questions about Chidgey's having been in Guildford?'\n\n'I must ask you, sir\u2014' began the inspector.\n\nHis voice checked and, turning to discover the cause, Mr Knayle saw that Whalley had entered the garage. He was very much annoyed because he had lost his temper in a weak, ineffectual sort of way and because he had said too much. Chidgey had suddenly become a serious anxiety again; the note-book and the stumpy pencil and the glassy stare had made him look like a cornered rat. Mr Knayle had an abrupt impression that he didn't like Whalley's appearance\u2014didn't like his shabby overcoat and his old shoes and his faded hat and his white face and his bloodshot eye and that raw scrape on his chin. He collected these unpleasing details into a whole which he removed from himself. He felt that he didn't want shabby-looking people\u2014of whom, really, he knew nothing\u2014walking into his garage and taking their shabby little cars out, at awkward moments. He decided to light a cigarette to avoid the necessity of speaking.\n\nAs Whalley passed on to his car Chidgey moved to lean into it and take a pair of oil-stained gloves from the driving-seat.\n\n'I found those in your car, sir, when I was cleaning it this morning. I left them there, thinking you might have wanted them for some purpose.'\n\nWhalley stared blankly. 'They're not mine.'\n\n'I know that, sir. They're an old pair I used to use for oily jobs. Then you don't want them for anything, sir?'\n\n'No. I don't know how they got into my car. I didn't put them there.'\n\nNot a word of thanks to Chidgey for having cleaned the car, thought Mr Knayle. Ungracious, shabby writer of novels that no one had ever heard of. Bloodshot eye. Driving out a shabby, noisy little car, saying, 'Pretty thick now, isn't it?' as if one knew all about him. Just drawl 'Yes,' without looking at him.\n\nInspector Bride had stood outside looking up and down the road. It was a side-road, and there was nothing to see except the fog, but to right and to left he found placid satisfaction. It looked to him now as if there might be something in Chidgey after all. And he had taken cocky little Mr Knayle down a peg. His tone was quite genial as he turned, straightening his tie.\n\n'A funny thing, sir\u2014as we were talking about Guildford\u2014I saw that gentleman at Guildford station a couple of weeks ago\u2014no, three weeks ago it must be, now. It's the gentleman that has the flat above you, isn't it? A Mr Whalley, I think?'\n\n'Yes, yes,' replied Mr Knayle abstractedly. 'He\u2014er\u2014I allow him to use my garage. Er\u2014is there anything more that I can tell you?'\n\n'Not for the present, sir\u2014not for the present, thank you,' chanted Inspector Bride pleasantly and disappeared into the fog with a salute that was not quite a salute.\n\nTwo hours later Inspector Strong of the Surrey Constabulary called in person at 32 Springfield Road and interviewed the landlady and her maid. On the evening of the preceding Tuesday the landlady had taken Chidgey's supper into his room at half-past six and had then seen him in bed. She had gone out a little later and had not seen him again until the following morning. The maid had not seen him at any time that evening, though she had heard him moving about in his room between nine and ten o'clock. Inspector Strong had another conversation with Inspector Bride over the telephone and arranged to lunch with him at the Imperial Hotel in Rockwood on the following day.\n\n### 6\n\nWhen Hopgood brought in his tea-tray that afternoon Mr Knayle looked up from the almanac of his pocket-diary.\n\n'Can you remember, Hopgood\u2014what day was it that I went up to Guildford? Monday the 23rd, wasn't it?'\n\n'It was a Monday, sir, anyhow.'\n\n'Monday. I thought so. Monday the 23rd, then. Yes. When did Mr Whalley go away, can you remember?'\n\n'Which time, sir?'\n\n'Why?' asked Mr Knayle, turning, 'has Mr Whalley been away more than once, then?'\n\n'Oh yes, sir. He's been away a lot. He went away the week before you went to Guildford\u2014that was the first time.'\n\n'Yes. Well?'\n\n'Well, then, he came back the day after you left and went away again the next day. Then he came back last Monday night, very late, and the next day, I think, he was away again all day. There was no light up in his flat all the evening.'\n\n'So he didn't come back on Tuesday night?'\n\n'I can't say as to that, sir. I thought I heard him going up his steps late that night\u2014getting on for twelve, it must have been. But I couldn't say for sure.'\n\n'No scones,' exclaimed Mr Knayle, putting away his diary and turning to the tea-tray. 'Dear, dear. And I've been looking forward to your scones for a fortnight.'\n\nIt was too foggy to do anything after tea. He fidgetted about his sitting-room for a little space and then went down and rang Mr Ridgeway's bell. After some delay the door opened and Mr Ridgeway appeared, carrying a toasting-fork on which was impaled a large, untidy slice of bread.\n\nHe stood in silence and for a moment Mr Knayle, too, stood in silence and looked at him, wondering why he had come down and rung his bell and made him appear in his dirty old dressing-gown, carrying a revolting hunk of bread on a toasting-fork. The dressing-gown was appalling\u2014stained, faded, frayed, burst at the armpits. Mr Knayle felt sure that it smelt and that beneath it lay no beauty at all, but horrors of uncleanliness. Only a ravening animal could eat a hunk of bread like that. And what a face\u2014what a travesty of a face\u2014sagging and loose, with heavy, sensual lips and a double chin that creased like india-rubber. Everything crooked and uneven\u2014ears sticking out at different angles; one eye lower than the other\u2014\n\n'You look very mysterious, Knayle,' said Mr Ridgeway at length. 'You're not trying to ask me to go up and play chess, are you?'\n\n'No, no,' laughed Mr Knayle.\n\n'Oh, then that's all right,' yawned Mr Ridgeway.\n\n'Though I do feel a little mysterious, as a matter of fact,' said Mr Knayle, grasping at the opening. 'You know, there _is_ something queer about this business, Ridgeway.'\n\n'What business?'\n\n'This\u2014this murder. I mean\u2014the Prossips' maid was murdered only a few weeks ago\u2014and now Miss Prossip has been murdered\u2014almost in the same way. I mean, you know\u2014it _is_ quite a curious thing. Of course, I suppose I'm a little thrilled because I was on the spot, so to speak; but quite apart from that\u2014I mean, doesn't it strike _you_ as being a little curious?'\n\n'Oh, I don't think so,' replied Mr Ridgeway. 'That girl\u2014what was her name?\u2014Rudd or Judd or something\u2014she wasn't the Prossips' maid when she was murdered. You never open the paper now without finding that two or three women have been knocked on the head.'\n\n'Ah, yes,' urged Mr Knayle. 'But there's no connection between them. There is a connection in this case. You must admit there is. And it's quite clear that Miss Prossip wasn't murdered in a haphazard way. The thing was evidently deliberately planned. It seems that she was in the habit of going to Farnham several times a week and that she always got back at the same hour\u2014about half-past seven. Besides, you can't imagine anyone going about with a hammer looking for someone to murder.'\n\n'Oh, yes, I can.'\n\n'Oh, nonsense. This must have been a deliberate business. According to the report, Miss Prossip always got back at half-past seven\u2014and she was murdered between seven and eight. Someone must have watched the lane.' Mr Knayle lowered his voice. 'I'll tell you a curious thing, Ridgeway. Er\u2014you heard me ask Whalley this morning if I had seen him in Guildford last week?'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'Well, he said I hadn't. Or rather, he didn't say anything, now that I come to think of it, but he shook his head. Yes, that was it\u2014he shook his head and made some remark about my glasses. At any rate I feel sure that he gave me to understand that I hadn't seen him. But I did see him. I know for a fact that he was in Guildford three weeks ago\u2014and I'm perfectly certain that I saw him there one night last week. And the curious thing is that I saw him coming out of the lane where Miss Prossip was murdered.'\n\n'That was the lane where you didn't find the hammer at one o'clock in the morning?' asked Mr Ridgeway.\n\n'Oh, well\u2014' said Mr Knayle, turning away rather huffily. Before he could turn again, Mr Ridgeway laughed and shut his hall-door.\n\nIt shut quickly but quietly and the effect produced in Mr Knayle's mind was that it had shut on something foolish which could be left outside with impunity. He felt foolish and somewhat alarmed by what he had done. He had put into words a most appalling and grotesque suspicion\u2014deliberately coupled the fact that he had seen Whalley in the lane with the fact that Miss Prossip had been murdered by someone who had watched her movements for some time beforehand. There had been no previous intention whatever in his mind to couple them. But suddenly something\u2014something quite apart from Ridgeway's sardonic amusement at his interest in the affair\u2014had aroused an eager, savage little desire to connect them\u2014in a lowered voice, too, not in the casual way in which he had meant to refer to the fact that he had seen Whalley. He felt that he had done something extremely serious and imprudent. After all, Ridgeway was almost an entire stranger. He was quite capable of repeating the whole conversation to Whalley\u2014garbling it, and making it appear still more serious.\n\nHowever, the hall-door was shut and Mr Knayle didn't see how he could very well ring again and ask Ridgeway not to repeat what he had said about Whalley. Besides, of course, it would be utterly ridiculous to couple the two things\u2014grotesque. Ridgeway had laughed. He had seen at once that it would be utterly ridiculous to couple them. The whole conversation would fade from his fusty brain in a quarter of an hour.\n\nUtterly absurd\u2014grotesque.\n\nBut Mr Knayle was now quite sure that he had seen Whalley come out of the lane. And he couldn't understand why Whalley should deny having been in Guildford when he had been in Guildford. He regretted very much that his voice had lowered itself and made an absurd and most indiscreet connection, between the fact that the lane had probably been watched for some time beforehand and the fact that he had seen Whalley in the lane at night during the week preceding Miss Prossip's murder. But the connection had been made, and he took it back to his sitting-room with him.\n\nDuring the past few months the range of his thoughts had contracted steadily and his mind had grown accustomed to short views. A number of small stresses had soured his outlook and made him feel restless and a little undignified and peevish. When he had stared at the fire for a little space he remembered that, just after Whalley had come out of the lane he had heard a clock somewhere towards the town, strike the half-hour, and that it had occurred to him that there might possibly not be time to shave before dinner. Half-past seven\u2014a curious coincidence. Supposing that someone had been keeping watch.\n\nPresently he took out his pocket-diary again. As he opened it he remembered that he had noticed a long, raw scrape on Whalley's chin that morning.\n\nWhile Mr Knayle sat busy by his fireside the little old car was climbing the long rise between Calne and Marlborough, edging along the bank, and making heavy weather of it on bottom gear. It had taken four hours to crawl thirty miles and its back-axle was knocking ominously. The black pallor of the fog bulged forward to meet it and blind it and thrust it down the hill again. About it whispered silences that drowned its labouring clamour and mocked its faltering. Its churning was dubious and treacherous Mannikin\u2014mannikin\u2014mannikin\u2014ikin\u2014mannikin\u2014ikin...\n\n### 7\n\nAt six o'clock next morning Mrs Prossip awoke and uttered a long, groaning yawn because, once more, she hadn't died during the night. Ever since she had begun to have her attacks she had hoped that she might have one during the night and die. Not that she wanted in the least to die, or really believed that she ever would die. But she wanted Lionel to come in and be the first to find her cold and dead and get a terrible fright and feel terrible remorse for the way he had always treated her. As there was now no chance of his doing so that morning, she switched on the light over her bed, scratched her legs enjoyably for a little while, wiped her face with a towel, and then threw back the bedclothes. The air about the bed was piercingly cold and for a moment she was tempted to draw the bedclothes back again and not go to early service.\n\nEverything urged her not to go. Two days of shock and strain had lowered her vitality and made her slack and disinclined for physical movement. There was the inquest at eleven\u2014Lionel to be watched all the morning so that he wouldn't get drunk and make a show of himself again\u2014mourning to be tried on\u2014telegrams from relatives about the funeral to be answered. She had felt very comfortable and warm scratching her legs under the bedclothes and the bedroom was very cold and filled with fog. She hated cold and she hated cycling in fog and her hands itched to pull the bedclothes up again.\n\nBut it had always annoyed Lionel when she went out to early service\u2014annoyed him because she went out regularly two mornings in the week without ever missing, and because he never went, and because the noise she made dressing woke him up an hour and a half too soon. The infliction of this annoyance had given her acute pleasure for over thirty years and on bad mornings had always afforded her the additional satisfaction of self-sacrifice. The desire to preserve the unbroken regularity of its infliction tightened her bluish lips to resolution. She sprang out of bed and, hurrying to the windows, shut them violently.\n\nIn the adjoining bedroom Lionel boomed wrathfully and, forgetting that Marjory had been murdered and was dead, she hummed contentedly as she opened the door of the wardrobe and shut it again with a bang. He might boom and pound his pillows and bury his head under the sheets, but he would lie awake now, growling and clearing his throat and trying to think of some way to get his own back and not being able to think of any way.\n\nAs she pushed her bicycle towards the gate of the garden she hesitated again. The fog was so thick that nothing could be seen of the houses at the other side of the avenue and the street-lamp outside the gate was a glow-worm poised on a shadow. But she had pumped up the tyres of her bicycle and lighted its lamp and she didn't want to have taken so much trouble for nothing. She wobbled off up the avenue, rumbling windily, and keeping the kerb of the footpath within quick reach of her left foot.\n\nShe made an effort to think of Marjory sadly as she went along. But the wobbling of her bicycle made thought of any kind disjointed and diffuse. Marjory, who had been trying in life, had been extremely trying in death. Mrs Prossip felt that she didn't want to think of her at all just then\u2014that she had done enough thinking about her during the past two days, and that she was entitled to a little rest from her before she faced the inquest. Some little distance behind her\u2014a distance too short to be altogether comfortable\u2014a car was following slowly and noisily. She turned her head a little, endeavouring to calculate its nearness and its speed.\n\nSuddenly its grinding growl rose to uproar and the glare of its lamps was close behind her. She uttered a cry of frightened anger and, letting go the handlebars, flung herself sideways towards the footpath.\n\nThe car had disappeared when she raised her head and, after some moments, saw her bicycle lying in the gutter a few yards away, crumpled and twisted ludicrously. She felt that she was going to have one of her attacks and lay down again.\n\n## CHAPTER XIII\n\n### 1\n\nMR KNAYLE was frowning over his bank-book towards five o'clock that evening when Hopgood came in to say that Mr Whalley was outside.\n\n'Outside? What do you mean?'\n\n'I think he must have met with an accident, sir. There's a policeman with him wanting to know if he lives here.'\n\nAt the hall-door Mr Knayle found a fresh-faced young constable who saluted him with cheerful smartness and then glanced towards the silent figure which stood at the foot of the steps, facing towards the road.\n\n'Good evening, sir. This is a man named Whalley who was found lying under a car on the Hog's Back at seven-thirty this morning. I come from Guildford, sir. I've been detailed to bring him back. Your servant tells me that he lives in the flat above yours, but that there's no one up there to take charge of him. It's a bit awkward. Might I ask if you're a friend of his?'\n\nTake charge of him\u2014?\n\n'Oh, well,' replied Mr Knayle, 'I know him, of course. He lives above me. Is he injured?'\n\n'Not exactly injured, sir. There's something the matter with one of his eyes, but the police doctor in Guildford said that it wasn't due to the accident. He's had a bad shock, though, seemingly. He hasn't opened his lips since he was taken out from under the car. I suppose he has friends living in this neighbourhood?'\n\n'Well\u2014no. I\u2014I don't think he has any friends living here.'\n\nThe policeman laughed placidly. 'Is that so, sir? That makes it a bit awkward, doesn't it?'\n\nMr Knayle hesitated. The situation had presented itself to him with such suddenness that he had not yet had time to grasp its chief significance securely. 'Take charge of him\u2014' He took off his glasses to weigh that. The hatless figure at the foot of the steps had not moved and now that his eyes had grown accustomed to the darkness, he saw that its head was bandaged with a handkerchief. Its immobility and its averted face made it dubious and apart. Why did it turn its face away? Why didn't it move and speak? Why didn't it go up to its own flat? Why should he take it in and accept responsibility for it?\n\n'What happened?' he asked. 'A collision?'\n\n'No, sir. The car ran into the ditch and turned over. The fog was very bad up Guildford way this morning.'\n\nThe Hog's Back\u2014Guildford. What on earth had taken him all the way up to Guildford in a fog like yesterday's?\n\n'Do I understand that he's\u2014that he's not able to look after himself?'\n\n'Well, that's about it, sir. The doctor didn't know what to make of him. There's no mark on his head or his body, but he's dazed-like. He won't talk and he hasn't eaten anything all day. I don't know what to do with him now. The way it is, sir, I've got to get back to Guildford; but my instructions are to find whoever belongs to him and hand him over to them. And now you say there's no one here belonging to him.'\n\n'So far as I know, no one.'\n\nSo the matter hung for some moments while Mr Knayle's good nature struggled with his doubts. Finally he went down the steps and, taking Whalley's arm, led him into the sitting-room. In the light his face was ghastly white and set in a desperate apathy. The bandage covered one eye and left the other in shadow\u2014an enigma\u2014the eye of a private-theatricals pirate. His clothes were torn and, though some effort had been made to clean them, caked with half-dried mudstains. Mr Knayle looked at him in distaste for a little while, pushed him down into an arm-chair and went back to the hall-door. But there was nothing more to learn concerning the accident. The policeman went away, disappointed that it hadn't worked out at a drink, and, after a little reflection, Mr Knayle sent Hopgood down to ask if Mr Ridgeway would kindly come up for a few minutes.\n\nWhile he waited he returned to the sitting-room and rearranged Whalley more comfortably in his chair.\n\n'Well, old chap. Don't you know me? Knayle? What about a cigarette? No? Something to eat? Eat?' His jaws and teeth performed the motions of eating, exaggerating them. His voice diminished itself to wheedling cajolement. 'Come, now, now\u2014you must be hungry. You haven't eaten anything all day, you know. What's the matter with your eye?'\n\nBut there was no reply, no movement. It might have been some figure from a waxworks that sat in his arm-chair, neither seeing him nor hearing him. He stood staring at it, a little contemptuous of its helplessness, a little interested in its deadness, more than a little resentful of its intrusion. When Mr Ridgeway shambled in with his gurgling pipe, he waved his hand silently towards it as something which had no business in his sitting-room.\n\n'Chidgey wants to know if you could see him for a moment, sir,' said Hopgood from the door.\n\n'What does he want?'\n\n'I don't know, sir.'\n\n'Tell him to come in.'\n\nChidgey's eyes became uneasy when he discovered that the guv'nor was not alone. But Mr Knayle's 'Well, what is it now?' was peremptory.\n\n'It was just to tell you, sir, that that police-inspector has been round to the garage again\u2014him and another\u2014an inspector from Guildford.'\n\n'Very well,' said Mr Knayle with tightened lips. 'I'll write to the Chief Constable about it. What did they want to see you about?'\n\n'About a hammer, sir. They showed me a hammer and asked me if I knew anything about it. They didn't say what hammer it was, but, of course, I guessed.'\n\n'Well?'\n\n'Well, they kept at me, sir, the two of them, asking me the same thing over again. Of course, all I could say was that I knew nothing about it.'\n\nMr Knayle's tone sharpened.\n\n'Keep still, can't you. You don't know anything about it, do you?'\n\n'Well, I don't know whether I do or not, sir\u2014now. I told them I didn't, and they went away in the end. But it's a funny thing, sir, there's a hammer missing from our garage.'\n\n'Missing?'\n\n'Yes, sir. It was an old hammer the man you had before me used to use. It was too heavy for me, so I never used it. I kept it in a box with some other old tools and things, and when I looked in the box after they'd gone away, it wasn't there, sir\u2014and it isn't anywhere about the garage, either.'\n\n'What made you look? Was it like the hammer they showed you?'\n\n'It was, sir, I think. That's what made me look in the box afterwards, when I thought about it. It was very much the same class of hammer.'\n\n'When you say, like, what do you mean? Do you mean that the hammer they showed you might have been the hammer you kept in the box?'\n\n'I wouldn't go so far as to say that, sir. But it was very much like it.'\n\n'When did you see this hammer that's missing?'\n\n'About a fortnight ago, sir, when I was tidying the box.' Chidgey's restless eyes flitted across the room. 'I was wondering if Mr Whalley could have borrowed it, sir.'\n\n'Most unlikely,' said Mr Knayle, after a moment.\n\n'Well, he took a pair of old gloves from the box, sir. I found them in his car. You were in the garage yesterday morning when I spoke to him about them.'\n\n'Yes. I remember. But Mr Whalley said he hadn't put them into his car.'\n\n'He did say that, sir. But I think he must have done, and forgotten about it.'\n\n'Well, well,' said Mr Knayle, after another pause. 'It comes to this, Chidgey\u2014Do you believe that the hammer that was shown you is the hammer that is missing?'\n\n'No, sir,' Chidgey replied with convulsive loudness.\n\n'Then, why the devil do you come to me with all this rigmarole?'\n\nMr Ridgeway asked for some hot water and some salt just then and Chidgey made his escape. 'Salt?' repeated Mr Knayle, when the door had closed behind him.\n\n'I thought of bathing Whalley's eyes,' Mr Ridgeway explained. 'However, I suppose we had better get him into bed first. By the way, the bed ought to be well warmed before he gets into it. You've got some hot-water bottles, I suppose?'\n\nThis was a little too much for Mr Knayle. He walked slowly to the hearthrug and took up a definite position on it.\n\n'You propose, apparently, that Whalley should remain in my flat and that I should take care of him?'\n\nMr Ridgeway shrugged, after a quick glance. 'Someone will have to look after him. Unfortunately I've only one bed.'\n\n'What's the matter with him?'\n\n'Oh\u2014quite a number of things. It's rather an interesting case. You don't want him here, then?'\n\n'Oh, well,' said Mr Knayle, 'that's rather an unreasonable way to put it. This may be a very serious business, you know, Ridgeway. He appears to me to be\u2014well, to put it plainly, his mind seems to me to be affected. I\u2014I really can't accept such a responsibility. I think we had better take him up to his own flat. Or if you'll do that, I'll ring up and get a nurse.'\n\n'Cost you twopence,' smiled Mr Ridgeway. 'Don't worry. I'll look after him.'\n\nThe dingy arms of his dressing-gown encircled Whalley and raised him to his feet. Their movements seemed ostentatiously gentle and protective, and Mr Knayle turned his back on them. When at length the hall-door shut he called in Hopgood and made him brush some crumbs of mud from the seat of one of the arm-chairs.\n\n'Would you like me to go up and give Mr Ridgeway a hand, sir?' Hopgood asked before he withdrew.\n\n'I don't think it's at all necessary,' Mr Knayle replied frigidly. 'Get me some tea, now, will you.'\n\n### 2\n\nThe next three days were wet and Mr Knayle spent the greater part of them before his fire. The occupation of his mind was not so much thought of any definition as the repeated asking of a few questions to which the fire supplied no answers. They were always the same; he could find no means to vary them or expand them. One long wet day had made him weary of their abortive monotony; three had robbed them of almost all relation to realities. But they refused to be shut out, and they had taken such complete possession of him that he could think of nothing else.\n\nHe shook his head to dislodge them, leaned forward to poke the fire, picked up a novel, and recrossed his legs. But the novel dropped to his lap and his eyes returned to the fire. Had Chidgey really lost a hammer? If he had, was it really like the hammer which had been shown to him? Was it the hammer which had been shown to him? Supposing that it was, had Whalley taken it from the box, with the gloves? Had Whalley taken the gloves from the box, or had Chidgey taken them and left them in Whalley's car and forgotten that he had done so? Had Chidgey made up a story about losing a hammer, or had he really done so? If he had... Mr Knayle's questions slid past ceaselessly on an endless chain, always detached, yet always linked in the same order. He frowned, picked up his book again, and saw Chidgey slide up over the edge of the page, bent over a box, looking for a missing hammer.\n\nSometimes he made an effort to stop the chain. Chidgey... Why not question Chidgey more closely? If his story was a made-up one he would stick to it, of course. But if it wasn't\u2014Chidgey was a careful chap\u2014very careful about his tools\u2014very unlikely to mislay a hammer\u2014especially a hammer which he didn't use. Suppose it, then. Suppose that a hammer was really missing from a box in the garage. How like had it been to the hammer which had been shown to Chidgey? Who could tell? Not Chidgey himself.\n\nFrom that uncertainty on everything was uncertainty. Mr Knayle grew sick of his questions. They slid across the hearthrug, the fire, the mantelpiece, the wall-paper, the ceiling. They followed him when he got up, and slid across the carpet and the windows. They slid across his plate while he ate, across his mirror while he shaved, slid down the water of the geyser while his bath filled, slid up the flex of the light over his bed while he tried to read himself asleep. There was no escape from them anywhere in the flat. He desired to escape from them, yet found a perverse pleasure in surrendering to their obsession. When Hopgood came into the room he watched him with a raised eyebrow, impatient to be left with them again. Hopgood grew a little nervous under this silent scrutiny and one day upset the contents of an ashtray over the hearthrug. 'Leave it,' said Mr Knayle, pettishly. 'Clean it up afterwards.'\n\nThe weather improved, but he could find no interest out of doors. Only with the greatest difficulty could he persuade himself to morning and afternoon constitutionals upon the deserted Downs. He didn't want to go to the Club\u2014he didn't want to shoot\u2014he didn't want to play bridge\u2014he didn't want to talk to people\u2014he didn't want to do anything. It was altogether unlike him and a little disquieting, but there it was. He didn't want to do anything, and there was nothing to make him do anything. It didn't matter in the least whether he did anything or not, and he didn't care whether it mattered or not. In his sitting-room he was his own and sufficient for himself, shut in from criticism, secure from slight and wounding indifference. It was always easier to go back to the arm-chair and think about Whalley.\n\nLack of fresh air staled his appetite quickly and made his sleep broken and irregular. He sat up late, got up late, changed the hours of his meals, smoked incessantly, and developed a slight but persistent dyspepsia. His temper became so irritable that Hopgood grew to dread the sitting-room door. But the fire had to be kept up. If it wasn't Mr Knayle sat looking at it and let it go out.\n\nCuriously, although his thoughts concentrated themselves incessantly upon Whalley, they never directly faced the possibility that Whalley had committed murder. They were always sliding towards that possibility, skirting round it, and then retreating to make a fresh approach. The word murder and the idea murder had always repelled Mr Knayle. For him murder had always been an alien, abnormal thing which happened in the part of his newspaper which he never read. He had never had anything to do with murder, never conceived that he could ever have anything to do with it. His mind baulked at the thought that anyone whom he had known could commit a murder. It could suppose it possible that Whalley had taken the hammer from the garage\u2014possible, even, that the hammer had actually been the hammer which had killed Miss Prossip. But it refused to suppose that Whalley had used it to kill her. There the chain always slid out of sight.\n\nSuppose that Whalley's mind was affected\u2014either by his wife's death or by the state of his health\u2014or by money troubles and literary failures. But all that was too vague for Mr Knayle. Until this mysterious accident, Whalley had always appeared to him perfectly normal\u2014a quiet, self-controlled figure going up or coming down his steps. He shied away from obscure aberrations, seeking for a deliberate, reasoned purpose. But what had Whalley ever had to do with the Prossip girl? There had been that ridiculous row over the gramophone, and apparently she had been chiefly responsible for its annoyance. But who could take that seriously? The fiddle? The flooding of the Whalley's flat? The complaints about that little dog\u2014what was his name? Mr Knayle couldn't remember his name and couldn't imagine anyone killing a young woman because she had played a gramophone over his head six months before. He shook his head and lighted another cigarette.\n\nSometimes he raised his eyes to the ceiling, but they always returned to the fire quickly. The ceiling had become a reminder of a fatuousness of which he was now a little ashamed and which, he suspected, had been largely physiological\u2014some late, feeble explosion of sex\u2014no rose-scented rapture, but a whiff of musty decay. He didn't want to think about that sort of thing. His romance had become suspect\u2014an elderly infatuation, of now uncertain ambitions, for another man's wife. He wanted to cancel all that and leave her in her original state\u2014the wife of Whalley with whom he was now determined to have nothing to do.\n\nSometimes, too, he rose quickly from his armchair to peer through the window-curtains. But it was only to watch Ridgeway pass between his little flight of steps and the staircase leading to the upper flats. Ridgeway spent most of his time now in the first-floor flat, descending at intervals for meals, sometimes remaining up there all night. Mr Knayle kept watch upon his comings and goings and was always tempted to hurry out and ask him how Whalley was getting on, and whether his mind was right again, and whether it was likely that he had heard Chidgey's story about a missing hammer, and what Ridgeway himself thought about Chidgey's story. But, though his interest in Whalley had become an obsession, he was determined to have nothing to do with him, or with Ridgeway, who had taken charge of him. Ridgeway's remark about the telephone had been most offensive. When the sound of the slippered footsteps had died away Mr Knayle went back to the fire, remembering sometimes that he had peered through the curtains at Whalley's wife, and feeling a little furtive.\n\nThe grey days before Christmas passed. He was always sitting in his armchair before the fire, raising a cigarette slowly to his lips and taking it away again.\n\nAfter lunch on Christmas Day his attention was attracted to the sound of footsteps pacing to and fro slowly above his head. They paced slowly and faintly, and when he had listened to them for some moments, expecting them to stop, his attention strayed from them. In a little while, however, it returned to them. They had not stopped, and they had grown louder.\n\nFor an hour and a half they paced, almost directly above his arm-chair. He got up to listen to them\u2014listened to them from different positions about the room. Their sound grew louder and more distinct. When they ceased at length, he yawned with weariness of them.\n\nTen minutes later they began to pace again. They went on pacing all the afternoon, all the evening, stopping sometimes for a few minutes, sometimes for half an hour. They were audible everywhere in the flat\u2014there was no way not to hear them. They were pacing when he fell asleep towards two o'clock, pacing when he woke at half-past three.\n\nNext day they began towards midday. Mr Knayle swore at them and went for a walk. When he returned to lunch they were still pacing. They paced all the afternoon and all the evening. He got no sleep whatsoever that night.\n\nWhen they began next day at half-past one he sprang up from the table and upset his coffee.\n\n'Talk about the gramophone, sir\u2014' said Hopgood, when they had stood for a little space looking upwards in silence.\n\nIt seemed impossible that they could continue and never grow weary. But they went on pacing all day long, all through the night. Actually their sound was scarcely louder than Mr Knayle's angry breathing, but his fretted nerves heard it as the trampling of a regiment. Its torture hammered on his smoothly-brushed head and beat it slowly into seething fury; it made his palms sweat and dug his finger-nails into them, made him writhe in his chair and batter the fire savagely. He tried various devices to deaden the sound\u2014packed his ears with cotton-wool, wrapped a muffler round his head, turned on the wireless. Nothing was of any avail, however. In the end it was more satisfying to hear it clearly and hate it without interference.\n\nHe thought a great deal about this small, continuous noise which in a few days had made his life a poisoned agony.\n\n'Can you remember, Hopgood,' he asked one day, 'how long used that gramophone of the Prossips to play\u2014exactly?'\n\n### 3\n\nThere was very little for Mr Ridgeway to do. He spent most of his time before the gas-fire in the dining-room, reading\u2014got through Motley's _Dutch Republic_ , James's _Varieties of Religious Experience_ , _An Old Wives' Tale_ , and some of Hardy's novels\u2014dozed a good deal, and sometimes forgot to go down to his own flat for meals. Four times a day he attended to Whalley's eye; but the ulcer had now grown stagnant and there was really no necessity to trouble about it. At irregular intervals he made some tea and cut some slices of bread and butter. Whalley drank the tea greedily but sometimes left the bread and butter untouched. He refused all other food, and the liver which the butcher still delivered each morning went into the rubbish-bin. There was really no necessity to trouble about that either.\n\nThe pacing footsteps in the passage did not disturb Mr Ridgeway greatly; in the dining-room, with the porti\u00e8re drawn across the door, they were barely audible\u2014no more than company. Sometimes he went out and stood for a while, watching and wondering when they would begin to tire. At first he had been a little interested by the fact that, as he paced to and fro, Whalley's face remained always raised towards the ceiling. But the pacing figure was always the same and its face always raised; Mr Ridgeway hardly thought about it at all now save to speculate as to how long it would go on pacing on a little tea and bread and butter. Not very long, he thought. Some weeks, perhaps. But there was no hurry.\n\nGradually the flat fell into disorder. At intervals Whalley interrupted his patrol abruptly and, hurrying into one of the rooms, resumed a process of dismantlement which had now been in progress for over a fortnight. It proceeded spasmodically, but with a persistency which had at first aroused a little speculation in Mr Ridgeway's mind, but had quickly become monotonous. Now a couple of pictures were taken down\u2014now another strip of carpet was cleared, the furniture pushed into a corner, and the carpet rolled up. Now the contents of a book-case were emptied on to the floor, or a shelf of the kitchen dresser cleared and the crockery stacked in the passage. These outbreaks of energy were, however, of brief duration; after a few minutes of feverish activity Whalley abandoned his labours as abruptly as he begun them, looked about him vacantly, and went back to resume his pacing again. Beyond keeping a clear approach to the gas-fire in the dining-room, Mr Ridgeway did not concern himself with this derangement. If its purpose was, as he surmised, an unusually elaborate spring-cleaning, he thought it extremely unlikely that it would ever be achieved. And even if one did walk on a picture or a Crown Derby saucer, it really didn't matter in the least.\n\nOne night he tried a little experiment. He brought up an aspirin tabloid and, just before he went away, opened Whalley's mouth gently and placed the tabloid on his tongue. Whalley swallowed it apathetically. No experiment could have been more satisfactory. After that the swallowing of an aspirin tabloid became a nightly formality whose occasional omission appeared to cause Whalley a vague disappointment.\n\nHis strength failed swiftly. Much more quickly even than Mr Ridgeway had expected the pacing footsteps began to weary of their sentry-go. Mr Ridgeway became restless and watchful and left the door of the dining-room ajar a little while he tried to finish _The Mayor of Casterbridge_.\n\n## CHAPTER XIV\n\n### 1\n\nON one windy night towards the middle of January Mr Knayle sat watching his sitting-room fire go out. For three hours he had sat there while its cheerful blaze had dwindled to a glow\u2014faded\u2014contracted\u2014chilled to a grey heap of ashes whose pin-points of red were a mockery of warmth and comfort. His eyes watched the last phases of its death with stony bitterness and saw in it a symbol\u2014an epitome of the disorder which had suddenly attacked his life. For the reason why the fire had gone out was that there was no coal in the coal-box. And the reason why there was no coal in the coal-box was that Hopgood had gone away at three o'clock that afternoon.\n\nMr Knayle was still too angry to think clearly how this malign and menacing thing had happened him. Hopgood's desertion confused itself with another malign and menacing thing which had happened earlier in the day. Shortly before lunchtime a mob of howling louts had passed up Downview Road, waving red flags and brandishing sticks and pieces of gas-piping. Suddenly a stone had crashed through one of the windows of the sitting-room. It had done no damage beyond breaking the window and sprinkling the carpet with glass; but Hopgood had been badly scared and, in his panic-stricken flight from the room, had pushed Mr Knayle violently out of his way. Mr Knayle had followed him out to the kitchen and said several things which he was now unable to remember but which he felt sure had been thoroughly deserved. There had been a most unpleasant scene in the kitchen. Hopgood had refused to gather up the broken glass, refused to get lunch ready, called Mr Knayle a bloody bully, shut himself up in his room, and ultimately gone off in a taxi without warning and without asking for his wages. It had all been so sudden and so sinister and so utterly contemptuous of Mr Knayle's dignity and comfort that he was still shaken by little hot quiverings of anger and apprehension\u2014still quite unable to think clearly about it.\n\nBut he felt that a devastating catastrophe had befallen him. For nearly twenty years Hopgood had supplied the essential needs of every moment of the days smoothly and unfailingly that it had never been necessary to consider even the possibility of hitch or failure. Now, in a moment, all this tranquil, complicated security had collapsed into irreparable confusion. In his heart Mr Knayle knew that Hopgood could never be replaced. Another man could be found, no doubt, honest, intelligent, conscientious in the ordinary way\u2014able to cook tolerably\u2014able to keep things going fairly well. But there had been a hundred thousand small personal dexterities and understandings in Hopgood's service\u2014a hundred thousand small knowledges which had supplied themselves to Mr Knayle's little ways with a loyalty which had been very nearly maternal affection. Mr Knayle knew that many of his little ways were rather unreasonable\u2014some of them rather odd\u2014some of them childish in their pettiness. He wanted no new hands to neglect them\u2014no new eyes to watch them\u2014no new tongue to gossip about them. Not in twenty years could any possible new man be taught to respect them and guard them as an honoured trust. Not in a lifetime could he be taught the devotion which with Hopgood had been a tradition. For Hopgood's forebears had served the Knayle family and its kindred for generations\u2014a fact which lent to his desertion the baseness of a treachery. Mr Knayle's anger could not contemplate the task of training any possible new man to regard his little ways with maternal affection and to appreciate properly the honour of serving a member of the Knayle family. It was unable to look beyond the indignities and discomforts of the moment. It desired simply to defy them, not to think of remedies for them. He sat bolt upright, defying them.\n\nIt appeared to him incredible that he could find himself in such a position. He had had no food since breakfast. He was sitting in a room without a fire on a cold winter night. The carpet was covered with splintered glass and a desolating draught came in through the broken window-pane. Nothing would be ready in his bedroom. There would be no hot-water bottle in his bed. There would be no tea in the morning\u2014no breakfast. These things appeared to him inconceivable and outrageous. He could have gone to the club or to a restaurant, but he had been determined not to go. He could have had the window mended, but he had been determined not to have it mended. He could have taken the coal-box out to the cellar and refilled it, but he had been determined that he would not refill the coal-box. He had never filled a coal-box in his life; nothing would compel him to fill a coal-box. He was resolved to endure cold and hunger and despise them proudly and angrily\u2014not to yield an inch to them. He had yielded too much\u2014allowed himself to be cowed and thrust aside\u2014allowed his body to grow slack\u2014his morale to slip into flabbiness. That must stop. A stand must be taken before it was too late.\n\nHe had had a bad headache since the scene in the kitchen that morning. It was not so much a headache as a sensation that his head was clamped in a vice which had compressed its contents into solidity. There was a persistent buzzing, too, in his ears which sometimes became the roar of swollen, rushing waters and blotted out everything except a desolating sense of imminent disaster. He could construct no definite thought about the discomforts of his position; they were all too sudden\u2014too wanton in their senselessness. But they appeared to him of immense importance and significance\u2014insults to order and justice and all sane purpose\u2014manifestations of the sinister forces which had thrown all the world into confusion and alarm. The draught that came in through the broken window-pane was no mere current of cold air; it was an irruption of lawlessness, a spirit of brutal howling destruction. He saw that Hopgood's treacherous desertion typified the revolt of the masses\u2014furtive, cunning, insane in its lust to deface and pull down. It was that sort of thing that was undermining civilisation\u2014idiotic rebellion against authority. His mind connected it with the disaffection of India\u2014Bolshevism\u2014the tyranny of the Trades Unions\u2014chits of girls addressing men of fifty by nicknames\u2014indecent films\u2014litter left lying about the Downs\u2014smash-and-grab raids\u2014the swift breaking-up of the Empire. Everywhere revolt against order and tradition and superior intelligence. It was all confused and a little tremulous, but Mr Knayle was clear that it must be stopped. He saw himself\u2014not as an individual, but as a class. It was the English gentleman, the guardian of honour and law and justice who sat by the dying fire and saw in it the threat of his extinction, and defied its threat contemptuously. There had been Knayles of Yelve Court since King's John's time\u2014soldiers, sailors, lawyers, governors, ministers, a Lord Chancellor, three judges, an admiral, two generals, an ambassador and a bishop. They had all kept the trust. Mr Knayle's cleft chin tilted itself when he thought of them. It was they and their kind that had always been the backbone of the country\u2014the stable, stubborn spirit that had withstood all changes. What was there like them? He saw that there had never been anything in the world like them. And he was one of them. He would fight the good fight\u2014go down fighting...\n\nYes. He had allowed himself to weaken\u2014shut himself up with his sickliness\u2014brooded himself into cowardice. But that was done with now. Tomorrow, when the headache and the buzzing had gone, he would take steps to deal with all this\u2014stop it\u2014make a fresh start\u2014get away from this sitting-room where his brain had thought itself into stupor\u2014get away from that fellow Whalley and his pacing\u2014get away from bleary, shambling Ridgeway\u2014get away from rottenness and fear\u2014get away from all the sickness of the past six months. A little place somewhere near Whanton\u2014a bit of rough shooting\u2014a garden\u2014days in the fresh air\u2014nights of sound sleep again\u2014a couple of dogs. One would learn not to think again.\n\nTomorrow. Tonight everything trembled too much. A quarter to twelve.\n\nBut Mr Knayle was determined not to go to bed tonight.\n\n### 2\n\nThe hall-door bell rang furiously and continued to ring while he made his way a little dizzily along the hall. When he opened the door Prossip lurched in, very white and oozing slightly at the corners of his lips. Mr Knayle stared at him in surprise and dislike\u2014watched him shift a small suit-case to his left hand, and stepped back a little to avoid shaking hands with him.\n\n'Hello, old chap,' said Prossip gloomily, moving his lips with great care. 'Sorry to knock you up at this hour.'\n\nHe stood, swaying a little, holding out his hand, looking so meanly bounderish in his new mourning that Mr Knayle remained determined not to shake hands with him. What was this boozing cad coming to his hall-door for at twelve o'clock at night, ringing the bell like a madman and slobbering at his lips? A mean, frightened-looking, drunken cad. What was he doing there? Shake hands with him? Mr Knayle was determined that he wouldn't\n\nBut something must be said to him\u2014something about his daughter having been murdered. How would one begin it? 'I'm so sorry your daughter was murdered.' 'I'm so sorry that you have met with such a\u2014' 'I'm so sorry\u2014' Mr Knayle couldn't begin to think of something to say. Murder? Who wanted to talk about murder? Sick thoughts\u2014footsteps pacing\u2014pacing\u2014pacing. Done with all that.\n\n'I'm so sorry about your daughter, Mr Prossip,' he said at last, slowly and frigidly.\n\nProssip waved a hand. 'Don't, old man\u2014' He darted a quick look of doubt. 'I've lost the poor Missus, too, you know.'\n\n'The\u2014your wife? Your wife? Do you mean that your wife is dead?'\n\nMr Prossip's head nodded gloomily. 'Gone. It's finished me, old chap. I'm through.'\n\n### 3\n\nIt was late and Knayle looked damn unfriendly, but Mr Prossip decided to sit down on one of the very hard hall-chairs and tell how dear old Emma had gone from him. It was a long story because first it had to go back over his life with Emma and make it clear that they had always been the best of pals and had never had as much as an angry word between them. Then it had to make it clear that he had warned Emma hundreds and hundreds of times against riding a bicycle\u2014done everything a man could do to prevent her riding a bicycle. All this took a lot of time because he had to move his lips very carefully so as not to be ill in Mr Knayle's hall. He had had a lot of whisky during the day and he knew that he was going to be ill as soon as he got up to his own flat; but he didn't want it to happen in Knayle's hall. It was an effort to keep his lips close together, and he was tired and Knayle kept on saying nothing and looking damn unfriendly. However he made it quite clear that he had always warned Emma against riding a bicycle. That was the important thing.\n\nThen he told how Emma had gone off to church one morning and how a car had knocked her off her bicycle in the fog, and how she had been found by a postman lying dead on the footpath. The postman had seen the whole thing from the other side of the road and had run after the car; but it had disappeared into the fog and he hadn't been able to see its number. A two-seater car, he had said, driven by a man with a bandage tied round his head. The bicycle, of course, had been smashed up, but Emma hadn't had a scratch on her. At any rate that was something to be thankful for.\n\nKnayle kept on looking damn queer and unfriendly and, tiring of his story, Mr Prossip rose heavily to his feet and hiccupped loudly.\n\n'Sorry,' he said. 'Can I have my key\u2014the key of my flat, you know? I left it with you.'\n\n'Key?' Knayle repeated. He opened his mouth, shut it again, dithered through a door, dithered out again, handed Mr Prossip a labelled key and opened the hall-door.\n\n'When\u2014?' he began, and shut his mouth again. Mr Prossip felt another hiccup coming on and lurched out into the safety of the windy darkness. The hall-door shut behind him immediately.\n\nIt was all damn odd and unfriendly, Mr Prossip thought as he climbed to the top flat with his suitcase. But everyone had been unfriendly towards him for some time back and he was beginning to expect it. No use worrying\u2014just toddle along and take no notice. He sang as he fumbled with the latchkey.\n\n'Pack all your troubles in your old kit-bag\n\nAnd smile, smile, smile.'\n\nThe song died away abruptly when he discovered that the electric light had been cut off. After a long search he found a stump of candle in one of the kitchen drawers. But its wavering light cast uneasy shadows and never reached corners. Mr Prossip liked to be able to see corners distinctly now. Finding that Emma had stripped all the beds and locked away the bedclothes in a cupboard for which he had no key, he sat down and wept for a little while heavily. The thought that Emma would never unlock the cupboard again and take out the neatly-folded blankets and sheets and pillow-slips which she had put away so carefully strangled his heart. It was a reminder that all her untiring, ruthless efficiency was lost to him for ever; she died again while it choked him.\n\nHe had often wondered what it would be like if Emma died. It had seemed to him certain that, once rid of her watchful tyranny, his life would instantly expand into a splendid liberty\u2014an unending series of eases and reliefs. But it hadn't worked out like that. The lonely weeks since Emma's death had opened his eyes and given him a new view of himself. He had discovered that all the comforts and conveniences of his life had depended upon her\u2014that all his reputable friends had been hers, all his decent actions directed by her, all his facade of respectability maintained by her. It had been revealed to him that everything of him which had been at all presentable had died with her. What was left had not been agreeable company for Mr Prossip during the past five weeks. He had got through a lot of whisky in the effort not to think about it. But for some reason whisky had lost its kick since Emma's death. Mr Prossip merely got ill now, when he drank enough of it, and began to think about Emma's bicycle and Marjory's fiddle and the possibility of his ending in an inebriates' home. The wind howled and the shadows waved and he blubbered like a baby because he knew that he was just a helpless, boozing old blackguard and that there was now no one to care whether he was one or to prevent him from being one.\n\nHowever, he felt better presently when he had taken a swig at a bottle of whisky which he had packed in his suitcase. Toddle along and take no notice. Scrape through. He would have to sleep in his clothes tonight, and there was a lot of troublesome business to be done with Emma's solicitors tomorrow. But in a couple of months he would be comfortably settled in a little flat in London, with an income of twelve hundred or so. No more nagging\u2014no more going out to early service\u2014no more scraping. Not so bad after all. Not so bad.\n\nAs he wandered towards the kitchen in search of another candle, his eyes fell on the gramophone standing in its old place with its lid open and a dusty record resting on its table. A little tune would liven things up a bit and get into all those dark corners. He set it going and stood listening, wondering if old what-was-his-name was still in the flat underneath, and whether he would have another swig before he looked for candles. After all, he didn't think he was going to be ill just yet.\n\n### 4\n\nDownstairs Mr Knayle paced to and fro fitfully, pursuing the irritation from which he fled. Sometimes the grinding smash of glass beneath his feet turned him aside in search of a new course for his restlessness. But the furniture baulked him and drove him back to the imprisonment of one short path. There was no escape from it; his buzzing, trembling mind must go, and turn and come back along it, always checked, always beginning again. When he stood still the swirling waters roared threateningly and the clamps tightened on his temples. He had become uneasy about his headache. the solid part of it had swollen and was pressing outwards against the clamps. It was safer to keep moving\u2014safer not to let that roar become too loud. Blood-pressure, probably; something would have to be done about it tomorrow if it wasn't better. Tomorrow\u2014today. Mr Knayle saw that it was nearly one o'clock and knew that far the wisest thing would have been to go to bed. The room had settled into grey aloofness and watched him with impatience. But he was determined not to be driven from it\u2014determined that this\u2014this\u2014\n\nHe stopped, rubbed his forehead impatiently, then went on again, clicking his fingers impatiently. Strange this feeling that thoughts were solid, bursting heavinesses which it was exasperated weariness to move. But they must be moved\u2014urged on before their weight became too heavy and too hated. Determined that this\u2014this\u2014\n\nTurn again\u2014begin again. Determined to what? Something about Mrs Prossip... Determined to\u2014to understand quite clearly about Mrs Prossip.\n\nThe old, weary, sick business beginning again\u2014the infernal Prossips\u2014Whalley\u2014the lane\u2014the hammer\u2014Chidgey\u2014Agatha Judd. The old exhausted, hated questions sliding by. No answers to them\u2014only futility and nausea. What did it matter about that fellow Whalley? Let him pace. Why think of him or trouble about him? Why not leave him up there\u2014escape from him tomorrow\u2014today?\n\nBut no. Mr Knayle had done with escaping and shirking. This thing of Whalley must be faced and dealt with. He saw that he must face it and deal with it\u2014that no one else could gather it together and piece it into certainty. Only he knew all about Whalley. For who knew\u2014who knew that\u2014that?\n\nHe turned and began again. The whole thing was there, tremblingly clear, buzzing with clearness. But the chain slid by too quickly; he couldn't select a piece and make it a beginning. Whalley in the lane... but a week before the murder. That proved nothing unless\u2014unless one began with the hammer. But before one could begin with the hammer one had to begin with Chidgey. Had Chidgey really missed a hammer? Turn again. Begin with Whalley saying that he hadn't been in Guildford. But that began nothing unless one began with the lane, and the lane slid away until Chidgey slid up again. Agatha Judd\u2014begin with her. But there was no beginning with her unless one began first with the Prossip girl\u2014Whalley in the lane\u2014Chidgey sliding up again.\n\nTurn again. Face it and deal with it\u2014gather up that fellow Whalley up there, drag him out of his hiding-place and finish him. Begin again. This about Mrs Prossip and her bicycle. A two-seater\u2014a driver with a bandaged head\u2014fog. But when\u2014what foggy morning? What had killed her\u2014her heart or the car? No beginning there\u2014no proof unless those pieces fitted. Even then\u2014even then\u2014As he turned once more, Mr Knayle paused abruptly, looking upwards. A faint, new overtone had added itself to the mournful wailing of the wind\u2014a sound whose improbability startled him, yet seemed to him expected\u2014a dream-like, half-heard answer to his baulking thoughts. His nerves tightened as he listened to it. It was a prelude\u2014a warning that filled the room with urgent danger. It came and went\u2014swirled\u2014died away in sickened weariness\u2014shattered itself in an explosion which stunned the wind to silence. A splinter of glass dislodged itself from the broken window-pane and tinkled softly to the floor before a second report hurled him into furious action. Three more followed in rapid succession while he scuttled to the hall-door, snatching up a riding-crop as he went. Madness up there\u2014murder broken loose. But _he_ would deal with them. It was avenging justice that scuttled up the outside staircase and hammered savagely at a door that dared not open.\n\nThe wind was very loud up there and Mr Knayle had run up the steps so quickly that his ears roared like thunder. He heard a hiccup and knew that Prossip had come down and was standing beside him in the darkness, saying something about firing. But he didn't want to hear what Prossip was saying\u2014Prossip who had brought back all this madness\u2014who knew nothing\u2014who was too drunk to understand anything. He turned a little, pushed him away with a thrust of his elbow and resumed his hammering until, at last, the door opened.\n\nRidgeway stood looking at him in an acrid mist that drifted sluggishly. His eyes were sly; Mr Knayle hated their narrow furtiveness and stormed in, twitching his crop.\n\n'What's this?' he demanded. 'Who fired those\u2014those\u2014? Who fired?'\n\n'Don't make a fuss,' Ridgeway replied hurriedly. 'It's all right.'\n\n'All right? All right?' repeated Mr Knayle. 'All right?'\n\nHe hurried up the little staircase and stood looking about him in the narrow passage. It was blocked with chairs and tables, untidy heaps of crockery stood everywhere, mirrors and pictures lay smothered in the dust from an overturned coal-box. Its confusion confused him. For a moment he couldn't think why he was standing there looking at it.\n\n'All right?' he said again, angrily. 'Who\u2014who fired those shots?'\n\nRidgeway came up and passed him slowly, watching the twitching of the crop.\n\n'Whalley.'\n\n'Did he, by God?' said Prossip, coming up a step. 'Did he, by God?'\n\nBut Ridgeway was moving on slyly, creeping towards a door at the end of the passage, without seeming to move his feet.\n\n'Wait\u2014wait now,' commanded Mr Knayle. 'Stand still, you old fool. Why did he fire?'\n\n'I don't know. I was asleep. It's all right. Don't shout.'\n\n'Shout?'\n\nMr Knayle's voice slid up to shrillness and cracked so sharply that Ridgeway stopped to look back at him curiously. His eyes had risen to the ceiling and suddenly seen certainty. There it was, looking down at him, the answer to all his questions. The crudest of physical facts\u2014a square of painted boardwork scarred by a ring of splintered gashes. Its crudity amazed him. It was merely a piece of splintered wood let into the plaster of the ceiling, altogether separated from significance. And yet he knew that it explained everything\u2014that now he knew all about Whalley. The gramophone\u2014that was it\u2014that was the truth of it all. The gramophone\u2014blaring\u2014blaring\u2014never stopping\u2014torture like pacing footsteps. That was the beginning\u2014the first piece\u2014there, just within his grasp if he could stop its sliding and trembling.\n\nHe turned towards Prossip.\n\n'The gramophone\u2014' he said. 'He fired at the gramophone.'\n\nBut Prossip's face was white and trembling with fright\u2014dribbling at the lips\u2014going to be sick. Mr Knayle turned away from it in loathing. Who could explain to it?\n\n'It was an accident,' said Ridgeway. 'He didn't know what he was doing. It's all right. Don't make a fuss.'\n\n'Accident?' Mr Knayle repeated shrilly. 'Accident? It was murder\u2014murder, do you hear? I warn you, Ridgeway. I know all about him. I know\u2014'\n\nStrange\u2014he was standing there, opening and shutting his mouth and making no sound whatever. Ridgeway had slid through a door and shut it behind him. Whalley was in there, then\u2014caught\u2014cornered at last\u2014the mad pacer\u2014the evil, hiding thing that must be finished.\n\nStrange though that there was no sound.\n\nIt was clear to Mr Knayle what he must do next. He must fling open that door, stride in, point his crop at Whalley and tell him all he knew about him. He must tell it all perfectly clearly, adding piece to piece, building it up to certainty, while Whalley listened in shame and fear. It was a fine, avenging entry and Mr Knayle's anger trembled on the point of making it\u2014hung on the verge of movement. One more exhausted lifting\u2014one more effort of torment\u2014and then done with madness for ever.\n\nThe gramophone. Begin again. Torture\u2014nausea\u2014impotence. But begin again at Whalley\u2014tear him out of it. Begin again. The gramophone\u2014red scars\u2014five of them in a circle\u2014deliberate\u2014\n\nSuddenly Prossip was abominably ill. He had seated himself on the stairs and was leaning on his hands, vomiting with the gloomy abandonment of a disgorging ghoul. Mr Knayle stared at his heaving blackness for a moment in furious disgust, then rushed to the door at the end of the passage and hurled himself against it.\n\nAnother strange thing happened to him then\u2014so suddenly that his perception of it clouded itself in acrid darkness. He knew that he was trying to open a door\u2014that he desired to open it\u2014that he had hurled himself against it in his desire to open it. But it refused to open\u2014he had no power whatever to begin to open it. His body was a mere wisp of thistledown fluttering impotently against the battlements of a fortress\u2014battlements of a weight and thickness for which there was no measurement. They towered above his feebleness\u2014beat it back\u2014scattered it in dizziness. Nothing would make them yield or surrender their secret. His fingers fumbled, lost the handle, found it again\u2014could not begin the thought of turning it.\n\nStrange. Dizzy as whirling thistledown. But it must be dealt with\u2014finished.\n\nThe darkness cleared a little and Mr Knayle's determination at last opened the door and carried him slowly into the room. Inside was silence and a confusion which bewildered him and deprived him of all sense of direction. At first he could see nothing except a barrier of furniture which occupied the central portion of the floor, collected, yet scattered as if some purpose had died in aimlessness. He edged along it, pushed a chair aside, stumbled over a rolled-up carpet, came to a pause before a bed which stood wedged between a wardrobe and a dressing-table. Its position stupefied him. It was a bed all ready for use\u2014unruffled\u2014immaculate in its crisp neatness and cleanness; and yet it stood there in the centre of the room, abandoned to the disorder which enclosed it. For a moment he stared at it vaguely, then moved on slowly until, rounding the side of the wardrobe, he saw another bed, standing awry in the angle of two walls.\n\nBut for Mr Knayle it was not a bed. It was a swirling torment of defeat which crushed his mind to nothingness. On it lay two figures interlocked in a frantic embrace which had the fixity of paralysis yet still struggled in delirious ferocity. But they had no significance\u2014no thought. He knew that their struggling had ended. His questions would remain for ever unanswered. They were utter frustration.\n\nHis mind strove with them for an instant feebly, trying to disentangle them, trying to reach the thing which had baffled and eluded him and now lay hidden beneath a dingy dressing-gown. But Mr Ridgeway held his company fast; there was nothing that was Whalley except a twisted leg escaping from a rumpled eiderdown. Mr Knayle felt very weary of it suddenly and couldn't understand it. His ears roared painfully because its trembling deadness would never give an answer. It seemed to him safer to sit down until the pain had passed.\n\nHe made his way back to the other bed and seated himself on it with a little sigh of relief. It was very soft, very clean\u2014without torment or question. After some moments his attention was attracted to a little case which rested on the pillows\u2014a dainty thing of jade-coloured silk on which the name 'Elsa' was embroidered in a darker green. The letters trembled so violently that he bent his head to see them clearly. A faint perfume of roses assailed him dizzily\u2014smiling\u2014sunlit\u2014dancing. Very slowly his head dropped to the pillows and lay quite still.\n\n### 5\n\nAfter a little while Mr Prossip felt much better. He was still badly frightened and he didn't think he'd bother to find out what was going on in that room at the end of the passage. The whole business struck him as damn queer. But everything was damn queer, when you thought about it. He ascended to his own flat in offended dignity, cheered himself up with another swig at his bottle, and then thought that he'd find out whether the gramophone had been damaged or had just stopped of its own accord.\n\nTo his satisfaction it was quite uninjured\u2014much louder and jollier now that he had been ill.\n\nTHE END\n\n### **THE DETECTIVE STORY CLUB**\n\nE. C. BENTLEY \u2022 TRENT'S LAST CASE\n\nE. C. BENTLEY \u2022 TRENT INTERVENES\n\nE. C. BENTLEY & H. WARNER ALLEN \u2022 TRENT'S OWN CASE\n\nANTHONY BERKELEY \u2022 THE WYCHFORD POISONING CASE\n\nANTHONY BERKELEY \u2022 THE SILK STOCKING MURDER\n\nBERNARD CAPES \u2022 THE MYSTERY OF THE SKELETON KEY\n\nAGATHA CHRISTIE \u2022 THE MURDER OF ROGER ACKROYD\n\nAGATHA CHRISTIE THE BIG FOUR\n\nHUGH CONWAY \u2022 CALLED BACK\n\nHUGH CONWAY \u2022 DARK DAYS\n\nEDMUND CRISPIN \u2022 THE CASE OF THE GILDED FLY\n\nFREEMAN WILLS CROFTS \u2022 THE CASK\n\nFREEMAN WILLS CROFTS \u2022 THE PONSON CASE\n\nFREEMAN WILLS CROFTS \u2022 THE GROOTE PARK MURDER\n\nMAURICE DRAKE \u2022 THE MYSTERY OF THE MUD FLATS\n\nFRANCIS DURBRIDGE \u2022 BEWARE OF JOHNNY WASHINGTON\n\nJ. JEFFERSON FARJEON \u2022 THE HOUSE OPPOSITE\n\nRUDOLPH FISHER \u2022 THE CONJURE-MAN DIES\n\nFRANK FRO\u00cbST \u2022 THE GRELL MYSTERY\n\nFRANK FRO\u00cbST & GEORGE DILNOT \u2022 THE CRIME CLUB\n\n\u00c9MILE GABORIAU \u2022 THE BLACKMAILERS\n\nANNA K. GREEN \u2022 THE LEAVENWORTH CASE\n\nVERNON LODER \u2022 THE MYSTERY AT STOWE\n\nPHILIP MACDONALD \u2022 THE RASP\n\nPHILIP MACDONALD \u2022 THE NOOSE\n\nPHILIP MACDONALD \u2022 MURDER GONE MAD\n\nPHILIP MACDONALD \u2022 THE MAZE\n\nNGAIO MARSH \u2022 THE NURSING HOME MURDER\n\nG. ROY MCRAE \u2022 THE PASSING OF MR QUINN\n\nR. A. V. MORRIS \u2022 THE LYTTLETON CASE\n\nARTHUR B. REEVE \u2022 THE ADVENTURESS\n\nFRANK RICHARDSON \u2022 THE MAYFAIR MYSTERY\n\nR. L. STEVENSON \u2022 DR JEKYLL AND MR HYDE\n\nEDGAR WALLACE \u2022 THE TERROR\n\nISRAEL ZANGWILL \u2022 THE PERFECT CRIME\n\n_FURTHER TITLES IN PREPARATION_\n\n### About the Publisher\n\n**Australia**\n\nHarperCollins Publishers (Australia) Pty. 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+{"text":"\n\n\n\nProduced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online\nDistributed Proofreading Team at http:\/\/www.pgdp.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber's notes:\n\n(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally\n      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an\n      underscore, like C_n.\n\n(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.\n\n(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective\n      paragraphs.\n\n(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not\n      inserted.\n\n(5) [oo] stands for the infinity symbol.\n\n(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:\n\n    Article CATALONIA: \"There is much woodland, but meadows and\n      pastures are rare.\" 'There' amended from 'These'.\n\n    Article CATALYSIS: \"It seems in this, as in other cases, that\n      additional compounds are first formed which subsequently react with\n      the re-formation of the catalyst.\" 'additional' amended from\n      'addition'.\n\n    Article CAVALRY: \"... and as this particular branch of the army was\n      almost exclusively commanded by the aristocracy it suffered most in\n      the early days of the Revolution.\" 'army' amended from 'arm'.\n\n    Article CECILIA, SAINT: \"It was long supposed that she was a noble\n      lady of Rome 594 who, with her husband and other friends whom she\n      had converted, suffered martyrdom, c. 230, under the emperor\n      Alexander Severus.\" 'martyrdom' amended from 'martydom'.\n\n    Article CELT: \"Two poets of this period, whom an English writer\n      describes as 'the two filthy Welshmen who first smoked publicly in\n      the streets,' ...\" 'as' amended from 'a'.\n\n\n\n\n          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA\n\n  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE\n           AND GENERAL INFORMATION\n\n              ELEVENTH EDITION\n\n\n            VOLUME V, SLICE V\n\n               Cat to Celt\n\n\n\n\nARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:\n\n\n  CAT                                 CAUTERETS\n  CATABOLISM                          CAUTIN\n  CATACLYSM                           CAUTLEY, SIR PROBY THOMAS\n  CATACOMB                            CAUVERY\n  CATAFALQUE                          CAVA DEI TIRRENI\n  CATALANI, ANGELICA                  CAVAEDIUM\n  CATALEPSY                           CAVAGNARI, SIR PIERRE NAPOLEON\n  CATALOGUE                           CAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE\n  CATALONIA                           CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE\n  CATALPA                             CAVAILLON\n  CATALYSIS                           CAVALCANTI, GUIDO\n  CATAMARAN                           CAVALIER, JEAN\n  CATAMARCA (province of Argentine)   CAVALIER\n  CATAMARCA (city of Argentine)       CAVALIERE, EMILIO DEL\n  CATANIA                             CAVALLI, FRANCESCO\n  CATANZARO                           CAVALLINI, PIETRO\n  CATAPHYLL                           CAVALLO, TIBERIUS\n  CATAPULT                            CAVALLOTTI, FELICE\n  CATARACT                            CAVALRY\n  CATARGIU, LASCAR                    CAVAN (county of Ireland)\n  CATARRH                             CAVAN (town of Ireland)\n  CATARRHINE APE                      CAVANILLES, ANTONIO JOSE\n  CATASTROPHE                         CAVATINA\n  CATAUXI                             CAVE, EDWARD\n  CATAWBAS                            CAVE, WILLIAM\n  CATCH THE TEN                       CAVE\n  CATECHISM                           CAVEA\n  CATECHU                             CAVEAT\n  CATECHUMEN                          CAVEDONE, JACOPO\n  CATEGORY                            CAVENDISH, GEORGE\n  CATENARY                            CAVENDISH, HENRY\n  CATERAN                             CAVENDISH, THOMAS\n  CATERHAM                            CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM\n  CATERPILLAR                         CAVETTO\n  CATESBY, ROBERT                     CAVIARE\n  CAT-FISH                            CAVITE\n  CATGUT                              CAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO\n  CATHA                               CAVOUR\n  CATHARS                             CAVY\n  CATHAY                              CAWDOR\n  CATHCART, SIR GEORGE                CAWNPORE\n  CATHCART, WILLIAM SCHAW CATHCART    CAXTON, WILLIAM\n  CATHCART                            CAYENNE\n  CATHEDRAL                           CAYENNE PEPPER\n  CATHELINEAU, JACQUES                CAYEY\n  CATHERINE, SAINT                    CAYLEY, ARTHUR\n  CATHERINE I                         CAYLUS, ANNE CLAUDE DE LEVIS\n  CATHERINE II                        CAYMAN ISLANDS\n  CATHERINE DE' MEDICI                CAZALES, JACQUES ANTOINE DE\n  CATHERINE OF ARAGON                 CAZALIS, HENRI\n  CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA               CAZEMBE\n  CATHERINE OF VALOIS                 CAZIN, JEAN CHARLES\n  CATHETUS                            CAZOTTE, JACQUES\n  CATHOLIC                            CEANOTHUS\n  CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH, THE      CEARA\n  CATILINE                            CEAWLIN\n  CATINAT, NICOLAS                    CEBES\n  CATLIN, GEORGE                      CEBU\n  CATO, DIONYSIUS                     CECCO D'ASCOLI\n  CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (statesman)    CECIL\n  CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (philosopher)  CECILIA, SAINT\n  CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS              CECROPIA\n  CATS, JACOB                         CECROPS\n  CAT'S-EYE                           CEDAR\n  CATSKILL                            CEDAR CREEK\n  CATSKILL MOUNTAINS                  CEDAR FALLS\n  CATTANEO, CARLO                     CEDAR RAPIDS\n  CATTARO                             CEFALU\n  CATTEGAT                            CEHEGIN\n  CATTERMOLE, GEORGE                  CEILING\n  CATTLE                              CEILLIER, REMY\n  CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS            CELAENAE\n  CATULUS                             CELANDINE\n  CAUB                                CELANO\n  CAUCA                               CELEBES\n  CAUCASIA                            CELERY\n  CAUCASUS                            CELESTE, MADAME\n  CAUCHOIS-LEMAIRE, LOUIS AUGUSTE     CELESTINA, LA\n  CAUCHON, PIERRE                     CELESTINE  (popes)\n  CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS              CELESTINE (sulphate)\n  CAUCUS                              CELESTINES\n  CAUDEBEC-EN-CAUX                    CELIBACY\n  CAUDINE FORKS                       CELL\n  CAUDLE                              CELLA\n  CAUL                                CELLARET\n  CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND LOUIS          CELLE\n  CAULICULUS                          CELLIER, ALFRED\n  CAULON                              CELLINI, BENVENUTO\n  CAUSATION                           CELLULOSE\n  CAUSEWAY                            CELSIUS, ANDERS\n  CAUSSES                             CELSUS\n  CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, ARMAND-PIERRE  CELT (ancient people)\n  CAUSTIC                             CELT (ancient stone tools)\n\n\n\n\nCAT,[1] properly the name of the well-known domesticated feline animal\nusually termed by naturalists _Felis domestica_, but in a wider sense\nemployed to denote all the more typical members of the family _Felidae_.\nAccording to the _New English Dictionary_, although the origin of the\nword \"cat\" is unknown, yet the name is found in various languages as far\nback as they can be traced. In old Western Germanic it occurs, for\ninstance, so early as from A.D. 400 to 450; in old High German it is\n_chazza_ or _catero_, and in Middle German _kattaro_. Both in Gaelic and\nin old French it is _cat_, although sometimes taking the form of\n_chater_ in the latter; the Gaelic designation of the European wild cat\nbeing _cat fiadhaich_. In Welsh and Cornish the name is _cath_. If\nMartial's _cattae_ refer to this animal, the earliest Latin use of the\nname dates from the 1st century of our era. In the work of Palladius on\nagriculture, dating from about the year A.D. 350, reference is made to\nan animal called _catus_ or _cattus_, as being useful in granaries for\ncatching mice. This usage, coupled with the existence of a distinct term\nin Gaelic for the wild species, leaves little doubt that the word \"cat\"\nproperly denotes only the domesticated species. This is confirmed by the\nemployment in Byzantine Greek of the term [Greek: k'attos] or [Greek:\nk'atta] to designate domesticated cats brought from Egypt. It should be\nadded that the [Greek: a'ilouros] of the Greeks, frequently translated\nby the older writers as \"cat,\" really refers to the marten-cat, which\nappears to have been partially domesticated by the ancients and employed\nfor mousing.\n\nAs regards the origin of the domesticated cats of western Europe, it is\nwell known that the ancient Egyptians were in the habit of domesticating\n(at least in some degree) the Egyptian race of the African wild cat\n(_Felis ocreata maniculata_), and also of embalming its remains, of\nwhich vast numbers have been found in tombs at Beni Hasan and elsewhere\nin Egypt. These Egyptian cats are generally believed by naturalists to\nhave had a large share in the parentage of the European breeds, which\nhave, however, in many cases been crossed to a greater or less extent\nwith the European wild cat (_F. catus_).\n\nOne of the features by which the Egyptian differs from the European wild\ncat is the longer and less bushy tail; and it has been very generally\nconsidered that the same feature is characteristic of European\ndomesticated cats. According, however, to Dr E. Hamilton, \"the\nmeasurement of a number of tails of the [European] wild cat and of the\ndomestic cat gives a range between 11 in. and 14-1\/2 in., the longer\nlength being quite as often found in the wild cats as in the domestic.\nThe bushy appearance depends entirely on the length of the fur, and\naccords with the thick fur of the rest of the body of the wild cat,\nwhile in the domestic race the fur both on the body and tail is thinner\nand softer.\"\n\nPossibly those domesticated cats with unusually short and bushy tails\nmay have a larger share of European wild-cat blood; while, conversely,\nsuch wild cats as show long tails may have a cross of domesticated\nblood.\n\nMore importance was attached by Dr A. Nehring of Berlin (_SB. Ges.\nNaturfor._, Berlin, 1887) to the colour of the soles of the hind-feet as\na means of determining the relationship of the domesticated cat of\nEurope. According to his observations, in the Egyptian wild cat the pads\nof the toes are wholly black, while the black extends back either\ncontinuously or in long stripes as far as the calcaneum or heel-bone. In\nthe European wild cat, on the other hand, the black is limited to a\nsmall round spot on the pads, while the colour of the hair as far back\nas the heel-bone is yellowish or yellowish-grey. Since in all\ndomesticated cats retaining the colouring of the wild species the soles\nof the hind-feet correspond in this particular with the Egyptian rather\nthan with the European wild cat, the presumption is in favour of their\ndescent from the former rather than from the latter.\n\nLater, Dr Nehring (_op. cit._ 1889) came to the conclusion that the\ndomesticated cat has a dual parentage, one stock coming from\nsouth-eastern Asia and the other from north-eastern Africa; in other\nwords, from a domesticated Chinese cat (itself derived from a wild\nChinese species) on the one hand, and from the Egyptian cat on the\nother. The ordinary domesticated cats of Europe are, however, mainly of\nAfrican origin, although they have largely crossed, especially in\nGermany (and probably also in Great Britain), with the wild cat. The\nsame author was likewise of opinion that the domestication or taming of\nvarious species of wild cats took place chiefly among nationalities of\nstationary or non-nomadic habits who occupied themselves with\nagricultural pursuits, since it would be of vital importance that their\nstores of grain should be adequately protected from the depredations of\nrats and mice.\n\nThe foregoing opinion as to the dual parentage of our domesticated cats\nreceives support from observations made many years ago by E. Blyth,\nwhich have recently been endorsed and amplified by R.I. Pocock (_Proc.\nZool. Soc. London_, 1907). According to these observations, two distinct\ntypes of so-called tabby cats are recognizable. In the one the pattern\nconsists of narrow vertical stripes, and in the other of longitudinal or\nobliquely longitudinal stripes, which, on the sides of the body, tend\nto assume a spiral or sub-circular arrangement characteristic of the\nblotched tabby. This latter type appears to be the true \"tabby\"; since\nthat word denotes a pattern like that of watered silk. One or other of\nthese types is to be found in cats of almost all breeds, whether\nPersian, short-haired or Manx; and there appear to be no intermediate\nstages between them. Cats of the striped type are no doubt descended\nfrom the European and North African wild cats; but the origin of cats\nexhibiting the blotched pattern appears to be unknown. As it was to a\ncat of the latter kind that Linnaeus gave the name of _Felis catus_,\nPocock urges that this title is not available for the European wild cat,\nwhich he would call _Felis sylvestris_. Without accepting this proposed\nchange in nomenclature, which is liable to lead to confusion without any\ncompensating advantage, it may be suggested that the blotched tabby type\nrepresents Dr Nehring's presumed Chinese element in the cat's parentage,\nand that the missing wild stock may be one of the numerous phases of the\nleopard-cat (_F. bengalensis_), in some of which an incipient spiral\narrangement of the markings may be noticed on the shoulder.\n\nAs to the introduction of domesticated cats into Europe, the opinion is\nvery generally held that tame cats from Egypt were imported at a\nrelatively early date into Etruria by Phoenician traders; and there is\ndecisive evidence that these animals were established in Italy long\nbefore the Christian era. The progeny of these cats, more or less\ncrossed with the indigenous species, thence gradually spread over\nEurope, to become mingled at some period, according to Dr Nehring's\nhypothesis, with an Asiatic stock. The earliest written record of the\nintroduction of domesticated cats into Great Britain dates from about\nA.D. 936, when Hywel Dda, prince of South Wales, enacted a law for their\nprotection. \"The Romans,\" writes Dr Hamilton, \"were probably the\noriginal introducers of this cat, and as the final evacuation of Britain\nby that nation took place under the emperor Valentinian about A.D. 436,\nthe period of its introduction may certainly be dated some 500 years\nprevious to the Welsh chronicle and even much earlier.\" It is added that\nthe remains of cats from Roman villas at Silchester and Dursley are\nprobably referable to the domesticated breed.\n\nBefore proceeding to notice some of the different types of domesticated\ncats, a few lines may be devoted to the wild European species, _F.\ncatus_. Beyond stating that in colour it conforms very closely to the\nstriped phase of domesticated tabby, it will be unnecessary to describe\nthe species. Its geographical range was formerly very extensive, and\nincluded Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany,\nBohemia, Hungary, Poland, Transylvania, Galicia, the Caucasus as far as\nthe Caspian, southern Russia, Italy, Spain, Greece, Rumania, Bulgaria,\nServia, and portions of central and northern Asia. \"At the present\ntime,\" observes Dr Hamilton, \"the wild cat has become almost extinct in\nmany of the above districts. Examples may perhaps occasionally still be\nfound in the uninhabited forests of Hungary and Transylvania, and\noccasionally in Spain and Greece, as well as in the Caucasus and in some\nof the Swiss cantons, but the original race has in most countries\ninterbred with the domestic cat wherever the latter has penetrated.\" In\nGreat Britain wild cats survive only in some of the Scottish forests,\nand even there it is difficult to decide whether pure-bred specimens are\nextant. Remains of the wild cat occur in English caverns; while from\nthose of Ireland (where the wild species has apparently been unknown\nduring the historic period) have been obtained jaws and teeth which it\nhas been suggested are referable to the Egyptian rather than to the\nEuropean wild cat. Such a determination is, however, extremely\nhazardous, even if it be admitted that the remains of cats from the\nrock-fissures of Gibraltar pertain to _Felis ocreata_.\n\n\nPLATE I.\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--SKINS OF THE BLOTCHED DOMESTIC CAT, SHOWING\n  SOME OF THE VARIATIONS TO WHICH THE PATTERN IS LIABLE. (Cf. Fig. 5 on\n  Plate II.)]\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SKINS OF THE STRIPED DOMESTIC CAT, GIVING THE\n  \"TICKED\" BREED AND A PARTIALLY ALBINO SPECIMEN. (Cf. Fig. 4 on Plate\n  II.)]\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--SKINS OF THE EUROPEAN WILD CAT, FROM\n  ROSS-SHIRE, SCOTLAND. (Cf. Fig. 1 on Plate II.)]\n\n  _Note_--Of the two types of colouration found in modern domestic cats,\n  the striped type obviously corresponds to the original wild cat as\n  seen in various parts of North Europe to-day. The origin of the\n  blotched as a special type is wholly unknown.\n\n  (Photos from Plates VIII., IX., and X., _P.Z.S._, 1907, by permission\n  of the Zoological Society of London.)\n\n\nPLATE II.\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, W.G. Berridge_. FIG. 1.--EUROPEAN WILD CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, W.G. Berridge_. FIG. 2.--PALLAS'S CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, R.C. Ryan_. FIG. 3.--ROYAL SIAMESE CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 4.--STRIPED\n  DOMESTIC CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 5.--BLOTCHED\n  DOMESTIC CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, R.C. Ryan_ FIG. 6.--TAIL-LESS CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 7.--WHITE PERSIAN\n  KITTEN.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 8.--BLUE PERSIAN\n  CAT.]\n\n  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 9.--BLACK PERSIAN\n  KITTEN.]\n\n\nThe favourite haunts of the wild cat are mountain forests where masses\nor rocks or cliffs are interspersed with trees, the crevices in these\nrocks or the hollow trunks of trees affording sites for the wild cat's\nlair, where its young are produced and reared. In the Spanish plains,\nhowever, the young are often produced in nests built in trees, or among\ntall bamboos in cane-brakes. \"To fight like a wild cat\" is\nproverbial, and wild cats are described as some of the most ferocious\nand untamable of all animals. How far this untamable character lends\nsupport to the view of the origin of our domesticated breeds has not yet\nbeen determined. Hares, rabbits, field-mice, water-rats, rats,\nsquirrels, moles, game-birds, pigeons, and small birds, form the chief\nfood of the wild cat.\n\nApart from the above-mentioned division of the striped members of both\ngroups into two types according to the pattern of their markings, the\ndomesticated cats of western Europe are divided into a short-haired and\na long-haired group. Of these, the former is the one which bears the\nclosest relationship to the wild cats of Africa and of Europe, the\nlatter being an importation from the East. The striped (as distinct from\nthe blotched) short-haired tabby is probably the one most nearly allied\nto the wild ancestors, the stripes being, however, to a great extent due\nto the European wild cat. In one direction the tabby shows a tendency to\nmelanism which culminates in complete blackness, while in the other\ndirection there is an equally marked tendency to albinism; grey cats,\nwhich may be regarded as tabbies whose stripes have disappeared, forming\nthe connecting link between the tabby and the white cat. A mixture of\nthe melanistic with the albinistic type will of course give rise to\nparti- cats. A third colour-phase, the \"erythristic\" or red, is\nrepresented by the sandy cat, the female of which takes the form of the\n\"tortoise-shell,\" characterized, curiously enough, by the colour being a\nblend of black, white, and sandy. The so-called orange tabby is one\nphase of the erythristic type.\n\nAs to long-haired cats, there appear originally to have been two\nclosely-allied strains, the Angora and the Persian, of which the former\nhas been altogether replaced in western Europe by the latter. That these\nlong-haired cats have an ancestry, to some extent at any rate distinct\nfrom the ordinary short-haired breeds, is practically certain, and it\nhas been suggested that they are derived from the \"manul\" cat, or\nPallas's cat (_Felis manul_), of the deserts of central Asia, which is a\nlong-haired and bushy-tailed species with comparatively slight striping.\nThe fact that in tabby Persians the body-markings are never so strong as\nin the short-haired breeds is in some degree confirmatory of this, as\nsuggesting descent from a nearly whole- type. At the present\nday, however, Persians exhibit nearly all the colour and pattern types\nof the short-haired breeds, the \"orange Persian\" representing the\nerythristic phase.\n\nTurning to the tailless or so-called Manx cats, in which the tail should\nbe represented merely by a tuft of hair without any remnant of bone, it\nseems that the strain is to be met with in many parts of Russia, and\nthere is a very general opinion that it originally came from Japan or\nsome other far eastern country. Throughout Japan, China, Siam, and the\nMalay countries, normal long-tailed cats are indeed seldom seen. Instead\nof these are cats with more or less abbreviated tails, showing in\ngreater or less degree a decided kink or bend near the tip. In other\ncases the tail is of the short curling type of that of a bulldog;\nsometimes it starts quite straight, but divides in a fork-like manner\nnear the tip; and in yet other instances it is altogether wanting, as in\nthe typical Manx cats. These kink-tailed or tailless cats are moreover\nsmaller in size than the ordinary short-tailed breeds, with rather\nlonger hair, whose texture approaches that of rabbit-fur, and a cry said\nto be like that of the jungle-cat (_F. chaus_) of India and Africa, and\nmore dog-like habits. Unless the jungle-cat, which is a nearly\nwhole-<DW52> species, can claim the position, the ancestry of these\nManx-Malay cats is still unknown. Kink-tailed cats, it should be added,\nare also known from Madagascar.\n\nAmong the domesticated cats of India a spotted type of colouring, with a\nmore or less decided tendency for the spots to coalesce into stripes, is\nvery noticeable; and it is probable that these cats are derived from the\nspotted Indian desert-cat (_F. ornata_), with a certain amount of\ncrossing from other species. The so-called _F. torquata_ of India is\nprobably based on cats of this type which have reverted to the wild\nstate. Other Indian cats with a tawny or fulvous type of colouring are\nprobably the more or less modified descendants of the jungle-cat. From\nthe same stock may be derived the Abyssinian breed, in which the ears\nare relatively large and occasionally tipped with long hairs (thus\nrecalling the tufted ears of the jungle-cat). The colour is typically\nreddish-brown, each individual hair being \"ticked\" like that of a wild\nrabbit, whence the popular name of \"bunny cat.\" Another African breed is\nthe Mombasa cat, in which the hair is reported to be unusually short and\nstiff.\n\nBy far the most remarkable of all the Old World domesticated breeds is,\nhowever, the royal Siamese cat, which almost certainly has an origin\nquite distinct from that of the ordinary European breeds; this being\nrendered evident not only by the peculiar type of colouring, but\nlikewise by the cry, which is quite unmistakable. Siamese cats may have\nthe tail either straight or kinked, but whether the latter feature\nbelongs of right to the breed, or has been acquired by crossing with the\nordinary black and tabby kink-tailed cats of the country, is not known.\nIn the royal Siamese breed the head is rather long and pointed, the body\nalso elongated with relatively slender limbs, the coat glossy and close,\nthe eyes blue, and the general colour some shade of cream or pink, with\nthe face, ears, feet, under-parts, and tail chocolate or seal-brown.\nThere is however a wholly chocolate- strain in which the eyes\nare yellow. The most remarkable feature about the breed is that the\nyoung are white. \"The kittens,\" observes a lady writer, \"are born\nabsolutely white, and in about a week a faint pencilling comes round the\nears, and gradually all the points come. At four or five months they are\nlovely, as generally they retain their baby whiteness, which contrasts\nwell with their almost black ears, deep-brown markings, and blue eyes.\"\nIn constitution these cats are extremely delicate. The blue eyes and the\nwhite coat of the kitten indicate that the Siamese breed is a\nsemi-albino, which when adult tends towards melanism, such a combination\nof characters being apparently unknown in any other animal. If the\nfrequent presence of a kink in the tail be an inherent feature, the\nbreed is evidently related to the other kink-tailed Malay cats which, as\nalready stated, have a cry differing from that of European cats. Should\nthis be so, then if the ordinary Malay cats are the descendants of the\njungle-cat, we shall have to assign the same ancestry to the Siamese\nbreed.\n\nAlthough definite information on this point is required, it seems\nprobable that the southern part of North America and South America\npossessed certain native domesticated breeds of cats previous to the\nEuropean conquest of the country; and if this be so, it will be obvious\nthat these breeds must be derived from indigenous wild species. One of\nthese breeds is the Paraguay cat, which when adult weighs only about\nthree pounds, and is not more than a quarter the size of an ordinary\ncat. The body is elongated, and the hair, especially on the tail, short,\nshiny and close. This small size and elongated form suggest origin from\nthe jaguarondi (_F. jaguarondi_), a chestnut- wild species; but\ninformation appears to be lacking with regard to the colouring of the\ndomesticated breed. Another South American breed is said to be free from\nthe hideous \"caterwauling\" of the ordinary cat. In old days New Mexico\nwas the home of a breed of hairless cats, said to have been kept by the\nancient Aztecs, but now well-nigh if not completely extinct. Although\nentirely naked in summer, these cats developed in winter a slight growth\nof hair on the back and the ridge of the tail.\n\n  LITERATURE.--St George Mivart, _The Cat_ (London, 1881); R. Lydekker,\n  \"Cats,\" in _Allen's Naturalists' Library_ (1888); F. Hamilton, _The\n  Wild Cat of Europe_ (London. 1896); Frances Simpson, _The Book of the\n  Cat_ (London, 1903).     (R. L.*)\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] The word \"cat\" is applied to various objects, in all cases an\n    application of the name of the animal. In medieval siegecraft the\n    \"cat\" (Med. Lat. _chattus_ or _gattus_, _chatta_ or _gatta_, in Fr.\n    _chat_ or _chat-chasteil_) was a movable pent-house used to protect\n    besiegers when approaching a wall or gateway, for the purpose of\n    sapping, mining or direct attack, or to cover a ram or other\n    battering-engine. The word is also sometimes applied to a heavy\n    timber fitted with iron spikes or projections to be thrown down upon\n    besiegers, and to the large work known as a \"cavalier.\" \"Cat\" or\n    \"cat-head,\" in nautical usage, is the projecting beam on the bows of\n    a ship used to clear the anchor from the sides of the vessel when\n    weighed. The stock of the anchor rests on the cat-head when hung\n    outside the ship. The name is also used of a type of a vessel, now\n    obsolete, and formerly used in the coal and timber trade on the\n    north-east coast of England; it had a deep waist and narrow stem; it\n    is still applied to a small rig of sailing boats, with a single mast\n    stepped far forward, with a fore and aft sail. Among other objects\n    also known by the name of \"cat\" is the small piece of wood pointed at\n    either end used in the game of tip-cat, and the instrument of\n    punishment, generally known as the \"cat o' nine tails.\" This consists\n    of a handle of wood or rope, about 18 in. long, with nine knotted\n    cords or thongs. The multiplication of thongs for purposes of\n    flogging is found in the old Roman _flagellum_, a scourge, which had\n    sometimes three thongs with bone or bronze knots fastened to them.\n    The \"cat\" was the regular instrument with which floggings were\n    performed in the British army and navy. Since the abolition of\n    flogging in the services, the use of the cat is now restricted to\n    certain classes of offenders in military prisons (Army Act 1881, S\n    133). In the English criminal law, where corporal punishment is\n    ordered by the court for certain criminal offences, the \"cat\" is used\n    only where the prisoner is over sixteen years of age. It may not be\n    used except when actually ordered in the sentence, and must be of a\n    pattern approved by a secretary of state. Further floggings are\n    inflicted with the \"cat\" upon convicted prisoners for breaches of\n    discipline in prison. They must be ordered by the visitors of the\n    prison and confirmed by the home secretary.\n\n\n\n\nCATABOLISM, or KATABOLISM (Gr. [Greek: kata], down, [Greek: Bole], a\nthrow), the biological term for the reverse of anabolism, namely the\nbreaking down of complex into simpler substances, destructive metabolism\n(see PHYSIOLOGY).\n\n\n\n\nCATACLYSM (Gr. [Greek: kataklusmos], a deluge), a great flood or deluge\n(q.v.). The term is used in geology to denote an overwhelming\ncatastrophe which has produced sudden changes in the earth's surface;\nand also, figuratively, of any great and violent change which sweeps\naway the existing social or political order.\n\n\n\n\nCATACOMB, a subterranean excavation for the interment of the dead or\nburial-vault. In this sense the word \"catacomb\" has gained universal\nacceptance, and has found a place in most modern languages. The original\nterm, _catacumbae_, however, had no connexion with sepulture, but was\nsimply the name of a particular locality in the environs of Rome. It was\nderived from the Greek [Greek: kata] and [Greek: kumbe], \"a hollow,\" and\nhad reference to the natural configuration of the ground. In the\ndistrict that bore this designation, lying close to the Appian Way, the\nbasilica of San Sebastiano was erected, and the extensive burial-vaults\nbeneath that church--in which, according to tradition, the bodies of the\napostles St Peter and St Paul rested for a year and seven months\nprevious to their removal to the basilicas which bear their names--were,\nin very early times, called from it _coemeterium ad catacumbas_, or\n_catacumbas_ alone. From the celebrity of this cemetery as an object of\npilgrimage its name became extensively known, and in entire\nforgetfulness of the origin of the word, _catacumbae_ came to be\nregarded as a generic appellation for all burial-places of the same\nkind. This extension of the term to Christian burial-vaults generally\ndates from the 9th century, and obtained gradual currency through the\nChristian world. The original designation of these places of sepulture\nis _crypta_ or _coemeterium_.\n\nThe largest number of Christian catacombs belong to the 3rd and the\nearly part of the 4th centuries. The custom of subterranean interment\ngradually died out, and entirely ceased with the sack of Rome by Alaric,\nA.D. 410. \"The end of the catacomb graves,\" writes Mommsen (_Cont.\nRev._, May 1871), \"is intimately connected with the end of the powerful\ncity itself.... Poverty took the place of wealth, ... the traditions of\nthe Christian tomb-architects sank into utter insignificance, and the\nexpanse of the wasted Campagna now offered room enough to bury the few\nbodies, without having to descend as once far down below the surface of\nthe earth.\" The earliest account of the catacombs, that of St Jerome\nnarrating his visits to them when a schoolboy at Rome, about A.D. 354,\nshows that interment in them was even then rare if it had not been\naltogether discontinued; and the poet Prudentius's description of the\ntomb of the Christian martyr Hippolytus, and the cemetery in which it\nstood, leads us to the same conclusion. With the latter part of the 4th\ncentury a new epoch in the history of the catacombs arose--that of\nreligious reverence. In the time of Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, the\ncatacombs had begun to be regarded with special devotion, and had become\nthe resort of large bands of pilgrims, for whose guidance catalogues of\nthe chief burial-places and the holy men buried in them were drawn up.\nSome of these lists are still extant.[1] Pope Damasus himself displayed\ngreat zeal in adapting the catacombs to their new purpose, restoring the\nworks of art on the walls, and renewing the epitaphs over the graves of\nthe martyrs. In this latter work he employed an engraver named Furius\nPhilocalus, the exquisite beauty of whose characters enables the\nsmallest fragment of his work to be recognized at a glance. This gave\nrise to extensive alterations in their construction and decoration,\nwhich has much lessened their value as authentic memorials of the\nreligious art of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Subsequent popes manifested\nequal ardour, with the same damaging results, in the repair and\nadornment of the catacombs, and many of the paintings covering their\nwalls, which have been assigned to the period of their original\nconstruction, are really the work of these later times. The catacombs\nshared in the devastation of Rome by the Goths under Vitiges in the 6th\ncentury and by the Lombards at a later period; and partly through the\nspoliation of these barbarian invaders, partly through the neglect of\nthose who should have been their guardians, they sank into such a state\nof decay and pollution that, as the only means of preserving the holy\nremains they enshrined from further desecration, Pope Paul I., in the\nlatter part of the 8th century, and Pope Paschal, at the beginning of\nthe 9th, entered upon the work of the translation of the relics, which\nwas vigorously carried on by successive pontiffs until the crypts were\nalmost entirely despoiled of their dead. The relics having been removed,\nthe visits of pilgrims naturally ceased, and by degrees the very\nexistence of those wonderful subterranean cemeteries was forgotten. Six\ncenturies elapsed before the accidental discovery of a sepulchral\nchamber by some labourers digging for _pozzolana_ earth (May 31, 1578)\nrevealed to the amazed inhabitants of Rome \"the existence,\" to quote a\ncontemporary record, \"of other cities concealed beneath their own\nsuburbs.\" Baronius, the ecclesiastical historian, was one of the first\nto visit the new discovery, and his _Annals_ in more than one place\nevidence his just appreciation of its importance. The true \"Columbus of\nthis subterranean world,\" as he has been aptly designated, was the\nindefatigable Antonio Bosio (d. 1629), who devoted his life to the\npersonal investigation of the catacombs, the results of which were given\nto the world in 1632 in a huge folio, entitled _Roma sotterranea_,\nprofusely illustrated with rude but faithful plans and engravings. This\nwas republished in a Latin translation with considerable alterations and\nomissions by Paolo Aringhi in 1651; and a century after its first\nappearance the plates were reproduced by Giovanni Bottari in 1737, and\nillustrated with great care and learning. Some additional discoveries\nwere described by Marc Antonio Boldetti in his _Osservazioni_, published\nin 1720; but, writing in the interests of the Roman Church with an\napologetic, not a scientific object, truth was made to bend to polemics,\nand little addition to our knowledge of the catacombs is to be gained\nfrom his otherwise important work. The French historian of art, Seroux\nd'Agincourt, 1825, by his copious illustrations, greatly facilitated the\nstudy of the architecture of the catacombs and the works of art\ncontained in them. The works of Raoul Rochette display a comprehensive\nknowledge of the whole subject, extensive reading, and a thorough\nacquaintance with early Christian art so far as it could be gathered\nfrom books, but he was not an original investigator. The great pioneer\nin the path of independent research, which, with the intelligent use of\ndocumentary and historical evidence, has led to so vast an increase in\nour acquaintance with the Roman Catacombs, was Padre Marchi of the\nSociety of Jesus. His work, _Monumenti delle arti christiane primitive_,\nis the first in which the strange misconception, received with\nunquestioning faith by earlier writers, that the catacombs were\nexhausted sand-pits adapted by the Christians to the purpose of\ninterment, was dispelled, and the true history of their formation\ndemonstrated. Marchi's line of investigation was followed by the\nCommendatore De Rossi, and his brother Michele, the former of whom was\nMarchi's fellow-labourer during the latter part of his explorations; and\nit is to them that we owe the most exhaustive scientific examination of\nthe whole subject. The Catacombs of Rome are the most extensive with\nwhich we are acquainted, and, as might be expected in the centre of the\nChristian world, are in many respects the most remarkable. No others\nhave been so thoroughly examined and illustrated. These may, therefore,\nbe most appropriately selected for description as typical examples.\n\n\n  Catacombs of Rome.\n\nOur description of the Roman Catacombs cannot be more appropriately\nintroduced than by St Jerome's account of his visits to them in his\nyouth, already referred to, which, after the lapse of above fifteen\ncenturies, presents a most accurate picture of these wonderful\nsubterranean labyrinths. \"When I was a boy,\" he writes, \"receiving my\neducation in Rome, I and my schoolfellows used, on Sundays, to make the\ncircuit of the sepulchres of the apostles and martyrs. Many a time did\nwe go down into the catacombs. These are excavated deep in the earth,\nand contain, on either hand as you enter, the bodies of the dead buried\nin the wall. It is all so dark there that the language of the prophet\n(Ps. lv. 15) seems to be fulfilled, 'Let them go down quick into hell.'\nOnly occasionally is light let in to mitigate the horror of the gloom,\nand then not so much through a window as through a hole. You take each\nstep with caution, as, surrounded by deep night, you recall the words of\nVirgil--\n\n  \"Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent.\"[2]\n\n[Illustration FIG. 1.--Plan of part of the Cemetery of Sant' Agnese.\n(From Martigny.)\n\n      A. Entrance from the Basilica of St Agnes.\n   1, 2. Ancient staircases leading to the first storey.\n      3. Corridors from the staircases.\n      4. Two ruined staircases leading to the lower storey.\n      5. Steps of the rock.\n      6. Air-shafts, or luminaria.\n      7. Ruined vault.\n      8. Blind ways.\n      9. Passages built up or ruined.\n     10. Passages obstructed by landslips.\n     11. Unfinished passage.\n     12. Passages destitute of tombs.\n     13. Narrow apertures between adjoining galleries.\n  14-17. Arcosolia.\n  18-32. Cubicula.\n     33. Chapel with vestibule and apse, and two chairs.\n     34. Double chapel with three chairs.\n     35. Large chapel in five divisions.]\n\nIn complete agreement with Jerome's vivid picture the visitor to the\nRoman Catacombs finds himself in a vast labyrinth of narrow galleries,\nusually from 3 to 4 ft. in width, interspersed with small chambers, all\nexcavated at successive levels, in the strata of volcanic rock subjacent\nto the city and its environs, and constructed originally for the\ninterment of the Christian dead. The galleries are not the way of access\nto the cemeteries, but are themselves the cemeteries, the dead being\nburied in long low horizontal recesses, excavated in the vertical walls\nof the passages, rising tier above tier like the berths in a ship, from\na few inches above the floor to the springing of the arched ceiling, to\nthe number of five, six or even sometimes twelve ranges. These galleries\nare not arranged on any definite plan, but, as will be seen from the\nplan (fig. 1), they intersect one another at different angles, producing\nan intricate network which it is almost impossible to reduce to any\nsystem. They generally run in straight lines, and as a rule preserve the\nsame level. The different storeys of galleries lie one below the other\n(fig. 2) to the number of four or five (in one part of the cemetery of\nSt Calixtus they reach seven storeys), and communicate with one another\nby stairs cut out of the living rock. Light and air are introduced by\nmeans of vertical shafts (_luminaria_) running up to the outer air, and\noften serving for several storeys. The drawing (fig. 3) from Northcote\ngives a very correct idea of these galleries, with the tiers of graves\npierced in the walls. The doorways which are seen interrupting the lines\nof graves are those of the family sepulchral chambers, or _cubicula_, of\nwhich we shall speak more particularly hereafter.\n\nThe graves, or _loculi_, as they are commonly designated, were, in the\nChristian cemeteries, with only a few exceptions (Padre Marchi produces\nsome from the cemetery of St Ciriaca, _Monum. primitiv._ tav. xiv.\nxliii. xliv.), parallel with the length of the gallery. In the pagan\ncemeteries, on the other hand, the sepulchral recess as a rule entered\nthe rock like an oven at right angles to the corridor, the body being\nintroduced endways. The plan adopted by the Christians saved labour,\neconomized space, and consulted reverence in the deposition of the\ncorpse. These _loculi_ were usually constructed for a single body only.\nSome, however, were formed to contain two, three, or four, or even more\ncorpses. Such recesses were known respectively as _bisomi, trisomi,\nquadrisomi_, &c., terms which often appear in the sepulchral\ninscriptions. After the introduction of the body the _loculi_ were\nclosed with the greatest care, either with slabs of marble the whole\nlength of the aperture, or with huge tiles, three being generally\nemployed, cemented together with great exactness so as to prevent the\nescape of the products of decomposition (fig. 4). Where any epitaph was\nset up--an immense number are destitute of any inscription at all--it is\nalways painted or engraved on these slabs or tiles. In the earlier\ninterments the epitaph is usually daubed on the slab in red or black\npaint. In later examples it is incised in the marbles, the letters being\nrendered clearer by being  with vermilion. The enclosing slab\nvery often bears one or more Christian symbols, such as the dove, the\nanchor, the olive-branch, or the monogram of Christ (figs. 5, 6). The\npalm branch, which is also of frequent occurrence, is not an\nindisputable mark of the last resting-place of a martyr, being found in\nconnexion with epitaphs of persons dying natural deaths, or those\nprepared by persons in their lifetime, as well as in those of little\nchildren, and even of pagans. Another frequent concomitant of these\ncatacomb interments, a small glass vessel containing traces of the\nsediment of a red fluid, embedded in the cement of the _loculus_ (fig.\n7), has no better claim. The red matter proves to be the remains of\nwine, not of blood; and the conclusion of the ablest archaeologists is\nthat the vessels were placed where they are found, after the eucharistic\ncelebration or _agape_ on the day of the funeral or its anniversary, and\ncontained remains of the consecrated elements as a kind of religious\ncharm. Not a few of the slabs, it is discovered, have done double duty,\nbearing a pagan inscription on one side and a Christian one on the\nother. These are known as _opisthographs_. The bodies were interred\nwrapped in linen cloths, or swathed in bands, and were frequently\npreserved by embalming. In the case of poorer interments the destruction\nof the body was, on the contrary, often accelerated by the use of\nquicklime.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Galleries at different levels. (From\nSeroux d'Agincourt)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.--View of a Gallery.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Loculi. (From de Rossi.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIGS. 5 and 6.--Loculi. (From de Rossi.)]\n\nInterment in the wall-recess or _loculus_, though infinitely the most\ncommon, was not the only mode employed in the catacombs. Other forms of\nvery frequent recurrence are the _table tomb_ and _arched tomb_, or\n_arcosolium_. From the annexed woodcuts it will be seen that these only\ndiffer in the form of the surmounting recess. In each case the arched\ntomb was formed by an oblong chest, either hollowed out of the rock, or\nbuilt of masonry, and closed with a horizontal slab. But in the\ntable-tomb (fig. 8) the recess above, essential for the introduction of\nthe corpse, is square, while in the arcosolium (fig. 9), a form of later\ndate, it is semicircular. Sarcophagi are also found in the catacombs,\nbut are of rare occurrence. They chiefly occur in the earlier\ncemeteries, and the costliness of their construction confined their use\nto the wealthiest classes--e.g. in the cemetery of St Domitilla, herself\na member of the imperial house. Another unfrequent mode of interment was\nin graves like those of modern times, dug in the floor of the galleries\n(Marchi, _u.s._, tav. xxi. xxvi.). Table-tombs and arcosolia are by no\nmeans rare in the corridors of the catacombs, but they belong more\ngenerally to the _cubicula_, or family vaults, of which we now proceed\nto speak.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Glass Bottles. (From Bosio.)]\n\nThese _cubicula_ are small apartments, seldom more than 12 ft. square,\nusually rectangular, though sometimes circular or polygonal, opening out\nof the main corridors. They are not unfrequently ranged regularly along\nthe sides of the galleries, the doors of entrance, as may be seen in a\nprevious illustration (fig. 3), following one another in as orderly\nsuccession as the bedchamber doors in the passage of a modern house. The\nroof is sometimes flat, but is more usually vaulted, and sometimes\nrises into a cupola. Both the roof and the walls are almost universally\ncoated with stucco and covered with fresco paintings--in the earlier\nworks merely decorative, in the later always symbolical or historical.\nEach side of the cubiculum, except that of the entrance, usually\ncontains a recessed tomb, either a table-tomb or an arcosolium. That\nfacing the entrance was the place of greatest honour, where in many\ninstances the remains of a martyr were deposited, whose tomb, according\nto primitive usage, served as an altar for the celebration of the\neucharist. This was sometimes, as in the Papal crypt of St Calixtus\n(fig. 10), protected from irreverence by lattice work (_transennae_) of\nmarble. The cubiculum was originally designed for the reception of a\nvery limited number of dead. But the natural desire to be buried near\none's relatives caused new tombs to be cut in the walls, above and\naround and behind the original tombs, the walls being thus completely\nhoneycombed with _loculi_, sometimes as many as seventy, utterly\nregardless of the paintings originally depicted on the walls. Another\nmotive for multiplying the number of graves operated when the cubiculum\ncontained the remains of any noted saint or martyr. The Christian\nantiquary has cause continually to lament the destruction of works of\nart due to this craving. One of the most perfect examples of early\nChristian pictorial decoration, the so-called \"Dispute with the\nDoctors,\" in the catacomb of Calixtus, the \"antique style of beauty\" of\nwhich is noticed by Kugler, has thus suffered irreparable mutilation,\nthe whole of the lower part of the picture having been destroyed by the\nexcavation of a fresh grave-recess (Bottari, vol. ii. tav. 15). The\nplates of De Rossi, Ferret, and, indeed, all illustrations of the\ncatacombs, exhibit frequent examples of the same destructive\nsuperstition. The illustrations (figs. 11 and 12), taken from De Rossi's\ngreat work, representing two of the cubicula in the cemetery of St\nCalixtus, show the general arrangement of the loculi and the character\nof the frescoes which ornament the walls and roof. These paintings, it\nwill be seen, are simply decorative, of the same style as the\nwall-paintings of the baths, and those of Pompeii.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Table-tomb.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Arcosolia. (From Bosio.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Restoration of the Papal Crypt, Cemetery of St\nCalixtus. (From de Rossi.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cubiculum in Cemetery of St Calixtus. (From de\nRossi.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Cubiculum in the Cemetery of St Calixtus. (From\nde Rossi.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Plan of a supposed Church, Catacomb of Sant'\nAgnese. (From Marchi.)]\n\nEach _cubiculum_ was usually the burying-place of some one family, all\nthe members of which were interred in it, just as in the chantry-chapels\nconnected with medieval churches. In them was celebrated the\nfuneral-feast on the day of burial and on its anniversary, as well as\nthe eucharist, which was the invariable accompaniment of funerals in the\nprimitive church (Bingham, _Orig. Eccl._ bk. xxiii. c. iii. 12). The\nfuneral-banquet descended to the Christian church from pagan times, and\nwas too often profaned by heathen licence. St Augustine, in several\npassages, inveighs against those who thus by \"gluttony and insobriety\nburied themselves over the buried,\" and \"made themselves drunk in the\nchapels of the martyrs, placing their excesses to the score of religious\nreverence for the dead.\" (August., _De Mor. Eccl. Cathol._, c. 34,\n_Contr. Faust_, lib. xx. c. 21, _Confess._, lib vi. c. 2) Some curious\nfrescoes representing these funeral-feasts, found in the _cubicula_\nwhich were the scene of them, are reproduced by Bosio (pp. 355, 391)\nand others. A romantic air has been thrown over these burial chapels by\nthe notion that they were the places of worship used by the Christians\nin times of persecution. This to a certain extent is doubtless true, as\nin the case of the chapel of Santa Priscilla, where the altar or stone\ncoffin of a martyr remains, with a small platform behind it for the\npriest or bishop to stand upon. But that they can have been so used to\nany large extent is rendered impossible by their limited dimensions, as\nnone of them could hold more than fifty or sixty persons. In some of the\ncatacombs, however, there are larger halls and connected suites of\nchapels which may possibly have been constructed for the purpose of\ncongregational worship during the dark periods when the public exercise\nof the Christian religion was made penal. The most remarkable of these\nis in the cemetery of Sant' Agnese (see plan, fig. 13). It consists of\nfive rectangular compartments, three on one side of the corridor and two\non the other, connected by a passage intersecting the gallery at right\nangles. Two of the five compartments are supposed to have been assigned\nto male, and two to female worshippers, the fifth, at the extremity of\nthe whole, being reserved for the altar and its ministers. In the centre\nof the end-wall stands a stone chair (fig. 14), considered to have been\nthe episcopal cathedra, with a bench for the clergy on each side. There\nis no trace of an altar, which may, Marchi thinks, have been portable.\nThe walls of the compartments are occupied by arched sepulchral\nrecesses, above and below which are tiers of ordinary graves or\n_loculi_. The arrangements are certainly such as indicate a\ncongregational purpose, but the extreme narrowness of the suite, and\nstill more of the passage which connects the two divisions, must have\nrendered it difficult for any but a small number to take any intelligent\npart in the services at the same time. Although the idea of the use of\nthe catacombs for religious worship may have been pressed too far, there\ncan be no doubt that the sacred rites of the church were celebrated\nwithin them. We have already spoken of the eucharistic celebrations of\nwhich the _cubicula_ were the scene; and still existing baptisteries\nprove that the other sacrament was also administered there. The most\nremarkable of these baptisteries is that in the catacomb of San\nPontianus (fig. 15). Ten steps lead down to a basin of sufficient depth\nfor immersion, supplied by a spring. Some of the subterranean chambers\ncontain armed seats and benches cut out of the tufa rock. These are\nsupposed by Marchi and others to indicate schoolrooms, where the\ncatechumens were instructed by the bishop or presbyters. But this theory\nwants verification. It is impossible not to be struck with the\nremarkable analogy between these rock-hewn chairs and those discovered\nin the Etruscan tombs, of the purpose of which no satisfactory\nexplanation has been given.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Bishop's Chair. Catacomb of Sant' Agnese.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Baptistery of San Pontianus. (From Perret.)]\n\n\n  Theories of the use of the catacombs.\n\nVery exaggerated statements have been made as to the employment of the\ncatacombs as dwelling-places by the Christians in times of persecution.\nWe have, however, sufficient evidence that they were used as places of\nrefuge from the fury of the heathen, in which the believers--especially\nthe bishops and clergy, who would naturally be the first objects of\nattack--might secrete themselves until the storm had blown over. This\nwas a purpose for which they were admirably adapted both by the\nintricacy of their labyrinthine passages, in which any one not\npossessing the clue would be inevitably lost, and the numerous small\nchambers and hiding-places at different levels which might be passed\nunperceived in the dark by the pursuers. As a rule also the catacombs\nhad more than one entrance, and frequently communicated with an\n_arenaria_ or sand-quarry; so that while one entrance was carefully\nwatched, the pursued might escape in a totally different direction by\nanother. But, to quote J.H. Parker, \"the catacombs were never intended,\nnor fit for, dwelling-places, and the stories of persons living in them\nfor months are probably fabulous. According to modern physicians it is\nimpossible to live many days in the caves of _pozzolana_ in which many\nof the catacombs are excavated.\" Equally exaggerated are the statements\nas to the linear and lateral extent of the catacombs, and their\nintercommunication with one another. Without resorting to this\nexaggeration, Mommsen can speak with perfect truth of the \"enormous\nspace occupied by the burial vaults of Christian Rome, not surpassed\neven by the _cloacae_ or sewers of Republican Rome,\" but the data are\ntoo vague to warrant any attempt to define their dimensions. Marchi has\nestimated the united length of the galleries at from 800 to 900 m., and\nthe number of interments at between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000; Martigny's\nestimate is 587 m.; and Northcote's, lower still, at \"not less than 350\nm.\" The idea of general intercommunication is negatived by the fact that\nthe chief cemeteries are separated by low ground or valleys, where any\nsubterranean galleries would be at once filled with water.\n\nIt now remains to speak of the history of these subterranean\nburial-places, together with the reasons for, and mode of, their\nconstruction. From the period of the rediscovery of the catacombs in the\n16th century till comparatively recent times a gigantic fallacy\nprevailed, repeated by writer after writer, identifying the Christian\nburial-places with disused sand-pits. It was accepted as an\nunquestionable fact by every one who undertook to describe the\ncatacombs, that the Christians of Rome, finding in the labyrinthine\nmazes of the exhausted _arenariae_, which abounded in the environs of\nthe city, whence the sand used in building had been extracted, a\nsuitable place for the interment of their martyred brethren, where also\nthe sacred rites accompanying the interment might be celebrated without\nfear of interruption, took possession of them and used them as\ncemeteries. It only needed a comparison of the theory with the visible\nfacts to refute it at once, but nearly three centuries elapsed before\nthe independence of the _arenariae_ and the catacombs was established.\nThe discovery of this independence is due to Marchi. Starting with the\nfirmest belief in the old traditional view, his own researches by\ndegrees opened his eyes to the truth, now universally recognized, that\nthe catacombs were exclusively the work of the Christians, and were\nconstructed for the interment of the dead. It is true that a catacomb is\noften connected with the earlier sand-quarry, and starts from it as a\ncommencement, but the two are excavated in different strata, suitable to\ntheir respective purposes, and their plan and construction are so\ncompletely unlike as to render any confusion between them impossible.\n\nThe igneous formation of which the greater part of the Roman Campagna\nis, in its superior portion, composed, contains three strata known under\nthe common name of _tufa_,--the \"stony,\" \"granular,\" and \"sandy\"\ntufa,--the last being commonly known as _pozzolana_.[3] The _pozzolana_\nis the material required for building purposes, for admixture with\nmortar; and the sandpits are naturally excavated in the stratum which\nsupplies it. The stony tufa (_tufa litoide_) is quarried as\nbuilding-stone. The granular tufa is useless for either purpose,\ncontaining too much earth to be employed in making mortar, and being far\ntoo soft to be used as stone for building. Yet it is in this stratum,\nand in this alone, that the catacombs are constructed; their engineers\navoiding with equal care the solid stone of the _tufa litoide_ and the\nfriable _pozzolana_, and selecting the stratum of medium hardness, which\nenabled them to form the vertical walls of their galleries, and to\nexcavate the _loculi_ and _cubicula_ without severe labour and also\nwithout fear of their falling in. The annexed illustration (fig. 16)\nfrom Marchi's work, when compared with that of the catacomb of Sant'\nAgnese already given, presents to the eye the contrast between the wide\nwinding irregular passages of the sand-pit, calculated for the admission\nof a horse and cart, and the narrow rectilinear accurately-defined\ngalleries of the catacomb. The distinction between the two is also\nplainly exhibited when for some local or private reasons an ancient\n_arenaria_ has been transformed into a cemetery. The modifications\nrequired to strengthen the crumbling walls to support the roof and to\nfacilitate the excavation of _loculi_, involved so much labour that, as\na rule, after a few attempts, the idea of utilizing an old quarry for\nburial purposes was abandoned.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Arenaria beneath the Cemetery of Calixtus.]\n\nAnother equally erroneous idea was that these vast burial-places of the\nearly Christians remained entirely concealed from the eyes of their\npagan neighbours, and were constructed not only without the permission\nof the municipal authorities but without their cognizance. Nothing can\nbe farther from the truth. Such an idea is justly stigmatized by Mommsen\nas ridiculous, and reflecting a discredit as unfounded as it is unjust\non the imperial police of the capital. That such vast excavations should\nhave been made without attracting attention, and that such an immense\nnumber of corpses could have been carried to burial in perfect secrecy\nis utterly impossible. Nor was there any reason why secrecy should have\nbeen desired. The decent burial of the dead was a matter especially\nprovided for by the Roman laws. No particular mode was prescribed.\nInterment was just as legal as cremation, and had, in fact, been\nuniversally practised by the Romans until the later days of the\nrepublic.[4] The bodies of the Scipios and Nasos were buried in still\nexisting catacombs; and if the Christians preferred to adopt that which\nMinucius Felix calls \"the better, and more ancient custom of inhumation\"\n(_Octavius_, c. 2), there was absolutely nothing, to quote the words of\nNorthcote (_Roma sotterran_. pp. 56, 61), \"either in their social or\nreligious position to interfere with their freedom of action. The law\nleft them entire liberty,... and the faithful did but use their liberty\nin the way that suited them best, burying their dead according to a\nfashion to which many of them had been long accustomed, and which\nenabled them at the same time to follow in death the example of him who\nwas also their model in life.\" Interment in rock-hewn tombs, \"as the\nmanner of the Jews is to bury,\" had been practised in Rome by the Jewish\nsettlers for a considerable period anterior to the rise of the Christian\nChurch. A Jewish catacomb, now lost, was discovered and described by\nBosio (_Rom. sott._ p. 141), and others are still accessible. They are\nto be distinguished from Christian catacombs only by the character of\ntheir decorations, the absence of Christian symbols and the language of\ntheir inscriptions. There would, therefore, be nothing extraordinary in\nthe fact that a community, always identified in the popular heathen mind\nwith the Jewish faith, should adopt the mode of interment belonging to\nthat religion. Nor have we the slightest trace of any official\ninterference with Christian burials, such as would render secrecy\nnecessary or desirable. Their funerals were as much under the protection\nof the law, which not only invested the tomb itself with a sacred\ncharacter, but included in its protection the area in which it stood,\nand the _cella memoriae_ or chapel connected with it, as those of their\nheathen fellow-citizens, while the same shield would be thrown over the\nburial-clubs, which, as we learn from Tertullian (_Apolog._ c. 39),\nwere common among the early Christians, as over those existing among the\nheathen population of Rome.\n\n\n  Mode of formation.\n\nWe may then completely dismiss the notion of there being any studied\nsecrecy in connexion with the early Christian cemeteries, and proceed to\ninquire into the mode of their formation. Almost without exception, they\nhad their origin in small burial areas, the property of private persons\nor of families, gradually ramifying and receiving additions of one\nsubterranean storey after another as each was required for interments.\nThe first step would be the acquisition of a plot of ground either by\ngift or purchase for the formation of a tomb, Christians were not beyond\nthe pale of the law, and their faith presented no hindrance to the\nproperty being secured to them in perpetuity. To adapt the ground for\nits purpose as a cemetery, a gallery was run all round the area in the\ntufa rock at a convenient depth below the surface, reached by staircases\nat the corners. In the upright walls of these galleries _loculi_ were\ncut as needed to receive the dead. When these first four galleries were\nfull others were mined on the same level at right angles to them, thus\ngradually converting the whole area into a net-work of corridors. If a\nfamily vault was required, or a burial chapel for a martyr or person of\ndistinction, a small square room was excavated by the side of the\ngallery and communicating with it. When the original area had been mined\nin this way as far as was consistent with stability, a second storey of\ngalleries was begun at a lower level, reached by a new staircase. This\nwas succeeded by a third, or a fourth, and sometimes even by a fifth.\nWhen adjacent burial areas belonged to members of the same Christian\nconfraternity, or by gift or purchase fell into the same hands,\ncommunications were opened between the respective cemeteries, which thus\nspread laterally, and gradually acquired that enormous extent which,\n\"even when their fabulous dimensions are reduced to their right measure,\nform an immense work.\"[5] This could only be executed by a large and\npowerful Christian community unimpeded by legal enactments or police\nregulations, \"a living witness of its immense development corresponding\nto the importance of the capital.\" But although, as we have said, in\nordinary times there was no necessity for secrecy, yet when the peace of\nthe Church was broken by the fierce and often protracted persecutions of\nthe heathen emperors, it became essential to adopt precautions to\nconceal the entrance to the cemeteries, which became the temporary\nhiding-places of the Christian fugitives, and to baffle the search of\ntheir pursuers. To these stormy periods we may safely assign the\nalterations which may be traced in the staircases, which are sometimes\nabruptly cut off, leaving a gap requiring a ladder, and the formation of\nsecret passages communicating with the _arenariae_, and through them\nwith the open country.\n\nWhen the storms of persecution ceased and Christianity had become the\nimperial faith, the evil fruits of prosperity were not slow to appear.\nCemetery interment became a regular trade in the hands of the\n_fossores_, or grave-diggers, who appear to have established a kind of\nproperty in the catacombs, and whose greed of gain led to that\ndestruction of the religious paintings with which the walls were\ndecorated, for the quarrying of fresh _loculi_, to which we have already\nalluded. Monumental epitaphs record the purchase of a grave from the\nfossores, in many cases during the lifetime of the individual, not\nunfrequently stating the price. A very curious fresco, found in the\ncemetery of Calixtus, preserved by the engravings of the earlier\ninvestigators (Bottari, tom. ii. p. 126, tav. 99), represents a \"fossor\"\nwith his lamp in his hand and his pick over his shoulder, and his tools\nlying about him. Above is the inscription, \"Diogenes Fossor in Pace\ndepositus.\"\n\n\n  Decoration.\n\nIt is unnecessary to enter on any detailed description of the frescoes\nwhich cover the walls and ceilings of the burial-chapels in the richest\nabundance. It must suffice to say that the earliest examples are only to\nbe distinguished from the mural decorations employed by their pagan\ncontemporaries (as seen at Pompeii and elsewhere) by the absence of all\nthat was immoral or idolatrous, and that it was only very slowly and\ntimidly that any distinctly religious representations were introduced.\nThese were at first purely symbolical, meaningless to any but a\nChristian eye, such as the Vine, the Good Shepherd, the Sheep, the\nFisherman, the Fish, &c. Even the personages of ancient mythology were\npressed into the service of early Christian art, and Orpheus, taming the\nwild beasts with his lyre, symbolized the peaceful sway of Christ; and\nUlysses, deaf to the Siren's song, represented the Believer triumphing\nover the allurements of sensual pleasure. The person of Christ appeared\nbut rarely, and then commonly simply as the chief personage in an\nhistorical picture. The events depicted from the life of Christ are but\nfew, and always conform rigidly to the same traditional type. The most\nfrequent are the miracle at Cana, the multiplication of the loaves and\nfishes, the paralytic carrying his bed, the healing of the woman with\nthe issue of blood, the raising of Lazarus, Zacchaeus, and the triumphal\nentry into Jerusalem. The Crucifixion, and subjects from the Passion,\nare never represented. The cycle of Old Testament subjects is equally\nlimited. The most common are the history of Jonah as a type of the\nResurrection, the Fall, Noah receiving the dove with the olive branch,\nAbraham's sacrifice of Isaac, Moses taking off his shoes, David with the\nsling, Daniel in the lions' den, and the Three Children in the fiery\nfurnace. The mode of representation is always conventional, the\ntreatment of the subject no less than its choice being dictated by an\nauthority to which the artist was compelled to bow. All the more\nvaluable of these paintings have been produced in J.H. Parker's series\nof photographs taken in the catacombs by the magnesium light.[6]\nWilpert's great work, in which these frescoes are reproduced in colours,\nnow enables the student even better to distinguish the styles of\ndifferent centuries and follow the course of artistic development or\ndecay.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Fresco Ceiling. (From Bosio.)\n\n  The subjects, beginning at the top and going to the right, are--\n\n  (1) The paralytic carrying his bed.\n  (2) The seven baskets full of fragments.\n  (3) Raising of Lazarus.\n  (4) Daniel in the lions' den.\n  (5) Jonah swallowed by the fish.\n  (6) Jonah vomited forth.\n  (7) Moses striking the rock.\n  (8) Noah and the dove.\n      In the centre, the Good Shepherd.]\n\n\n  Catacombs of Naples.\n\nBeyond Rome and its suburbs the most remarkable Christian catacombs are\nthose in the vicinity of Naples, described by Pelliccia (_De Christ.\nEccl. Polit._ vol. iv. Dissert. 5), and in separate treatises by\nBellerman and Schultze. Plans of them are also given by Agincourt in his\ngreat work on Christian art. These catacombs differ materially from\nthose of Rome. They were certainly originally stone-quarries, and the\nhardness of the rock has made the construction practicable of wide,\nlofty corridors and spacious halls, very unlike the narrow galleries and\ncontracted chambers in the Roman cemeteries. The mode of interment,\nhowever, is the same as that practised in Rome, and the _loculi_ and\n_arcosolia_ differ by little in the two. The walls and ceilings are\ncovered with fresco paintings of different dates, in some cases lying\none over the other. This catacomb contains an unquestionable example of\na church, divided into a nave and chancel, with a rude stone altar and\nbishop's seat behind it.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Fresco Ceiling. (From Bosio.)\n\n  The subjects, beginning at the bottom and going to the right, are--\n\n  (1) Moses striking the rock.\n  (2) Noah and the dove.\n  (3) The three children in the furnace.\n  (4) Abraham's sacrifice.\n  (5) The miracle of the loaves.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Plan of the Catacombs of St John, Syracuse.]\n\n\n  Syracuse.\n\nAt Syracuse also there are very extensive catacombs known as \"the\nGrottos of St John.\" They are also figured by Agincourt, and described\nby Denon (_Voyage en Sicile et Malte_) and Fuhrer. There is an entire\nunderground city with several storeys of larger and smaller streets,\nsquares and cross ways, cut out of the rock; at the intersection of the\ncross ways are immense circular halls of a bottle shape, like a\nglass-house furnace, lighted by air shafts. The galleries are generally\nvery narrow, furnished on each side with arched tombs, and communicating\nwith family sepulchral-chambers closed originally by locked doors, the\nmarks of the hinges and staples being still visible. The walls are in\nmany places coated with stucco adorned with frescoes, including palms,\ndoves, labara and other Christian symbols. The ground-plans (figs. 19,\n20), from Agincourt, of the catacomb and of one of the circular halls,\nshow how widely this cemetery differs in arrangement from the Roman\ncatacombs. The frequency of blind passages and of circular chambers will\nbe noticed, as well as the very large number of bodies in the cruciform\nrecesses, apparently amounting in one instance to nineteen. Agincourt\nremarks that this cemetery \"gives an idea of a work executed with design\nand leisure, and with means very different from those at command in\nproducing the catacombs of Rome.\"\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Plan of Circular Hall, Catacombs of St John,\nSyracuse. (From Agincourt.)]\n\n\n  Malta.\n\n  Taormina.\n\nDenon also describes catacombs at Malta near the ancient capital of the\nisland. The passages were all cut in a close-grained stone, and are very\nnarrow, with arched ceilings, running very irregularly, and ramifying in\nall directions. The greater part of the tombs stand on either side of\nthe galleries in square recesses (like the table-tombs of the Roman\ncatacombs), and are rudely fashioned to imitate sarcophagi. The\ninterments are not nearly so numerous as in other catacombs, nor are\nthere any vestiges of painting, sculpture or inscriptions. At Taormina\nin Sicily is a Saracenic catacomb, also figured by Agincourt. The main\ncorridor is 12 ft. wide, having three or more ranges of _loculi_ on\neither side, running longitudinally into the rock, each originally\nclosed by a stone bearing an inscription.\n\n\n  Egypt.\n\nPassing to Egypt, a small Christian catacomb at Alexandria is described\nand figured by de Rossi.[7] The _loculi_ here also are set endways to\nthe passage. The walls are abundantly decorated with paintings, one of a\nliturgical character. But the most extensive catacombs at Alexandria are\nthose of Egypto-Greek origin, from the largest of which, according to\nStrabo (lib. xvii. p. 795), the quarter where it is placed had the name\nof the Necropolis. The plan, it will be seen, is remarkable for its\nregularity (figs. 21, 22). Here, too, the graves run endways into the\nrock. Other catacombs in the vicinity of the same city are described by\nPocock and other travellers, and are figured by Agincourt.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 21--Plan of Catacomb at Alexandria. (From\nAgincourt.)]\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Section of a Gallery in Catacomb at Alexandria.\n(From Agincourt.)]\n\n\n  Sidon.\n\nSubterranean cemeteries of the general character of those described are\nvery frequent in all southern and eastern countries. A vast necropolis\nin the environs of Saida, the ancient Sidon, is described in Renan's\n_Mission en Phenicie_, and figured in Thobois's plates. It consists of a\nseries of apartments approached by staircases, the sides pierced with\nsepulchral recesses running lengthwise into the rock.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Plan of a Tomb at Cervetri. (From Dennis.)]\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Section of the Tomb of the Seats and Shields,\nCervetri. (From Dennis.)]\n\n\n  Rocktombs of Etruria.\n\nThe rock-hewn tombs of Etruria scarcely come under the category of\ncatacombs, in the usual sense, being rather independent family\nburial-places, grouped together in a necropolis. They are, however, far\ntoo remarkable to be altogether passed over. These sepulchres are\nusually hollowed out of the face of low cliffs on the side of a hill.\nThey often rise tier above tier, and are sometimes all on the same level\n\"facing each other as in streets, and branching off laterally into\nsmaller lanes or alleys\"; and occasionally forming \"a spacious square or\npiazza surrounded by tombs instead of houses\" (Dennis, _Cities and\nCemeteries of Etruria_, ii. 31). The construction of the tombs commonly\nkeeps up the same analogy between the cities of the living and those of\nthe dead. Their plan is for the most part that of a house, with a door\nof entrance and passage leading into a central chamber or _atrium_, with\nothers of smaller size opening from it, each having a stone-hewn bench\nor _triclinium_ on three of its sides, on which the dead, frequently a\npair of corpses side by side, were laid as if at a banquet. These\nbenches are often hewn in the form of couches with pillows at one end,\nand the legs carved in relief. The ceilings have the representation of\nbeams and rafters cut in the rock. In some instances arm-chairs, carved\nout of the living rock, stand between the doors of the chambers, and the\nwalls above are decorated with the semblance of suspended shields. The\nwalls are often covered with paintings in a very simple archaic style,\nin red and black. As a typical example of the Etruscan tombs we give the\nplan and section (figs. 23, 24) of the _Grotta detta Sedia_ at Cervetri\nfrom Dennis (pp. 32, 35). The tombs in some instances form subterranean\ngroups more analogous to the general idea of a catacomb. Of this nature\nis the very remarkable cemetery at Poggio Gaiella, near Chiusi, the\nancient Clusium, of a portion of the principal storey of which the\nwoodcut (fig. 25) is a plan. The most remarkable of these sepulchral\nchambers is a large circular hall about 25 ft. in diameter, supported by\na huge cylindrical pillar hewn from the rock. Opening out of this and\nthe other chambers, and connecting them together, are a series of low\nwinding passages or _cuniculi_, just large enough for a man to creep\nthrough on all fours. No plausible suggestion has been offered as to the\npurpose of these mysterious burrows, which cannot fail to remind us of\nthe labyrinth which, according to Varro's description as quoted by Pliny\n(_Hist. Nat._ lib. xxxvi. c. 19, S 4), was the distinguishing mark of\nPorsena's tomb, and which have led some adventurous archaeologists to\nidentify this sepulchre with that of the great king of Etruria (Dennis,\n_u.s._, pp. 393 ff.). (E. V.; O. M. D.)\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Plan of a portion of the principal storey in\nthe Poggio Gajella. (From Dennis.)]\n\n_Modern Discoveries_.--In 1873 was discovered, near the cemetery of St\nDomitilla, the semi-subterranean basilica of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo,\n100 ft. by 60 ft. This is now covered with a roof, and the fallen\ncolumns have been raised up. The lower part of a pillar, which once\nsupported a baldachino over the altar, still preserves the name\nACILLEUS, and beneath it a bas-relief of the martyr, with his hands\nbound, receiving his death-blow from the executioner. The base of a\nsimilar column has only feet in the same attitude, and probably bore the\nname NEREUS. In a grave in the apse was found a large fragment of an\ninscription, composed by Pope Damasus, but set up by his successor\nSiricius, which, from the note-book of a Salzburg pilgrim of the 8th\ncentury, can be completed thus:--\n\n                                       ------\n  Militiae nomen dederant saevum      \/ Q    \\  ue gerebant\n  Officium pariter spectantes juss    | AIYR   \\  anni\n  Praeceptis pulsante metu servi      | RE PAR   \\  ati\n  Mira fides rerum subito posue       | RE FVRORE  \\  m\n  Conversi fugiunt ducis impia castr  | A RELINQVVNI \\\n  Projiciunt clypeos faleras tel      | AQ. CRVENIA    |\n  Confessi gaudent Christi portar     | E IRIVMFOS     |\n  Credite per Damasum possit quid     | GLORIA CHRISTI |\n                                      ------------------\n\nNereus (see Rom. xvi. 15) and Achilleus, said to have been baptized by\nSt Peter, refused to do the bidding of Domitian as praetorians, and\nentering the service of Flavia Domitilla, suffered martyrdom with their\nmistress Petronilla, of the Aurelian family closely connected with the\nFlavii, and the spiritual daughter of St Peter, who was buried in a\nsarcophagus with the inscription:--\n\n  AVRELIAE . PETRONILLAE . FIL . DVLCISSIMAE\n\nThis is now in St Peter's, but was probably originally behind the apse\nof this basilica, for there is a fresco of her in an arcosolium, with a\nmatron named Veneranda. The original entrance to the cemetery leads\ndirectly into a spacious corridor with no _loculi_, but recesses for\nsarcophagi, and decorations of the classical style of the 2nd century.\nFrom this a wide staircase leads directly down to a chamber, discovered\nin March 1881, of a very early date. Within an arcosolium is a tablet\nset up by \"Aurelius Ampliatus and his son Gordian, to Aurelia Bonifatia,\nhis incomparable wife, a woman of true chastity, who lived 25 years, 2\nmonths, 4 days, and 2 hours.\" The letters are of the 2nd century; but\nabove the arcosolium was found a stone with great letters, 5 or 6 in.\nhigh: \"AMPLIATI, the tomb of Ampliatus.\" Now Ampliatus is a servile\nname: how comes it to be set up with such distinction in the sepulchre\nof the Flavii? Romans xvi. 8 supplies the answer: \"Salute Ampliatus,\nmost beloved to me in the Lord.\" De Rossi thinks the identification\nwell grounded (_Bullettino_, 1881, p. 74). Epitaphs of members of the\nFlavian family have been found here, and others stating that they are\nput up \"EX INDULGENTIA FLAVIAE DOMITILLAE VESPASIANI NEPTIS.\" So that De\nRossi did not hesitate to complete an inscription on a broken stone\nthus:--\n\n            -----\n  Sepulc   \/ RVM |\n  Flavi   \/ ORVM |\n         \/ |     |\n         --v------\n\nDe Rossi began his excavations in the cemetery of Santa Priscilla in\n1851, but for thirty years nothing but what had been described by Bosio\ncame to light. In 1880 he unearthed a portion near the Cappella Greca,\nand found galleries that had not been touched since they were filled in\nduring the Diocletian persecution. The _loculi_ were intact and the\nepitaphs still in their places, so that \"they form a kind of museum, in\nwhich the development, the formulae, and the symbolic figures of\nChristian epigraphy, from its origin to the end of the 3rd or 4th\ncentury, can be notified and contemplated, not in artificial specimens\nas in the Lateran, but in the genuine and living reality of their\noriginal condition.\" (_Bullett._, 1884, p. 68). Many of the names\nmentioned in St Paul's Epistles are found here: Phoebe, Prisca,\nAquilius, Felix Ampliatus, Epenetus, Olympias, Onesimus, Philemon,\nAsyncritus, Lucius, Julia, Caius, Timotheus, Tychicus, Crescens,\nUrbanus, Hermogenes, Tryphaena and Trypho(sa) on the same stone. Petrus,\na very rare name in the catacombs, is found here several times, both in\nGreek and in Latin. The neighbouring _Coemeterium Ostrianum_ was\nanciently known as \"_Fons S. Petri_,\" \"_ubi Petrus baptizavit_,\" \"_ubi\nPetrus prius sedit_.\" This cemetery derives its name from Priscilla,\nmother of Pudens, who is said to have given hospitality to St Peter the\nApostle. We are reminded of St Paul, and of his friends Aquila and\nPrisca, by a monument erected by an imperial freedman who was\nPRAEPOSITVS TABERNACVLORVM--chief tentmaker. In 1888 a corridor was\ndiscovered which had at one time been isolated from the rest of the\ncemetery. It had no _loculi_, but recesses in the wall to receive\nsarcophagi. At the end of the corridor there was a large chamber, 23 ft.\nby 13 ft., once lined with marble and the ceiling covered with mosaic, a\nfew fragments of which still remain. The only tomb here was a\nsarcophagus, of which the broken front bears the letters which show it\nto have been the epitaph of one of the Acilian family:--\n\n  ACILIO GLABRIONI FILIO\n\nIn the vicinity are fragments of the epitaphs of Manius Acilius and\nPriscilla, of Quintus Acilius and Caia Acilia in Greek, another Greek\ninscription \"Acilius Rufinus mayest thou live in God.\" After careful\nexamination of the nine Acilii, who were consuls, De Rossi concludes\nthat this was the resting-place of that Acilius Glabrio, consul with\nTrajan, A.D. 91, who in the year of his consulate was compelled by\nDomitian to fight with beasts in the arena, and then banished and put to\ndeath in 95. The question of his Christianity seems settled by the\ndiscovery of the sepulchre of these Christian Acilii. From this crypt a\nstaircase led up to the basilica in which Pope Silvester was buried, and\nthe whole plan of which was laid bare by De Rossi. The tomb of St\nSilvester could be identified, and that of Pope Siricius \"at his feet,\"\nas the pilgrim noted (_Bullett._, 1890, pp. 106-119).\n\nJust before De Rossi's death, Mgr. Wilpert discovered in the Cappella\nGreca a painting of the \"Fractio Panis\" or eucharistic feast, which he\ncleansed from the dust with which it had been covered. The picture of\nthe Blessed Virgin and Child, which De Rossi ascribed to the 2nd, if not\nto the 1st century, has received an unexpected proof of its antiquity.\nIn 1890 the floor of the gallery in which it stands was excavated, and\nanother floor was found to be 6 ft. below its supposed level. The\n_loculi_ in this lower portion were intact, with inscriptions of the 2nd\ncentury still in their places, proving that the niche in which that\npicture was painted must have been considerably older than the lowering\nof the floor. A flight of iron steps enables the visitor now to examine\nthis venerable specimen of early Christian art.\n\nAfter the death of De Rossi, one of his pupils, H. Stevenson, since\ndead, discovered in 1896 a small subterranean basilica in the catacomb\nof Santi Pietro e Marcellino on the Via Labicana, with pious\nacclamations on the plaster similar to those in the Papal crypt in St\nCalixtus. Near the well-known subterranean chapel in the _Coemeterium\nOstrianum_ was discovered by Mgr. Crostarosa, in 1877, another chapel,\nin which Signor Armellini found traces of St Emerentiana, foster-sister\nof St Agnes. Near this a whole region of galleries has been brought to\nlight with _loculi_ intact.\n\nExplorations conducted in the cemetery of Domitilla in 1897-1898 brought\nto light a fine double crypt with frescoes representing Christ seated\nbetween six male and female saints; also an inscription relating to a\nnew saint (Eulalius) in a cubiculum of the 3rd century. In 1899-1900\nwere discovered two opposite cubicula in the catacomb of Santi Pietro e\nMarcellino. These were unknown to Bosio, and are both covered with\nfrescoes, the vault being in one case decorated with the scene which\nrepresents Christ seated among the apostles and pronouncing sentence\nupon the defunct. An inscription discovered in 1900 on the site of the\nancient cemetery of St Ciriaca, and dating from A.D. 405, states that\none Euryalus bought a site _ad mensam beati martyris Laurentii_ from a\ncertain _fossor_ whose name has been erased. This is interesting as an\nexample of what was known as _memoriae damnatio_ or the blotting out of\na name on account of some dishonourable action. From the end of the 4th\nto the first half of the 5th century, the _fossores_ had the privilege\nof selling sites, which frequently led to grave abuses. In 1901-1902\nexcavations in the cemetery of Santa Priscilla, near the Cappella Greca,\nrevealed a polygonal chamber. This may have originally been the\n_nymphaeum_ of the great villa of the Acilii Glabriones, the _hypogaeum_\nof which was discovered by De Rossi near this spot in 1888. It may have\nbeen used as a burial-place for martyrs, and Professor Marucchi is\ninclined to see in it the sepulchral chapel of Pope Marcellinus, who\ndied in A.D. 304 during the persecutions of Diocletian. In 1902, in that\npart of the Via Ardeatina which passes between the cemeteries of\nCalixtus and Domitilla, was discovered a crypt with frescoes and the\nsanctuary of a martyr: it is thought that this, rather than a\nneighbouring crypt brought to light in 1897, may prove to be the\nsepulchral crypt of SS. Marcus and Marcellianus. In a cubiculum leading\nout of a gallery in the vicinity there was also discovered an\ninteresting impression in plaster of an inscription of the mother of\nPope Damasus, beginning:\n\n  HIC DAMASI MATER POSVIT LAVREN[TIA MEMBRA].\n\nIn the same year building operations in the Via di Sant' Onofrio\nrevealed the presence of catacombs beneath the foundations: examination\nof the _loculi_ showed that no martyrs or illustrious persons were\nburied here.\n\nIn 1903 a new cemetery with frescoes came to light on the Via Latina,\nconsidered by Marucchi to have belonged to a heretical sect. In the same\nyear the Jewish cemetery on the Via Portuense, known to Bosio but since\nforgotten, was rediscovered. The subterranean basilica of SS. Felix and\nAdauctus, discovered by Boldetti and afterwards choked up with ruins,\nwas cleared again: the crypt, begun by Damasus and enlarged by Siricius,\ncontains frescoes of the 6th-7th centuries.\n\nA good plan of the catacombs at Albano (at the 15th milestone of the\nAppian way), discovered by Boldetti and described by De Rossi, has been\npublished by Marucchi (_Nuovo Bulletino di archeologia cristiana_, 1902,\npp. 89 ff.). In 1904 a small subterranean cemetery was discovered at\nAnagnia. Catacombs have also been recently discovered on the site of\nHadrumetum near Sousse in Tunisia.     (+ W. R. B.; O. M. D.)\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--The classical work on the catacombs of Rome is G.B. De\n  Rossi's _Roma sotterranea_, on which most of the accounts in other\n  languages than Italian have been based. The fine volume by Mgr.\n  Wilpert, _Le Pitture delle catacombe romane_ (Rome, 1903), in which\n  all the important frescoes are reproduced in colours, is to be\n  regarded as an addition to the _Roma sotterranea_. All new\n  discoveries made by the active _Commissione di archeologia sacra_ are\n  chronicled with as little delay as possible in the _Nuovo Bulletino de\n  archeologia cristiana_ published in Rome.\n\n  The most recent accounts of the catacombs are to be found in the\n  following books:--Armellini, _Gli Antichi Cimiteri cristiani di Roma e\n  d' Italia_ (Rome, 1893); O. Marucchi, _Le Catacombe romane_ (Rome,\n  1903; also translated into French), _Manuale di epigrafia cristiana _\n  (Milan, 1904); M. Besnier, _Les Catacombes de Rome_ (Paris, 1909).\n\n  Among the older works are: Bosio, _Roma sotterranea_, Severano's\n  edition (1632), and Aringhi's edition (1651); Boldetti, _Osservazioni\n  sopra i cimiteri dei santi martiri_ (Rome, 1720); Bottari, _Sculture e\n  pitture sagre, &c._ (Rome, 1737-1754); Seroux d'Agincourt, _Histoire\n  de l'art par les monuments_ (Paris, 1823; German ed., 1840); G.\n  Marchi, _Monumenti delle arti cristiane primitive_ (Rome, 1844); Raoul\n  Rochette, _Tableau des catacombes de Rome_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1853);\n  Perret, _Les Catacombes de Rome_ (Paris, 1855)--a sumptuous folio\n  work, but not always accurate, Roller, _Les Catacombes de Rome_\n  (Paris, 1881); V. Schultze, _Die Katakomben_ (Leipzig, 1882).\n\n  Works written in English are: Northcote and Brownlow, _Roma\n  sotterranea_ (London, 1869; based upon De Rossi); Wharton Marriott,\n  _The Testimony of the Catacombs_ (London, 1870); J.H. Parker, _The\n  Archaeology of Rome: the Catacombs_; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary\n  of Christian Antiquities_, s.v. \"Catacombs\"; R. Lanciani, _Pagan and\n  Christian Rome_ (London, 1892); W. Lowry, _Christian Art and\n  Archaeology_, ch. ii. (London, 1901; a useful introduction to the\n  subject); H. Gee, \"The Church in the Catacombs,\" in W. Lefroy's\n  _Lectures in Ecclesiastical History_ (1896); Th. Mommsen, in the\n  _Contemporary Review_, May 1871.\n\n  Accounts of the catacombs will also be found in the encyclopaedias and\n  manuals published under the following names: Martigny, Perate, F.X.\n  Kraus (_Realencyklopadie_ and _Geschichte der christlichen Kunst_),\n  Reusens, V. Schultze and C.M. Kauffmann, and in the large new\n  _Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et liturgie_, published at\n  Paris under the editorship of Dom F. Cabrol.\n\n  The catacombs at Naples are described in C.F. Bellermann, _Uber die\n  altesten christlichen Begrabnisstatten und besonders die Katakomben zu\n  Neapel_ (Hamburg, 1839); Armellini, as above, and V. Schultze, _Die\n  Katakomben von San Gennaro dei Poveri in Neapel_ (Jena, 1877).\n\n  For the catacombs in Malta, A.A. Caruana, _Ancient Pagan Tombs and\n  Christian Cemeteries in the Islands of Malta_ (Malta, 1898), and A.\n  Mayr, \"Die altchristlichen Begrabnisstatten auf Malta,\" in _Romische\n  Quartalschrift_, vol. xv. pp. 216 and 352 (Rome, 1901), may be\n  consulted.\n\n  The fullest account of the Sicilian catacombs is given by J. Fuhrer,\n  _Forschungen zur Sicilia sotterranea_ (Munich, 1897); and D.C.\n  Barrecca, _Le Catacombe di San Giovanni in Siracusa_ (Syracuse, 1906).\n\n  A catacomb of the 5th century, discovered at Kertch in South Russia,\n  is described by J. Kulakovsky in _Materials for Russian Archaeology_\n  (St Petersburg, 1896; a publication of the Russian Imperial\n  Archaeological Commission), but it is written in Russian, as also is\n  the account by V. Latyshev, in _Vizantieski Vremennik_, vol. vi. pp.\n  337 ff. (St Petersburg, 1899).\n\n  The catacombs at Hadrumetum (Sousse) are described by A.F. Leynard,\n  _Les Catacombes d'Hadrumete, deuxieme campagne de fouilles_\n  (1904-1905). See also _Revue Tunisienne_ (1905), p. 250.\n\n  For the catacombs of Alexandria, Neroutsos Bey, _L'Ancienne\n  Alexandrie_, may be consulted in addition to De Rossi's article\n  mentioned in the text.     (O. M. D.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] The most important of these lists are the two Itineraries\n    belonging to the first half of the 7th century, in the Salzburg\n    library. One still earlier, but less complete, appears in the\n    _Notitia Urbis Romae_, under the title _Index Coemeteriorum_. Another\n    Itinerary, preserved at Einsiedeln, printed by Mabillon, dates from\n    the latter half of the same century. That found in the works of\n    William of Malmesbury (Hardy's ed. vol. ii. pp. 539-544) appears to\n    be copied from it, or both may be from the same source. De Rossi\n    gives a comparative table of these Itineraries and other similar\n    lists.\n\n  [2] Hieron., _Comment. in Ezech._ lib xx. c. 40. The translation is\n    Dean Burgon's.\n\n  [3] In Rome the three strata are known to geologists as _tufa\n    litoide_, _tufa granolare_ and _pozzolana_.\n\n  [4] Cicero is our authority for the burial of Marius, and for Sulla's\n    being the first member of the Gens Cornelia whose dead body was burnt\n    (_De Legg._ ii. 22).\n\n  [5] Mommsen's chosen example of an ancient burial-chamber, extending\n    itself into a catacomb, or gathering subterranean additions round it\n    till a catacomb was established, is that of the cemetery of St\n    Domitilla, traditionally identified with a granddaughter of\n    Vespasian, and the catacomb of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo on the Appian\n    and Ardeatine way.\n\n  [6] Parker's invaluable series of Roman photographs may be seen at\n    the library of the Victoria and Albert museum, at the Ashmolean\n    museum and the Bodleian library, Oxford.\n\n  [7] _Bulletino di archaeologia cristiana_, November 1864, August\n    1865. See also _Authorities_, below.\n\n\n\n\nCATAFALQUE (a word of unknown origin, occurring in various forms in many\nEuropean languages, meaning a funeral scaffold or temporary stage), a\nmovable structure of wood sometimes richly decorated, erected\ntemporarily at funeral ceremonies in a church to receive the coffin or\neffigy of the deceased; also an open hearse or funeral car.\n\n\n\n\nCATALANI, ANGELICA (1780-1849), Italian opera-singer, daughter of a\ntradesman at Sinigaglia, was educated at the convent of Santa Lucia at\nGubbio, where her magnificent soprano voice, of extraordinary compass\nand purity, soon became famous. In 1795 she made her debut on the stage\nat Venice, and from that moment every impresario in Europe was anxious\nto engage her. For nearly thirty years she sang at all the great houses,\nreceiving very large fees; her first appearance in London being at the\nKing's theatre in 1806. She remained in England, a prima donna without a\nserious rival, for seven years. Then she was given the management of the\nopera in Paris, but this resulted in financial failure, owing to the\nincapacity and extravagance of her husband, Captain Valabregue, whom she\nmarried in 1806. But her continental tours continued to be enormously\nsuccessful, until she retired in 1828. She settled at Florence in 1830,\nwhere she founded a free singing school for girls; and her charity and\nkindness were unbounded. She died of cholera in Paris on the 12th of\nJune 1849.\n\n\n\n\nCATALEPSY (from Gr. [Greek: katalepsis], a seizure), a term applied to a\nnervous affection characterized by the sudden suspension of sensation\nand volition, accompanied with a peculiar rigidity of the whole or of\ncertain muscles of the body. The subjects of catalepsy are in most\ninstances females of highly nervous temperament. The exciting cause of\nan attack is usually mental emotion operating either suddenly, as in the\ncase of a fright, or more gradually in the way of prolonged depression.\nThe symptoms presented vary in different cases, and even in the same\nindividual in different attacks. Sometimes the typical features of the\ndisease are exhibited in a state of complete insensibility, together\nwith a statue-like appearance of the body which will retain any attitude\nit may be made to assume during the continuance of the attack. In this\ncondition the whole organic and vital functions appear to be reduced to\nthe lowest possible limit consistent with life, and to such a degree as\nto simulate actual death. At other times considerable mental excitement\nwill accompany the cataleptic symptoms, and the patient will sing or\nutter passionate exclamations during the fit, being all the while quite\nunconscious. The attack may be of short duration, passing off within a\nfew minutes. It may, however, last for many hours, and in some rare\ninstances persist for several days; and it is conceivable that in such\ncases the appearances presented might be mistaken for real death, as is\nalleged to have occasionally happened. Catalepsy belongs to the class of\nfunctional nervous disorders (see MUSCLE AND NERVE: _Pathology_) in\nwhich morbid physical and psychical conditions are mixed up. Although it\nis said to occur in persons in perfect health, careful inquiry will\nusually reveal some departure from the normal state, as is shown by the\ngreater number of the recorded cases. More particularly is this true of\nfemales, in whom some form of menstrual derangement is generally found\nto have preceded the cataleptic affection. Catalepsy is sometimes\nassociated with epilepsy and with grave forms of mental disease. In\nordinary cases, however, the mental phenomena bear close resemblance to\nthose witnessed in hysteria. In many of the subjects of catalepsy there\nappears to be a remarkable weakness of the will, whereby the tendency to\nlapse into the cataleptic state is not resisted but rather in some\nmeasure encouraged, and attacks may thus be induced by the most trivial\ncircumstances.\n\n\n\n\nCATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: katalogos], a register,\nfrom [Greek: katalegein], to enrol or pick out), a list or enumeration,\ngenerally in alphabetical order, of persons, things, &c., and\nparticularly of the contents of a museum or library. A _catalogue\nraisonnee_ is such a list classified according to subjects or on some\nother basis, with short explanations and notes. (See also articles\nBIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY, and LIBRARIES.)\n\n\n\n\nCATALONIA (_Cataluna_), a captaincy-general, and formerly a province of\nSpain, formerly also a principality of the crown of Aragon; bounded on\nthe N. by the Pyrenees, W. by Aragon, S. by Valencia, and E. by the\nMediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 1,966,382; area, 12,427 sq. m. The\ntriangular territory of Catalonia forms the north-eastern corner of the\nIberian Peninsula. A full account of the physical features, and of the\nmodern development of commerce, communications, &c., in this area is\ngiven in the articles on the four provinces Barcelona, Gerona, Lerida\nand Tarragona, into which Catalonia was divided in 1833.\n\nThe coast, which is partly sandy, partly rocky, extends about 240 m.;\nits chief harbours are those of the capital, Barcelona, of Mataro, of\nRosas and of Tarragona. The surface is much broken by spurs of the\nPyrenees, the direction of which is generally south. Running south-west\nto north-east, and united on the north with one of the offsets of the\nPyrenees, is the range of the Sierra Llena, which bisects Catalonia, and\nforms its central watershed. The principal rivers are the Ter, the\nLlobregat, and the Ebro (q.v.), which all run into the Mediterranean.\nNone of them is navigable. The climate, in spite of frequent mists and\nrains, sudden changes of temperature, and occasional great mid-day heat,\nis healthy and favourable to vegetation. The dwarf-palm, orange, lime,\nand olive grow in the warmer tracts; and on the higher grounds the\nthorn-apple, pomegranate, myrtle, esparto and heaths flourish. There is\nmuch woodland, but meadows and pastures are rare. Maize, millet, rye,\nflax, liquorice and fruits of all sorts--especially nuts, almonds,\noranges, figs, walnuts and chestnuts--are produced. Wheat sufficient for\none-fourth of the population is grown, and the vine is extensively\ncultivated. Few cattle, but numbers of sheep, goats and swine are\nreared. Game is plentiful, and the fisheries on the coast are excellent.\nThe wines are for the most part rough and strong, though some are very\ngood, especially when matured. They are much used to adulterate those of\nOporto, or, after undergoing the blending operation termed _compage_,\nare passed off as Bordeaux wines in France. The best of them,\n_priorato_, is chiefly known in England, under the disguise of second or\nthird-rate port; it was much used in the military hospitals of America\nduring the Civil War.\n\nThe Catalonians are a frugal, sharp-witted, and industrious people,\nhaving much national pride, and a strong revolutionary spirit. They are\ndistinct in origin from the other inhabitants of Spain, from whom they\ndiffer in their dialect and costume. In their great energy and their\nlove of enterprise they resemble the Basques. Irrigation, careful\nhusbandry and railroad communications have much developed the resources\nof their country, in themselves excellent; and there are many\nmanufacturing towns and industrial establishments.\n\nCatalonia was one of the first of the Roman possessions in Spain, and\nformed the north-eastern portion of Hispania Tarraconensis. About 470 it\nwas occupied by the Alans and Goths. It was conquered by the Moors in\n712, but these invaders were in turn dispossessed by the Spaniards and\nthe troops of Charlemagne in 788. Catalonia was subsequently ruled by\nFrench counts, who soon, however, made themselves independent of France.\nBy the marriage of Count Raymond Berenger IV. of Barcelona with\nPetronilla of Aragon, Catalonia became annexed to Aragon; but this union\nwas frequently severed. In 1640, when Philip IV. attempted to deprive\nCatalonia of its rights and privileges, it gave itself up to Louis XIII.\nof France. It was restored to Spain in 1659, and was once more occupied\nby the French from 1694 to 1697. Under Philip V. Catalonia, in 1714, was\ndeprived of its cortes and liberties. From 1808 to 1813 it was held by\nFrance. It was the scene of civil war in 1823, and of important\nrevolutionary operations in the Carlist wars.\n\n  The history and literature of Catalonia have been closely studied, and\n  in many cases the results of research are published in the Catalan\n  language. See _Cataluna, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza e\n  historia_ (2 vols. of the illustrated series _Espana_), by P.\n  Pifferrer, F. Pi Margall, and A.A. Pijoan (Barcelona, 1884); _Historia\n  de Cataluna_, by V. Balaguer (11 vols., Madrid, 1886, &c.); _Historia\n  de Cataluna_, by A. Bori y Fontesta (Barcelona, 1898); _Origines\n  historicos de Cataluna_, by J. Balari y Jovany (Barcelona, 1899);\n  _Coleccio dels monografias de Catalunya_, by J. Reig y Vilardell\n  (Barcelona, 1890); _Historia del derecho en Catalonia, Mallorca y\n  Valencia_, by B. Oliver (Madrid, 1876-1880); and _Antigua marina\n  catalana_, by F. de Bofarull y Sans (Barcelona, 1898). The _Revista\n  catalana_ (Catalan Review), published at Barcelona from 1889, contains\n  many valuable papers on local affairs. See also SPAIN: sections\n  _Language, Literature_ and _History_, and BARCELONA.\n\n\n\n\nCATALPA, in botany, a genus belonging to the family _Bignoniaceae_ and\ncontaining about ten species in America and eastern Asia. The best known\nis _Catalpa bignonioides_, a native of the eastern United States which\nis often cultivated in parks and gardens. It is a stately tree with\nlarge heart-shaped pointed leaves and panicles of white bell-shaped\nflowers streaked with yellow and brown purple.\n\n\n\n\nCATALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: kata], down, and [Greek: luein], to\nloosen), in chemistry, the name given to chemical actions brought about\nby a substance, termed the \"catalyst,\" which is recovered unchanged\nafter the action. The term was introduced by Berzelius, who first\nstudied such reactions. It is convenient to divide catalytic actions\ninto two groups:--(1) when the catalyst first combines with one of the\nreaction components to form a compound which immediately reacts with the\nother components, the catalyst being simultaneously liberated, and free\nto react with more of the undecomposed first component; and (2), when\nthe catalyst apparently reacts by mere contact. The theory of catalysis\nis treated under CHEMICAL ACTION; in this article mention will be made\nof some of the more interesting examples.\n\nA familiar instance of a catalytic action is witnessed when a mixture\nof potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide is heated to 350 deg.,\noxygen being steadily liberated, and the manganese dioxide being\nunchanged at the end of the reaction. The action may be explained as\nfollows:--part of the chlorate reacts with the manganese dioxide to form\npotassium permanganate, chlorine and oxygen, the chlorine subsequently\nreacting with the permanganate to produce manganese dioxide, potassium\nchloride and oxygen, thus\n\n  2KClO3 + 2MnO2 = 2KMnO4 + Cl2 + O2 = 2KCl + 2MnO2 + 3O2.\n\nThis explanation is supported by the facts that traces of chlorine are\npresent in the gas, and the pink permanganate can be recognized when\nlittle dioxide is used. Other oxides bring about the same decomposition\nat temperatures below that at which the chlorate yields oxygen when\nheated alone; but since such substances as kaolin, platinum black and\nsome other finely powdered compounds exercise the same effect, it\nfollows that the explanation given above is not quite general. Another\nexample is Deacon's process for the manufacture of chlorine by passing\nhydrochloric acid gas mixed with air over heated bricks which had been\npreviously impregnated with a copper sulphate solution. The nitrous\ngases employed in the ordinary chamber process of manufacturing\nsulphuric acid also act catalytically. Mention may be made of the part\nplayed by water vapour in conditioning many chemical reactions. Thus\nsodium will not react with dry chlorine or dry oxygen; carbon, sulphur\nand phosphorus will not burn in perfectly dry oxygen, neither does\nnitric oxide give red fumes of the peroxide. In organic chemistry many\ncatalytic actions are met with. In the class of reaction known as\n\"condensations,\" it may be found that the course of the reaction is\nlargely dependent upon the nature of some substance which acts\ncatalytically. One of the most important is the Friedel and Craft's\nreaction, in which an aromatic compound combines with an alkyl haloid in\nthe presence of aluminium, zinc or ferric chloride. It seems in this, as\nin other cases, that additional compounds are first formed which\nsubsequently react with the re-formation of the catalyst. The formation\nof benzoin from benzaldehyde in the presence of potassium cyanide is\nanother example; this action has been investigated by G. Bredig and\nStern (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1904, 10, p. 582).\n\nThe second class of catalytic actions, viz. those occasioned by the\npresence of a metal or some other substance which undergoes no change,\nis of especial interest, and has received much attention. The\naccelerating influence of a clean platinum plate on the rate of\ncombination of hydrogen and oxygen was studied by Faraday. He found that\nwith the pure gases the velocity of reaction increased until the mixture\nexploded. The presence of minute quantities of carbon monoxide, carbon\ndisulphide, sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrochloric acid inhibited the\naction; in the case of the first two gases, there is no alteration of\nthe platinum surface, since the plate brings about combination when\nremoved to an atmosphere of pure hydrogen and oxygen; with the last two\ngases, however, the surface is altered, since the plate will not\noccasion the combination when placed in the pure gases. M. Bodenstein\n(_Zeit. phys. Chem._, 1904, 46, p. 725) showed that combination occurs\nwith measurable velocity at ordinary temperatures in the presence of\ncompact platinum. More energetic combination is observed if the metal be\nfinely divided, as, for instance, by immersing asbestos fibres in a\nsolution of platinum chloride and strongly heating. The \"spongy\"\nplatinum so formed brings about the combination of ammonia and oxygen to\nform water and nitric acid, of nitric oxide and hydrogen to form ammonia\n(see German Patent, 1905, 157,287), and of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to\nform sulphur trioxide. The last reaction, which receives commercial\napplication in the contact process of sulphuric acid manufacture, was\nstudied by M. Bodenstein and W. Pohl (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1905, 11, p.\n373), who found that the equilibrium followed the law of mass-action\n(see also F. W. Kuster, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1904, 42, p. 453, R.\nLucas, _Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1905, 11, p. 457). Other metals, such as\nnickel, iron, &c., can also react as catalysts. The use of finely\ndivided nickel (obtained by reducing the oxide in a current of pure\nhydrogen at a temperature of 350 deg.) has been carefully studied by P.\nSabatier and J.B. Senderens; a summary of their results is given in the\n_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1905 (viii.) 4, pp. 319-488. Of special interest is\nthe condensation of acetylene. If this gas mixed with hydrogen be passed\nover the reduced nickel in the cold, the temperature may rise to as high\nas 150 deg., the acetylene disappearing and becoming replaced by a\nsubstance like petroleum. If the nickel be maintained at 200 deg., and\nthe gases circulated for twenty-eight hours, a product, condensible to a\nyellow liquid having a beautiful fluorescence and boiling at 45 deg., is\nobtained. This substance closely resembles ordinary Pennsylvanian\npetroleum. If acetylene be passed alone over nickel heated to 200\ndeg.-300 deg., a mixture, boiling at 60 deg.-70 deg. and having a green\ncolour by diffused and a red by transmitted light, was obtained. This\nsubstance closely resembles Caucasian petroleum. The decomposition of\ncarbon monoxide according to the reaction 2CO <=> C + CO2 is purely\ncatalytic in the presence of nickel and cobalt, and also in the presence\nof iron, so long as the amount of carbon dioxide present does not exceed\na certain amount (R. Schenck and W. Heller, _Ber._, 1905, 38, pp. 2132,\n2139). It is of interest that finely divided aluminium and magnesium\ndecompose methane, ethane, and ethylene into carbon and hydrogen in the\nsame way as nickel. Charcoal at 350 deg. also reacts catalytically; for\nexample, Senderens found that ethyl alcohol was decomposed by animal\ncharcoal into methane, ethylene, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and a little\ncarbon dioxide, and propyl alcohol gave propylene, ethane, carbon\nmonoxide and hydrogen, while G. Lemoine obtained from ethyl alcohol and\nwood charcoal a mixture of acetaldehyde and hydrogen.\n\n\n\n\nCATAMARAN (a Tamil word, from _catta_, to tie, and _maram_ wood), a\nsurf-boat or raft used by the natives of Madras and along the Coromandel\nCoast in India. It is usually made of three tree trunks lashed together,\nthe centre trunk being the largest and longest, and having one end bent\nupward to form a kind of prow. Catamarans of a larger size are in use in\nthe West Indies and South America. The name is also given to two boats\nlashed together. Apparently through an erroneous connexion with cat, the\nname has been applied to a noisy scolding woman.\n\n\n\n\nCATAMARCA, an Andean province of the Argentine Republic, lying W. of\nSantiago del Estero and Tucuman and extending to the Chilean frontier,\nwith Los Andes and Salta on the N., Cordoba on the S.E., and Rioja on\nthe S. Pop. (1895) 90,161; (1904, estimate) 103,082; area, 47,531 sq. m.\nThe surface of the province is extremely broken, the Andes forming its\nwestern boundary, and the Aconquija, Ancaste, Ambato, Gulampaja and\nother ranges traversing it from north to south. It is composed very\nlargely of high plateaus with a general <DW72> southward broken by a few\nfertile valleys. The greater part of the province is arid and barren,\nbeing sheltered from the moist, eastern winds by the high mountain\nbarriers of Aconquija and Ancaste. The rivers are small, and some of\nthem are lost in the barren, sandy wastes. Others, especially in the\nfoothills of the high sierras, are utilized to irrigate the fertile\nvalleys. The climate of some of the low, sheltered valleys is extremely\nhot and unhealthy, but on the open plateaus it is peculiarly dry and\nbracing and is probably beneficial in the treatment of pulmonary\ndiseases. The mineral resources of the province include gold, silver,\ncopper, lead, nickel, iron, coal and malachite, but of these only copper\nand silver are mined, and these chiefly in the Andalgala district. Salt\ndeposits also exist, but are worked only to a limited extent. Cereals,\nalfalfa and fruit are grown. Large numbers of cattle, fattened in the\nalfalfa fields of Pucara, Tinogasta and Copacabana, are driven into\nnorthern Chile across the San Francisco pass (13,124 ft. above sea\nlevel) and mules are bred for the Bolivian market. Wine of an excellent\nquality is produced and exported. Tanning leather is another industry of\nthe province, some of the trees growing in the Catamarca forests being\nrich in tannin. Catamarca is traversed by the Northern Central railway\nbetween Cordoba and the city of Catamarca, its capital, which passes\naround the southern extremity of the Sierra de Ancaste and makes a long\ndetour to Chumbicha, near the Rioja frontier. The more important towns,\nafter Catamarca, the capital, are Andalgala and Tinogasta with\npopulations (estimated, 1904) of 5000 to 6000 each. Belen is the oldest\nSpanish settlement in the province and was founded in 1550, being called\nBarco at first. The population is largely mixed with Indian blood.\n\n\n\n\nCATAMARCA (_San Fernando de Catamarca_), capital of the above province\non the Rio del Valle de Catamarca, 230 m. (318 m. by rail) N.N.W. of\nCordoba. Pop. (1895) 7397; (1905, estimate) 8000, with a large\npercentage of mestizos. Catamarca is connected by railways with Rioja\nand Patquia and with Cordoba. The city stands in a narrow, picturesque\nvalley at the foot of the Sierra de Ambato, 1772 ft. above sea level.\nThe valley is highly fertile, partially wooded, and produces fruit in\nabundance, wine and some cereals. In the city are flour mills and\ntanneries, and among its exports are leather, fruit, wine, flour, and a\ncurious embroidery for which the women of Catamarca have long been\nfamous. There is a fine church, 220 by 90 ft., and a national college\noccupies the old Merced convent. The alameda is one of the prettiest in\nthe Argentine Republic, having a reservoir of two acres surrounded by\nshrubbery and walks. Catamarca was founded in 1685 by Fernando de\nMendoza because the town of Chacra, the former provincial capital, a few\nmiles north of Catamarca, had been found unhealthy and subject to\ninundations. Previous to the selection of Chacra as the provincial\ncapital, the seat of government was at San Juan de Londres, founded in\n1558 and named after the capital of England by order of Philip II. in\nhonour of his marriage with Queen Mary. The arid surroundings of Londres\nled to its partial abandonment and it is now a mere village. Cholla, a\nsuburb of Catamarca, is inhabited wholly by Calchaqui Indians, a remnant\nof the original inhabitants of this region.\n\n\n\n\nCATANIA (Gr. _Katane_, Rom. _Catina_[1]), a city and episcopal see of\nSicily, the chief town of the province of Catania, on the east coast, 59\nm. by rail S. of Messina, and 151 m. by rail S.E. of Palermo (102 m.\ndirect). Pop. (1881) 100,417; (1905) 157,722. The principal buildings\nare handsome, and the main streets, meeting in the Piazzo del Duomo, are\nfine. The cathedral of S. Agatha, containing the relics of the saint,\nretains its three original Norman apses (1091), but is otherwise a large\nbaroque edifice. The monument of Don Ferrando d'Acunea, a Spanish\nviceroy of Sicily, is a fine early Renaissance work (1494). In the west\nportion of the town is the huge Benedictine abbey of S. Nicola (now\nsuppressed), the buildings of which occupy an area of about 21 acres and\ncontain the museum, a library, observatory, &c. The church, dating, like\nthe rest of the buildings, from 1693-1735, is the largest in Sicily, and\nthe organ, built in 1760 by Donato del Piano, with 72 stops and 2916\npipes, is very fine. The university, founded in 1444, has regained some\nof its former importance. To the south near the harbour is the massive\nCastell' Ursino, erected in 1232 by Frederick II. Remains of several\nancient buildings exist, belonging in the main to the Roman period. The\ntheatre, covered by a stream of lava, and built partly of small\nrectangular blocks of the same material, though in the main of concrete,\nhas been superimposed upon the Greek building, some foundations of\nwhich, in calcareous stone, of which the seats are also made, still\nexist. It is 106 yds. in diameter, and is estimated to have accommodated\n7000 spectators. Close to it are the remains of the so-called Odeum, of\nsimilar plan to the theatre but without a stage, and to the north is the\nchurch of S. Maria Rotonda, originally a Roman domed structure, perhaps\npart of a bath. To the north, in the Piazza Stesicoro, is the\namphitheatre, a considerable portion of which has been uncovered,\nincluding the two corridors which ran round the whole building and gave\naccess to the seats, while a part of the arcades of the exterior has\nbeen excavated and left open; the pillars are made of blocks of lava,\nand the arches of brick. The external diameters of the amphitheatre are\n410 and 348 ft., while the corresponding diameters of the arena are 233\nand 167 ft. It is thus the third largest Roman amphitheatre known, being\nsurpassed only by that at Verona and the Colosseum. Remains of many\nother Roman buildings also exist beneath the modern town, among the best\npreserved of which may be noted the public baths (_Thermae Achilleae_)\nunder the cathedral, and those under the church of S. Maria dell'\nIndirizzo. The number of baths is remarkable, and gives some idea of the\nluxury of the place in Roman times. Their excellent preservation is\naccounted for by their burial under the lava. The majority were\nexcavated by Prince Ignazio Biscari (1719-1786), who formed an important\nprivate collection of antiquities. Of the ancient city walls no\nauthenticated remains exist.\n\nCatania has a considerable export trade in sulphur, pumice stone,\nasphalt, oranges and lemons, almonds, filberts, cereals, wine (the total\nproduction of wine in the province amounted to 28,600,000 gallons in\n1905) and oil. The total value of exports in 1905 was L1,647,075, and of\nimports L1,326,055, the latter including notably coal, almost entirely\nfrom the United Kingdom, and wheat, from Russian ports. The harbour is a\ngood one, and has been considerably enlarged since 1872; L128,000 was\nvoted in 1905 towards the completion of the harbour works by the Italian\ngovernment. Sulphide of carbon is produced here; and there are large\ndyeworks, and a factory for making bed-stuffing from seaweed.\n\nThe ancient Catina was founded in 729 B.C. by colonists from Naxos,\nperhaps on the site of an earlier Sicel settlement--the name is entirely\nun-Greek, and may be derived from [Greek: katinon], which in the Sicel\nlanguage, as _catinum_ in Latin, meant a basin, and would thus be\ndescriptive of the situation of the town. Charondas, a citizen of\nCatina, is famous as its lawgiver, but his date and his birthplace are\nalike uncertain; the fragments preserved of his laws show that they\nbelong to a somewhat primitive period. The poet Stesichorus of Himera\ndied here. Very little is heard of Catina in history until 476 B.C.,\nwhen Hiero I. removed its inhabitants to Leontini, repeopled it with\n5000 Syracusans and 5000 Peloponnesians, and changed its name to Aetna.\nIn 461 B.C., however, with the help of Ducetius and the Syracusans, the\nformer inhabitants recovered possession of their city and revived the\nold name. Catina was, however, an ally of Athens during the Syracusan\nexpedition (415-413 B.C.), and served as the Athenian base of operations\nin the early part of the war. In 403 B.C. it was taken by Dionysius of\nSyracuse, who plundered the city, sold the inhabitants into slavery and\nreplaced them with Campanian mercenaries. In the First Punic War it was\none of the first cities of Sicily to be taken by the Romans (263 B.C.).\nMarcellus constructed a gymnasium here out of the booty of Syracuse. In\n123 B.C. there was an eruption of Etna so violent that the tithe on the\nterritory of Catina payable to Rome was remitted for ten years. It\nappears to have been a flourishing city in the ist century B.C., but to\nhave suffered from the ravages of Sextus Pompeius. It became a Roman\n_colonia_ under Augustus, and it is from this period that the fertile\nplain, hitherto called the plain of Leontini, begins to be called the\nplain of Catina. It seems to have been at this time the most important\ncity in the island, to judge from the language of Strabo and the number\nof inscriptions found there. In A.D. 251 a lava stream threatened the\ntown and entered the amphitheatre, which in the time of Theodoric had\nfallen into ruins, as is clear from the fact that he permitted the use\nof its fallen stones to build the city wall. It was recovered by\nBelisarius in 535, sacked by the Saracens in 902 and taken by the\nNormans. The latter founded the cathedral; but the town was almost\nentirely destroyed by earthquake in 1170, and devastated by Henry VI. in\n1197. It became the usual residence of the Aragonese viceroys of the\n13th and 14th centuries. In 1669 an eruption of Etna partly filled up\nthe harbour, but spared the town, which was, however, almost entirely\ndestroyed by the earthquake of 1693. Since that catastrophe it has been\nrebuilt, and has not further suffered from its proximity to Etna.\n\n  See A. Holm, _Das alte Catania_ (Lubeck, 1873).     (T. As.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] This is the form vouched for by the inscriptions.\n\n\n\n\nCATANZARO, a town and episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the\nprovince of Catanzaro, 1125 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 22,799\n(town); 32,005 (commune). The station for the town (Catanzaro Sala) is\nsituated on a branch line connecting the two main lines along the east\nand west coasts of Calabria, 6 m. N. by W. of Catanzaro Marina on the\neast coast, and 20 m. E. of S. Eufemia Biforcazione, on the west coast\nline. The town enjoys a comparatively cool climate in summer, and\ncommands fine views. Numerous wealthy families reside here, and the town\nhas a trade in olive-oil, silk and velvet. The castle, built by Robert\nGuiscard, has been modernized, and so has the cathedral. The see was\nfounded in 1121. The provincial museum contains antiquities and\nespecially coins from the ancient cities of Magna Graecia, and a few\npictures.\n\n\n\n\nCATAPHYLL (Gr. [Greek: kata], down, [Greek: phullon], leaf), a botanical\nterm for the early leaf-forms produced in the lower part of a shoot,\nsuch as bud-scales, or scales on underground stems.\n\n\n\n\nCATAPULT (Lat. _catapulta_, Gr. [Greek: katapeltes]) a generic name for\nwarlike engines of the cross-bow type used by the ancients. Although\nengines of war appear on Assyrian remains, and are mentioned in 2\nChronicles xxvi. 15, it appears that Greek armies, even of the 5th\ncentury, did not possess them, and the first record of a large siege\ntrain in classical literature is of the year 399 B.C., when Dionysius I.\nof Syracuse, contemplating an expedition against Carthage, provided\nhimself with engines. From Sicily siege engines found their way some\nyears later into Greece; they were used by Philip of Macedon at the\nsiege of Byzantium in 340, and thereafter, as a natural consequence of\nthe regularizing or professionalizing of armies, artillery, as we may\ncall it, came into prominence and called into existence technical corps\nto work it.\n\nThe war engines of the Romans, during the republic and early principate,\nare of the same type as those of Alexander's successors in Greece. They\nare usually classed as (a) catapults and (b) ballistae ([Greek:\nlithoboloi]). The former were smaller and were used with arrows for what\nis now called direct fire (i.e. at low angles of elevation); the latter\nwere large siege engines discharging heavy bolts or stones at a high\nangle of elevation, like the modern howitzer. They were, of course,\nprincipally siege engines, but the smaller natures of catapult appear in\nfield warfare from time to time, and eventually, during the early\nprincipate, they are found as part of the regulation equipment of\ninfantry units. Both were constructed on the same principle.\n\n[Illustration]\n\nThe essential parts of the catapult (see illustration) were the frame,\nthe propelling gear, the trough (corresponding to the modern barrel) and\nthe pedestal. The frame consisted of two horizontal beams forming top\nand bottom sills, and four strong upright bars mortised into them. The\nthree open spaces or compartments, resembling narrow windows, between\nthese four uprights carried the propelling and laying gear. The\npropelling gear occupied the two outer \"windows.\" In each a thick skein\nof cord or sinews was fastened to the top and bottom sills and tightly\ntwisted. Two stiff wooden arms were inserted in the two skeins, and a\nspecially strong bowstring joined the tips of these arms. In the middle\ncompartment was the hinged fore-end of the trough, which was at right\nangles to the frame and at the back of it. The trough could be laid for\nelevation by a movable prop, the upper end of which was hinged to the\ntrough, while the lower ran up and down a sort of trail fastened to the\npedestal. The whole equipment was laid for \"line\" by turning the frame,\nand with it the trough, prop and trail by a pivot in the head of the\npedestal. Sliding up and down in the trough was a block, fitted with a\ntrigger mechanism, through which passed the middle of the bowstring. The\npedestal was a strong and solid upright resting upon, and strutted to, a\nframework on the ground; its upper end, as mentioned above, took the\npivot of the frame and the head of the trail.\n\nOn coming into action the machine was laid for direction and elevation.\nThe block and with it the bowstring was next forced back against the\nresistance of the twisted skeins to the rear end of the trough, this\nbeing effected by a windlass attachment. The trigger being then pressed\nor struck with a hammer, the bowstring was released from the block, the\nstiff arms were violently brought back to the frame by the untwisting of\nthe skeins, and the arrow was propelled through the centre \"window\" with\ngreat velocity. A small machine of the type described weighed about 85\nlb., and sent a \"three-span\" (26-in.) arrow weighing 1\/2 lb. at an\neffective man-killing velocity somewhat over 400 yds.\n\nThe ballista was considerably larger and more expensive than this. In\nScipio's siege train, at the attack of New Carthage (Livy xxvi. 47. 5),\nthe number of the ballistae was only one-sixth that of the catapults. In\nthe ballista the rear end of the trough (which projected in front of the\nframe) always rested upon the ground, or rather was fixed to the\nframework of the pedestal--which was a heavy trestle construction--and\nthe trough was thus restricted to the angle of elevation, giving the\nmaximum range (45 deg.). Even so the range was not appreciably greater\nthan that of a catapult, and in the case of the largest ballistae\n(ninety-pounder) it was much less. These enormous engines, which, once\nin position, could not be laid on any fresh target, were used for\npropelling beams and stones rather than for shooting arrows, that is,\nmore for the destruction of material than for man-killing effect. The\nskeins that supplied the motive force of all these engines were made of\nthe sinews of animals, twisted raw hide, horsehair rope, and, in at\nleast one celebrated case, of women's hair. In 146 B.C., the authorities\nof Carthage having surrendered their engines to the Romans in the vain\nhope of staying their advance, new ones were hurriedly constructed, and\nthe women and virgins of the city cut off their hair to supply the\nneeded skeins.\n\nThe modern implement known as a \"catapult\" is formed by a forked stick,\nto the forks of which are attached the ends of a piece of elastic. To\nthe middle of this elastic a pocket is fitted to contain a bullet or\nsmall stone. In use the forked stick is held in the left hand and the\npocket drawn back with the right. Aim is taken and, the pocket being\nreleased, the missile flies through the fork of the stick. Though\nclassed as a toy, this weapon can do considerable execution among birds,\n&c., when skilfully used. The name of \"catapult\" has also been given to\na bowling machine which is used for cricket practice.\n\n\n\n\nCATARACT (from the Lat. form _cataracta_ of the Gr. [Greek:\nkatarraktes], a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes\ndown), a downpour of water, a waterfall. The earliest use in English is\nof a floodgate or portcullis, and this survives in the name of a disease\nof the eye (see EYE: _Eye Diseases_), in which the crystalline lens\nbecomes opaque, and forms an apparent grating over the eye. The term is\nalso used of a device to regulate the strokes in certain types of\nsteam-engine.\n\n\n\n\nCATARGIU (or CATARGI), LASCAR (1823-1899), Rumanian statesman, was born\nin Moldavia in November 1823. He belonged to an ancient Walachian\nfamily, one of whose members had been banished in the 17th century by\nPrince Matthew Bassaraba, and had settled in Moldavia. Under Prince\nGregory Ghica (1849-1856), Catargiu rose to be prefect of police at\nJassy. In 1857 he became a member of the _Divan ad hoc_ of Moldavia, a\ncommission elected in accordance with the treaty of Paris (1856) to vote\non the proposed union of Moldavia and Walachia. His strongly\nconservative views, especially on agrarian reform, induced the\nConservatives to support him as a candidate for the throne in 1859.\nDuring the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Catargiu was one of the\nOpposition leaders, and received much assistance from his kinsman, Barbu\nCatargiu (b. 1807), a noted journalist and politician, who was\nassassinated at Bucharest on the 20th of June 1862. On the accession of\nPrince Charles in May 1866, Lascar Catargiu became president of the\ncouncil, or prime minister; but, finding himself unable to co-operate\nwith his Liberal colleagues, I.C. Bratianu and C.A. Rosetti, he resigned\nin July. After eight more ministerial changes, culminating in the\nanti-dynastic agitation of 1870-1871, Catargiu formed, for the first\ntime in Rumanian history, a stable Conservative cabinet, which lasted\nuntil 1876. His policy, which averted revolution and revived the\npopularity of the crown, was regarded as unpatriotic and reactionary by\nthe Liberals, who resumed office in 1876; and a proposal to impeach the\nwhole Catargiu cabinet was only withdrawn in 1878. Catargiu remained in\nopposition until 1889, when he formed another cabinet, taking the\nportfolio of the Interior; but this administration fell after seven\nmonths. In the Florescu ministry of March 1891 he occupied the same\nposition, and in December he again became president of the council,\nretaining office until 1895. During this period he was responsible for\nseveral useful reforms, chiefly financial and commercial. He died\nsuddenly at Bucharest on the 11th of April 1899.\n\n\n\n\nCATARRH (from the Gr. [Greek: katarrein], to flow down), a term\nprincipally employed to describe a state of irritation of the mucous\nmembrane of the respiratory passages, or what is called in popular\nlanguage a \"cold.\" It is the result of infection by a micro-organism in\none or more of various predisposing conditions, damp, chill, fatigue,\n&c. The complaint usually begins as a nasal catarrh or _coryza_ (Gr.\n[Greek: korys], head), with a feeling of weight about the forehead and\nsome degree of difficulty in breathing through the nose, increased on\nlying down. Fits of sneezing accompanied with a profuse watery discharge\nfrom the nostrils and eyes soon follow, while the sense of smell and to\nsome extent that of taste become considerably impaired. There is usually\npresent some amount of sore throat and of bronchial irritation, causing\nhoarseness and cough. Sometimes the vocal apparatus becomes so much\ninflamed (laryngeal catarrh) that temporary loss of voice results. There\nis always more or less feverishness and discomfort, and frequently an\nextreme sensitiveness to cold. After two or three days the symptoms\nbegin to abate, the discharge from the nostrils and chest becoming\nthicker and of purulent character, and producing when dislodged\nconsiderable relief to the breathing. On the other hand the catarrh may\nassume a more severe aspect and pass into some form of pulmonary\ninflammation (see BRONCHITIS) or influenza (q.v.).\n\nWhen the symptoms are first felt it is well to take a good purge, and to\nencourage free perspiration by a hot bath, some diaphoretic drug, as\nspirits of nitrous ether, being taken before retiring to bed. Some of\nthe older school of physicians still pin their faith to a dose of\nDover's powder. When the cold manifests itself by aches and pains in\nback and limbs, aspirin taken three or four times in the first\ntwenty-four hours will often act like magic. Locally a snuff made of\nmenthol 1 part, ammonium chloride 3 parts and boracic acid 2 parts will\nrelieve the discomfort of the nose. Also, remembering the microbic\norigin of the disease, gargling and nasal syringing should be repeated\nat intervals. As soon as the attack shows signs of subsiding, a good\ntonic and, still better, a change of air are very helpful.\n\nThe term catarrh is used in medical nomenclature in a wider sense to\ndescribe a state of irritation of any mucous surface in the body, which\nis accompanied with an abnormal discharge of its natural secretion,\nhence the terms gastric catarrh, intestinal catarrh, &c.\n\n  See also RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_, and DIGESTIVE ORGANS,\n  _Pathology of_.\n\n\n\n\nCATARRHINE APE, the term used to describe those apes which have the\nnostrils approximated, the aperture pointing downward, and the\nintervening septum narrow; distinguishing features of both the lower\n\"doglike\" apes (Cynomorpha) and the higher \"manlike\" apes\n(Anthropomorpha). The Catarrhini are restricted entirely to the Old\nWorld, and include the gorilla, the chimpanzee and orang-utan.\n\n\n\n\nCATASTROPHE (Gr. [Greek: katastrophe], from [Greek: katastrephein], to\noverturn), a term of the ancient Greek drama for the change in the plot\nwhich leads up to the conclusion. The word is thus used of any sudden\nchange, particularly of a violent or disastrous nature, and in geology\nof a cataclysm or great convulsion of the earth's surface.\n\n\n\n\nCATAUXI, a numerous cannibal tribe of South American Indians of the\nPurus river district, Brazil. They are a fine warlike race, with\nremarkably clear complexions and handsome features; round wrists and\nankles they wear rings of twisted hair. They cultivate mandioc, and make\npottery and bark canoes.\n\n\n\n\nCATAWBAS (from the Choctaw for \"divided\"), a tribe of North American\nIndians of Siouan stock; formerly the dominant people of South Carolina.\nSome of their divisions extended into North Carolina. They are now\nalmost extinct, but were at one time able to send nearly 2000 \"braves\"\ninto battle. In the American War of Independence they furnished a\nvaluable contingent to the South Carolina troops. They then occupied a\nnumber of small towns on the Catawba river, but they afterwards leased\ntheir land and removed to the territory of the Cherokees, with whom they\nhad been formerly at war. There, however, they did not long remain, but\nreturned to a reservation in their original district. Their affinities\nhave not been very clearly made out, and by Albert Gallatin they were\ngrouped with the Cherokees, Choctaws, Muskogees and Natchez. A\nvocabulary of sixty of their words was published by Horatio Hale in vol.\nii. of the _Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_ in 1848;\nand a much fuller list--about 300--collected by Oscar M. Lieber, the\ngeologist, in 1856, made its appearance in vol. ii. of _Collections of\nthe South Carolina Historical Society_, 1858. Of the one hundred\nCatawbas still said to be surviving, few, if any, can claim to be\nfull-blooded. They are in the Catawba Reservation in York county, South\nCarolina. The name is familiar in connexion with the white American\nwine, the praises of which have been sung by Longfellow. The grape from\nwhich the wine is obtained was first discovered about 1801, near the\nbanks of the Catawba river, and named by Major Adlum in 1828, but it is\nnow cultivated extensively in Illinois, Ohio and New York, and\nespecially on the shores of Lake Erie.\n\n  See also _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).\n\n\n\n\nCATCH THE TEN, sometimes Called _Scotch Whist_, a game played with a\npack of 36 cards, from ace, king, queen to six in each suit, the ace\nbeing highest both in play and cutting. In trumps, however, the knave\nranks highest. Any number from two to eight may play. If an even number,\npartners are cut for; if odd, each plays for himself. An odd number of\nplayers sit as they like; four players sit as at whist; six playing in\ntwo sides sit so that no two partners shall be next each other; six\nplaying three sides sit so that two opponents shall divide each pair;\neight are arranged in alternate pairs. After cutting, the cards are\ndealt according to the number of players. The last card is turned up for\nthe trump. When five or seven play, the six of spades is usually\nomitted; when eight play, the four sixes are thrown out. The eldest hand\nleads any card he chooses and all must follow suit if able, the penalty\nfor a revoke being the loss of the game. The tricks are not kept\nseparate but gathered in by one player for his side. At the end of the\ndeal there are six hands of six cards on the table. The players first\nplay out the first two hands, next the second two and finally the last\ntwo, the trump card remaining on the table until the first four hands\nare played out. The game is 41 points, the object of the play being to\nwin the cards which have a special value. These are, with their values:\nknave of trumps 11, ace of trumps 4, king of trumps 3, queen of trumps\n2, ten of trumps 10. All other cards have no counting value. As the ten\ncan be taken by any other honour the object is to \"catch the ten.\"\n\n\n\n\nCATECHISM (from Gr. [Greek: katechein], teach by word of mouth), a\ncompendium of instruction (particularly of religious instruction)\narranged in the form of questions and answers. The custom of\ncatechizing, common to all civilized antiquity, was followed in the\nschools of Judaism and in the Early Church, where it helped to preserve\nthe Gospel narrative (see CATECHUMEN).\n\nThe catechism as we know it is intended primarily for children and\nuneducated persons. Its aim is to instruct, and it differs from a creed\nor confession in not being in the first instance an act of worship or a\npublic profession of belief. The first regular catechisms seem to have\ngrown out of the usual oral teaching of catechumens, and to have been\ncompiled in the 8th and 9th centuries. Among them the work of Notker\nLabeo and of Kero, both monks of St Gall, and that of Ottfried of\nWeissenburg in Alsace deserve mention. But it is not until the first\nstirrings of revolt against the hierarchy, which preceded the\nReformation, that they became at all widespread or numerous. The\nWaldenses of Savoy and France, the _Brethren_ (small communities of\nevangelical dissenters from the medieval faith) of Germany, and the\n_Unitas Fratrum_ of Bohemia all used the same catechism (one that was\nfirst printed in 1498, and which continued to be published till 1530)\nfor the instruction of their children. It was based on St Augustine's\n_Enchiridion_, and considers (a) Faith, i.e. the Creed, (b) Hope, i.e.\nthe Lord's Prayer, and (c) Love, i.e. the Decalogue.\n\nThe age of the Reformation gave a great stimulus to the production of\ncatechisms. This was but natural at a time when the invention of\nprinting had thrown the Bible open to all, and carried the war of\nreligious opinion from the schools into the streets. The adherents of\nthe \"old\" and the \"new\" religions alike had to justify their views to\nthe unlearned as well as to the learned, and to give in simple formulas\ntheir reasons for the faith that was in them. Moreover, in the universal\nunrest and oversetting of all authority, Christianity itself was in\ndanger of perishing, not only as the result of the cultured paganism of\nthe Renaissance, but also through the brutish ignorance of the common\nfolk, deprived now of their traditional religious restraints. To the\nurgency of this peril the reformers were fully alive; and they sought\nits remedy in education. \"Let the people be taught,\" said Luther, \"let\nschools be opened for the poor, let the truth reach them in simple words\nin their own mother tongue, and they will believe.\"\n\n_Catechisms of the Chief Religious Communions._--(a) _Evangelical\n(Lutheran and Reformed)._--It was the ignorance of the peasantry, as\nrevealed by the horrors of the Peasants' War of 1524-25, and his\npastoral visitation of the electorate of Saxony 1525-1527, that drew the\nabove exclamation from Luther, and impelled him to produce his two\nfamous catechisms (1529). In 1520 he had brought out a primer of\nreligion dealing briefly with the Decalogue, the Creed and the Lord's\nPrayer; and Justus Jonas, Johannes Agricola and other leaders had done\nsomething of the same kind. Now all these efforts were superseded by\nLuther's Smaller Catechism meant for the people themselves and\nespecially for children, and by his Larger Catechism intended for clergy\nand schoolmasters. These works, which did much to mould the character of\nthe German people, were set among the doctrinal standards of the\nLutheran Church and powerfully influenced other compilations. The\nSmaller Catechism, with the Augsburg Confession, was made the Rule of\nFaith in Denmark in 1537.\n\nIn this same year (1537) John Calvin at Geneva published his catechism\nfor children. It was called _Instruction and Confession of Faith for the\nUse of the Church of Geneva_ (a reprint edited by A. Rilliet and T.\nDufour Was published in 1878), and explained the Decalogue, the\nApostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Sacraments. Though it was\nmeant, as he said, to give expression to a simple piety rather than to\nexhibit a profound knowledge of religious truth, it was the work of a\nman who knew little of the child mind, and, though it served as an\nadmirable and transparent epitome of his famous _Institutes_, it was too\nlong and too minute for the instruction of children. Calvin came to see\nthis, and in 1542, after his experience in Strassburg, drafted a new one\nwhich was much more suitable for teaching purposes, though, judged by\nmodern standards, still far beyond the theological range of childhood.\nIt was used at the Sunday noon instruction of children, on which Calvin\nlaid much stress, and was adopted and similarly used by the Reformed\nChurch of Scotland. The Reformed churches of the Palatinate, on the\nother hand, used the Heidelberg Catechism (1562-1563), \"sweet-spirited,\nexperiential, clear, moderate and happily-phrased,\" mainly the work of\ntwo of Calvin's younger disciples, Kaspar Olevianus and Zacharias\nUrsinus. The Heidelberg Catechism, set forth by order of the elector, is\nperhaps the most widely accepted symbol of the Calvinistic faith, and is\nnoteworthy for its emphasis on the less controversial aspects of the\nGenevan theology. As revised by the synod of Dort in 1619, this\ncatechism became the standard of most of the Reformed churches of\ncentral Europe, and in time of the Dutch and German Reformed churches of\nAmerica. Other compilations were those of Oecolampadius (Basel, 1526),\nLeo Juda (Zurich, 1534), and Bullinger (Zurich, 1555). In France, after\nCalvin's day, the Reformed church used besides Calvin's book the\ncatechisms of Louis Capell (1619), and Charles Drelincourt (1642), and\nat the present time Bonnefon's _Nouveau Catechisme elementaire_ (14th\ned., 1900) seems most in favour. In Scotland both Calvin's Geneva\nCatechism and then the Heidelberg Catechism were translated by order of\nthe General Assembly and annotated. In 1592 these were superseded by\nthat of John Craig, for a time the colleague of John Knox at the High\nChurch, Edinburgh.\n\nSince 1648 the standard Presbyterian catechisms have been those compiled\nby the Westminster Assembly, presented to parliament in 1647, and then\nauthorized by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (July 1648)\nand by the Scottish parliament (January 1649). The Larger Catechism is\n\"for such as have made some proficiency in the knowledge of the\nChristian religion,\" but is too detailed and minute for memorizing, and\nhas never received anything like the reception accorded to the Shorter\nCatechism, which is \"for such as are of weaker capacity.\" The work was\ndone by a committee presided over first by Herbert Palmer, master of\nQueens', Cambridge, and then by Anthony Tuckney, master of Emmanuel. The\nscriptural proof texts were added at the request of the English\nparliament. In his negotiations with the parliament in 1648 Charles I.\noffered to license the printing of the catechism, but, as the\nnegotiations were broken off, this was not done. The Shorter Catechism,\nafter a brief introduction on the end, rule and essence of religion, is\ndivided into two parts:--I. The doctrines we are to believe (1)\nconcerning the nature of God, (2) concerning the decrees of God and\ntheir execution--(a) in creation and providence, (b) in the covenant of\nworks, (c) in the covenant of grace; II. The duties we are to perform\n(1) in regard to the moral law, (2) in regard to the gospel--(a) inward\nduties, i.e. faith and repentance, (b) outward duties as to the Word,\nthe sacraments and prayer. It has 107 questions and answers, while that\nof the Anglican Church has but 24, grouping as it does the ten\ncommandments and also the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, instead of\ndealing with them singly. Though the Shorter Catechism, closely\nassociated as this has been from the first with Scottish public\nelementary education, has had very great influence in forming and\ntraining the character of Presbyterians in Scotland, America and the\nBritish colonies, it is, like most other catechisms drawn up by dogmatic\ntheologians, more admirable as an epitome of a particular body of\ndivinity than as an instruction for the young and the unlearned. Its use\nis now generally preceded by something more adapted to the child-mind,\nand this is true also in other communions and in the case of other\ncatechisms.\n\n(b) _Roman Catholic_.--There was no universal catechism published by the\nLatin Church before the council of Trent, but several provincial\ncouncils, e.g. in Germany and Scotland (where Archbishop Hamilton's\ncatechism appeared in 1552 and was ordered to be read in church by the\nparish priest), moved in self-defence along the lines already adopted by\nthe reformers. The council of Trent in 1563 resolved on an authoritative\nwork which was finally carried through by two small papal commissions,\nand issued in 1566 by Pius V. (Eng. trans, by Donovan, Dublin, 1829).\nBeing uncatechetical in form and addressed to the clergy rather than to\nthe people, it missed its intention, and was superseded by others of\nless exalted origin, especially by those of the Jesuit Peter Canisius,\nwhose _Summa Doctrinae et Institutionis Christianae_ (1554) and its\nshorter form (1556) were already in the field. The catechisms of\nBellarmine (1603) and Bossuet (1687) had considerable vogue, and a\nsummary of the former known as _Schema de Parvo_ was sanctioned by the\nVatican council of 1870. But the Roman Catholic Church as a whole has\nnever had any one official catechism, each bishop being allowed to\nsettle the matter for his own diocese. In England the Roman Catholic\nbishops have agreed on the use of what is known as \"The Penny\nCatechism,\" which is very lucid and well constructed.\n\n(c) _Orthodox Eastern Church._--Peter Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev,\ndrew up in 1643 the _Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic\nEastern Church_. This bulwark against the encroachments of the Jesuits\nand the Reformed Church was standardized by the synod of Jerusalem in\n1672. A smaller catechism was drawn up by order of Peter the Great in\n1723. The catechisms of Levshin Platon (1762) and V.D. Philaret (1839),\neach in his day metropolitan of Moscow, are bulky compilations which\ncannot be memorized, though there is a short introductory catechism\nprefaced to Philaret's volume (Eng. trans, in Blackmore's _Doctrine of\nthe Russian Church_, 1845). These works are not to any extent in the\nhands of the people, but are used by the Russian clergy and\nschoolmasters as guides in giving instruction. The Coptic and Armenian\nchurches also have what H. Bonar describes as \"mere pretences at\ncatechisms.\"\n\n(d) _Anglican._--The catechism of the Church of England is included in\nthe Book of Common Prayer between the Orders for Baptism and\nConfirmation. It has two parts: (i.) the baptismal covenant, the Creed,\nthe Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer, drawn up probably by Cranmer[1] and\nRidley in the time of Edward VI., and variously modified between then\n(1549) and 1661; (ii.) the meaning of the two sacraments, written on the\nsuggestion of James I. at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 by John\nOverall, then dean of St Paul's, and afterwards bishop successively of\nCoventry and Lichfield and of Norwich. This supplement to what had\nbecome known as the Shorter Catechism established its use as against the\nlonger one, _King Edward VIth's Catechisme_, which had been drawn up in\n1553 by John Ponet or Poynet, bishop of Winchester, and then revised and\nenlarged in 1570 by Alexander Nowell, Overall's predecessor as dean of\nSt Paul's. The Anglican catechism with occasional modification,\nespecially in the sacramental section, is used not only in the Church of\nEngland but in the Episcopal churches of Ireland, Scotland, the British\ndominions and the United States of America. By the rubric of the Prayer\nBook and by the 59th canon of 1603 the clergy are enjoined to teach the\ncatechism in church on Sundays and holidays after the second lesson at\nEvening Prayer. This custom, long fallen into disuse, has largely been\nrevived during recent years, the children going to church for a special\nafternoon service of which catechizing is the chief feature. Compared\nwith the thoroughness of most other catechisms this one seems very\nscanty, but it has a better chance of being memorized, and its very\nsimplicity has given it a firm hold on the inner life and conscience of\ndevout members of the Anglican communion throughout the world.\n\n(e) _Other Communions._--Almost every section of the church, e.g. the\nWesleyan Methodist, has its catechism or catechisms, but in addition to\nthose already enumerated only a few need be mentioned. The Socinians\nembodied their tenets in the larger and smaller works drawn up by Fausto\nSozzini and Schmalz, and published at Rakow in Poland in 1605;[2] modern\nUnitarians have modern catechisms. The Quakers or Friends possess a kind\nof catechism said to have been written by George Fox in 1660, in which\nfather and son are respectively questioner and answerer, and an\ninteresting work by Robert Barclay, in which texts of Scripture form the\nreplies. Congregationalists for some time used Isaac Watts's _Catechisms\nfor Children and Youth_ (1730), since superseded by the manuals of J.H.\nStowell, J.H. Riddette and others. In 1898 the National Council of the\nEvangelical Free Churches in England and Wales published an\n_Evangelical Free Church Catechism_, the work of a committee (convened\nby Rev. Hugh Price Hughes) comprising Congregationalists, Baptists,\nMethodists (Wesleyan, Primitive and others), and Presbyterians, and thus\nrepresenting directly or indirectly the beliefs of sixty or seventy\nmillions of avowed Christians in all parts of the world, a striking\nexample of inter-denominational unity. More remarkable still in some\nrespects is _The School Catechism_, issued in 1907 by a conference of\nmembers of the Reformed churches in Scotland, which met on the\ninvitation of the Church of Scotland. In its compilation representatives\nof the Episcopal Church in Scotland co-operated, and the book though\n\"not designed to supersede the distinctive catechisms officially\nrecognized by the several churches for the instruction of their own\nchildren,\" certainly \"commends itself as suitable for use in schools\nwhere children of various churches are taught together.\"\n\n  Catechisms have a strong family likeness. In the main they are\n  expositions of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Decalogue, and\n  thus follow a tradition that has come down from the days when Cyril of\n  Jerusalem delivered his catechetical Lectures. Even when (as in the\n  Shorter Westminster Catechism and the School Catechism) the Creed is\n  simply printed as an appendix, or where (as in the Free Church\n  Catechism) it is not mentioned at all, its substance is dealt with.\n  The order in which these three main themes are treated is by no means\n  constant. The Heidelberg and Westminster Catechisms are of a more\n  logical and independent character. The former is based on the Epistle\n  to the Romans, and deals with the religious life as (1) Repentance,\n  (2) Faith, (3) Love. Under these heads it discusses respectively the\n  sin and misery of men, the redemption wrought by Christ (here are\n  included the Creed and the Sacraments), and the grateful service of\n  the new life (the Decalogue).\n\n  It may be noted that Sir Oliver Lodge has adopted the catechetical\n  form in his book, _The Substance of Faith Allied with Science_ (1907),\n  which is described as \"a catechism for parents and teachers.\"\n\n  See Ehrenfeuchter, _Geschichte des Katechismus_ (1857); P. Schaff,\n  _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (3 vols., 1876-1877); Mitchell,\n  _Catechisms of the Second Reformation_ (1887); C. Achelis, _Lehrbuch\n  der prakt. Theologie_ (2 vols., 1898); L. Pullan, _History of the Book\n  of Common Prayer_, pp. 207-208; E.A. Knox, _Pastors and Teachers_\n  (1902), chs. iii. and iv.; W. Beveridge, _A Short History of the\n  Westminster Assembly_ (1904), ch. x.     (A. J. G.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] Cranmer bad published a separate and larger catechism on the\n    basis of the work of Justus Jonas in 1548; note also _Allen's\n    Catechisme, A Christen Instruccion of the Principall Pointes of\n    Christes Religion_ (1551).\n\n  [2] A Latin edition in 1609 was dedicated to James I. of England. The\n    British Houses of Parliament passed a resolution ordering all copies\n    of it to be publicly burned, and again in 1652 when another edition\n    appeared. An English translation, probably by John Bidle, was printed\n    in Amsterdam and widely circulated.\n\n\n\n\nCATECHU, or CUTCH (Malay, _kachu_), an extract obtained from several\nplants, its chief sources being the wood of two species of acacia (_A.\ncatechu_ and _A. suma_), both natives of India. This extract is known as\nblack catechu. A similar extract, known in pharmacy as pale catechu\n(_Catechu pallidum_), and in general commerce as gambir, or _terra\njaponica_, is produced from the leaves of _Uncaria gambir_ and _U.\nacida_, cinchonaceous plants growing in the East Indian Archipelago. A\nthird product to which the name catechu is also applied, is obtained\nfrom the fruits of the areca or betel palm, _Areca catechu_.\n\nOrdinary black catechu is usually imported in three different forms. The\nfirst and best quality, known as Pegu catechu, is obtained in blocks\nexternally covered with large leaves; the second and less pure variety\nis in masses, which have been moulded in sand; and the third consists of\nlarge cubes packed in coarse bags. The wood of the two species of\n_Acacia_ yielding catechu is taken for the manufacture when the trees\nhave attained a diameter of about 1 ft. The bark is stripped off and\nused for tanning, and the trunk is split up into small fragments, which\nare covered with water and boiled. When the extract has become\nsufficiently thick it is cast into the forms in which the catechu is\nfound in commerce. Catechu so prepared is a dark brown, or, in mass,\nalmost black, substance, brittle, and having generally a shining lustre.\nIt is astringent, with a sweetish taste. In cold water it disintegrates,\nand in boiling water, alcohol, acetic acid and strong caustic alkali it\nis completely dissolved. Chemically it consists of a mixture of a\npeculiar variety of tannin termed catechu-tannic acid with catechin or\ncatechuic acid, and a brown substance due to the alteration of both\nthese principles. Catechu-tannic acid is an amorphous body soluble in\ncold water, while catechin occurs in minute, white, silky, needle-shaped\ncrystals, which do not dissolve in cold water. A very minute proportion\nof quercetin, a principle yielded by quercitron bark, has been obtained\nfrom catechu.\n\nGambir, which is similar in chemical composition to ordinary catechu,\noccurs in commerce in the form of cubes of about an inch in size, with a\npale brown or yellow colour, and an even earthy fracture. For the\npreparation of this extract the plants above mentioned are stripped of\ntheir leaves and young twigs, and these are boiled down in shallow pans.\nThe juice is strained off, evaporated, and when sufficiently\nconcentrated is cast into shallow boxes, where, as it hardens and dries,\nit is cut into small cubes.\n\nGambir and catechu are extensively employed in dyeing and tanning. For\ndyeing they have been in use in India from the most remote period, but\nit was only during the 19th century that they were placed on the list of\nEuropean dyeing substances. Catechu is fixed by oxidation of the\ncolouring principle, catechin, on the cloth after dyeing or printing;\nand treated thus it yields a variety of durable tints of drabs, browns\nand olives with different mordants (see DYEING). The principal\nconsumption of catechu occurs in the preparation of fibrous substances\nexposed to water, such as fishing-lines and nets, and for colouring\nstout canvas used for covering boxes and portmanteaus under the name of\ntanned canvas. Black catechu is official in most pharmacopoeias except\nthat of Great Britain, in which pale catechu is the official drug. The\nactions and uses of the two are similar, but black catechu is the more\npowerful. The dose is from five to twenty grains. The _pulvis catechu\ncompositus_ contains catechu and kino, and may be given in doses twice\nas large as those named. The drug has the actions and uses of tannic\nacid, but owing to the relative insolubility of catechu-tannic acid, it\nis more valuable than ordinary tannic acid in diarrhoea, dysentery and\nintestinal haemorrhage.\n\n\n\n\nCATECHUMEN (Lat. _catechumenus_, Gr. [Greek: katechoumenos], instructed,\nfrom [Greek: katechein], to teach orally), an ecclesiastical term\napplied to those receiving instruction in the principles of the\nChristian religion with a view to baptism. As soon as Christianity\nbecame a missionary religion, it was found necessary to make\narrangements for giving instruction to new converts. At the beginning\nthe Apostles themselves seem to have undertaken this duty, and the\ninstruction was apparently given after baptism, for in Acts ii. 41, 42,\nwe are told that \"they that gladly received the word were baptized ...\nand they continued stedfastly in the Apostles' teaching.\" There are two\ninstances in the New Testament where reference is made to individual\ninstruction in this technical sense. Luke (i. 4) in dedicating the third\nGospel to Theophilus tells him that his aim in writing the book was\n\"that thou mightest have certainty in the things in which thou has been\ninstructed\" ([Greek: katechethes]) and we are told that Apollos was\ninstructed ([Greek: katechemenos]) \"in the way of the Lord\" (Acts xviii.\n25).\n\nWith the development of Christianity the instruction became more\ndefinite and formal. It is probable that the duty of instructing\nconverts was assigned to \"the teachers,\" who are ranked by Paul\nimmediately after the Apostles and prophets (1 Cor. xii. 28), and\noccupied an important position in the Christian ministry. In the\n_Didache_, or Teaching of the Apostles, we have an excellent\nillustration of the teaching which was given to candidates for baptism\nin early times. There can be little doubt that the _Didache_ was used as\na manual for catechumens for several centuries. Athanasius (_Festal\nEpistles_, 39), for instance, says that \"it was appointed by the Fathers\nto be read by those who are just recently coming to us, and wish to be\ninstructed in the word of godliness\" ([Greek: katecheisthai ton tes\neusebeias logon]). The instruction prescribed by the _Didache_ is very\nlargely ethical, and stands in striking contrast to the more elaborate\ndoctrinal teaching which came into vogue in later days. The _Shepherd of\nHermas_ too is another book which seems to have been used for the\npurpose of catechesis, for Eusebius says that it \"was deemed most\nnecessary for those who have need of elementary instruction\" (_Eccles.\nHist._ iii. 3-6).\n\nWith the rise of theological controversy and the growth of heresy\ncatechetical instruction became of vital importance to the Church, and\nmuch greater importance was attached to it. After the middle of the 4th\ncentury it was regarded as essential that the candidate for baptism\nshould not only be acquainted with the spiritual truths and ethical\ndemands which form the basis of practical Christianity, but should also\nbe trained in theology and the interpretation of the creeds. Two books\nhave been preserved which throw a striking light upon the transformation\nwhich had taken place in the conception of catechesis; (1) the\nCatechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem; (2) the _De rudibus\nCatechizandis_ of Augustine. Cyril's Lectures may be termed the _Pearson\non the Creed_ of the 4th century. He takes each article separately,\ndiscusses it clause by clause, explains the meaning of each word, and\njustifies each statement from Scripture. Augustine's treatise was\nwritten at the request of a catechist, named Deogratias, who had asked\nhim for advice. After replying to the question of Deogratias, and giving\nsundry counsels as to the best method of interesting catechumens,\nAugustine concludes by giving a model catechetical lecture, in which he\ncovers the whole of biblical history, beginning from the opening\nchapters of Genesis, and laying particular stress on the doctrinal parts\nof Scripture. Cyril and Augustine differ, as we should expect, in the\ndoctrines which they select for emphasis, but they both agree in\nrequiring a knowledge of sound doctrine on the part of the candidates.\n\nIn spite of the numerous references to catechumens in Patristic\nliterature, our knowledge of the details of the system is often very\ndeficient, and upon some points there is considerable diversity of\nopinion amongst experts. The following are the most important questions\nwhich come under consideration.\n\n  1. _The Classification of Catechumens_.--Bingham and many of the older\n  writers held that there were four classes of catechumens, representing\n  different stages in the process of instruction: (a) \"The inquirers\"\n  whose interest in Christianity had been sufficiently aroused to make\n  them desire further information, and who received private and\n  individual instruction from the teachers before they were admitted\n  into the second class, (b) \"The hearers\" (_audientes_), who were\n  admitted into the Church for the purpose of listening to sermons and\n  exhortations, (c) The _prostrati_ or _genu flectentes_, who were\n  allowed also to take part in the prayers, (d) The _electi_ or\n  _competentes_, who had completed the period of probation and were\n  deemed ready to receive baptism. Modern scholars, however, for the\n  most part, deny that there is sufficient basis to justify this\n  elaborate classification, and think that its advocates have confused\n  the catechumenate with the system of penance. The evidence does not\n  seem to warrant more than two classes, (a) the _audientes_, who were\n  in the initial stages of their training, (b) the _competentes_, who\n  were qualified for baptism.\n\n  2. _The Relation of Catechumens to the Church_.--Catechumens were\n  allowed of course to attend church services, but at a certain point\n  were dismissed with the words \"Ite catechumeni, missa est.\" The moment\n  at which the dismissal took place cannot be exactly determined, and it\n  is not clear whether the catechumens were allowed to remain for a\n  portion of the Communion service, and if so, whether as spectators or\n  as partial participants. A passage in Augustine seems to imply that in\n  some way they shared in the Sacrament, \"that which they (the\n  catechumens) receive, though it be not the Body of Christ, is yet an\n  holy thing and more holy than the common food which sustains us,\n  because it is a Sacrament\" (_De peccatorum meritis_, ii. 42). The\n  explanation of these words has occasioned considerable controversy.\n  Many scholars hold (and this certainly seems the most natural\n  interpretation) that consecrated bread was taken from the Eucharist\n  and given to the catechumens. Bingham, however, maintains that the\n  reference is not to the consecrated bread, but to salt, which was\n  given to them as a symbol \"that they might learn to purge and cleanse\n  their souls from sin.\"\n\n  3. _The Duration of the Training_.--Various statements with regard to\n  the duration of the catechumenical training are found in\n  ecclesiastical authorities. The Apostolical Constitutions, for\n  instance, fix it at three years;[1] the synod of Elvira at two.[2] The\n  references in the Fathers, however, imply that for practical purposes\n  it was limited to the forty days of Lent. Very probably, however, the\n  forty days of actual instruction were preceded by a period of\n  probation.\n\n  4. _The Relation between the Catechumenate and Baptism_.--Catechetical\n  instruction was designed as a preliminary to baptism. There were two\n  directions, however, in which this purpose was enlarged: (a) We have\n  no reason to suppose that when infant baptism was introduced, those\n  who had been baptized in infancy were excluded from the catechetical\n  training, or that instruction was deemed unnecessary in their case,\n  though as a matter of fact we have no definite reference to their\n  admission. The custom of postponing baptism, which was very general in\n  the 4th and 5th centuries, probably made such cases more rare than is\n  generally supposed, and so accounts for the absence of any allusion to\n  them in connexion with the catechumenate. (b) We have no reason to\n  suppose that the instruction given in the famous catechetical schools\n  of Alexandria and Carthage was restricted to candidates for baptism.\n  There is no doubt that \"catechetical\" is used in a much wider sense\n  when applied to the lectures of Origen than when used of the addresses\n  of Cyril of Jerusalem. The \"instruction\" of Origen was given to all\n  classes of Christians, and not merely to those who were in the initial\n  stages.\n\n  5. _Characteristics of the Catechumenical Training_.--Besides\n  instruction there were some other important features connected with\n  the catechumenate. (a) The duty of _confession_ was impressed on the\n  candidates. (b) The ceremony of _exorcism_ was often performed in\n  order to free the catechumen from evil spirits. (c) At a certain point\n  in the training the creed and the doctrine of the Sacraments were\n  delivered to the candidates by the bishop with much impressive\n  ceremonial. This teaching constituted the \"holy secret\" or \"mystery\"\n  (_disciplina arcani_) of Christianity, and could only be imparted to\n  those who were qualified to receive it. The acquisition of this\n  arcanum was regarded as the most essential element in the catechetical\n  discipline, and marked off its possessors from the rest of the world.\n  There can be little doubt that this conception of the \"Holy Secret\"\n  came into the Church originally from the Greek mysteries, and that\n  much of the ceremonial connected with the catechumenate and baptism\n  was derived from the same source.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--Cyril, _Catecheses_; Gregory of Nyssa, _Oratio\n  Catechetica_; Chrysostom, _Catecheses ad illuminandos_; Augustine, _De\n  rudibus Catechizandis_; Mayer, _Geschichte des Katechumenats ... in\n  den ersten sechs Jahrhunderten_ (1868); S. Cheetham, _The Mysteries,\n  Pagan and Christian_.     (H. T. A.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] _Apost. Constit._ viii. 2.\n\n  [2] Canon 42.\n\n\n\n\nCATEGORY (Gr.: [Greek: kategoria], \"accusation\"), a term used both in\nordinary language and in philosophy with the general significance of\n\"class\" or \"group.\" In popular language it is used for any large group\nof similar things, and still more generally as a mere synonym for the\nword \"class.\" The word was introduced into philosophy as a technical\nterm by Aristotle, who, however, several times used it in its original\nsense of \"accusation.\" He also used the verb [Greek: kategorein], to\naccuse, in the specific logical sense, to predicate; [Greek: tho\nkategoroumenon] becomes the predicate; and [Greek: kategorikhe protasis]\nmay be translated as affirmative proposition. But though the word thus\nreceived a new signification from Aristotle, it is not on that account\ncertain that the thing it was taken to signify was equally a novelty in\nphilosophy. In fact we find in the records of Oriental and early Greek\nthought something corresponding to the Aristotelian classification.\n\n\n    Hindu philosophy.\n\n  Our knowledge of Hindu philosophy, and of the relations in which it\n  may have stood to Greek speculation, scarcely enables us to give\n  decisive answers to various questions that naturally arise on\n  observation of their many resemblances (see an article by Richard\n  Garbe in _Monist_, iv. 176-193). Yet the similarity between the two is\n  so striking that, if not historically connected, they must at least be\n  regarded as expressions of similar philosophic needs. The Hindu\n  classification to which we specially refer is that of Kanada, who lays\n  down six categories, or classes of existence, a seventh being\n  generally added by the commentators. The term employed is _Padartha_,\n  meaning \"signification of a word.\" This is in entire harmony with the\n  Aristotelian doctrine, the categories of which may with truth be\n  described as significations of simple terms, [Greek: tha katha\n  medemian sueplokhen legomena]. The six categories of Kanada are\n  Substance, Quality, Action, Genus, Individuality, and Concretion or\n  Co-inherence. To these is added Non-Existence, Privation or Negation.\n  _Substance_ is the permanent substance in which _Qualities_ exist.\n  _Action_, belonging to or inhering in substances, is that which\n  produces change, _Genus_ belongs to substance, qualities and actions;\n  there are higher and lower genera. _Individuality_, found only in\n  substance, is that by which a thing is self-existent and marked off\n  from others. _Concretion_ or Co-inherence denotes inseparable or\n  necessary connection, such as that between substance and quality.\n  Under these six classes, [Greek: gene tou hontos], Kanada then\n  proceeds to range the facts of the universe.[1]\n\n\n    Greek philosophy\n\n  Within Greek philosophy itself there were foreshadowings of the\n  Aristotelian doctrine, but nothing so important as to warrant the\n  conclusion that Aristotle was directly influenced by it. Doubtless the\n  One and Many, Being and Non-Being, of the Eleatic dialectic, with\n  their subordinate oppositions, may be called categories, but they are\n  not so in the Aristotelian sense, and have little or nothing in common\n  with the later system. Their starting-point and results are wholly\n  diverse. Nor does it appear necessary to do more than mention the\n  Pythagorean table of principles, the number of which is supposed to\n  have given rise to the decuple arrangement adopted by Aristotle. The\n  two classifications have nothing in common; no term in the one list\n  appears in the other; and there is absolutely nothing in the\n  Pythagorean principles which could have led to the theory of the\n  categories.[2]\n\n\n    Plato.\n\n  One naturally turns to Plato when endeavouring to discover the genesis\n  of any Aristotelian doctrine, and undoubtedly there are in the\n  Platonic writings many detached discussions in which the matter of the\n  categories is touched upon. Special terms also are anticipated at\n  various times, e.g. [Greek: poiotes] in the _Theaetetus_, [Greek:\n  poiein] and [Greek: paschein] in the _Gorgias_, and [Greek: pros ti]\n  in the _Sophist._[3] But there does not seem to be anything in Plato\n  which one could say gave occasion directly and of itself to the\n  Aristotelian doctrine; and even when we take a more comprehensive view\n  of the Platonic system and inquire what in it corresponds to the\n  widest definition of categories, say as ultimate elements of thought\n  and existence, we receive no very definite answer. The Platonic\n  dialectic never worked out into system, and only in two dialogues do\n  we get anything like a list of ultimate or root-notions. In the\n  _Sophist_, Being, Rest and Motion ([Greek: tho on autho kahi stasis\n  kahi kinesis]) are laid down as [Greek: megista ton genon].[4] To\n  these are presently added the Same and the Other ([Greek: tauthon kai\n  thateron]), and out of the consideration of all five some light is\n  cast upon the obscure notion of Non-Being [Greek: (to mhe on)]. In the\n  same dialogue (262 seq.) is found the important distinction of [Greek:\n  onoma] and [Greek: rhema], noun and verb. The _Philebus_ presents us\n  with a totally distinct classification into four elements--the\n  Infinite, the Finite, the Mixture or Unity of both and the Cause of\n  this unity ([Greek: tho apeiron, tho peras, he summixis, he aitia]).\n  It is at once apparent that, however these classifications are related\n  to one another and to the Platonic system, they lie in a different\n  field from that occupied by the Aristotelian categories, and can\n  hardly be said to have anything in common with them.\n\n\n    Aristotle.\n\n  The Aristotelian doctrine is most distinctly formulated in the short\n  treatise [Greek: Kategoriai], which generally occupies the first place\n  among the books of the _Organon_. The authenticity of the treatise was\n  doubted in early times by some of the commentators, and the doubts\n  have been revived by such scholars as L. Spengel and Carl Prantl. On\n  the other hand, C.A. Brandis, H. Bonitz, and Ed. Zeller are of opinion\n  that the tract is substantially Aristotle's. The matter is hardly one\n  that can be decided either _pro_ or _con_ with anything like\n  certainty; but this is of little moment, for the doctrine of the\n  categories, even of the _ten_ categories, does not stand or fall with\n  only one portion of Aristotle's works.\n\n  It is surprising that there should yet be so much uncertainty as to\n  the real significance of the categories, and that we should be in\n  nearly complete ignorance as to the process of thought by which,\n  Aristotle was led to the doctrine. On both points It is difficult to\n  extract from the matter before us anything approaching a satisfactory\n  solution. The terms employed to denote the categories have been\n  scrutinized with the utmost care, but they give little help. The most\n  important--[Greek: k. tou ontos] or [Greek: tes ousias, gene tou\n  ontos] or [Greek: ton onton, gene] simply, [Greek: tha prota] or\n  [Greek: tha koina prota, ai ptoseis], or [Greek: ai diaireseis]--only\n  indicate that the categories are general classes into which Being as\n  such may be divided, that they are _summa genera_. The expressions\n  [Greek: gene ton kategorion] and [Greek: schemata ton k.], which are\n  used frequently, seem to lead to another and somewhat different view.\n  [Greek: kategoria] being taken to mean that which is predicated,\n  [Greek: gene ton k.] would signify the most general classes of\n  predicates, the framework into the divisions of which all predicates\n  must come. To this interpretation there are objections. The categories\n  must be carefully distinguished from predicables; in the scholastic\n  phraseology the former refer to _first intentions_, the latter to\n  _second intentions_, i.e. the one denote real, the other logical\n  connexion. Further, the categories cannot without careful explanation\n  be defined as predicates; they are this and something more. The most\n  important category, [Greek: ousia], in one of its aspects cannot be\n  predicate at all.\n\n  In the [Greek: Kategoriai] Aristotle prefixes to his enumeration a\n  grammatico-logical disquisition on homonyms and synonyms, and on the\n  elements of the proposition, i.e. subject and predicate. He draws\n  attention to the fact that things are spoken of either in the\n  connexion known as the proposition, e.g. \"a man runs,\" or apart from\n  such connexion, e.g. \"man\" and \"runs.\" He then proceeds, \"Of things\n  spoken of apart from their connexion in a proposition ([Greek: ton\n  katha medemian sumplokhen legomenon]), each signifies either Substance\n  ([Greek: ousia]), or Quantity ([Greek: poson]), or Quality ([Greek:\n  poion]), or Relation ([Greek: pros ti],) or Where (i.e. Place, [Greek:\n  pou]), or When (i.e. Time, [Greek: pote]), or Position ([Greek:\n  keisthai]), or Possession ([Greek: echein]), or Action ([Greek:\n  poiein]), or Passion ([Greek: paschein]). [Greek: ousia], the first\n  category, is subdivided into [Greek: prote ousia] or primary\n  substance, which is defined to be [Greek: tode ti], the singular thing\n  in which properties inhere, and to which predicates are attached, and\n  [Greek: deuterai] [Greek: onsiai], genera or species which can be\n  predicated of primary substances, and are therefore [Greek: onsia].\n  only in a secondary sense. Nevertheless, they too, after a certain\n  fashion, signify the singular thing, [Greek: tode ti]\" (K. p. 3 b 12,\n  13). It is this doctrine of [Greek: prote onsia] that has raised\n  doubts with regard to the authenticity of the [Greek: Kategoriai] But\n  the tenfold classification, which has also been captiously objected\n  to, is given in an acknowledged writing of Aristotle's (see Topica, i.\n  9, p. 103 b 20).[5] At the same time it is at least remarkable that in\n  two places where the enumeration seems intended to be complete (_Met._\n  p. 1017 a 25; _An. Pos._ i. 22, p. 83 a 21), only eight are mentioned,\n  [Greek: exein] and [Greek: keisthai] being omitted. In other\n  passages[6] six, five, four, and three are given, frequently with some\n  addition, such as [Greek: kai ai allai k]. It is also to be observed\n  that, despite of this wavering, distinct intimations are given by\n  Aristotle that he regarded his list as complete, and he uses phrases\n  which would seem to indicate that the division had been exhaustively\n  carried out. He admits certainly that some predicates which come under\n  one category might be referred to another, but he declines to deduce\n  all from one highest class, or to recognize any relation of\n  subordination among the several classes.\n\n  The full import of the categories will never be adequately reached\n  from the point of view taken up in the [Greek: Kategoriai], which\n  bears all the marks of an early and preliminary study. For true\n  understanding we must turn to the _Metaphysics_, where the doctrine is\n  handled at large. The discussion of Being in that work starts with a\n  distinction that at once gives us a clue. [Greek: tho on] is spoken of\n  in many ways; of these four are classified--[Greek: tho on katha\n  sumbebekos, tho om hos alethes, tho on dunamei kai energeia], and\n  [Greek: tho on kata ta schemata ton kategorion]. It is evident from\n  this that the categories can be regarded neither as purely logical nor\n  as purely metaphysical elements. They indicate the general forms or\n  ways in which Being can be predicated; they are determinations of\n  Being regarded as an object of thought, and consequently as matter of\n  speech. It becomes apparent also why the analysis of the categories\n  starts from the singular thing, for it is the primary form under which\n  all that is becomes object of knowledge, and the other categories\n  modify or qualify this real individual. [Greek: Panta de ta gignomena\n  hupo te tinos gignetai kai ek tinos kai ti. To de ti lego kath\n  hekasten kategorian e gar tode e poson e poion e pon]. (_Met._ p. 1032\n  a 13-15) ... The categories, therefore, are not logical forms, but\n  real predicates; they are the general modes in which Being may be\n  expressed. The definite thing, that which comes forward in the process\n  from potentiality to full actuality, can only appear and be spoken of\n  under forms of individuality, quality, quantity and so on. The nine\n  later categories all denote entity in a certain imperfect fashion.\n\n  The categories then are not to be regarded as heads of predicates, the\n  framework into which predicates can be thrown. They are real\n  determinations of Being--_allgemeine Bestimmtheiten_, as Hegel calls\n  them. They are not _summa genera_ of existences, still less are they\n  to be explained as a classification of namable things in general. The\n  objections Mill has taken to the list are entirely irrelevant, and\n  would only have significance if the categories were really--what they\n  are not--an exhaustive division of concrete existences. Grote's view\n  (_Aristotle_, i. 108) that Aristotle drew up his list by examining\n  Various popular propositions, and throwing the different predicates\n  into genera, \"according as they stood in different logical relation to\n  the subject,\" has no foundation. The relation of the predicate\n  category to the subject is not entirely a logical one; it is a\n  relation of real existence, and wants the essential marks of the\n  prepositional form. The logical relations of [Greek: to on] are\n  provided for otherwise than by the categories.\n\n  Aristotle has given no intimation of the course of thought by which he\n  was led to his tenfold arrangement, and it seems hopeless to discover\n  it. Trendelenburg in various essays has worked out the idea that the\n  root of the matter is to be found in grammatical considerations, that\n  the categories originated from investigations into grammatical\n  functions, and that a correspondence will be found to obtain between\n  categories and parts of speech. Thus, Substance corresponds to noun\n  substantive, Quantity and Quality to the adjective, Relation partly to\n  the comparative degree and perhaps to the preposition, When and Where\n  to the adverbs of time and place. Action to the active, Passion to the\n  passive of the verb, Position [Greek: keisthai] to the intransitive\n  verb, [Greek: echein] to the peculiar Greek perfect. That there should\n  be a very close correspondence between the categories and grammatical\n  elements is by no means surprising; that the one were deduced from the\n  other is both philosophically and historically improbable. Reference\n  to the detailed criticisms of Trendelenburg by Ritter, Bonitz, and\n  Zeller will be sufficient.\n\n  Aristotle has also left us in doubt on another point. Why should there\n  be only _ten_ categories? and why should these be the ten? Kant and\n  Hegel, it is well known, signalize as the great defect in the\n  Aristotelian categories the want of a principle, and yet some of\n  Aristotle's expressions would warrant the inference that he _had_ a\n  principle, and that he thought his arrangement exhaustive. The leading\n  idea of all later attempts at reduction to unity of principle, the\n  division into substance and accident, was undoubtedly not overlooked\n  by Aristotle, and Fr. Brentano[7] has collected with great diligence\n  passages which indicate how the complete list might have been deduced\n  from this primary distinction. His tabular arrangements (pp. 175, 177)\n  are particularly deserving of attention. The results, however, are\n  hardly beyond the reach of doubt.\n\n\n    Later Greek.\n\n  There was no fundamental change in the doctrine of the categories from\n  the time of Aristotle to that of Kant, and only two proposed\n  reclassifications are of such importance as to require notice. The\n  Stoics adopted a fivefold arrangement of highest classes, [Greek:\n  genikotata]. [Greek: to on] or [Greek: ti], Being, or somewhat in\n  general, was subdivided into [Greek: hypokeimena] or subjects, [Greek:\n  poia] or qualities in general, which give definiteness to the blank\n  subject, [Greek: pos echonta], modes which further determine the\n  subject, and [Greek: pros ti pos echonta], definite relative modes.\n  These categories are so related that each involves the existence of\n  one higher than itself, thus there cannot be a [Greek: pros ti pos\n  echon] which does not rest upon or imply a [Greek: pos echon], but\n  [Greek: pos echon] is impossible without [Greek: poion], which only\n  exists in [Greek: hypokeimenon], a form or phase of [Greek: to\n  hon].[8]\n\n  Plotinus, after a lengthy critique of Aristotle's categories, sets out\n  a twofold list. [Greek: to en, kinesis, stasis, tautotes, heterotes]\n  are the primitive categories ([Greek: prota gene]) of the intelligible\n  sphere. [Greek: ousia, pros ti, poia, poson, kinesis] are the\n  categories of the sensible world. The return to the Platonic\n  classification will not escape notice.\n\n\n    Modern philosophy.\n\n  Modern philosophy, neglecting altogether the dry and tasteless\n  treatment of the Aristotelian doctrine by scholastic writers, gave a\n  new, a wider and deeper meaning to the categories. They now appear as\n  ultimate or root notions, the metaphysical or thought elements, which\n  give coherence and consistency to the material of knowledge, the\n  necessary and universal relations which obtain among the particulars\n  of experience. There was thus to some extent a return to Platonism,\n  but in reality, as might easily be shown, the new interpretation was,\n  with due allowance for difference in point of view, in strict harmony\n  with the true doctrine of Aristotle. The modern theory dates in\n  particular from the time of Kant, who may be said to have reintroduced\n  the term into philosophy. Naturally there are some anticipations in\n  earlier thinkers. The Substance, Attribute and Mode of Cartesianism\n  can hardly be classed among the categories; nor does Leibnitz's chance\n  suggestion of a fivefold arrangement into Substance, Quantity,\n  Quality, Action and Passion, and Relations, demand any particular\n  notice. Locke, too, has a classification into Substances, Modes and\n  Relations, but in it he has manifestly no intention of drawing up a\n  table of categories. What in his system corresponds most nearly to the\n  modern view of these elements is the division of kinds of real\n  predication. In all judgments of knowledge we predicate either (1)\n  Identity or Diversity, (2) Relation, (3) Co-existence, or necessary\n  connexion, or (4) Real existence. From this the transition was easy to\n  Hume's important classification of _philosophical relations_ into\n  those of Resemblance, Identity, Time and Place, Quantity or Number,\n  Quality, Contrariety, Cause and Effect.\n\n  These attempts at an exhaustive distribution of the necessary\n  relations of all objects of knowledge indicate the direction taken by\n  modern thought, before it received its complete expression from Kant.\n\n\n    Kant.\n\n  The doctrine of the categories is the very kernel of the Kantian\n  system, and, through it, of later German philosophy. To explain it\n  fully would be to write the history of that philosophy. The categories\n  are called by Kant Root-notions of the Understanding (_Stammbegriffe\n  des Verstandes_), and are briefly the specific forms of the a priori\n  or formal element in rational cognition. It is this distinction of\n  matter and form in knowledge that marks off the Kantian from the\n  Aristotelian doctrine. To Kant knowledge was only possible as the\n  synthesis of the material or a posteriori with the formal or a priori.\n  The material to which a priori forms of the understanding were applied\n  was the sensuous content of the pure intuitions, Time and Space. This\n  content could not be _known_ by sense, but only by intellectual\n  function. But the understanding in the process of knowledge makes use\n  of the universal form of synthesis, the judgment; intellectual\n  function is essentially of the nature of judgment or the reduction of\n  a manifold to unity through a conception. The specific or type forms\n  of such function will, therefore, be expressed in judgments; and a\n  complete classification of the forms of judgments is the key by which\n  one may hope to discover the system of categories. Such a list of\n  judgments Kant thought he found in ordinary logic, and from it he drew\n  up his well-known scheme of the twelve categories. These forms are the\n  determinations of all objects of experience, for it is only through\n  them that the manifold of sense can be reduced to the unity of\n  consciousness, and thereby constituted experience. They are a priori\n  conditions, subjective in one sense, but objective as being universal,\n  necessary and constitutive of experience.\n\n  The table of logical judgments with corresponding categories is as\n  follows:--\n\n        Judgments.                               Categories.\n    Universal      \\        I.        \/ Unity.\n    Particular      >  Of Quantity   <  Plurality.\n    Singular       \/                  \\ Totality.\n\n    Affirmative    \\       II.        \/ Reality.\n    Negative        >  Of Quality    <  Negation.\n    Infinite       \/                  \\ Limitation.\n\n    Categorical    \\                  \/ Inherence and Subsistence\n                   |       III.      |    (Substance and Accident).\n    Hypothetical    >  Of Relation  <   Causality and Dependence\n                   |                 |    (Cause and Effect).\n    Disjunctive    \/                  \\ Community (Reciprocity).\n\n    Problematical  \\       IV.        \/ Possibility and Impossibility.\n    Assertoric      >  Of Modality   <  Existence and Non-Existence.\n    Apodictic      \/                  \\ Necessity and Contingency.\n\n\n    Fichte.\n\n  Kant, it is well known, criticizes Aristotle severely for having drawn\n  up his categories without a principle, and claims to have disclosed\n  the only possible method by which an exhaustive classification might\n  be obtained. What he criticized in Aristotle is brought against his\n  own procedure by the later German thinkers, particularly Fichte and\n  Hegel. And in point of fact it cannot be denied that Kant has allowed\n  too much completeness to the ordinary logical distribution of\n  propositions; he has given no proof that in these forms are contained\n  all species of synthesis, and in consequence he has failed to show\n  that in the categories, or pure conceptions, are contained all the\n  modes of a priori synthesis. Further, his principle has so far the\n  unity he claimed for it, the unity of a single function, but the\n  specific forms in which such unity manifests itself are not themselves\n  accounted for by this principle. Kant himself hints more than once at\n  the possibility of a completely rational system of the categories, at\n  an evolution from one single movement of thought, and in his _Remarks\n  on the Table of the Categories_ gave a pregnant hint as to the method\n  to be employed. From any complete realization of this suggestion Kant,\n  however, was precluded by one portion of his theory. The categories,\n  although the necessary conditions under which alone an object of\n  experience can be thrown, are merely forms of the mind's own activity;\n  they apply only to sensuous and consequently subjective material.\n  Outside of and beyond them lies the thing-in-itself, which to Kant\n  represented the ultimately real. This subjectivism was a distinct\n  hiatus in the Kantian system, and against it principally Fichte and\n  Hegel directed criticism. It was manifest that at the root of the\n  whole system of categories there lay the synthetizing unity of\n  self-consciousness, and it was upon this unity that Fichte fixed as\n  giving the possibility of a more complete and rigorous deduction of\n  the pure notions of the understanding. Without the act of the Ego,\n  whereby it is self-conscious, there could be no knowledge, and this\n  primitive act or function must be, he saw, the _position_ or\n  affirmation of itself by the Ego. The first principle then must be\n  that the Ego posits itself as the Ego, that Ego = Ego, a principle\n  which is unconditioned both in form and matter, and therefore capable\n  of standing absolutely first, of being the _prius_ in a system.\n  Metaphysically regarded this act of self-position yields the\n  categories of Reality. But, so far as matter is concerned, there\n  cannot be affirmation without negation, _omnis determinatio est\n  negatio_. The determination of the Ego presupposes or involves the\n  Non-Ego. The form of the proposition in which this second act takes to\n  itself expression, the Ego is not = Not-Ego, is unconditioned, not\n  derivable from the first. It is the absolute antithesis to the\n  primitive thesis. The category of Negation is the result of this\n  second act. From these two propositions, involving absolutely opposed\n  and mutually destructive elements, there results a third which\n  reconciles both in a higher synthesis. The notion in this third is\n  determination or limitation; the Ego and Non-Ego limit, and are\n  opposed to one another. From these three positions Fichte proceeds to\n  evolve the categories by a series of thesis, antithesis and synthesis.\n\n  In thus seizing upon the unity of self-consciousness as the origin for\n  systematic development, Fichte has clearly taken a step in advance of,\n  and yet in strict harmony with, the Kantian doctrine. For, after all\n  that can be said as to the demonstrated character of formal logic,\n  Kant's procedure was empirical, and only after the list of categories\n  had been drawn out, did he bring forward into prominence what gave\n  them coherence and reality. The peculiar method of Fichte, also, was\n  nothing but a consistent application of Kant's own Remark on the Table\n  of the Categories. Fichte's doctrine, however, is open to some of the\n  objections advanced against Kant. His method is too abstract and\n  external, and wants the unity of a single principle. The first two of\n  his fundamental propositions stand isolated from one another, not to\n  be resolved into a primitive unity. With him, too, the whole stands\n  yet on the plane of subjectivity. He speaks, indeed, of the universal\n  Ego as distinct from the empirical self-consciousness; but the\n  universal does not rise with him to concrete spirit. Nevertheless the\n  _Wissenschaftslehre_ contains the only real advance in the treatment\n  of the categories from the time of Kant to that of Hegel.[9] This, of\n  course, does not imply that there were not certain elements in\n  Schelling, particularly in the _Transcendental Idealism_, that are of\n  value in the transition to the later system; but on the whole it is\n  only in Hegel that the whole matter of the Kantian categories has been\n  assimilated and carried to a higher stage. The Hegelian philosophy, in\n  brief, is a system of the categories; and, as it is not intended here\n  to expound that philosophy, it is impossible to give more than a few\n  general and quite external observations as to the Hegelian mode of\n  viewing these elements of thought. With Kant, as has been seen, the\n  categories were still subjective, not as being forms of the individual\n  subject, but as having over against them the world of _noumena_ to\n  which they were inapplicable. Self-consciousness, which was, even with\n  Kant, the _nodus_ or kernel whence the categories sprang, was nothing\n  but a logical centre,--the reality was concealed. There was thus a\n  dualism, to overcome which is the first step in the Hegelian system.\n  The principle, if there is to be one, must be universally applicable,\n  all-comprehensive. Self-consciousness is precisely the principle\n  wanted; it is a unity, an identity, containing in itself a\n  multiplicity. The universal in absolute self-consciousness is just\n  pure thinking, which in systematic evolution is the categories; the\n  particular is the natural or multiform, the external as such; the\n  concrete of both is spirit, or self-consciousness come to itself. The\n  same law that obtains among the categories is found adequate to an\n  explanation of the external thing which had so sadly troubled Kant.\n  The categories themselves are moments of the universal of thought,\n  type forms, or definite aspects which thought assumes; determinations,\n  _Bestimmungen_, as Hegel most frequently calls them. They evolve by\n  the same law that was found to be the essence of ultimate\n  reality--i.e. of self-consciousness. The complete system is pure\n  thought, the Universal _par excellence_.\n\n  After the Hegelian there can hardly be said to have been a\n  philosophical treatment of the categories in Germany which is not more\n  or less a criticism of that system. It does not seem necessary to\n  mention the unimportant modifications introduced by Kuno Fischer, J.E.\n  Erdmann, or others belonging to the school. In the strongly-opposed\n  philosophy of J.F. Herbart the categories can hardly be said to hold a\n  prominent place. They are, with him, the most general notions which\n  are psychologically formed, and he classifies them as follows:--(1)\n  Thing, either as product of thought or as given in experience; (2)\n  Property, either qualitative or quantitative; (3) Relation; (4) The\n  Negated. Along with these he posits as categories of inner\n  process--(1) Sensation, (2) Cognition, (3) Will, (4) Action. Joh. Fr.\n  L. George (1811-1873),[10] who in the main follows Schleiermacher,\n  draws out a table of categories which shows, in some points, traces of\n  Herbartian influence. His arrangement by enneads, or series of nine,\n  is fanciful, and wanting in inner principle.\n\n\n    Trendelenburg.\n\n  The most imposing of more recent attempts at a reconstruction of the\n  categories is that of F.A. Trendelenburg. To him the first principle,\n  or primitive reality, is Motion, which is both real as external\n  movement, and ideal as inner construction. The necessary conditions of\n  Motion are Time and Space, which are both subjective and objective.\n  From this point onwards are developed the mathematical (point, line,\n  &c.) and real (causality, substance, quantity, quality, &c.)\n  categories which appear as involved in the notion of motion. Matter\n  cannot be regarded as a product of motion; it is the condition of\n  motion, we must think something moved. All these categories, \"under\n  the presupposition of motion as the first energy of thought, are ideal\n  and subjective relations; as also, under the presupposition of motion\n  as the first energy of Being, real and objective relations.\"[11] A\n  serious difficulty presents itself in the next category, that of End\n  (_Zweck_), which can easily be thought for inner activity, but can\n  hardly be reconciled with real motion. Trendelenburg solves the\n  difficulty only empirically, by pointing to the insufficiency of the\n  merely mechanical to account for the organic. The consideration of\n  Modality effects the transition to the forms of logical thought. On\n  the whole, Trendelenburg's unique fact of motion seems rather a\n  blunder. There is much more involved than he is willing to allow, and\n  motion _per se_ is by no means adequate to self-consciousness. His\n  theory has found little favour.\n\n\n    Ulrici.\n\n  Hermann Ulrici works out a system of the categories from a\n  psychological or logical point of view. To him the fundamental fact of\n  philosophy is the distinguishing activity (_unterscheidende\n  Tatigkeit_) of thought. Thought is only possible by distinction,\n  difference. The fixed points in the relations of objects upon which\n  this activity turns are the categories, which may be called the forms\n  or laws of thought. They are the aspects of things, notions under\n  which things must be brought, in order to become objects of thought.\n  They are thus the most general predicates or heads of predicates. The\n  categories cannot be completely gathered from experience, nor can they\n  be evolved a priori; but, by attending to the general relations of\n  thought and its purely indefinite matter, and examining what we must\n  predicate in order to know Being, we may attain to a satisfactory\n  list. Such a list is given in great detail in the _System der Logik_\n  (1852), and in briefer, preciser form in the _Compendium der Logik_\n  (2nd ed., 1872); it is in many points well deserving of attention.\n\n\n    Renouvier, Cousin, Hamilton, Mill.\n\n  The definition of the categories by the able French logician Charles\n  Bernard Renouvier in some respects resembles that of Ulrici. To him\n  the primitive fact is Relation, of which all the categories are but\n  forms. \"The categories,\" he says, \"are the primary and irreducible\n  laws of knowledge, the fundamental relations which determine its form\n  and regulate its movements.\" His table and his criticism of the\n  Kantian theory are both of interest.[12] The criticism of Kant's\n  categories by Cousin and his own attempted classification are of no\n  importance. Of little more value is the elaborate table drawn out by\n  Sir W. Hamilton.[13] The generalized category of the _Conditioned_ has\n  but little meaning, and the subordinate categories evolve themselves\n  by no principle, but are arranged after a formal and quite arbitrary\n  manner. They are never brought into connexion with thought itself, nor\n  could they be shown to spring from its nature and relations. J.S. Mill\n  presented, \"as a substitute for the abortive classification of\n  Existences, termed the categories of Aristotle,\" the following as an\n  enumeration of all nameable things:--(1) Feelings, or states of\n  consciousness; (2) The minds which experience these feelings; (3)\n  Bodies, or external objects which excite certain of those feelings;\n  (4) Successions and co-existences, likenesses and unlikenesses,\n  between feelings or states of consciousness.[14] This classification\n  proceeds on a quite peculiar view of the categories, and is here\n  presented only for the sake of completeness.\n\n\n    Modern psychologists.\n\n  By modern psychologists the subject has been closely investigated.\n  Professor G.F. Stout (_Manual of Psychology_, vol. ii. pp. 312 foll.)\n  defines categories as \"forms of cognitive consciousness, universal\n  principles or relations presupposed either in all cognition or in all\n  cognition of a certain kind.\" He then treats External (or Physical)\n  Reality, Space, Time, Causality and \"Thinghood\" from the standpoint of\n  the perceptual consciousness; showing in what sense the categories of\n  causality, substance and the rest exist in the sphere of perception.\n  As contrasted with the ideational, the perceptual consciousness is\n  concerned with practice. Perception tells the child of things as\n  separate entities, not in their ultimate relations as parts of a\n  coherent whole. G.T. Ladd (_Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory_,\n  ch. xxi., on \"Space, Time and Causality\") defines the categories from\n  the psychological standpoint as \"those highly abstract conceptions\n  which the mind frames by reflection upon its own most general modes of\n  behaviour. They are our own notions resulting from co-operation of\n  imagination and judgment, concerning the ultimate and unanalyzable\n  forms of our own existence and development.\" In other words, the\n  categories are highly abstract, have no content, and are realized as a\n  kind of thinking which has for its object all the other mental\n  processes.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted above, see Eduard v. Hartmann,\n  _Kategorienlehre_ (Leipzig, 1896), and \"Begriff der\n  Kategorialfunktion\", in _Zeitschr. f. Philos. und phil. Krit._ cxv.\n  (1899), pp. 9-19; E. Konig in the same periodical cxiii. (1889), pp.\n  232-279, and cxiv. (1899), pp. 78-105; F.A. Trendelenburg, _Geschichte\n  der Kategorienlehre_ (1846); P. Ragnisco _Storia critica delle\n  categorie_ (2 vols., Florence, 1871); W. Windelband _Vom System der\n  Kategorien_ (Tubingen, 1900); R. Eisler, _Worterbuch der\n  philospphischen Begriffe_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 400-409; S. Joda,\n  _Studio critico su le categorie_ (Naples, 1881); H. Vaihinger, _Die\n  transcendentale Deduktion der Kategorien_ (Halle, 1902); H.W.B.\n  Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_ (Oxford, 1906), ch. iii.; F.H.\n  Bradley, _Principles of Logic_ (1883); B. Bosanquet's _Knowledge and\n  Reality_ (1885, 2nd ed. 1892); histories of philosophy. For further\n  authorities see works quoted under ARISTOTLE and KANT, and in J.M.\n  Baldwin's _Dict. Philos. Psych._ vol. iii. pt. 2, p. 685.\n       (R. Ad.; X.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] For details of this and other Hindu systems see H. T. Colebrooke,\n    _Miscellaneous Essays_ (1837; new ed., E. B. Cowell, 1873); H. H.\n    Wilson, _Essays and Lectures on the Religions of the Hindus_\n    (1861-1862); Monier Williams, _Indian Wisdom_ (4th ed., 1893); A. E.\n    Gough's _Vaiseshika-Sutras_ (Benares, 1873), and _Philosophy of the\n    Upanishads_ (London, 1882, 1891); Max Muller, _Sanskrit Literature_,\n    and particularly his appendix to Thomson's _Laws of Thought_.\n\n  [2] The supposed origin of that theory in the treatise [Greek: perhi\n    tou pantos], ascribed to Archytas (q.v.), has been proved to be an\n    error. The treatise itself dates in all probability from the\n    Neo-Pythagorean schools of the 2nd century A.D.\n\n  [3] Prantl, _Ges. der Logik_, i. 74-75; F.A. Trendelenburg,\n    _Kategorienlehre_, 209. n.\n\n  [4] _Soph_. 254 D.\n\n  [5] Against this passage even Prantl can raise no objection of any\n    moment; see _Ges. der Logik_, i. 206. n.\n\n  [6] See Bonitz, _Iridex Aristotelicus_, s.v., and Prantl, _Ges. der\n    Logik_, i. 207.\n\n  [7] Brentano, _Bedeutung des Seienden nach A._, pp. 148-178.\n\n  [8] For detailed examination of the Stoic categories, see Prantl,\n    _Ges. d. Logik_, i. 428 sqq.; Zeller, _Ph. d. Griech._ iii. 1, 82,\n    sqq,; Trendelenburg, _Kateg._ p. 217.\n\n  [9] It does not seem necessary to do more than refer to the slight\n    alterations made on Kant's Table of Categories by J.G. von Herder (in\n    the _Metakritik_), by Solomon Malmon (in the _Propadeutik zu einer\n    neuen Theorie des Denkens_), by J.F. Fries (in the _Neue Kritik der\n    Vernunft_), or by Schopenhauer, who desired to reduce all the\n    categories to one--that of Causality. We should require a new\n    philosophical vocabulary even to translate the extraordinary\n    compounds in which K.C.F. Krause expounds his theory of the\n    categories. Notices of the changes introduced by Antonio\n    Rosmini-Serbati, and of Vincenzo Gioberti's remarkable theory, will\n    be found in Ragnisco's work referred to below.\n\n  [10] _System der Metaphysik_ (1844).\n\n  [11] _Logische Untersuchungen_, i. 376-377.\n\n  [12] _Essais de critique generale_ (2nd ed.), _La Logique_, i. pp.\n    184, 190, 207-225.\n\n  [13] _Discussions_, p. 577.\n\n  [14] _Logic_, i. 83; cf. Bain, _Ded. Log._, App. C.\n\n\n\n\nCATENARY (from Lat. _catena_, a chain), in mathematics, the curve\nassumed by a uniform chain or string hanging freely between two\nsupports. It was investigated by Galileo, who erroneously determined it\nto be a parabola; Jungius detected Galileo's error, but the true form\nwas not discovered until 1691, when James Bernoulli published it as a\nproblem in the _Acta Eruditorum_. Bernoulli also considered the cases\nwhen (1) the chain was of variable density, (2) extensible, (3) acted\nupon at each point by a force directed to a fixed centre. These curves\nattracted much attention and were discussed by John Bernoulli, Leibnitz,\nHuygens, David Gregory and others.\n\n  The mechanical properties of the curves are treated in the article\n  MECHANICS, where various forms are illustrated. The simple catenary is\n  shown in the figure. The cartesian equation referred to the axis and\n  directrix is y = c cosh (x\/c) or y = 1\/2c[e^(x\/c) + e^(-x\/c)]; other\n  forms are s = c sinh (x\/c) and y^2 = c^2 + s^2, s being the arc\n  measured from the vertex; the intrinsic equation is s = c tan [psi].\n  The radius of curvature and normal are each equal to c sec^2 [psi].\n\n  [Illustration]\n\n  The surface formed by revolving the catenary about its directrix is\n  named the _alysseide_. It is a minimal surface, i.e. the catenary\n  solves the problem: to find a curve joining two given points, which\n  when revolved about a line co-planar with the points traces a surface\n  of minimum area (see VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF).\n\n  The involute of the catenary is called the _tractory_, _tractrix_ or\n  _antifriction_ curve; it has a cusp at the vertex of the catenary, and\n  is asymptotic to the directrix. The cartesian equation is\n                                      _                     _\n                                     | c - [root](c^2 - y^2) |\n    x = [root](c^2 - y^2) + 1\/2c log |-----------------------|\n                                     |_c + [root](c^2 + y^2)_|\n\n  and the curve has the geometrical property that the length of its\n  tangent is constant. It is named the tractory, since a weight placed\n  on the ground and drawn along by means of a flexible string by a\n  person travelling in a straight line, the weight not being in this\n  line, describes the curve in question. It is named the antifriction\n  curve, since a pivot and step having the form of the surface generated\n  by revolving the curve about its vertical axis wear away equally (see\n  MECHANICS: _Applied_).\n\n\n\n\nCATERAN (from the Gaelic _ceathairne_, a collective word meaning\n\"peasantry\"), the band of fighting men of a Highland clan; hence the\nterm is applied to the Highland, and later to any, marauders or\ncattle-lifters.\n\n\n\n\nCATERHAM, an urban district in the Wimbledon parliamentary division of\nSurrey, England, 20 m. S. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham\nrailway. Pop. (1901) 9486. It lies in a healthy, hilly district, and has\ngrown in modern times from a village into a large residential town.\nThere are large barracks in the neighbourhood, and the Metropolitan\nlunatic asylum is close to the town.\n\n\n\n\nCATERPILLAR, the popular name of the larva of various insects,\nparticularly of butterflies and moths (see LEPIDOPTERA, HEXAPODA,\nMETAMORPHOSIS). The word appears first in the form _caterpyl_\n(_Promptorium Parvulorum_, about the middle of the 15th century). This\nmay be the original form, with the addition of -ar or -er; if so, it\nrepresents the O. Fr. _chatepelose_ or _chatepeleuse_, i.e. \"hairy-cat\"\n(_chat_, cat, and _pelouse_, hairy, Lat. _pilosus_), a name applied to\nthe hairy caterpillar, and also according to Cotgrave to a weevil. The\nuse of \"cat\" in this connexion is paralleled by the Swiss name for a\ncaterpillar, _teufelskatz_, and the popular English name for the blossom\nof the willow, \"catkin,\" somewhat resembling a caterpillar (cf.\n\"palmer\"); the modern French is _chenille_, Latin _canicula_, a little\ndog. The termination of the word seems to have been early connected with\n\"piller,\" a robber, plunderer from the destructive habits of the larva,\ncf. Joel i. 4--\"That which the palmer-worm hath left, hath the locust\neaten.\" The spelling \"caterpillar,\" a 17th century corruption, has been\nthe usual form since Johnson.\n\n\n\n\nCATESBY, ROBERT (1573-1605), English conspirator, son of Sir William\nCatesby of Lapworth in Warwickshire, a prominent recusant who was a\ndescendant of Sir William Catesby, speaker of the House of Commons in\n1484, executed by Henry VII. after the battle of Bosworth, was born in\n1573, and entered Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, in\n1586. He possessed a considerable estate, and was said to be wild and\nextravagant in his youth. In 1596 he was one of those arrested on\nsuspicion during an illness of Queen Elizabeth. In 1601 he took part in\nthe rebellion of Essex, was wounded in the fight and imprisoned, but\nfinally pardoned on the payment of an enormous fine, to obtain which he\nwas forced to sell a portion of his property. In 1602 he despatched\nThomas Winter and the Jesuit Tesimond _alias_ Greenway to Spain to\ninduce Philip III. to organize an invasion of England, and in 1603,\nafter James's accession, he was named as an accomplice in the \"Bye\nPlot.\" Catesby was a man of great beauty of person, \"above 2 yards\nhigh,\" says Father Gerard, \"and though slender, yet as well-proportioned\nto his height as any man one should see.\" He possessed a clear head and\nunflinching courage, and with a strong determination and fascinating\nmanner mastered the minds of his associates and overpowered all\nopposition. He was, however, headstrong, wilful and imprudent, fit for\naction, but incapable of due deliberation, and entirely wanting in\nforesight. Exasperated by his personal misfortunes and at the repressive\nmeasures under which his co-religionists were suffering, and blinded by\na religious zeal which amounted to fanaticism, he was now to be the\nchief instigator of the famous Gunpowder Plot, which must in any event\nhave brought disaster upon the Roman Catholic cause. The idea of some\ngreat stroke seems to have first entered his mind in May 1603. About the\nmiddle of January 1604 he imparted his scheme of blowing up the\nParliament House to his cousin Thomas Winter, subsequently taking in Guy\nFawkes and several other conspirators and overcoming all fears and\nscruples. But it was his determination, from which he would not be\nshaken, not to allow warning to be given to the Roman Catholic peers\nthat was the actual cause of the failure of the plot. A fatal mistake\nhad been made in imparting the secret to Francis Tresham (q.v.), in\norder to secure his financial assistance; and there is scarcely any\ndoubt that he was the author of the celebrated letter to his\nbrother-in-law, Lord Monteagle, which betrayed the conspiracy to the\ngovernment, on the 26th of October. On receiving the news of the letter\non the 28th, Catesby exhibited extraordinary coolness and fortitude, and\nrefused to abandon the attempt, hoping that the government might despise\nthe warning and still neglect precautions; and his confidence was\nstrengthened by Fawkes's report that nothing in the cellar had been\ntouched or tampered with. On the 2nd of November his resolution was\nshaken by Tresham's renewed entreaties that he would flee, and his\npositive assurance that Salisbury knew everything. On the evening of the\n3rd, however, he was again, through Percy's insistence, persuaded to\nstand firm and hazard the great stroke. The rest of the story is told in\nthe article GUNPOWDER PLOT. Here it need only be said that Catesby,\nafter the discovery of the conspiracy, fled with his fellow-plotters,\ntaking refuge ultimately at Holbeche in Staffordshire, where on the\nnight of the 8th of November he was overtaken and killed. He had married\nCatherine, daughter of Thomas Leigh of Stoneleigh, Warwickshire, and\nleft one son, Robert, who inherited that part of the family estate which\nhad been settled on Catesby's mother and was untouched by the attainder,\nand who is said to have married a daughter of Thomas Percy.\n\n\n\n\nCAT-FISH, the name usually applied to the fishes of the family\n_Siluridae_, in allusion to the long barbels or feelers about the mouth,\nwhich have been compared to the whiskers of a cat. The _Siluridae_ are a\nlarge and varied group, mostly inhabitants of fresh waters; some of them\nby their singular form and armature are suggestive of the Devonian\nmailed fishes, and were placed at one time in their vicinity by L.\nAgassiz. Even such authorities as T.H. Huxley and E.D. Cope were\ninclined to ascribe ganoid affinities to the _Siluridae_; but this view\nhas gradually lost ground, and most modern ichthyologists, if not all,\nhave adopted the conclusions of M. Sagemehl, who has placed the\n_Siluridae_ near the carps and Characinids in the group Ostariophysi.\nThe Silurids and Cyprinids may be regarded as two parallel series\nderived from some common stock which cannot have been very different\nfrom the existing Characinids. In spite of the archaic appearance of\nsome of its members, the family _Siluridae_ does not appear to extend\nfar back in time, its oldest known representative being the _Bucklandium\ndiluvii_ of the Lower Eocene (London Clay) of Sheppey. A great number of\nforms were placed by Cuvier and his successors in the family\n_Siluridae_, which has since been broken up by T. Gill and other\nAmerican authors into several families, united under the name of\nNematognathi. A middle course appears the more reasonable to the\npresent writer, who has divided the _Siluridae_ of Cuvier into three\nfamilies, with the following definitions:--\n\n_Siluridae_--ribs attached to strong parapophyses; operculum well\ndeveloped.\n\n_Loricariidae_--ribs sessile; parapophyses absent; operculum more or\nless developed.\n\n_Aspredinidae_--ribs sessile; strong parapophyses; operculum absent.\n\nThese three families may be defined among the Ostariophysi by having the\nparietal bones fused with the supraoccipital, no symplectic, the body\nnaked or with bony scutes, the mouth usually toothed, with barbels, and\nusually an adipose dorsal fin.\n\nThe _Siluridae_ embrace more than one thousand species, spread over the\nfresh waters of all parts of the world, but mostly from between the\ntropics. They are absent from western Europe and north-west Africa, and\nfrom North America west of the Rocky Mountains, but this deficiency has\nbeen made good by now, the introduction of _Amiurus nebulosus_ and\nallied species in various parts of continental Europe and California\nhaving proved a success. Only a few forms are marine (_Plotosus_,\n_Arius_, _Galeichthys_).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The \"Wels\" (_Silurus glanis_).]\n\nThe species which has given the name to the whole family is the \"Wels\"\nof the Germans, _Silurus glanis_, the largest European fresh-water fish,\ninhabiting the greater part of Europe from the Rhine eastwards and north\nof the Alps. Its head is large and broad, its mouth wide, furnished with\nsix barbels, of which those of the upper jaw are very long. Both jaws\nand the palate are armed with broad bands of small closely-set teeth,\nwhich give the bones a rasp-like appearance. The eyes are exceedingly\nsmall. The short body terminates in a long, compressed, muscular tail,\nand the whole fish is covered with a smooth, scaleless, slippery skin.\nSpecimens of 4 and 5 ft. in length, and of 50 to 80 lb. in weight, are\nof common occurrence, and the fish grows to 10 ft., with a weight of 400\nlb., in the Danube. Its food consists chiefly of other bottom-feeding\nfishes, and in inland countries it is considered one of the better class\nof food fishes. Stories about children having been found in the stomach\nof very large individuals are probably inventions. An allied species\n(_S. aristotelis_) is found in Greece.\n\nThe _Clarias_ and _Heterobranchus_ of Africa and south-eastern Asia have\nan elongate, more or less eel-shaped body, with long dorsal and anal\nfins, and are known to be able to live a long time out of water, being\nprovided with an accessory dendritic breathing organ situated above the\ngills. Some species live in burrows during the dry season, crawling\nabout at night in search of food. The common Nile species, the \"Harmoot\"\n(_Clarias lazera_), occurs abundantly in the Lake of Galilee and was\nincluded in, if not chiefly aimed at, by the Mosaic law which forbade\nthe Jews to eat scaleless fishes, a prohibition which has been extended\nto eels in spite of the obvious presence of minute scales in the latter.\n\nThe _Saccobranchus_ of India and Ceylon, a genus more nearly related to\n_Silurus_, have also an accessory organ for breathing atmospheric air.\nIt consists of a long sac behind the gill-cavity, extending far back on\neach side of the body under the muscles.\n\nIn the majority of the _Siluridae_, called by A. Gunther the\n_Proteropterae_, a section extremely numerous in species, and\nrepresented throughout the tropics, the dorsal fin consists of a\nshort-rayed and an adipose portion, the former belonging to the\nabdominal vertebral column; the anal is always much shorter than the\ntail. The gill-membranes are not confluent with the skin of the isthmus;\nthey have a free posterior margin. When a nasal barbel is present, it\nbelongs to the posterior nostril. This section includes among many\nothers the genus _Bagrus_, of which the bayad (_B. bayad_) and docmac\n(_B. docmac_) frequently come under the notice of travellers on the\nNile; they grow to a length of 5 ft. and are eaten.\n\nOf the \"cat-fishes\" of North America (_Amiurus_), locally called\n\"bull-heads\" or \"horned-pouts,\" with eight barbels, some twenty species\nare known. Some of them are valued as food, especially one which is\nabundant in the ponds of New England, and capable of easy introduction\ninto other localities (_A. nebulosus_). Others which inhabit the great\nlakes (_A. nigricans_) and the Mississippi (_A. ponderosus_) often\nexceed the weight of 100 lb. _Platystoma_ and _Pimelodus_ people the\nrivers and lakes of tropical America, and many of them are conspicuous\nin this fauna by the ornamentation of their body, by long spatulate\nsnouts, and by their great size.\n\nThe genus _Arius_ is composed of a great number of species and has the\nwidest distribution of all Silurids, being represented in almost all\ntropical countries which are drained by large rivers. Most of the\nspecies live in salt water. They possess six barbels, and their head is\nextensively osseous on its upper surface; their dorsal and pectoral\nspines are generally developed into powerful weapons. _Bagarius_, one of\nthe largest Silurids of the rivers of India and Java, exceeding a length\nof 6 ft., differs from _Arius_ in having eight barbels and the head\ncovered with skin.\n\nR. Semon has made observations in Queensland on the habits of _Arius\naustralis_, which builds nests in the sandy bed of the Burnett river.\nThese nests consist of circular basin-like excavations about 20 in. in\ndiameter, at the bottom of which the eggs are laid and covered over by\nseveral layers of large stones. In the marine and estuarine species of\n_Arius, Galcichthys_ and _Osteogeniosus_, the male, more rarely the\nfemale, carries the eggs in the mouth and pharynx; these eggs, few in\nnumber, are remarkably large, measuring as much as 17 or 18 millimetres\nin diameter in _Arius commusonii_, a fish 3 or 4 ft. in length.\n\nThe common North American _Amiurus nebulosus_ also takes care of its\neggs, which are deposited beneath protecting objects at the bottom of\nthe water, failing which both parents join in excavating a sort of nest\nin the mud. The male watches over the eggs, and later leads the young in\ngreat schools near the shore, seemingly caring for them as the hen for\nher chickens.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Synodonus xiphias_.]\n\nIn the _Siluridae Stenobranchiae_ of Gunther the dorsal fin consists of\nan adipose portion and a short-rayed fin which belongs to the abdominal\nvertebral column, and, like the adipose fin, may be sometimes absent.\nThe gill-membranes are confluent with the skin of the isthmus. The\nSilurids belonging to this section are either South American or African.\nAmong the former we notice specially the genus _Doras_, which is\ndistinguished by having a series of bony scutes along the middle of the\nside. The narrowness of their gill-openings appears to have developed in\nthem a habit which has excited the attention of all naturalists who have\nvisited the countries bordering upon the Atlantic rivers of tropical\nAmerica, viz. the habit of travelling during seasons of drought from a\npiece of water about to dry up to ponds of greater capacity. These\njourneys are occasionally of such a length that the fish have to travel\nall night; they are so numerous that the Indians fill many baskets of\nthem. J. Hancock supposes that the fish carry a small supply of water\nwith them in their gill-cavity, which they can easily retain by closing\ntheir branchial apertures. The same naturalist adds that they make\nregular nests, in which they cover up their eggs with care and defend\nthem--male and female uniting in this parental duty until the eggs are\nhatched. _Synodontis_ is an African genus and common in the Nile, where\nthe various species are known by the name of \"Shal.\" They frequently\noccur among the representations of animals left by the ancient\nEgyptians. The upper part of their head is protected by strong osseous\nscutes, and both the dorsal and pectoral fins are armed with powerful\nspines. Their mouth is small, surrounded by six barbels, which are more\nor less fringed with a membrane or with branched tentacles.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_-Malopterurus electricus_.]\n\nThe curious fact of some species of _Synodontis_ having the lower parts\ndarker than the upper, some being whitish above and blackish beneath,\nappears to be connected with their habit of swimming in a reversed\nposition, the Belly turned upwards. This habit, known to the ancient\nEgyptians, who have frequently represented them in that attitude, has\nbeen described by E. Geoffrey, who says they nearly constantly swim on\ntheir back, moving quite freely forwards and sidewards; but if alarmed,\nthey revert to the normal position to escape more rapidly.\n\nThe electric cat- or sheath-fishes (_Malopterurus_) have been referred\nto the same section. Externally they are at once recognized by the\nabsence of a rayed dorsal fin, of which only a rudiment remains as a\nsmall interneural spine concealed below the skin. The entire fish is\ncovered with soft, villose skin, an osseous defensive armour having\nbecome unnecessary in consequence of the development of a powerful\nelectric apparatus, the strength of which, however, is exceeded by that\nof the electric eel and the large species of _Torpedo_.\n\nThe electric organ of _Malopterurus_ differs essentially from that of\nother fishes provided with such batteries, being part of the tegumentary\nsystem instead of being derived from the muscles. It consists of\nrhomboidal cells of a fine gelatinous substance immediately under the\nskin. It is put into action by a single ganglionic cell at the anterior\nextremity of the spinal cord. Contrary to what takes place in other\nelectric fishes, the current proceeds from the head to the tail.\n\nThe electric cat-fish, which grows to a length of 3 ft. in the Congo,\nhas a wide distribution in Africa, extending from the Nile to the\nZambezi and from the Senegal to the Congo. It was well known to the\nancient Egyptians, who have depicted it in their mural paintings and\nelsewhere, and an account of its electric properties was given by an\nArab physician of the 12th century; then as now the fish was known under\nthe suggestive name of _Raad_ or _Raash_, which means \"thunder.\"\n\nGunther's _Siluridae Branchicolae_ comprise the smallest and least\ndeveloped members of the family; they are referred to two genera only\nfrom South America, _Stegophilus_ and _Vandellia_, the smallest of which\ndoes not exceed the length of 2 in. Their body is soft, narrow,\ncylindrical and elongate; the dorsal and anal fins short; the vent far\nbehind the middle of the length of the body; gill-membranes confluent\nwith the skin of the isthmus. Each maxillary is provided with a small\nbarbel; and the gill-covers are armed with short stiff spines. Their\nsmall size notwithstanding, these Silurids are well known to the\nBrazilians, who accuse them of entering and ascending the urethra of\npersons while bathing, causing inflammation and sometimes death. Some\ncertainly live parasitically in the gill-cavity of large Silurids, and\nF. Silvestri has observed _Stegophilus insidiosus_ to suck the blood in\nthe gills of _Platystoma coruscans_, a Silurid growing to a length of 6\nft.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Callichthys armatus_, from the upper Amazons.]\n\nThe mailed cat-fish of the South American genus _Callichthys_ builds\nregular nests of grass on leaves, sometimes placed in a hole scooped out\nin the bank, in which they cover their eggs and defend them, male and\nfemale sharing in this parental duty. In the allied _Corydoras_ a\nlengthy courtship takes place, followed by an embrace, during which the\nfemale receives the seminal fluid in a sort of pouch formed by the\nfolded membranes of her ventral fins; immediately after, five or six\neggs are produced and received in the pouch, to be afterwards carefully\nplaced in a secluded spot. This operation is repeated many times, until\nthe total number of eggs, about 250, have been deposited. In accordance\nwith these pairing habits, the pectoral spines of the male, which are\nused in amplexation, are larger and stronger than those of the female.\nThese fish are monogamous, and both parents remain by the side of the\nnest, furiously attacking any assailant.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Loricaria lanceolata_, from the upper Amazons.]\n\nThe allied family _Loricariidae_ is entirely confined to the fresh\nwaters of Central and South America. C.T. Regan, who has recently\npublished an elaborate monograph of them, recognizes 189 species,\nreferred to 17 genera. Many of them are completely mailed; but all have\nin common a short-rayed dorsal fin, with the ventrals below or rarely\nin front of it. Their gill-openings are reduced to a short slit. The\nfirst group of this section comprises alpine forms of the Andes, without\nany armature, and with a very broad and pendent lower lip. They have\nbeen referred to several genera (_Stygogenes, Arges, Brontes,\nAstroblepus_), but are collectively called \"prenadillas\" by th natives,\nwho state that they live in subterranean craters within the bowels of\nthe volcanoes of the Andes, and are ejected with streams of mud and\nwater during eruptions. These fishes may, however, be found in surface\nwaters at all times, and their appearance in great quantities in the low\ncountry during volcanic eruptions can be accounted for by numbers being\nkilled by the sulphuretted gases which escape during an eruption and by\ntheir being swept down with the torrents of water issuing from the\nvolcano. The lowland forms have their body encased in large scutes,\neither rough, scale-like, and arranged in four or five series\n(_Chaetostomus_), or polished, forming broad rings round the slender and\ndepressed tail (_Loricaria_, fig. 5). They are mostly of small size.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Abdomen of _Aspredo batrachus_, with the ova\nattached; at a the ova are removed, to show the spongy structure of the\nskin, and the processes filling the interspaces between the ova.]\n\nIn certain of the mailed genera the secondary sexual differences may be\nvery pronounced, and have given rise to many nominal species. The shape\nof the snout may differ according to the sex, and its margin may be\nbeset with tentacles in the male, whilst it frequently happens that the\nhead of the latter is margined with spines or bristles which are either\nabsent or considerably shorter in the female.\n\nThe _Aspredinidae_, which are also closely related to the _Siluridae_,\nare represented by four genera and eighteen species from South America.\n_Aspredo batrachus_ (fig. 6), of the Guianas, the largest form, reaching\nto about a foot in length, deserves notice from the manner in which the\nfemale carries her eggs attached to the belly and paired fins, in a\nsingle layer, each egg being connected with the skin by a cup-shaped\npedunculate base supplied with blood-vessels and coated with a layer of\nepithelium, the formation of which is still unexplained.     (G. A. B.)\n\n\n\n\nCATGUT, the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity\nprepared from the intestines of sheep, or occasionally from those of the\nhorse, mule and ass. Those of the cat are not employed, and therefore it\nis supposed that the word is properly _kitgut, kit_ meaning \"fiddle,\"\nand that the present form has arisen through confusion with _kit_ = cat.\nThe substance is used for the strings of harps and violins, as well as\nother stringed musical instruments, for hanging the weights of clocks,\nfor bow-strings, and for suturing wounds in surgery. To prepare it the\nintestines are cleaned, freed from fat, and steeped for some time in\nwater, after which their external membrane is scraped off with a blunt\nknife. They are then steeped for some time in an alkaline ley, smoothed\nand equalized by drawing out, subjected to the antiseptic action of the\nfumes of burning sulphur, if necessary dyed, sorted into sizes, and\ntwisted together into cords of various numbers of strands according to\ntheir uses. The best strings for musical instruments are imported from\nItaly (\"Roman strings\"); and it is found that lean and ill-fed animals\nyield the toughest gut.\n\n\n\n\nCATHA, the _khat_ of the Arabs, a shrub widely distributed and much\ncultivated in Arabia and tropical Africa from, Abyssinia to the Cape.\nThe dried leaves are used for the preparation of a kind of tea and also\nas tobacco. The plant is a member of the natural order _Celastraceae_, a\nfamily of shrubs and trees found in temperate and tropical climates and\nrepresented in Britain by the spindle-tree (_Euonymus europaeus_).\n\n\n\n\nCATHARS (CATHARI or CATHARISTS), a widespread heretical sect of the\nmiddle ages. They were the debris of an early Christianity, scattered in\nthe 10th to 14th centuries over East and West, having their analogues in\nthe Mahommedan world as well. In the East they were called Bogomils\n(q.v.) and Paulicians; in the West, Patarenes, Tixerands (i.e. Weavers),\nBulgars, Concorricii, Albanenses, Albigeois, &c.; in both, Cathars and\nManicheans. This article relates to the Western Cathars, as they appear\n(1) in the Cathar Ritual written in Provencal and preserved in a\n13th-century MS. in Lyons, published by Cledat, Paris, 1888; (2) in\nBernard Gui's _Practica inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis_, edited by\nCanon C. Douais, Paris, 1886; and (3) in the _proces verbal_ of the\ninquisitors' reports. Some were downright dualists, and believed that\nthere are two gods or principles, one of good and the other of evil,\nboth eternal; but as a rule they subordinated the evil to the good. All\nwere universalists in so far as they believed in the ultimate salvation\nof all men.[1]\n\nTheir tenets were as follows:--The evil god, Satan, who inspired the\nmalevolent parts of the Old Testament, is god and lord of this world, of\nthe things that are seen and are temporal, and especially of the outward\nman which is decaying, of the earthen vessel, of the body of death, of\nthe flesh which takes us captive under the law of sin and desire. This\nworld is the only true purgatory and hell, being the antithesis of the\nworld eternal, of the inward man renewed day by day, of Christ's peace\nand kingdom which are not of this world. Men are the result of a primal\nwar in heaven, when hosts of angels incited by Satan or Lucifer to\nrevolt were driven out, and were imprisoned in terrestrial bodies\ncreated for them by the adversary. But there are also celestial bodies,\nbodies spiritual and not natural. These the angel souls left behind in\nheaven, and they are buildings from God, houses not made with hands,\ntunics eternal. Imprisoned in the garment of flesh, burdened with its\nsin, souls long to be clothed upon with the habitations they left in\nheaven. So long as they are at home in the body, they are absent from\nthe Lord. They would fain be at home with the Lord, and absent from the\nbody, for which there is no place in heaven since flesh and blood cannot\ninherit the kingdom of God, nor corruption inherit incorruption. There\nis no resurrection of the flesh. The true resurrection is the spiritual\nbaptism bequeathed by Christ to the _boni homines_. How shall man escape\nfrom his prison-house of flesh, and undo the effects of his fall? For\nmere death brings no liberation, unless a man is become a new creation,\na new Adam, as Christ was; unless he has received the gift of the spirit\nand become a vehicle of the Paraclete. If a man dies unreconciled to God\nthrough Christ, he must pass through another cycle of imprisonment in\nflesh; perhaps in a human, but with equal likelihood in an animal's\nbody. For when after death the powers of the air throng around and,\npersecute, the soul flees into the first lodging of clay that it\nfinds.[2] Christ was a life-giving spirit, and the _boni homines_, the\n\"good men,\" as the Cathars called themselves, are his ambassadors. They\nalone have kept the spiritual baptism with fire which Christ instituted,\nand which has no connexion with the water baptism of John; for the\nlatter was an unregenerate soul, who failed to recognize the Christ, a\nJew whose mode of baptism with water belongs to the fleeting outward\nworld and is opposed to the kingdom of God. It would be interesting to\ntrace Bardesanes and the Syriac Hymn of the Soul in all this.\n\nThe Cathars fell into two classes, corresponding to the Baptized and the\nCatechumens of the early church, namely, the Perfect, who had been\n\"consoled,\" i.e. had received the gift of the Paraclete; and the\n_credentes_ or Believers. The Perfect formed the ordained priesthood,\nwere women no less than men, and controlled the church; they received\nfrom the Believers unquestioning obedience, and as vessels of election\nin whom the Holy Spirit already dwelt, they were adored by the faithful,\nwho were taught to prostrate themselves before them whenever they asked\nfor their prayers. For none but the Consoled had received into their\nhearts the spirit of God's Son, which cries \"Abba, Father.\" They alone\nwere become adopted sons, and so able to use the Lord's Prayer, which\nbegins, \"Our Father, which art in heaven.\" The Perfect alone knew God\nand could address him in this prayer, the only one they used in their\nceremonies. The mere _credens_ could at best invoke the living saint,\nand ask him to pray for him.\n\nAll adherents of the sect seem to have kept three Lents in the year, as\nalso to have fasted Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays of each week; in\nthese fasts a diet of bread and water was usual. But a _credens_ under\nprobation for initiation, which lasted at least one and often several\nyears, fasted always. The life of a Perfect was so hard, and, thanks to\nthe inquisitors, so fraught with danger, that most Believers deferred\nthe rite until the death-bed, as in the early centuries many believers\ndeferred baptism. The rule imposed complete chastity. A husband at\ninitiation left his wife, committing her \"to God and the gospel\"; a wife\nher husband. A male Perfect could not lay his hand on a woman without\nincurring penance of a three-days' fast. All begetting of children is\nevil, for Adam's chambering with Eve was the forbidden fruit. It is good\nfor a man not to touch a woman; a man's relations with his own wife are\nmerely a means of fornication, and marriage and concubinage are\nindistinguishable as against the kingdom of God, in which there is no\nmarrying or giving in marriage. Those only have been redeemed from earth\nwho were virgins, undefiled with women. The passages of the New\nTestament which seem to connive at the married relation were interpreted\nby the Cathars as spoken in regard of Christ and the church. The Perfect\nmust also leave his father and mother, and his children, for a man's\nfoes are they of his own household. The family must be sacrificed to\nthe divine kinship. He that loveth father or mother more than Christ is\nnot worthy of him, nor he that loveth more his son or daughter. The\nPerfect takes up his cross and follows after Christ.\n\nNext he must abstain from all flesh diet except fish. He may not even\neat cheese or eggs or milk, for they, like meat, are produced _per viam\ngenerationis seu coitus_. Everything that is sexually begotten is\nimpure. Fish were supposed to be born in the water without sexual\nconnexion, and on the basis of this old physiological fallacy the\nCathars equally with the Catholic framed their rule of fasting. And\nthere was yet another reason why the Perfect should not eat animals, for\na human soul might be doing time in its body. Nor might a Perfect or one\nin course of probation kill anything, for the Mosaic commandment applies\nto all life. He might not lie nor take an oath, for the precept \"Swear\nnot at all\" was, like the rest of the gospel, taken seriously. This was\nthe chief of their \"anarchist doctrines.\"[3]\n\nThe Cathar rites, which remain to us in a manual of the sect, \"recall,\"\nsays the Abbe Guiraud, no too favourable a witness, \"those of the\nprimitive church with a truth and precision the more striking the nearer\nwe go back to the apostolic age.\" The medieval inquisitor saw in them an\naping of the rites of the Catholic church as he knew them; but they were\nreally, says the same authority, \"archaeological vestiges (i.e.\nsurvivals) of the primitive Christian liturgy. In the bosom of medieval\nsociety they were the last witness to a state of things that the regular\ndevelopment of Catholic cult had amplified and modified. They resemble\nthe erratic blocks which lost amid alien soils recall, where we find\nthem, the geological conditions of earlier ages. This being so, it is of\nthe deepest interest to study the Cathar cult, since through its rites\nwe can get a glimpse of those of the primitive church, about which want\nof documents leaves us too often in the dark.\"\n\nThe central Cathar rite was _consolamentum_, or baptism with spirit and\nfire. The spirit received was the Paraclete derived from God and sent by\nChrist, who said, \"The Father is greater than I.\" Of a consubstantial\nTrinity the Cathars naturally had never heard. Infant baptism they\nrejected because it was unscriptural, and because all baptism with water\nwas an appanage of the Jewish demiurge Jehovah, and as such expressly\nrejected by Christ.\n\nThe _consolamentum_ removes original sin, undoes the sad effects of the\nprimal fall, clothes upon us our habitation which is from heaven,\nrestores to us the lost tunic of immortality. A Consoled is an angel\nwalking in the flesh, whom the thin screen of death alone separates from\nChrist and the beatific vision. The rite was appointed by Christ, and\nhas been handed down from generation to generation by the _boni\nhomines_.\n\nThe long probation called \"abstinence\" which led up to it is a survival\nof the primitive catechumenate with its scrutinies. The prostrations of\nthe _credens_ before the Perfect were in their manner and import\nidentical with the prostrations of the catechumen before the exorcist.\nWe find the same custom in the Celtic church of St Columba. Just as at\nthe third scrutiny the early catechumen passed a last examination in the\nGospels, Creed and Lord's Prayer, so after their year of abstinence the\ncredens receives creed and prayer; the allocution with which the elder\n\"handed on\" this prayer is preserved, and of it the Abbe Guiraud remarks\nthat, if it were not in a Cathar ritual, one might believe it to be of\nCatholic origin. It is so Christian in tone, he quaintly remarks\nelsewhere, that an inquisitor might have used it quite as well as a\nheretic. In it the Perfect addresses the postulant, as in the\ncorresponding Armenian rite, by the name of Peter; and explains to him\nfrom Scripture the indwelling of the spirit in the Perfect, and his\nadoption as a son by God. The Lord's Prayer is then repeated by the\npostulant after the elder, who explains it clause by clause; the words\n_panis superstantialis_ being interpreted not of the material but of\nthe spiritual bread, which consists of the Words of Life.\n\nThere followed the Renunciation, primitive enough in form, but the\npostulant solemnly renounced, not Satan and his works and pomp, but the\nharlot church of the persecutors, whose prayers were more deadly than\ndesirable. He renounced the cross which its priests had signed on him\nwith their chrism, their sham baptisms and other magical rites. Next\nfollowed the spiritual baptism itself, consisting of imposition of\nhands, and holding of the Gospel on the postulant's head. The elder\nbegins a fresh allocution by citing Matt. xxviii. 19, Mark xvi. 15, 16,\nJohn iii. 3 (where the Cathars' text must originally have omitted in v.\n5 the words \"of water and,\" since their presence contradicts their\nargument). Acts ix. 17, 18, viii. 14-17, are then cited; also John xx.\n21-23, Matt. xvi. 18, 19, Matt. xviii. 18-20, for the Perfect one\nreceives in this rite power to bind and loose. The Perfect's vocation is\nthen defined: he must not commit adultery nor homicide, nor lie, nor\nswear any oath, nor pick and steal, nor do unto another that which he\nwould not have done unto himself. He shall pardon his wrongdoers, love\nhis enemies, pray for them that calumniate and accuse him, offer the\nother cheek to the smiter, give up his mantle to him that takes his\ntunic, neither judge nor condemn. Asked if he will fulfil each of these,\nthe postulant answers: \"I have this will and determination. Pray God for\nme that he give me his strength.\"\n\nThe next episode of the rite exactly reproduces the Roman _confiteor_ as\nit stood in the 2nd century; \"the postulant says: '_Parcite nobis_. For\nall the sins I have committed, in word or thought or deed, I come for\npardon to God and to the church and to you all.' And the Christians\nshall say: 'By God and by us and by the church may they be pardoned\nthee, and we pray God that he pardon you them.'\"\n\nThere follows the act of \"consoling.\" The elder takes the Gospel off the\nwhite cloth, where it has lain all through the ceremony, and places it\non the postulant's head, and the other good men present place their\nright hands on his head; they shall say the _parcias_ (spare), and\nthrice the \"Let us adore the Father and Son and Holy Spirit,\" and then\npray thus: \"Holy Father, welcome thy servant in thy justice and send\nupon him thy grace and thy holy spirit.\" Then they repeat the \"Let us\nadore,\" the Lord's Prayer, and read the Gospel (John i. 1-17).\n\nThis was the vital part of the whole rite. The _credens_ is now a\nPerfect one. He is girt with the sacred thread round his naked body\nunder the breasts. Where the fear of the persecutor was absent he was\nalso clad in a black gown. The Perfect ones present give him the kiss of\npeace, and the rite is over. This part of the rite answers partly to the\nCatholic confirmation of a baptized person, partly to the ordination of\na pope of Rome or Alexandria. The latter in being ordained had the\nGospel laid on their heads, and the same feature occurs in old Gallican\nand Coptic rites of ordaining a bishop.\n\nThus the Cathar ritual, like that of the Armenian dissenters (see\nPAULICIANS), reflects an age when priestly ordination was not yet\ndifferentiated from confirmation. \"Is it not curious,\" says the Abbe\nGuiraud, \"to remark that the essential rite of the _consolamentum_ is in\neffect nothing but the most ancient form of Christian ordination?\"\n\nThe Cathar Eucharist was equally primitive, and is thus described by a\ncontemporary writer in a 13th-century MS. of the Milan Library:--\"The\nBenediction of bread is thus performed by the Cathars. They all, men and\nwomen, go up to a table, and standing up say the 'Our Father.'[4] And he\nwho is prior among them, at the close of the Lord's Prayer, shall take\nhold of the bread and say: 'Thanks be to the God of our Jesus Christ.\nMay the Spirit be with us all.' And after that he breaks and distributes\nto all. And such bread is called bread blessed, although no one believes\nthat out of it is made the body of Christ. The Albanenses, however,\ndeny that it can be blessed or sanctified, because it is corporeal\"\n(i.e. material).\n\nAs Tertullian relates of his contemporaries in the 2nd century, so the\nCathars would reserve part of their bread of blessing and keep it for\nyears, eating of it occasionally though only after saying the\n_Benedicite_. The Perfect kept it wrapped up in a bag of pure white\ncloth, tied round the neck,[5] and sent it long distances to regions\nwhich through persecution they could not enter. On the death-bed it\ncould even, like the Catholic _Viaticum_, take the place of the rite of\n_Consolamentum_, if this could not be performed. Once a month this\nsolemn rite of breaking bread was held, the _credentes_ assisting. The\nservice was called _apparellamentum_, because a table was covered with a\nwhite cloth and the Gospel laid on it. The Perfect were adored, and the\nkiss of peace was passed round.\n\nThe influence of Catharism on the Catholic church was enormous. To\ncounteract it celibacy was finally imposed on the clergy, and the great\nmendicant orders evolved; while the constant polemic of the Cathar\nteachers against the cruelty, rapacity and irascibility of the Jewish\ntribal god led the church to prohibit the circulation of the Old\nTestament among laymen. The sacrament of \"extreme unction\" was also\nevolved by way of competing with the death-bed _consolamentum_.\n\n  AUTHORITIES--J.J.I. Dollinger, _Beitrage zur Sektengeschichte_\n  (Munchen, 1890); Jean Guiraud, _Questions d'histoire_ (Paris, 1906);\n  F.C. Conybeare, _The Key of Truth_ (Oxford, 1898); Henry C. Lea,\n  _History of the Inquisition_ (New York, 1888); C. Douais,\n  _L'Inquisition_ (Paris, 1906), and his _Les Heretiques du midi au\n  XIIIe siecle_ (Paris, 1891); _Les Albigeois_ (Paris, 1879); also\n  _Practica Inquisitionis_ (of Bernard Gui or Guidon), (Paris, 1886); L.\n  Cledat, _Le Nouveau Testament, traduit au XIIIe siecle en langue\n  provencale, suivi d'un rituel cathare_ (Paris, 1887); E. Cunitz in\n  _Beitrage zu den theol. Wissensch._ (1852), vol. iv.; P. van Limborch,\n  _Liber Sententiarum Inquis. Tholos. 1307-1323_ (Amsterdam, 1692);\n  Hahn, _Gesch. der Ketzer im M.A._ (Stuttgart, 1845); Ch. Schmidt,\n  _Histoire et doctrine de la secte des Cathares_ (Paris, 1849); A.\n  Lombard, _Pauliciens bulgares et Bons-Hommes_ (Geneva, 1879);\n  Fredericq, _Corpus documentorum haer, pravitatis Neerlandicae_ (Gent,\n  1889-1896); Felix Tocco, \"Nuovi documenti\" in _Archiv. di studi ital._\n  (1901), and his _L'Eresia nel media evo_ (Florence, 1881); P. Flade,\n  _Das romische Inquisitions-verfahren in Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1902);\n  Ch. Molinier, \"Rapport sur une mission en Italie,\" in _Archives\n  scientifiques de Paris_, tom. 14 (1888); C.H. Haskins, \"Robert le\n  Bougre,\" in _American Hist. Rev._ (1902).     (F. C. C.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] A certain Peter (_Doc. Doat._, 22, p. 98) declared that could he\n    but get hold of the false and perfidious God of the Catholics who\n    created a thousand men in order to save a single one and damn all the\n    rest, he would break him to pieces and tear him asunder with his\n    nails and spit in his face.\n\n  [2] Here we have a doctrine of metempsychosis which seems of Indian\n    origin (see ASCETICISM). But Julius Caesar (_de B.G._ vi. 13) attests\n    this belief among the ancient Druids of Gaul.\n\n  [3] The Abbe Guiraud remarks that in refusing to take oaths the\n    Cathars \"contraried the social principles on which the constitutions\n    of all states repose,\" and congratulates himself that society is not\n    yet so thoroughly \"laicized\" as to have given up oaths in the most\n    important acts of social life.\n\n  [4] Cf. S. Gregorii _Ep._ ix. 12 (26): \"Mos apostolorum fuit ut ad\n    ipsam solummodo orationem oblationis hostiam consecrarent.\" (\"The\n    custom of the apostles was to use no other prayer but the Lord's in\n    consecrating the host of the offering.\")\n\n  [5] Cf. Duchesne, _Origines_, ed. 1898, p. 177.\n\n\n\n\nCATHAY, the name by which China (q.v.) was known to medieval Europe and\nis still occasionally referred to in poetry, as in Tennyson's \"Better\nfifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay.\" It is derived from\nKhitai, or Khitat, the name which was properly that of the kingdom\nestablished by the Khitan conquerors in the northern provinces of China\nabout A.D. 907, which after the fall of this dynasty in 1125 remained\nattached to their former territory, and was subsequently applied by the\nnations of Central Asia to the whole of China. Thus \"Kitai\" is still the\nRussian name for China. The name penetrated to Europe in the 13th\ncentury with the fame of the conquests of Jenghiz Khan. After the\ndiscovery of southern China by European navigators Cathay was\nerroneously believed to be a country to the north of China, and it was\nthe desire to reach it that sent the English adventurers of the 16th\ncentury in search of the north-east passage.\n\n\n\n\nCATHCART, SIR GEORGE (1794-1854), English soldier, third son of the 1st\nEarl Cathcart, was born in London on the 12th of May 1794. He was\neducated at Eton and Edinburgh University. In 1810 he entered the army,\nand two years later accompanied his father to Russia as aide-de-camp.\nWith him he joined the Russian headquarters in March 1813; and he was\npresent at all the great battles of that year in Germany, and of the\nfollowing year in France, and also at the taking of Paris. The fruits of\nhis careful observation and critical study of these operations appeared\nin the _Commentaries_ on the war in Russia and Germany 1812-1813, a\nplain soldier-like history, which he published in 1850. After the peace\nof 1814 he accompanied his father to the congress of Vienna. He was\npresent at Quatre Bras and at Waterloo, as an aide-de-camp to the duke\nof Wellington, and remained on the staff till the army of occupation\nquitted France. Reappointed almost immediately, he accompanied the duke\nto the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle and Verona, and in 1826 to Prussia.\nPromoted lieutenant-colonel in 1826, he was placed on half-pay in 1834.\nHe was recalled to active service in 1838, and sent as commander of the\nKing's Dragoon Guards to Canada, where he played an important part in\nsuppressing the rebellion and pacifying the country. In 1844 he returned\nto England, and two years later was appointed deputy-lieutenant of the\nTower, a post which he held up to the time of his promotion to\nmajor-general in 1851. In March 1852 he succeeded Sir Harry Smith as\ngovernor and commander-in-chief at the Cape, and brought the Kaffir war,\nthen in progress, to a successful conclusion. He promulgated the first\nconstitution of Cape Colony, and conducted operations against the\nBasuto. Cathcart was made a K.C.B. and received the thanks of both\nHouses for his services (1853). In December 1853 he was made\nadjutant-general of the army, but never entered upon his duties, being\nsent out to the Crimean War as soon as he arrived in England. He was\neven given a dormant commission entitling him to the chief command in\ncase of accident to Lord Raglan, and the highest hopes were fixed on him\nas a scientific and experienced soldier. But these hopes were not to be\nfulfilled; for he fell at the battle of Inkerman (November 5, 1854). His\nremains, with those of other officers, were buried on Cathcart's Hill.\nSir George Cathcart married in 1824 Lady Georgiana Greville, who\nsurvived him, and by whom he had a family.\n\n  See _Colburn's United Service Magazine_, January 1855; _Correspondence\n  of the Hon. Sir George Cathcart relative to Kaffraria_ (1856); A.W.\n  Kinglake's _Invasion of the Crimea_, vol. v.\n\n\n\n\nCATHCART, WILLIAM SCHAW CATHCART, 1ST EARL (1755-1843), English soldier\nand diplomatist, was born at Petersham on the 17th of September 1755,\nand educated at Eton. In 1771 he went to St Petersburg, where his\nfather, Charles, 9th Baron Cathcart (1721-1776), a general in the army,\nwas ambassador. From 1773 to 1777 he studied law, but after succeeding\nto the barony in 1776 he obtained a commission in the cavalry.\nProceeding to America in 1777, he had before the close of his first\ncampaign twice won promotion on the field of battle. In 1778 he further\ndistinguished himself in outpost work, and at the battle of Monmouth he\ncommanded an irregular corps, the \"British Legion,\" with conspicuous\nsuccess; for a time also he acted as quartermaster-general to the forces\nin America. He returned home in 1780, and in February 1781 was made\ncaptain and lieutenant-colonel in the Coldstream Guards. He was elected\na representative peer for Scotland in 1788, and in 1792 he became\ncolonel of the 29th foot. He served with distinction in the campaigns in\nthe Low Countries, 1793-1795, in the course of which he was promoted\nmajor-general; and in 1801 he was made a lieutenant-general, having in\nthe meanwhile received the appointments of vice-admiral of Scotland\n(1795), privy councillor (1798), and colonel of the 2nd Life Guards\n(1797). From 1803 to 1805 Lord Cathcart was commander-in-chief in\nIreland, and in the latter year he was sent by Pitt in command of the\nBritish expedition to Hanover (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). After the\nrecall of this expedition Cathcart commanded the forces in Scotland\nuntil 1807, when he was placed in charge of the expedition to\nCopenhagen, which surrendered to him on the 6th of September. Four weeks\nlater he was created Viscount Cathcart of Cathcart and Baron Greenock of\nGreenock in the peerage of the United Kingdom, resuming the Scottish\ncommand on his return from the front. On the 1st of January 1812 he was\npromoted to the full rank of general, and a few months later he\nproceeded to Russia as ambassador and military commissioner. In the\nlatter capacity he served with the headquarters of the allies throughout\nthe War of Liberation (1812-1814); his success in the delicate and\ndifficult task of maintaining harmony and devotion to the common cause\namongst the generals of many nationalities was recognized after the war\nby his elevation to the earldom (July 1814). He then went to St\nPetersburg, and continued to hold the post of ambassador until 1820,\nwhen he returned to England. He died at his estate near Glasgow on the\n16th of June 1843.\n\nHis son, CHARLES MURRAY CATHCART, 2nd earl (1783-1859), succeeded to the\ntitle in 1843. He entered the 2nd Life Guards in 1800, and saw active\nservice under Sir James Craig in the Mediterranean, 1805-1806. In 1807 he\nbecame by courtesy Lord Greenock. He took part in the Walcheren expedition\nof 1809 as a major, and as a lieutenant-colonel served at Barossa,\nSalamanca and Vittoria. He had already gained staff experience, and he now\nserved under Graham in Holland, 1814, as quartermaster-general. He was\npresent at Waterloo, and for his services received the C.B. and several\nforeign orders. During the peace he became deeply interested in scientific\npursuits, and a new mineral discovered by him in 1841 was named\nGreenockite. His later military services included the chief command in\nCanada during a period of grave unrest (1846-1849). He retired from active\nservice in 1850, becoming a full general just before his death. The title\npassed to his son and grandson as 3rd and 4th earls.\n\n\n\n\nCATHCART, a parish situated partly in Renfrewshire and partly in\nLanarkshire, Scotland. The Renfrewshire portion has the larger area\n(2387 acres), but the smaller population (7375), the area of the\nLanarkshire portion being 745 acres and the population (1901) 20,983.\nThe industries include paper-making, dyeing and sandstone quarrying, but\nlimestone and coal have also been worked. The parish includes the town\nof Cathcart (pop. 4808), and the villages of Old and New Cathcart, but\nmuch of it, though outside the city boundaries, is practically\ncontinuous with some of the southern suburbs of Glasgow, with which\nthere is communication by electric tram and the Caledonian railway's\ncircular line. The White Cart flows through the parish. In the 12th\ncentury Cathcart became a barony of the Cathcarts, who derived the title\nof their lordship (1460) and earldom (1814) from it. On the Queen's\nKnowe, a hillock near the ruins of Cathcart Castle, a memorial marks the\nspot where Queen Mary watched the progress of the battle of Langside\n(1568), the site of which lies within the parish.\n\n\n\n\nCATHEDRAL, more correctly \"cathedral church\" (_ecclesia cathedralis_),\nthe church which contains the official \"seat\" or throne of a\nbishop--_cathedra_, one of the Latin names for this, giving us the\nadjective \"cathedral.\" The adjective has gradually, for briefness of\nspeech, assumed the character of a substantive, but though an instance\nof this (strictly incorrect) use of the word as a substantive has been\nfound as far back as 1587, it became common only at the end of the 18th,\nor first half of the 19th, century. One of the earliest instances of the\nterm _ecclesia cathedralis_ is said to occur in the acts of the council\nof Tarragona in 516. Another name for a cathedral church is _ecclesia\nmater_, indicating that it is the mother church. As being the one\nimportant church, it was also known as _ecclesia major_. This is the\nformal expression used by Archbishop Walter Gray of York (1216-1255),\nand it is preserved in modern times by the name of \"_La Majeure_,\" by\nwhich the old cathedral church of Marseilles is popularly known. Again,\nas the chief house of God, the cathedral church was the _Domus Dei_, and\nfrom this name the German _Domkirche_, or _Dom_, is derived, as also the\nSwedish _Domkyrka_, and the Italian _Duomo_.\n\n_History and Organization._--It was early decreed that the _cathedra_ of\na bishop was not to be placed in the church of a village, but only in\nthat of a city. There was no difficulty as to this on the continent of\nEurope, where towns were numerous, and where the cities were the natural\ncentres from which Christianity was diffused among the people who\ninhabited the surrounding districts. In the British islands, however,\nthe case was different; towns were few, and owing to other causes,\ninstead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas or districts,\nmany of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the bishops of\nthe south Saxons, the west Saxons, the Somersaetas and others. The\n_cathedra_ of such a bishop was often migratory, and was at times placed\nin one church, and then another, and sometimes in the church of a\nvillage. In 1075 a council was held in London, under the presidency of\nArchbishop Lanfranc, which, reciting the decrees of the council of\nSardica held in 347 and that of Laodicea held in 360 on this matter,\nordered the bishop of the south Saxons to remove his see from Selsey to\nChichester; the Wilts and Dorset bishop to remove his _cathedra_ from\nSherborne to Old Sarum, and the Mercian bishop, whose _cathedra_ was\nthen at Lichfield, to transfer it to Chester. Traces of the tribal and\nmigratory system may still be noted in the designations of the Irish see\nof Meath (where the result has been that there is now no cathedral\nchurch) and Ossory, the cathedral church of which is at Kilkenny. Some\nof the Scottish sees were also migratory.\n\nBy the canon law the bishop is regarded as the pastor of the cathedral\nchurch, the _parochia_ of which is his diocese. In view of this,\ncanonists speak of the cathedral church as the one church of the\ndiocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their relation to it.\n\nOccasionally two churches jointly share the distinction of containing\nthe bishop's _cathedra_. In such case they are said to be con-cathedral\nin relation to each other. Instances of this occurred in England before\nthe Reformation in the dioceses of Bath and Wells, and of Coventry and\nLichfield. Hence the double titles of those dioceses. In Ireland an\nexample occurs at Dublin, where Christ Church and St Patrick's are\njointly the cathedral churches of that diocese. In France the bishop of\nCouserans (a see suppressed at the Revolution) had two con-cathedral\nchurches at St Lizier, and the bishop of Sisteron (a see also\nsuppressed) had a second throne in the church of Forcalquier which is\nstill called \"La Con-cathedrale.\" Other instances might be named. In the\ncase of York the collegiate churches of Beverley, Ripon and Southwell\nwere almost in the same position, but although the archbishop had a\nstall in each he had no diocesan _cathedra_ in them, and the chapters\nwere not united with that of the metropolitical church in the direct\ngovernment of the diocese, or the election of the archbishop, nor had\nthey those other rights which were held to denote the cathedral\ncharacter of a church.\n\nCathedral churches are reckoned as of different degrees of dignity: (1)\nthe simple cathedral church of a diocesan bishop, (2) the metropolitical\nchurch to which the other diocesan cathedral churches of a province are\nsuffragan, (3) the primatial church under which are ranged\nmetropolitical churches and their provinces, (4) patriarchal churches to\nwhich primatial, metropolitical, and simple cathedral churches alike owe\nallegiance. The title of \"primate\" was occasionally conferred on\nmetropolitans of sees of great dignity or importance, such as\nCanterbury, York, Rouen, &c., whose cathedral churches remained simply\nmetropolitical. Lyons, where the cathedral church is still known as \"La\nPrimatiale,\" and Lund in Sweden, may be cited as instances of churches\nwhich were really primatial. Lyons had the archbishops of Sens and Paris\nand their provincial dioceses subject to it till the Revolution, and\nLund had the archbishop of Upsala and his province subject to it. As\nwith the title of primate, so also that of \"patriarch\" has been\nconferred on sees such as Venice and Lisbon, the cathedral churches of\nwhich are patriarchal in name alone. The cathedral church of St John\nLateran, the cathedral church of the pope as bishop of Rome and\npatriarch of the West, alone in western Europe possesses potentially a\npatriarchal character. Its formal designation is \"_Patriarchalis\nBasilica, Sacrosancta Romana Cathedralis Ecclesia Lateranensis_.\"\n\nThe removal of a bishop's _cathedra_ from a church deprives that church\nof its cathedral dignity, although often the name clings in common\nspeech, as for example at Antwerp, which was deprived of its bishop at\nthe French Revolution.\n\nThe history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is\nobscure, and as in each case local considerations affected its\ndevelopment, all that can be attempted is to give a general outline of\nthe main features which were more or less common to all. Originally the\nbishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which,\nin no true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a\n_monasterium_. The word had not the restricted meaning which it\nafterwards acquired. Hence the apparent anomaly that churches like York\nand Lincoln, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited\nthe name of minster or monastery. In these early communities the clergy\noften lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently\nmarried. In the 8th century, however, Chrodegang, bishop of Metz\n(743-766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral\nchurches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of\nthe continent, gained little acceptance in England. According to\nChrodegang's rule the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof,\noccupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special\nofficer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the\nBenedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells\nfrom 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England, and imposed its\nobservance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not\nfollowed for long there, or elsewhere in England.\n\nDuring the two centuries, roughly bounded by the years 900 and 1100, the\ncathedral clergy became more definitely organized, and were also divided\ninto two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some\nrecognized order of monks, very often that of the Benedictines, while\nthe other class was that of a college of clergy, living in the world,\nand bound by no vows, except those of their ordination, but governed by\na code of statutes or canons. Hence the name of \"canon\" given to them.\nIn this way arose the distinction between the monastic and secular\ncathedral churches. In England the monastic cathedral churches were\nBath, Canterbury, Carlisle, Coventry, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester,\nWinchester and Worcester, all of them Benedictine except Carlisle, which\nwas a church of Augustinians. The secular churches were Chichester,\nExeter, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, St Paul's (London), Salisbury,\nWells, York, and the four Welsh cathedral churches. In Ireland all were\nsecular except Christ Church, Dublin (Augustinian), and Down\n(Benedictine), and none, even in their earliest days, were ever, it is\nbelieved, churches of recognized orders of monks, except the two named.\nIn Scotland St Andrew's was Augustinian, Elgin (or Moray), Glasgow and\nAberdeen were always secular, and ordered on the models of Lincoln and\nSalisbury. Brechin had a community of Culdees till 1372, when a secular\nchapter was constituted. The cathedral church of Galloway, at Whithorn,\nof English foundation, was a church of Praemonstratensians. In Germany,\nas in England, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. In Denmark\nall seem to have been Benedictine at first, except Borglum, which was\nPraemonstratensian till the Reformation. The others were changed to\nchurches of secular canons. In Sweden, Upsala was originally\nBenedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that\neach of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a chapter of at\nleast fifteen secular canons. In France monastic chapters were very\ncommon, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches there had been\nchanged to churches of secular canons before the 17th century. One of\nthe latest to be so changed was that of Seez, in Normandy, which was\nAugustinian till 1547, when Pope Paul III. dispensed the members from\ntheir vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The\nchapter of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later,\nbut the majority were secularized about the time of the Reformation.\n\nIn the case of monastic cathedral churches there were no dignitaries,\nthe internal government was that of the order to which the chapter\nbelonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. The reverse of\nthis was the case with the secular chapters; the dignities of provost,\ndean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, &c., soon came into being, for\nthe regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the\nnon-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence,\nbecame the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of\n\"vicars,\" who officiated for them at the services of the church.\n\nAbroad, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the\nprovost (_praepositus, Probst_, &c.), who was charged, not only with the\ninternal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the\nchapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or\nseneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often\nmainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and\necclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost\nwas too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent\nfrom his spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution\nof a new officer called the \"dean,\" who had charge of that portion of\nthe provost's duties which related to the internal discipline of the\nchapter and the services of the church. In some cases the office of\nprovost was abolished, but in others it was continued, the provost, who\nwas also occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter.\nThis arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England the\nprovost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of\nthe chapter of Wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the\nother dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain of\nthe prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley\nwas the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at\nBeverley he was an external officer with no authority in the government\nof the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. The provost\nof Eton, introduced by Henry VI., occupied a position most nearly\napproaching that of a foreign cathedral provost. In Germany and in\nScandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of\nFrance, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but\nthe office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of one hundred\nand thirty-six cathedral churches existing at the Revolution,\nthirty-eight only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the\nextreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the\nprovost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at\nAutun, and Lyons and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate\nofficers.\n\nThe normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church\ncomprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the\ncanons. The dean (_decanus_) seems to have derived his designation from\nthe Benedictine dean who had ten monks under his charge. The dean, as\nalready noted, came into existence to supply the place of the provost in\nthe internal management of the church and chapter. In England the dean\nwas the head of all the secular cathedral churches, and was originally\nelected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. He is\npresident of the chapter, and in church has charge of the due\nperformance of the services, taking specified portions of them by\nstatute on the principal festivals. He sits in the chief stall in the\nchoir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the\nchoir at the west. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor\n(_primicerius, cantor_, &c.), whose special duty is that of regulating\nthe musical portion of the services. He presides in the dean's absence,\nand occupies the corresponding stall on the left side, although there\nare exceptions to this rule, where, as at St Paul's, the archdeacon of\nthe cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the\nprecentor's stall. The third dignitary is the chancellor (_scholasticus,\necolatre, capiscol, magistral_, &c.), who must not be confounded with\nthe chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is\ncharged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity\nlectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly\nreaders. He is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the\nabsence of the dean and precentor he is president of the chapter. The\neasternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir, is usually assigned\nto him. The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (_custos, sacrista,\ncheficier_). He is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and\nornaments of the church, and his duty was to provide bread and wine for\nthe eucharist, and candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as\nthe ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of\nthe chancellor. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls\nin the choir, are called in many of the statutes the \"_quatuor majores\npersonae_\" of the church. In many cathedral churches there were\nadditional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor,\nsuccentor-canonicorum, and others, who came into existence to supply the\nplaces of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal\nblot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly\nwith the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous\nresidence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each\nof whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides\nreceiving his share of the common funds of the church. For the most part\nthe canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the\ndistinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, till in most\nchurches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in\nnumber, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the\ncommon funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by\ntheir non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and\nretained their votes in chapter like the others. This system of\nnon-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon\nhaving his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the\ncanon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form.\nThe vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable\nexcept for offences, were the servants of their absent canons whose\nstalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Abroad they were\noften called demi-prebendaries, and they formed the _bas choeur_ of the\nFrench churches. As time went on the vicars were themselves often\nincorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the\nsupervision of the dean and chapter.\n\nThere was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and\nthose of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese.\nIn both cases the chapter was the bishop's _consilium_ which he was\nbound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could\nnot act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation\nof the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the\nservice books, or \"use\" of the church or diocese, without capitular\nconsent, and there are many episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a\ndiocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by\nthe chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council\nin ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, not in England\nonly, but on the continent also. In its corporate capacity the chapter\ntakes charge _sede vacante_ of a diocese. In England, however (except as\nregards Salisbury and Durham), this custom has never obtained, the two\narchbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant\ndioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the\nsees of Canterbury or York is vacant, the chapters of those churches\ntake charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and\nincidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which\nmay be vacant at the same time.\n\nAll the English monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by Henry\nVIII., and, except Bath and Coventry, were refounded by him as churches\nof secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and a certain number of\ncanons ranging from twelve at Canterbury and Durham to four at Carlisle,\nand with certain subordinate officers as minor canons, gospellers,\nepistolers, &c. The precentorship in these churches of the \"New\nFoundation,\" as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of\nthe \"Old Foundation,\" a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of\nthe minor canons.\n\nEnglish cathedral churches, at the present day, may be classed under\nfour heads: (1) the old secular cathedral churches of the \"Old\nFoundation,\" enumerated in the earlier part of this article; (2) the\nchurches of the \"New Foundation\" of Henry VIII., which are the monastic\nchurches already specified, with the exception of Bath and Coventry; (3)\nthe cathedral churches of bishoprics founded by Henry VIII., viz.\nBristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford and Peterborough (the constitution\nof the chapters of which corresponds to those of the New Foundation);\n(4) modern cathedral churches of sees founded since 1836, viz. (a)\nManchester, Ripon and Southwell, formerly collegiate churches of secular\ncanons; (b) St Albans and Southwark, originally monastic churches; (c)\nTruro, Newcastle and Wakefield, formerly parish churches, (d) Birmingham\nand Liverpool, originally district churches. The ruined cathedral church\nof the diocese of Sodor (i.e. the Southern Isles) and Man, at Peel in\nthe latter island, appears never to have had a chapter of clergy\nattached to it.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--Frances, _De ecclesiis cathredralibus_ (Venice, 1698);\n  Bordenave, _L'Estat des eglises cathedrales_ (Paris, 1643); Van Espen,\n  _Supplement III._, cap. 5; Hericourt, _Les Loix ecclesiastiques de\n  France_ (Paris, 1756); _La France ecclesiastique_ (Paris, 1790);\n  Daugaard, _Om de Danske Klostre i Middelalderen_ (Copenhagen, 1830);\n  Hinschius, _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken u. Protestanten in\n  Deutschland_, ii. (Berlin, 1878); Walcott, _Cathedralia_ (London,\n  1865); Freeman, _Cathedral Church of Wells_ (London, 1870); Benson,\n  _The Cathedral_ (London, 1878); Bradshaw and Wordsworth, _Lincoln\n  Cathedral Statutes_ (Camb., 1894).     (T. M. F.)\n\n_Architecture._--From the architectural point of view there is no\nspecial treatment as regards dimensions or style for a cathedral other\nthan that required for a church or abbey, as there are cases when the\nformer are comparatively small buildings (like the old cathedral at\nAthens), and some parish churches and abbeys are larger than many\ncathedrals. In recent times, indeed, some English abbeys or minsters,\nsuch as those of Ripon, Manchester, St Albans and Southwell, partly on\naccount of their dimensions, have been raised to the rank of cathedrals,\nin consequence of the demand for additional sees; others, such as those\nof Bristol, Gloucester, Oxford, Chester and Peterborough, became\ncathedrals only on the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII.\n\nUnder the headings NAVE, AISLE, CHOIR, APSE, CHEVET, and LADY-CHAPEL,\nthe principal arrangements of the plan of a cathedral are dealt with,\nand its architectural features, such as TOWER and SPIRE, PORCH,\nTRIFORIUM, CLERESTORY and VAULT, are separately defined; while in the\narticle ARCHITECTURE the evolution of the various styles in England,\nFrance, Germany, Italy and Spain, is set forth. It is only necessary\nhere to deal with the development of the eastern end of English and\nforeign cathedrals, as it was in those that the greatest changes from\nthe middle of the 11th century to the close of the 16th century took\nplace.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Canterbury Cathedral.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Salisbury Cathedral.]\n\nThe earliest extended development of the eastern end of the cathedral is\nthat which was first set out in Edward the Confessor's church at\nWestminster, probably borrowed from the ancient church of St Martin at\nTours; in this church, dating probably from the 10th century, two new\nelements are found, (1) the carrying of the choir aisle round a circular\napse so as to provide a processional aisle round the eastern end of the\nchurch, and (2) five apsidal chapels, constituting the germ of the\nchevet, which transformed the eastern terminations of the French\ncathedrals in the 12th and 13th centuries. It is only within recent\ntimes that the foundations of the early church at Tours with its choir\naisle and chapels have been traced under the existing church. In Edward\nthe Confessor's church (1050) there were probably only three chapels and\na processional aisle; in the next example at Gloucester (1089) were also\nthree chapels, two of which, on the north and south sides of the aisle,\nstill remain; the same is found in Canterbury (1096-1107) and Norwich\n(1089-1119), the eastern chapel in all three cases having been taken\ndown to make way for the Lady-chapel in Gloucester and Norwich, and for\nthe Trinity chapel in Canterbury cathedral (fig. 1). The semicircular\naisle is said to have existed in the Anglo-Norman cathedral of\nWinchester, but the eastern end being square, two chapels were arranged\nfilling the north and south ends, and an apsidal chapel projecting\nbeyond the east wall. This semicircular processional aisle with chevet\nchapels was the favourite type of plan in the Anglo-Norman cathedrals,\nand was followed up to about the middle of the 12th century, when the\nEnglish builders in some cases returned to the square east end instead\nof the semicircular apsidal termination. The earliest example of this\nexists in Romsey Abbey (c. 1130), where the processional path crosses\nbehind the presbytery, there being eastern apsidal chapels in the axis\nof the presbytery aisle and a central rectangular chapel beyond. A\nsimilar arrangement is found in Hereford cathedral, and exists in\nWinchester, Salisbury (fig. 2), Durham, St Albans, Exeter, Ely, Wells\nand Peterborough, except that in all those cases (except Wells) the\neastern chapels are square ended; in Wells cathedral the most eastern\nchapel (the Lady-chapel) has a polygonal termination; in Durham (fig.\n3), the eastern chapels are all in one line, constituting the chapel of\nthe nine altars, which was probably borrowed from the eastern end of\nFountains Abbey. It should be noted that in some of the above the\noriginal design has been transformed in rebuilding; thus in St Albans,\nDurham, York and Exeter cathedrals, there was no eastern ambulatory but\nthree parallel apses, in some cases rectangular externally. In\nSouthwell, Rochester, Ely and Chester, there was no processional path or\nambulatory round the east end; in Carlisle no eastern chapels; and in\nOxford only one central apse. In Ely cathedral (fig. 4) the great\ncentral tower built by the first Norman abbot (1082-1094) fell down in\n1321, carrying with it portions of the adjoining bays of the nave,\ntransept and choir; instead of attempting to rebuild the tower, Alan of\nWalsingham conceived the idea of obtaining a much larger area in the\ncentre of the cathedral, and instead of rebuilding the piers of the\ntower he took as the base of his design a central octagonal space, the\nwidth of which was equal to that of nave and aisles, with wide arches to\nnave, transepts and choir, and smaller arches across the octagonal\nsides; from shafts in the eight pier angles, ribs in wood project\nforward and carry a smaller octagon on which the lantern rests.\nInternally the effect of this central octagon is of great beauty and\noriginality, and it is the only instance of such a feature in English\nGothic architecture. (See ARCHITECTURE, Plate VIII., fig. 82.)\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plan of Durham Cathedral.]\n\nThe earliest example of the chevet is probably to be found in the church\nof St Martin at Tours; this was followed by others at Tournus,\nClermont-Ferrand, Auxerre, Chartres, Le Mans and other churches built\nduring the great church-building period of the 11th century. In the\nstill greater movement in the 12th century, when the episcopacy,\nsupported by the emancipated communes, undertook the erection of\ncathedrals of greater dimensions and the reconstruction of others, in\nsome cases they utilized the old foundations, as in Chartres (fig. 5),\nCoutances and Auxerre cathedrals, while in others (as at Le Mans) they\nextended the eastern termination, much in the same way as in many of the\nearly examples in England, with this important difference, that when the\napsidal east end was given up (about the middle of the 12th century) in\nfavour of the square east end in England, the French, on the other hand,\ndeveloped it by doubling the choir aisles and adding to the number of\nextra chapels; thus in Canterbury, Norwich and Gloucester, there were\nonly three apsidal chapels in the chevet, whereas in Noyon (1150),\nSoissons (1190), Reims (1212), Tours, Seez, Bayeux (1230), Clermont\n(1275), Senlis, Limoges, Albi and Narbonne cathedrals there were five;\nin Amiens, Le Mans and Beauvais, there were seven apsidal chapels, and\nin Chartres cathedral nine. Double aisles round the choir, of which\nthere are no examples in England, are found in the cathedrals of Paris,\nBourges and Le Mans; the cathedral of Sens (fig. 6) (1144-1168)\npossesses one feature which is almost unique, viz. the coupled columns\nof the alternate bays of nave and choir and of the apse; and these were\nintroduced into the chapel of the Trinity in Canterbury cathedral,\nprobably from the designs of William of Sens, by his successor William\nthe Englishman. The square east end found no favour in France--Laon,\nPoiters and Dol being the only cathedral examples; and of the triapsal\narrangement, viz. with apses in the axes of the choir aisle and a\ncentral apse, the only example is that of the cathedral of Autun. The\nimmense development given to the eastern limb of the French cathedrals\nwas sometimes obtained at the expense of the nave, so that,\nnotwithstanding the much greater dimensions compared with English\nexamples, in the latter the naves are much longer and consist of more\nbays than those in France.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of Ely Cathedral.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Chartres Cathedral.]\n\nIn one of the French cathedrals, Bourges, there is no transept; on the\nother hand there are many examples in which this part of the church is\nemphasized by having aisles on each side, as at Laon, Soissons,\nChartres, Reims, Amiens, Rouen and Clermont cathedrals. Transept aisles\nin England are found in Ely, York, Wells and Winchester cathedrals, in\nthe last being carried round the south and north ends of the transept;\naisles on the east side of the transept only, in some cases probably for\nadditional altars, exist in Durham, Salisbury, Lichfield, Peterborough\nand Ripon cathedrals; and on the north side only in Hereford cathedral.\nIn Rouen cathedral, east of the transept aisles, there are apsidal\nchapels, which with the three chapels in the chevet make up the usual\nnumber. The cathedral of Poitiers has been referred to as an example of\na square east end, but a sort of compromise has been made by the\nprovision of three segmental apses, and there are no windows in the east\nfront; the most remarkable divergence from the usual design is found\nhere in the absence of any triforium or clerestory, owing to the fact\nthat the vault of the aisles is nearly as high as that of the nave, so\nthat it constitutes an example of what in Germany (where there are many)\nare called _Hallen Kirchen_; the light being obtained through the aisle\nwindows only gives a gloomy effect to the nave. Another departure from\nthe usual plan is that found in Albi cathedral (1350), in which there\nare no aisles, their place being taken by chapels between the buttresses\nwhich were required to resist the thrust of the nave vault, the widest\nin France. The cathedral is built in brick and externally has the\nappearance of a fortress. In the cathedrals of the south-west of France,\nwhere the naves are covered with a series of domes--as at Cahors,\nAngouleme and St Front de Perigueux--the immense piers required to carry\nthem made it necessary to dispense with aisles. The cathedral of\nAngouleme (fig. 7) consists of a nave covered with three domes, a\ntransept of great length with lofty towers over the north and south\nends, and an apsidal choir with four chevet chapels. In St Front de\nPerigueux (1150), based on St Mark's at Venice, the plan consists of\nnave, transept and choir, all of equal dimensions, each of them, as well\nas the crossing, vaulted over with a dome, while originally there was a\nsimple apsidal choir.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plan of Sens Cathedral.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Plan of Angouleme Cathedral.]\n\nReturning now to the great cathedrals in the north of France, we give an\nillustration (fig. 8) of Amiens cathedral (from Viollet le Duc's\n_Dictionnaire raisonne_) which shows the disposition of a cathedral,\nwith its nave-arches, triforium, clerestory windows and vault, the\nflying buttresses which were required to carry the thrust of the vault\nto the outer buttresses which flanked the aisle walls, and the lofty\npinnacles which surmounted them. In this case there was no triforium\ngallery, owing to the greater height given to the aisles. In Notre Dame\nat Paris the triforium was nearly as high as the aisles; in large towns\nthis feature gave increased accommodation for the congregation,\nespecially on the occasion of great fetes, and it is found in Noyon,\nLaon, Senlis and Soissons cathedrals, built in the latter part of the\n12th century; later it was omitted, and a narrow passage in the\nthickness of the wall only represented the triforium; at a still later\nperiod the aisles were covered with a stone pavement of slight fall so\nas to allow of loftier clerestory windows.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Perspective of Amiens Cathedral.]\n\nThe cathedrals in Spain follow on the same lines as those in France. The\ncathedral of Santiago de Compostela is virtually a copy of St Sernin at\nToulouse, consisting of nave and aisles, transepts and aisles, and a\nchoir with chevet of five chapels; at Leon there is a chevet with five\napsidal chapels, and at Toledo an east end with double aisles round the\napse with originally seven small apsidal chapels, two of them rebuilt at\na very late period. At Leon, Barcelona and Toledo the processional\npassage round the apse with apsidal chapels recalls the French\ndisposition, there being a double aisle around the latter, but in Leon\nand Toledo cathedrals the east end is masked externally by other\nbuildings, so that the beauty of the chevet is entirely lost. At Avila\nand Salamanca (old cathedral) the triapsal arrangement is adopted, and\nthe same is found in the German cathedrals, with one important\nexception, the cathedral of Cologne, which was based on that of Amiens,\nthe comparative height of the former, however, being so exaggerated that\nscale has been lost, and externally it has the appearance of an\novergrown monster.\n\n  Under the headings VAULT, FLYING BUTTRESS, PINNACLE, CLERESTORY and\n  TRIFORIUM, definitions are given of these chief components of a\n  cathedral or church; but as their design varies materially in almost\n  every example, without a very large number of drawings it would be\n  impossible to treat them more in detail. The perspective view, taken\n  from Viollet le Duc's dictionary, of the interior of the nave of\n  Amiens cathedral illustrates the principal features, viz. the vault\n  (in this case quadripartite, with flying buttresses and pinnacle), the\n  triforium (in this case limited to a narrow passage in the thickness\n  of the wall), and the nave-arches, with the side aisles, beneath the\n  windows of which is the decorative arcade. (R. P. S.)\n\n\n\n\nCATHELINEAU, JACQUES (1759-1793), French Vendean chieftain during the\nRevolution, was born at Tin-en-Manges, in the country now forming the\ndepartment of Maine-et-Loire. He became well known in the country of\nAnjou, over which he travelled as a pedlar and dealer in contraband\ngoods. His physical strength and his great piety gave him considerable\nascendancy over the peasants, who surnamed him \"the saint of Anjou.\" In\nthe first years of the Revolution, Cathelineau listened to the\nexhortations of Catholic priests and royalist _emigres_, and joined the\ninsurrection provoked by them against the revolutionary government.\nCollecting a band of peasants and smugglers, he took the chateau of\nGallais, where he captured a cannon, christened by the Vendeans the\n\"Missionary\"; he then took the towns of Chemille, Cholet, Vihiers and\nChalonnes (March 1793). His companions committed atrocities which\nbrought upon them terrible reprisals on the part of the Republicans.\nMeanwhile Cathelineau's troops increased, and he combined with the other\nVendean chiefs, such as N. Stofflet and Gigot d'Elbee, taking the towns\nof Beaupreau, Fontenay and Saumur. The first successes of the Vendeans\nwere due to the fact that the Republicans had not expected an\ninsurrection. When the resistance to the insurgents became more serious,\ndifferences arose among their leaders. To avoid these rivalries, it is\nthought that Cathelineau was named generalissimo of the rebels, though\nhis authority over the undisciplined troops was not increased by the new\noffice. In 1793 all the Royalist forces tried to capture Nantes.\nCathelineau entered the town in spite of the resistance of General\nJ.B.C. Canclaux, but he was killed, and the Vendean army broke up.\nNumerous relatives of Cathelineau also perished in the war of La Vendee.\nHis grandson, Henri de Cathelineau, figured in the war of 1870 between\nFrance and Germany (see also VENDEE; CHOUANS).\n\n  See C. Port, _Vie de J. Cathelineau_ (1882); \"La Legende de\n  Cathelineau\" in the review _La Revolution francaise_, vol. xxiv.; _Les\n  Origines de la Vendee_ (Paris, 1888, 2 vols.); _Dictionnaire\n  historique de Maine-et-Loire_; Cretineau-Joly, _Histoire de la Vendee\n  militaire_, Th. Muret, _Vie populaire de Cathelineau_ (1845).\n       (R. A.*)\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE, SAINT. The Roman hagiology contains the record of six saints\nof this name. 1. ST CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA, Virgin and Martyr, whose\nday of commemoration recurs on the 25th of November, and in some places\non the 5th of March. 2. ST CATHERINE OF SWEDEN, a daughter of St\nBridget, who died abbess of Watzen in March 1381, and is commemorated on\nthe 22nd of that month. 3. ST CATHERINE OF SIENA, 1347-1380, whose\nfestal day is observed on the 30th of April. 4. ST CATHERINE OF BOLOGNA,\n1413-1463, a visionary, abbess of the convent of the Poor Clares in\nBologna, canonized by Pope Benedict XIII., and commemorated throughout\nthe Franciscan order on the 9th of March. 5. ST CATHERINE OF GENOA,[1]\nwho belonged to the noble family of Fieschi, was born about 1447, spent\nher life and her means in succouring and attending on the sick,\nespecially in the time of the plague which ravaged Genoa in 1497 and\n1501, died in that city in 1510, was beatified by Clement V. in 1675 and\ncanonized by Clement XII. in 1737; her name was placed in the calendar\non the 22nd of July by Benedict XIV. 6. ST CATHERINE DE' RICCI, of\nFlorence, daughter of a wealthy merchant prince, was born in 1522,\nbecame a nun in the convent of the Dominicans at Prato in 1536, and died\nin 1589. She was famous during her life-time for the weekly ecstasy of\nthe Passion, during which in a trance she experienced the sufferings of\nthe Holy Virgin contemplating the Passion of her Son. She was canonized\nin 1746 by Benedict XIV., who fixed her festal day on the 13th of\nFebruary. In Celtic and English martyrologies (November 25) there is\nalso commemorated St Catherine Audley (_c._ 1400), a recluse of Ledbury,\nHereford, who was reputed for piety and clairvoyance.\n\n\n  St Catherine, virgin and martyr.\n\nOf two of these saints, St Catherine of Alexandria, _the_ St Catherine\n_par excellence_, and St Catherine of Siena, something more must be\nsaid. Of the former history has little or nothing to tell. The Maronite\nscholar, Joseph Simon Assemani (1687-1768), first identified her with\nthe royal and wealthy lady of Alexandria (Eusebius, _Hist. Eccl._ viii.\n14) who, for refusing the solicitations of the emperor Maximinus, was\ndeprived of her property and banished. But Rufinus (_Hist. Eccl._ viii.\n17) called this lady Dorothea, and the old Catherine legend, as recorded\nin the Roman martyrology and by Simeon Metaphrastes, has quite other\nfeatures. According to it Catherine was the daughter of King Konetos,\neighteen years old, beautiful and wise. During the persecution under\nMaximinus she sought an interview with the emperor, upbraided him for\nhis cruelties, and adjured him to give up the worship of false gods. The\nangry tyrant, unable to refute her arguments himself, sent for pagan\nscholars to argue with her, but they were discomfited. Catherine was\nthen scourged and cast into prison, and the empress was sent to reason\nwith her; but the dauntless virgin converted not only the empress but\nthe Roman general and his soldiers who had accompanied her. Maximinus\nnow ordered her to be broken on the wheel; but the wheel was shattered\nby her touch. The headsman's axe proved more fatal, and the martyr's\nbody was borne by angels to Mount Sinai, where Justinian I. built the\nfamous monastery in her honour. Another development of the legend is\nthat in which, having rejected many offers of marriage, she was taken to\nheaven in vision and betrothed to Christ by the Virgin Mary.\n\nOf all these marvellous incidents very little, by the universal\nadmission of Catholic scholars, has survived the test of modern\ncriticism. That St Catherine actually existed there is, indeed, no\nevidence to disprove; and it is possible that some of the elements in\nher legend are due to confusion with the story of Hypatia (q.v.), the\nneo-platonic philosopher of Alexandria, who was done to death by a\nChristian mob. To the men of the middle ages, in any case, St Catherine\nwas very real; she was ranked with the fourteen most helpful saints in\nheaven, and was the constant theme of preachers and of poets. Her\nfestival was celebrated in many places with the utmost splendour, and in\ncertain dioceses in France was a holy day of obligation as late as the\nbeginning of the 17th century. Numberless chapels were dedicated to her,\nand in nearly all churches her statue was set up, the saint being\nrepresented with a wheel, her instrument of torture, and sometimes with\na crown and a book. The wheel being her symbol she was the patron saint\nof wheelwrights and mechanics; as the confounder of heathen sophistry\nshe was invoked by theologians, apologists, preachers and philosophers,\nand was chosen as the patron saint of the university of Paris; as the\nmost holy and illustrious of Christian virgins she became the tutelary\nsaint of nuns and virgins generally. So late as the 16th century,\nBossuet delivered a panegyric upon her, and it was the action of Dom\nDeforis, the Benedictine editor of his works, in criticizing the\naccuracy of the data on which this was based, that first discredited the\nlegend. The saint's feast was removed from the Breviary at Paris about\nthis time, and the devotion to St Catherine has since lost its earlier\npopularity. See Leon Clugnet's article in the _Catholic Encyclopaedia_,\nvol. iii. (London, 1908).\n\n\n  St Catherine of Siena.\n\nSt Catherine of Siena was the youngest of the twenty-five children of\nGiacomo di Benincasa, a dyer, and was born, with a twin-sister who did\nnot survive her birth, on the 25th of March 1347. A highly sensitive and\nimaginative child, she very early began to practise asceticism and see\nvisions, and at the age of seven solemnly dedicated her virginity to\nChrist. She was attracted by what she had heard of the desert\nanchorites, and in 1363-1364, after much struggle, persuaded her parents\nto allow her to take the habit of the Dominican tertiaries. For a while\nshe led at home the life of a recluse, speaking only to her confessor,\nand spending all her time in devotion and spiritual ecstasy. Her innate\nhumanity and sound sense, however, led her gradually to return to her\nplace in the family circle, and she began also to seek out and help the\npoor and the sick. In 1368 her father died, and she assumed the care of\nher mother Lapa. During the following years she became known to an\nincreasingly wide circle, especially as a peacemaker, and entered into\ncorrespondence with many friends. Her peculiarities excited suspicion,\nand charges seem to have been brought against her by some of the\nDominicans to answer which she went to Florence in 1374, soon returning\nto Siena to tend the plague-stricken. Here first she met the Dominican\nfriar, Raimondo of Capua, her confessor and biographer.\n\nThe year 1375 found Catherine entering on a wider stage. At the\ninvitation of Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of the republic of Pisa, she\nvisited that city and there endeavoured to arouse enthusiasm for the\nproposed crusade, urging princes and presidents, commanders and private\ncitizens alike to join in \"the holy passage.\" To this task was added\nthat of trying to keep Pisa and Lucca from joining the Tuscan League\nagainst the pope. It was at Pisa, in the church of Santa Cristina, on\nthe fourth Sunday in Lent (April 1), while rapt in ecstasy after the\ncommunion, that Catherine's greatest traditional glory befell her, viz.\nthe _stigmata_ or impression on her hands, feet and heart, of the wounds\ncorresponding with those received by Christ at his crucifixion. The\nmarks, however, were at her prayer not made visible. There is no need to\ndoubt the reality of Catherine's exaltation, but it should be remembered\nthat she and her circle were Dominicans, and that the stigmata of St\nFrancis of Assisi were considered the crowning glory of the saint, and\nhitherto the exclusive boast of the Franciscans. The tendency observable\nin many of the austerities and miracles attributed to St Catherine to\noutstrip those of other saints, particularly Francis, is especially\nremarkable in this marvel of the stigmata, and so acute became the\nrivalry between the two orders that Pope Sixtus IV., himself a\nFranciscan, issued a decree asserting that St Francis had an exclusive\nmonopoly of this particular wonder, and making it a censurable offence\nto represent St Catherine receiving the stigmata.\n\nIn the year 1376, the 29th of Catherine's life, Gregory XI. was living\nand holding the papal court at Avignon. He was the last of seven French\npopes in succession who had done so, and had perpetuated for\nseventy-three years what ecclesiastical writers are fond of terming \"the\nBabylonian captivity of the church.\" To put an end to this absenteeism,\nand to bring back the papacy to Italy was the cherished and anxious wish\nof all good Italians, and especially of all Italian churchmen. Petrarch\nhad urgently pressed Urban V., Gregory's immediate predecessor, to\naccomplish the desired change; and Dante had at an earlier date laboured\nto bring about the same object. But these and all the other influences\nwhich Italy had striven to bring to bear on the popes had hitherto\nfailed to induce them to return. In these circumstances Catherine\ndetermined to try her powers of persuasion and argument, attempting\nfirst by correspondence to reconcile Gregory and the Florentines, who\nhad been placed under an interdict, and then going in person as the\nrepresentative of the latter to Avignon, where she arrived on the 18th\nof June. Gregory empowered her to treat for peace, but the Florentine\nambassadors were first tardy and then faithless. Nothing daunted,\nCatherine herself besought Gregory, who, indeed, was himself so minded,\nto return, and he did so, in September (taking the sea route from\nMarseilles to Genoa), though perhaps intending only to make a temporary\nstay in Italy. Catherine went home by land and stayed for a month in\nGenoa with Madonna Orietta Scotti, a noble lady of that city, at whose\nhouse Gregory had a long colloquy with her, which encouraged him to push\non to Rome. To this year, 1376, belongs the admission to Catherine's\ncircle of disciples of Stefano di Corrado Maconi, a Sienese noble\ndistinguished by a character full of charm and purity, and her healing\nof the bitter feud between his family and the Tolomei. Another family\nquarrel, that of the Salimbeni at Rocca D'Orcia, was ended by her\nintervention in 1377. This year also she turned the castle of Belcaro,\nwhich had been given to her, into a monastery.\n\nMeanwhile the returned pope was not having an easy time. Besides\nperpetuating the strife with his enemies he was alienating his friends,\nand finding it increasingly difficult to pay his mercenaries. He vented\nhis anger upon Catherine, who reproved him for minding temporal rather\nthan spiritual things, but in the beginning of 1378 sent her on an\nembassy to Florence and especially to the Guelph party. While she was\nurging the citizens to make peace with the pope there came the news of\nhis death. During the troubles that ensued in Florence Catherine nearly\nlost her life in a popular tumult, and sorely regretted not winning her\nheart's desire, \"the red rose of martyrdom.\" Peace was signed with the\nnew pope, Urban VI., and Catherine, having thus accomplished her second\ngreat political task, went home again to Siena. Thence on the outbreak\nof the schism Urban summoned her to Rome, whither, somewhat reluctantly,\nshe journeyed with her now large spiritual family in November. Once\narrived she gave herself heartily to Urban's cause, and wore her slender\npowers out in restraining his impatient temper, quieting the revolt of\nthe people of Rome, and trying to win for Urban the support of Europe.\nAfter prolonged and continual suffering she died on the 29th of April\n1380.\n\n  Catherine of Siena lived on not only in her writings but in her\n  disciples. During her short course she gathered round her a devoted\n  company of men and women trained to labour for the reformation of the\n  individual, the church and the state. Her death naturally broke up the\n  fellowship, but its members did not cease their activity and kept up\n  what mutual correspondence was possible. Among them were Fra Raimondo,\n  who became master-general of the Dominicans, William Flete, an\n  ascetically-minded Englishman from Cambridge, Stefano Maconi, who\n  joined the Carthusians and ultimately became prior-general, and the\n  two secretaries, Neri di Landoccio and Francesco Malavolti. The last\n  of her band, Tommaso Caffarini, died in 1434, but the work was taken\n  up, though in other shape, by Savonarola, between Francis of Assisi\n  and whom Catherine forms the connecting link.\n\n  Catherine's works consist of (l) a treatise occupying a\n  closely-printed quarto volume, which Fra Raimondo describes as \"a\n  dialogue between a soul, which asked four questions of the Lord, and\n  the same Lord, who made answer and gave instruction in many most\n  useful truths,\" (2) letters, and (3) prayers. The dialogue is\n  entitled, _The Book of Divine Doctrine, given in person by God the\n  Father, speaking to the mind of the most glorious and holy virgin\n  Catherine of Siena, and written down as she dictated it in the vulgar\n  tongue, she being the while entranced, and actually hearing what God\n  spoke in her_. The work is declared to have been dictated by the saint\n  in her father's house in Siena, a little before she went to Rome, and\n  to have been completed on the 13th of October 1378. The book opens\n  with a passage on the essence of mysticism, the union of the soul with\n  God in love, and the bulk of it is a compendium of the spiritual\n  teachings scattered throughout her letters. There is more monologue\n  than dialogue. The book has a significant place in the history of\n  Italian literature. \"In a language which is singularly poor in\n  mystical works it stands with the _Divina Commedia_ as one of the two\n  supreme attempts to express the eternal in the symbolism of a day, to\n  paint the union of the soul with the supra-sensible while still\n  imprisoned in the flesh.\" The prayers (twenty-six in all) are mostly\n  mystical outpourings repeating the aspirations found in her other\n  writings. Of more interest are the letters, nearly four hundred in\n  number, and addressed to kings, popes, cardinals, bishops, conventual\n  bodies, political corporations and private individuals. Their\n  historical importance, their spiritual fragrance and their literary\n  value combine to put their author almost on a level with Petrarch as a\n  14th century letter-writer. Her language is the purest Tuscan of the\n  golden age of the Italian vernacular, and with spontaneous eloquence\n  she passes to and fro between spiritual counsel, domestic advice and\n  political guidance.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--The sources for the personal life of Catherine of Siena\n  are (l) the _Vita_ or _Legenda_, Fra Raimondo's biography written\n  1384-1395, first published in Latin at Cologne, 1553, and widely\n  translated; (2) the _Processus_, a collection of testimonies and\n  letters by those of her followers who survived in 1411, and had to\n  justify the reverence paid to the memory of one yet uncanonized; (3)\n  the _Supplementum_ to Raimondo's _Vita_, compiled by Tommaso Caffarini\n  in 1414; (4) the _Legenda abbreviata_, Caffarini's summary of the\n  _Vita_, translated into beautiful Italian by Stefano Maconi; (5) the\n  _Letters_, of which the standard edition is that of Girolamo Gigli (2\n  vols., Siena, 1713, Lucca, 1721). A selection of these has been\n  published in English by V.D. Scudder (London, 1905). A complete\n  bibliography is given in E.G. Gardner's _Saint Catherine of Siena_\n  (London, 1907), a monumental study dealing with the religion, history\n  and literature of the 14th century in Italy as they centre \"in the\n  work and personality of one of the most wonderful women that have ever\n  lived.\"\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] See the study in Baron Fr. von Hugel's _Mystical Element in\n    Religion_ (1909).\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE I. (1683-1727), empress of Russia. The true character and\norigin of this enigmatical woman were, until quite recently, among the\nmost obscure problems of Russian history. It now appears that she came\nof a Lithuanian stock, and was one of the four children of a small\nCatholic yeoman, Samuel Skovronsky; but her father died of the plague\nwhile she was still a babe, the family scattered, and little Martha was\nadopted by Pastor Gluck, the Protestant superintendent of the Marienburg\ndistrict. Frau Gluck finally rid herself of the girl by marrying her to\na Swedish dragoon called Johan. A few months later, the Swedes were\ncompelled by the Russians to evacuate Marienburg, and Martha became one\nof the prisoners of war of Marshal Sheremetev, who sold her to Prince\nMenshikov, at whose house, in the German suburb of Moscow, Peter the\nGreat first beheld and made love to her in his own peculiar fashion.\nAfter the birth of their first daughter Catherine, Peter made no secret\nof their relations. He had found, at last, the woman he wanted, and she\nsoon became so indispensable to him that it was a torment to be without\nher. The situation was regulated by the reception of Martha into the\nOrthodox Church, when she was rechristened under the name of Catherine\nAlekseyevna, the tsarevich Alexius being her godfather, by the bestowal\nupon her of the title _Gosudaruinya_ or sovereign (1710), and, finally\n(1711), by her public marriage to the tsar, who divorced the tsaritsa\nEudoxia to make room for her. Henceforth the new tsaritsa was her\nhusband's inseparable companion. She was with him during the campaign of\nthe Pruth, and Peter always attributed the successful issue of that\ndisastrous war to the courage and sang-froid of his consort. She was\nwith him, too, during his earlier Caspian campaigns, and was obliged on\nthis occasion to shear off her beautiful hair and wear a close-fitting\nfur cap to protect her from the rays of the sun.\n\nBy the _ukaz_ of 1722 Catherine was proclaimed Peter's successor, to the\nexclusion of the grand-duke Peter, the only son of the tsarevich\nAlexius, and on the 7th of May 1724 was solemnly crowned empress-consort\nin the Uspensky cathedral at Moscow, on which occasion she wore a crown\nstudded with no fewer than 2564 precious stones, surmounted by a ruby,\nas large as a pigeon's egg, supporting a cross of brilliants. Within a\nfew months of this culminating triumph, she was threatened with utter\nruin by the discovery of a supposed _liaison_ with her gentleman of the\nbedchamber, William Mons, a handsome and unscrupulous upstart, and the\nbrother of a former mistress of Peter. A dangerously familiar but\nperfectly innocent flirtation is, however, the worst that can fairly be\nalleged against Catherine on this occasion. So Peter also seemed to have\nthought, for though Mons was decapitated and his severed head, preserved\nin spirits, was placed in the apartments of the empress, she did not\nlose Peter's favour, attended him during his last illness, and closed\nhis eyes when he expired (January 28, 1725). She was at once raised to\nthe throne by the party of progress, as represented by Prince Menshikov\nand Count Tolstoy, whose interests and perils were identical with those\nof the empress, before the reactionary party had time to organize\nopposition, her great popularity with the army powerfully contributing\nto her success. The arch-prelates of the Russian church, Theodosius,\narchbishop of Novgorod, and Theophanes, archbishop of Pskov, were also\non her side for very much the same reason, both of them being unpopular\ninnovators who felt that, at this crisis, they must stand or fall with\nTolstoy and Menshikov.\n\nThe great administrative innovation of Catherine's reign was the\nestablishment of the _Verkhovny Tainy Sovyet_, or supreme privy council,\nby way of strengthening the executive, by concentrating affairs in the\nhands of a few persons, mainly of the party of Reform (_Ukazoi_ February\n26, 1726). As to the foreign policy of Catherine I. (principally\ndirected by the astute Andrei Osterman), if purely pacific and extremely\ncautious, it was, nevertheless, dignified, consistent and independent.\nRussia, by the mere force of circumstances, now found herself opposed to\nEngland, chiefly because Catherine protected Charles Frederick, duke of\nHolstein, and George I. found that the Schleswig-Holstein question might\nbe reopened to the detriment of his Hanoverian possessions. Things came\nto such a pass that, in the spring of 1726, an English squadron was sent\nto the Baltic and cast anchor before Reval. The empress vigorously\nprotested, and the fleet was withdrawn, but on the 6th of August\nCatherine acceded to the anti-English Austro-Spanish league. Catherine\ndied on the 16th of May 1727. Though quite illiterate, she was an\nuncommonly shrewd and sensible woman, and her imperturbable good nature\nunder exceptionally difficult circumstances, testifies equally to the\nsoundness of her head and the goodness of her heart.\n\n  See Robert Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_, chs. ii.-iii.\n  (London, 1897); _The First Romanovs_, ch. xiv. (London, 1905).\n       (R. N. B.)\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE II. (1729-1796), empress of Russia, was the daughter of\nChristian Augustus, prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and his wife, Johanna\nElizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. The exact date and place of her birth\nhave been disputed, but there appears to be no reason to doubt that she\nwas right in saying that she was born at Stettin on the 2nd of May 1729.\nHer father, who succeeded to the principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1746\nand died in 1747, was a general in the Prussian service, and, at the\ntime of her birth, was military commandant at Stettin. Her baptismal\nname was Sophia Augusta Frederica. In accordance with the custom then\nprevailing in German princely families, she was educated chiefly by\nFrench governesses and tutors. In 1744 she was taken to Russia, to be\naffianced to the grand-duke Peter, the nephew of the empress Elizabeth\n(q.v.), and her recognized heir. The princess of Anhalt-Zerbst was the\ndaughter of Christian Albert, bishop of Lubeck, younger brother of\nFrederick IV., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter's paternal grandfather.\nThe choice of her daughter as wife of the future tsar was the result of\nnot a little diplomatic management in which Frederick the Great took an\nactive part, the object being to strengthen the friendship between\nPrussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of Austria and to ruin the\nchancellor Bestuzhev, on whom Elizabeth relied, and who was a known\npartisan of the Austrian alliance. The diplomatic intrigue failed,\nlargely through the flighty intervention of the princess of\nAnhalt-Zerbst, a clever but very injudicious woman. But Elizabeth took a\nstrong liking to the daughter, and the marriage was finally decided on.\nThe girl had spared no effort to ingratiate herself, not only with the\nempress, but with the grand-duke and the Russian people. She applied\nherself to learning the language with such zeal that she rose at night\nand walked about her bedroom barefoot repeating her lessons. The result\nwas a severe attack of congestion of the lungs in March 1744. During the\nworst period of her illness she completed her conquest of the good-will\nof the Russians by declining the religious services of a Protestant\npastor, and sending for Simon Todorskiy, the orthodox priest who had\nbeen appointed to instruct her in the Greek form of Christianity. When\nshe wrote her memoirs she represented herself as having made up her mind\nwhen she came to Russia to do whatever had to be done, and to profess to\nbelieve whatever she was required to believe, in order to be qualified\nto wear the crown. The consistency of her character throughout life\nmakes it highly probable that even at the age of fifteen she was mature\nenough to adopt this worldly-wise line of conduct. Her father, who was a\nconvinced Lutheran, was strongly opposed to his daughter's conversion,\nand supplied her with books of controversy to protect her Protestantism.\nShe read them, and she listened to Todorskiy, and to other advisers who\ntold her that the Russian crown was well worth a mass, or that the\ndifferences between the Greek and Lutheran churches were mere matters of\nform. On the 28th of June 1744 she was received into the Orthodox Church\nat Moscow, and was renamed Catherine Alexeyevna. On the following day\nshe was formally betrothed, and was married to the archduke on the 21st\nof August 1745 at St Petersburg.\n\nAt that time Catherine was essentially what she was to remain till her\ndeath fifty-one years later. It was her boast that she was as \"frank and\noriginal as any Englishman.\" If she meant that she had a compact\ncharacter, she was right. She had decided on her line in life and she\nfollowed it whole-heartedly. It was her determination to become a\nRussian in order that she might the better rule in Russia, and she\nsucceeded. She acquired a full command of all the resources of the\nlanguage, and a no less complete understanding of the nature of the\nRussian people. It is true that she remained quite impervious to\nreligious influences. The circumstances of her conversion may have\nhelped to render her indifferent to religion, but their influence need\nnot be exaggerated. Her irreligion was shared by multitudes of\ncontemporaries who had never been called upon to renounce one form of\nChristianity and profess belief in another in order to gain a crown. Her\nmere actions were, like those of other and humbler people, dictated by\nthe conditions in which she lived. The first and the most important of\nthem was beyond all question the misery of her married life. Her husband\nwas a wretched creature. Nature had made him mean, the smallpox had made\nhim hideous, and his degraded habits made him loathsome. And Peter had\nall the sentiments of the worst kind of small German prince of the time.\nHe had the conviction that his princeship entitled him to disregard\ndecency and the feelings of others. He planned brutal practical jokes,\nin which blows had always a share. His most manly taste did not rise\nabove the kind of military interest which has been defined as\n\"corporal's mania,\" the passion for uniforms, pipeclay, buttons, the\n\"tricks of parade and the froth of discipline.\" He detested the\nRussians, and surrounded himself with Holsteiners. For ten years the\nmarriage was barren, and the only reason for supposing that the future\ntsar Paul (q.v.), who was born on the 2nd of October 1754, was the son\nof Peter, is the strong similarity of their characters. Living in the\ngrossly animal court of the empress Elizabeth, bound to a husband whom\nshe could not but despise and detest, surrounded by suitors, and\nentirely uninfluenced by religion, Catherine became and remained\nperfectly immoral in her sexual relations to men. The scandalous\nchronicle of her life was the commonplace of all Europe. Her male\nfavourites were as openly paraded as the female favourites of King Louis\nXV. It may be said once and for all that her most trusted agents while\nshe was still grand-duchess, and her chief ministers when she became\nempress, were also her lovers, and were known to be so.\n\nFor some time after the marriage, the young couple were controlled by\nthe empress Elizabeth, who appointed court officials to keep a watch on\ntheir conduct; but before long these custodians themselves had become\nthe agents of Catherine's pleasures and ambition. After the birth of\nPaul she began to take an active part in political intrigues. Her\nabilities forced even her husband to rely on her judgment. When in\ndifficulty he ran to her and flattered her with the name of Madame La\nRessource--Madame Quick Wit--which did not prevent him from insulting\nand even kicking her when the immediate need of her help was over. In\n1758 he endeavoured to turn the empress Elizabeth against her, and for a\ntime Catherine was in danger. She faced the peril boldly, and\nreconquered her influence over the sovereign, but from this time she\nmust have realized that when the empress was dead she would have to\ndefend herself against her husband. That Peter both hated and dreaded\nher was notorious. The empress Elizabeth died on the 5th of January\n1762. The grand duke succeeded without opposition as Peter III. His\nbehaviour to his wife continued to be brutal and menacing, and he went\non as before offending the national sentiment of the Russian people. In\nJuly he committed the insane error of retiring with his Holsteiners to\nOranienbaum, leaving his wife at St Petersburg. On the 13th and 14th of\nthat month a \"pronunciamiento\" of the regiments of the guard removed him\nfrom the throne and made Catherine empress. The history of this revolt\nis still obscure. It has naturally been said that she organized the\nmutiny from the first, and some plausibility is conferred on this belief\nby the fact that the guards were manipulated by the four Orlov brothers.\nThe eldest, Gregory, was her recognized chief lover, and he was\nassociated with his brother Alexis in the office of favourite. On the\nother hand, there does not appear to have been any need for\norganization. The hatred felt for Peter III. was spontaneous, and\nCatherine had no need to do more than let it be known that she was\nprepared to profit by her husband's downfall. Peter, who behaved with\nabject cowardice, was sent to a country house at Ropcha, where he died\non the 15th or 18th of July of official \"apoplexy.\" The truth is not\nknown, and Frederick the Great at least professed long afterwards to\nbelieve that Catherine had no immediate share in the murder. She had no\nneed to speak. Common-sense must have shown the leaders of the revolt\nthat they would never be safe while Peter lived, and they had insults to\navenge.\n\nThe mere fact that Catherine II., a small German princess without\nhereditary claim to the throne, ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796 amid the\nloyalty of the great mass of the people, and the respect and admiration\nof her neighbours, is sufficient proof of the force of her character.\nHer title to be considered a great reforming ruler is by no means\nequally clear. Voltaire and the encyclopaedists with whom she\ncorresponded, and on whom she conferred gifts and pensions, repaid her\nby the grossest flattery, while doing their best to profit by her\ngenerosity. They made her a reputation for \"philosophy,\" and showed the\nsincerity of their own love of freedom by finding excuses for the\npartition of Poland. There is a very great difference between Catherine\nII. as she appears in the panegyrics of the encyclopaedists and\nCatherine as she appears in her correspondence and in her acts. Her\nforeign admirers amused her, and were useful in spreading her\nreputation. The money they cost her was a small sum in comparison to the\nL12,000,000 she lavished on her long series of lovers, who began with\nSoltykov and Stanislaus Poniatowski (q.v.) before she came to the\nthrone, and ended with the youthful Platon Zubov, who was tenant of the\npost at her death. She spent money freely on purchasing works of art and\ncurios. Yet she confessed with her usual candour that she had no taste\nfor painting, sculpture or music. Her supposed love of literature does\nnot appear to have amounted to more than a lively curiosity, which could\nbe satisfied by dipping into a great number of books. She had a passion\nfor writing, and produced not only a mass of letters written in French,\nbut pamphlets and plays, comic and serious, in French and Russian. One\non the history of Oleg, the more or less legendary Varangian, who was\nguardian to the son of Rurik, was described by her as an \"imitation of\nShakespeare.\" The scheme is not unlike that of a \"chronicle play.\" Her\nletters are full of vivacity, of colour, and at times of insight and\nwit, but she never learnt to write either French or German correctly.\nThe letters to Voltaire attributed to her are not hers, and were\nprobably composed for her by Andrei Shuvalov. The philosophers and\nencyclopaedists who, by the mouth of Diderot, complimented Catherine on\nbeing superior to such female affectations as modesty and chastity,\nflattered her to some extent even here. She enforced outward decency in\nher household, was herself temperate in eating and drinking, and was by\nno means tolerant of disorderly behaviour on the part of the ladies of\nher court. They flattered her much more when they dwelt on her\nphilanthropy and her large share of the enlightenment of the age. She\nwas kind to her servants, and was very fond of young children. She was\nrarely angry with people who merely contradicted her or failed to\nperform their service in her household. But she could order the use of\nthe knout and of mutilation as freely as the most barbarous of her\npredecessors when she thought the authority of the state was at stake,\nand she did employ them readily to suppress all opinions of a heterodox\nkind, whether in matters of religion or of politics, after the beginning\nof the French Revolution. Her renowned toleration stopped short of\nallowing the dissenters to build chapels, and her passion for\nlegislative reform grew cold when she found that she must begin by the\nemancipation of the serfs. There were exceptions even to her personal\nkindness to those about her. She dropped her German relations. She kept\na son born to her shortly before the palace revolution of 1762, whose\npaternity could not be attributed to Peter, at a distance, though she\nprovided for him. He was brought up in a private station under the name\nof Bobrinski. She was a harsh mother to her son Paul. It seems highly\nprobable that she intended to exclude him from the succession, and to\nleave the crown to her eldest grandson Alexander, afterwards the emperor\nAlexander I. Her harshness to Paul was probably as much due to political\ndistrust as to what she saw of his character. Whatever else Catherine\nmay have been she was emphatically a sovereign and a politician who was\nin the last resort guided by the reason of state. She was resolved not\nto allow her authority to be disputed by her son, or shared by him.\n\nAs a ruler, Catherine professed a great contempt for system, which she\nsaid she had been taught to despise by her master Voltaire. She declared\nthat in politics a capable ruler must be guided by \"circumstances,\nconjectures and conjunctions.\" Her conduct was on the surface very\nunstable. In a moment of candour she confessed that she was a great\n_commenceuse_--that she had a mania for beginning innumerable\nenterprises which she never pursued. This, however, is chiefly true of\nher internal administration, and even there it should be qualified. Many\nof her beginnings were carried on by others and were not barren. Her\nforeign policy was as consistent as it could be considering the forces\nshe had to contend against. It was steadily aimed to secure the\ngreatness and the safety of Russia. There can be no question, that she\nloved her adopted country sincerely, and had an affection for her\npeople, and an opinion of their great qualities which she did not\nhesitate to express in hyperbolical terms. Her zeal for the reputation\nof the Russians was almost comically shown by the immense trouble she\ntook to compile an answer to the _Voyage en Siberie_ of the French\nastronomer Chappe d'Auteroche. The book is in three big quartos, and\nCatherine's answer--which was never finished--is still larger. Chappe\nd'Auteroche had discovered that Siberia was not a paradise, and had\nobserved that the Russians were dirty in their habits, and that masters\nwhipped their servants, male and female. Her patriotism was less\ninnocently shown by her conquests. Yet it may be doubted whether any\ncapable ruler of Russia could have abstained from aggressions at the\nexpense of the rights of the Saxon family in Courland, of Poland, and of\nTurkey (see RUSSIA: _History_). It does seem now to be clearly proved\nthat the partition of Poland was not suggested by her, as has been\nfrequently asserted. Catherine would have preferred to control the\ncountry through a vassal sovereign of the type of Stanislaus\nPoniatowski, the old lover whose election she secured in 1763. Poland\nwas incapable of maintaining its independence at the time of the first\npartition (1772), and the division of the unhappy country was forced on\nby Austria and Prussia. In the case of the second partition in 1793, she\ndid show herself to be very unscrupulous. Her opposition to the reform\nof the Polish government was plainly due to a wish to preserve an excuse\nfor further spoliation, but her conduct was less cruel and base than\nthat of Prussia.\n\nCatherine had adhered to her husband's policy of a Prussian alliance.\nWhile Frederick the Great lived she was impressed by his ability. But\nthe Prussian alliance became hateful to her, and her later\ncorrespondence with Grimm overflows with contempt of his successor\nFrederick William II., who is always spoken of by her as \"Brother Gu.\"\nHer exasperation with the affectations of the Prussian king was\nunquestionably increased by her discovery that he would not be induced\nto apply himself to a crusade against the French Revolution, which by\nemploying all his forces would have left Russia free to annex the whole\nof what remained of Poland. But at least she did not enter into a solemn\nengagement to defend the Poles who were engaged in reforming their\nconstitution, and then throw them over in order to share in the plunder\nof their country.\n\nCatherine's Turkish policy was at first marked by a certain grandiosity.\nWhen the Turks declared war in 1768 in order to support Poland, which\nthey looked upon as a necessary buffer state, she retaliated by the\ngreat Greek scheme. For a time it was a pet idea with her to revive the\nGreek empire, and to plant the cross, with the double-headed Russian\neagle, at Constantinople. She formed a corps of Greek cadets, caused her\nyounger grandson to be christened Constantine, and began the policy of\npresenting Russia to the Christian subjects of the Porte as their\ndeliverer. In pursuit of this heroic enterprise, which excited the loud\nadmiration of Voltaire, she sent a fleet under Alexis Orlov into the\nMediterranean in 1770. Orlov tempted the Greeks of the Morea to take up\narms, and then left them in the lurch. When Catherine found herself\nopposed by the policy of France and England, and threatened by the\njealousy of Prussia and Austria, she dropped the Greek design, observing\nto Voltaire that the descendants of the Spartans were much degenerated.\nThe introduction into the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji of 1774 of a clause\nby which the Porte guaranteed the rights of its Christian subjects, and\nof another-giving Russia the right to interfere on behalf of a new\nRussian church in Constantinople, advertised the claim of the tsars to\nbe the natural protectors of the Orthodox in the Ottoman dominions; but\nwhen she took up arms again in 1788 in alliance with Joseph II. (q.v.),\nit was to make a mere war of conquest and partition. The Turkish wars\nshow the weak side of Catherine as a ruler. Though she had mounted the\nthrone by a military revolt and entered on great schemes of conquest,\nshe never took an intelligent interest in her army. She neglected it in\npeace, allowed it to be shamefully administered in war, and could never\nbe made to understand that it was not in her power to improvise generals\nout of her favourites. It is to her credit that she saw the capacity of\nSuvarov, yet she never had as much confidence in him as she had in\nPotemkin, who may have been a man of genius, but was certainly no\ngeneral. She took care never to have to deal with a disciplined\nopponent, except the Swedes, who beat her, but who were very few.\n\nIt was the misfortune of Catherine that she lived too long. She\ndisgraced herself by living with her last lover, Zubov, when she was a\nwoman of sixty-seven, trusting him with power and lavishing public money\non him. The outbreak of the French Revolution stripped off the varnish\nof philosophy and philanthropy which she had assumed in earlier years.\nShe had always entertained a quiet contempt for the French writers whom\nshe flattered and pensioned, and who served her as an advertising agency\nin the west. When the result of their teaching was seen in Paris,\ngood-natured contempt was turned to hatred. She then became a persecutor\nin her own dominions of the very ideas she had encouraged in former\nyears. She scolded and preached a crusade, without, however, departing\nfrom the steady pursuit of her own interests in Poland, while\nendeavouring with transparent cunning to push Austria and Prussia into\nan invasion of France with all their forces. Her health began to break\ndown, and it appears to be nearly certain that towards the end she\nsuffered from hysteria of a shameful kind. It is plain that her\nintellect had begun to fail just before her death, for she allowed the\nreigning favourite, Platon Zubov, to persuade her to despatch his\nbrother Valerian, with the rank of field marshal and an army of 20,000\nmen, on a crack-brained scheme to invade India by way of Persia and\nTibet. The refusal of the king of Sweden to marry into her family unless\nthe bride would become a Lutheran is said to have thrown her into a\nconvulsion of rage which hastened her death. On the 9th of November\n1796, she was seized by a fit of apoplexy, and died on the evening of\nthe 10th.\n\n  All other accounts of Catherine II. have been superseded by\n  Waliszewski's two volumes, _Le Roman d'une imperatrice_ (Paris, 1893)\n  and _Autour d'un Trone: Catherine II., ses collaborateurs, ses amis,\n  ses favoris_ (Paris, 1894). The original sources for the history of\n  her policy and her character are to be found in the publications of\n  the Imperial Russian Historical Society, vols. i.-cix. (St\n  Petersburg), begun in 1867; her private and official correspondence\n  will be found in vols. i., ii., iv., v., vi., vii., viii., ix., x.,\n  xiii., xiv., xv., xvii., xx., xxiii., xxxii., xxxiii., xxxvi., xlii.,\n  xliii., xlvii., xlviii., li., lvii., lxvii., lxviii., lxxxvii.,\n  xcvii., xcviii., cvii., cxv., cxviii.\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE DE' MEDICI (1519-1589), queen of France, the wife of one\nFrench king and the mother of three, was born at Florence in 1519. She\nwas a daughter of Lorenzo II. de' Medici and a French princess,\nMadeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne. Having lost both her parents at an\nearly age, Catherine was sent to a convent to be educated; and she was\nonly fourteen when she was married (1533) at Marseilles to the duke of\nOrleans, afterwards Henry II. It was her uncle, Pope Clement VII., who\narranged the marriage with Francis I. Francis, still engaged in his\nlifelong task of making head against Charles V., was only too glad of\nthe opportunity to strengthen his influence in the Italian peninsula,\nwhile Clement, ever needful of help against his too powerful protector,\nwas equally ready to hold out a bait. During the reign of Francis,\nCatherine exercised no influence in France. She was young, a foreigner,\na member of a state that had almost no weight in the great world of\npolitics, had not given any proof of great ability, and was thrown into\nthe shade by more important persons. For ten years after her marriage\nshe had no children. In consequence, a divorce began to be talked of at\ncourt; and it seemed not impossible that Francis, alarmed at the\npossible extinction of the royal house, might listen to such a proposal.\nBut Catherine had the happiness of bringing him grandchildren ere he\ndied. During the reign of her husband, too (1547-1559), Catherine lived\na quiet and passive, but observant life. Henry being completely under\nthe influence of his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, she had little\nauthority. In 1552, when the king left the kingdom for the campaign of\nMetz, she was nominated regent, but with very limited powers. This\ncontinued even after the accession of her son Francis II. Francis was\nunder the spell of Mary Stuart, and she, little disposed to meddle with\npolitics on her own account, was managed by her uncles, the cardinal of\nLorraine and the duke of Guise. The queen-mother, however, soon grew\nweary of the domination of the Guises, and entered upon a course of\nsecret opposition. On the 1st of April 1560 she placed in the\nchancellorship Michel de l'Hopital (q.v.), who advocated the policy of\nconciliation.\n\nOn the death of Francis (5th of December 1560), Catherine became regent\nduring the minority of her second son, Charles IX., and now found before\nher a career worthy of the most soaring ambition. She was then forty-one\nyears old, but, although she was the mother of nine children, she was\nstill very vigorous and active. She retained her influence for more than\ntwenty years in the troubled period of the wars of religion. At first\nshe listened to the moderate counsels of l'Hopital in so far as to avoid\nsiding definitely with either party, but her character and the habits of\npolicy to which she had been accustomed, rendered her incapable of any\nnoble aim. She had only one virtue, and that was her zeal for the\ninterests of her children, especially of her favourite third son, the\nduke of Anjou. Like so many of the Italians of that time, who were\nalmost destitute of a moral sense, she looked upon statesmanship in\nparticular as a career in which finesse, lying and assassination were\nthe most admirable, because the most effective weapons. By habit a\nCatholic, but above all things fond of power, she was determined to\nprevent the Protestants from getting the upper hand, and almost equally\nresolved not to allow them to be utterly crushed, in order to use them\nas a counterpoise to the Guises. This trimming policy met with little\nsuccess: rage and suspicion so possessed men's minds, that she could no\nlonger control the opposing parties, and one civil war followed another\nto the end of her life. In 1567, after the \"Enterprise of Meaux,\" she\ndismissed l'Hopital and joined the Catholic party. But, having failed to\ncrush the Protestant rebellion by arms, she resumed in 1570 the policy\nof peace and negotiation. She conceived the project of marrying her\nfavourite son, the duke of Anjou, to Queen Elizabeth of England, and her\ndaughter Margaret to Henry of Navarre. To this end she became reconciled\nwith the Protestants, and allowed Coligny to return to court and to\nre-enter the council. Of this step she quickly repented. Charles IX.\nconceived a great affection for the admiral and showed signs of taking\nup an independent attitude. Catherine, thinking her influence menaced,\nsought to regain it, first by the murder of Coligny, and, when that had\nfailed, by the massacre of St Bartholomew (q.v.). The whole of the\nresponsibility for this crime, therefore, rests with Catherine; unlike\nthe populace, she had not even the excuse of fanaticism. This\nresponsibility, however, weighed but lightly on her; while her son was\noverwhelmed with remorse, she calmly enjoyed her short-lived triumph.\nAfter the death of Charles in 1574, and the succession of Anjou under\nthe name of Henry III., Catherine pursued her old policy of compromise\nand concessions; but as her influence is lost in that of her son, it is\nunnecessary to dwell upon it. She died on the 5th of January 1589, a\nshort time before the assassination of Henry, and the consequent\nextinction of the House of Valois. In her taste for art and her love of\nmagnificence and luxury, Catherine was a true Medici; her banquets at\nFontainebleau in 1564 were famous for their sumptuousness. In\narchitecture especially she was well versed, and Philibert de l'Orme\nrelates that she discussed with him the plan and decoration of her\npalace of the Tuileries. Catherine's policy provoked a crowd of\npamphlets, the most celebrated being the _Discours merveilleux de la\nvie, actions et deportemens de la reine Catherine de Medicis_, in which\nHenri Estienne undoubtedly collaborated.\n\n  See _Lettres de Catherine de Medicis_, edited by Hector de la Ferriere\n  (Paris, 1880, seq.), in the _Collection de documents inedits sur\n  l'histoire de France_; A. von Reumont, _Die Jugend Caterinas de'\n  Medici_ (1854; French translation by A. Baschet, 1866); H. Bouchot,\n  _Catherine de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899). For a more complete bibliography\n  see Ernest Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. v., by H. Lemonnier,\n  and vol. vi., by J.H. Mariejol, 1904-1905). See also Miss E. Sichel's\n  books, _Catherine de' Medici and the French Reformation_ (1905), and\n  _The Later Years of Catherine de' Medici_ (1908).\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE OF ARAGON (1485-1536), queen of Henry VIII. of England,\ndaughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, was born on the 15th or\n16th of December 1485. She left Spain in 1501 to marry Arthur, prince of\nWales, eldest son of King Henry VII., and landed at Plymouth on the 2nd\nof October. The wedding took place on the 14th of November in London,\nand soon afterwards Catherine accompanied her youthful husband to Wales,\nwhere, in his sixteenth year, the prince died on the 2nd of April 1502.\nOn the 25th of June 1503, she was formally betrothed to the king's\nsecond son, Henry, now prince of Wales, and a papal dispensation for the\nalliance was obtained. The marriage, however, did not take place during\nthe lifetime of Henry VII. Ferdinand endeavoured to cheat the English\nking of the marriage portion agreed upon, and Henry made use of the\npresence of the unmarried princess in England to extort new conditions,\nand especially to secure the marriage of his daughter Mary to the\narchduke Charles, grandson of Ferdinand, and afterwards Charles V.\nCatherine was thus from the first the unhappy victim of state politics.\nWriting to Ferdinand on the 11th of March 1509, she describes the state\nof poverty to which she was reduced, and declares the king's unkindness\nimpossible to be borne any longer.[1] On the old king's death, however,\na brighter prospect opened, for Henry VIII. decided immediately on\nmarrying her, the wedding taking place on the 11th of June and the\ncoronation on the 24th. Catherine now enjoyed a few years of married\nhappiness; Henry showed himself an affectionate husband, and the\nalliance with Ferdinand was maintained against France. She was not\nwithout some influence in state affairs. During Henry's invasion of\nFrance in 1513 she was made regent; she showed great zeal and ardour in\nthe preparations for the Scottish expedition, and was riding towards the\nnorth to put herself at the head of the troops when the victory of\nFlodden Field ended the campaign. The following year an affectionate\nmeeting took place between the king and queen at Richmond on the return\nof the former. Ferdinand's treachery, however, in making a treaty with\nFrance roused Henry's wrath, and his angry reproaches fell upon his\nunfortunate wife; but she took occasion in 1520, during the visit of her\nnephew Charles V. to England, to urge the policy of gaining his alliance\nrather than that of France. Immediately on his departure, on the 31st of\nMay 1520, she accompanied the king to France, on the celebrated visit to\nFrancis I., called from its splendour the Field of the Cloth of Gold;\nbut in 1522 war was declared against France and the emperor again\nwelcomed to England. In 1521 she is represented by Shakespeare as\npleading for the unfortunate duke of Buckingham.\n\nThese early years of happiness and of useful influence and activity had,\nhowever, been gradually giving way to gloom and disappointment. Between\nJanuary 1510 and November 1518 Catherine gave birth to six children\n(including two princes), who were all stillborn or died in infancy\nexcept Mary, born in 1516, and rumour did not fail to ascribe this\nseries of disasters to the curse pronounced in Deuteronomy on incestuous\nunions. In 1526 the condition of Catherine's health made it highly\nimprobable that she would have more children. No woman had ever reigned\nin England, alone and in her own right, and to avoid a fresh dispute\nconcerning the succession, and the revival of the civil war, a male heir\nto the throne was a pressing necessity. The act of marriage, which\ndepended for its validity on the decision of the ecclesiastical courts,\nhad, on account of the numerous dissolutions and dispensations granted,\nnot then attained the security since assured to it by the secular law.\nFor obtaining dissolutions of royal marriages the facilities were\nespecially great. Pope Clement VII. himself permitted such a dissolution\nin the case of Henry's own sister Margaret, in 1528, proposed later as a\nsolution of the problem that Henry should be allowed two wives,[2] and\nlooked not unfavourably, with the same aim, on the project for marrying\nthe duke of Richmond to Mary, a brother to a sister.[3] In Henry's case\nalso the irregularity of a union, which is still generally reprobated\nand forbidden in Christendom, and which it was very doubtful that the\npope had the power to legalize, provided a moral justification for a\ndissolution which in other cases did not exist. It was not therefore the\nimmorality of the plea which obstructed the papal decree in Henry's\nfavour, but the unlucky imprisonment at this time of Clement VII. at the\nhands of Charles V., Catherine's nephew, which obliged the pope, placed\nthus \"between the hammer and the anvil,\" to pursue a policy of delay and\nhesitation. Nor was the immorality of Henry's own character the primary\ncause of the project of divorce. Had this been so, a succession of\nmistresses would have served as well as a series of single wives. The\nreal occasion was the king's desire for a male heir. But, however clear\nthis may be, the injustice done to Catherine was no less cruel and real.\nRumours, probably then unfounded, of an intended divorce had been heard\nabroad as early as 1524. But the creation in 1525 of the king's\nillegitimate son Henry, as duke of Richmond--the title borne by his\ngrandfather Henry VII--and the precedence granted to him over all the\npeers as well as the princess Mary, together with the special honour\npaid at this time by the king to his own half-sister Mary, were the\nfirst real indications of the king's thoughts. In 1526, and perhaps\nearlier, Wolsey had been making tentative inquiries at Rome on the\nsubject. In May 1527 a collusive and secret suit was begun before the\ncardinal, who, as legate, summoned the king to defend himself from the\ncharge of cohabitation with his brother's wife; but these proceedings\nwere dropped. On the 22nd of June Henry informed Catherine that they had\nbeen living in mortal sin and must separate. During Wolsey's absence in\nJuly at Paris, where he had been commissioned to discuss vaguely the\ndivorce and Henry's marriage with Renee, daughter of Louis XII., Anne\nBoleyn is first heard of in connexion with the king, his affection for\nher having, however, begun probably as early as 1523, and the cardinal\non his return found her openly installed at the court. In October 1528\nthe pope issued a commission to Cardinal Campeggio and Wolsey to try the\ncause in England, and bound himself not to revoke the case to Rome,\nconfirming his promise by a secret decretal commission which, however,\nwas destroyed by Campeggio. But the trial was a sham. Campeggio was\nforbidden to pronounce sentence without further reference to Rome, and\nwas instructed to create delays, the pope assuring Charles V. at the\nsame time that the case should be ultimately revoked to Rome.[4]\n\nThe object of all parties was now to persuade Catherine to enter a\nnunnery and thus relieve them of further embarrassment. While Henry's\nenvoys were encouraged at Rome in believing that he might then make\nanother marriage, Henry himself gave Catherine assurances that no other\nunion would be contemplated in her lifetime. But Catherine with courage\nand dignity held fast to her rights, demanded a proper trial, and\nappealed not only to the bull of dispensation, the validity of which was\nsaid to be vitiated by certain irregularities, but to a brief granted\nfor the alliance by Pope Julius II. Henry declared the latter to be a\nforgery, and endeavoured unsuccessfully to procure a declaration of its\nfalsity from the pope. The court of the legates accordingly opened on\nthe 31st of May 1529, the queen appearing before it on the 18th of June\nfor the purpose of denying its jurisdiction. On the 21st both Henry and\nCatherine presented themselves before the tribunal, when the queen threw\nherself at Henry's feet and appealed for the last time to his sense of\nhonour, recalling her own virtue and helplessness. Henry replied with\nkindness, showing that her wish for the revocation of the cause to Rome\nwas unreasonable in view of the paramount influence then exercised by\nCharles V. on the pope. Catherine nevertheless persisted in making\nappeal to Rome, and then withdrew. After her departure Henry, according\nto Cavendish, Wolsey's biographer, praised her virtues to the court.\n\"She is, my lords, as true, as obedient, as conformable a wife as I\ncould in my phantasy wish or desire. She hath all the virtues and\nqualities that ought to be in a woman of her dignity or in any other of\nbaser estate.\" On her refusal to return, her plea was overruled and she\nwas adjudged contumacious, while the sittings of the court continued in\nher absence. Subsequently the legates paid her a private visit of\nadvice, but were unable to move her from her resolution. Finally,\nhowever, in July 1529, the case was, according to her wish, and as the\nresult of the treaty of Barcelona and the pope's complete surrender to\nCharles V., revoked by the pope to Rome: a momentous act, which decided\nHenry's future attitude, and occasioned the downfall of the whole papal\nauthority in England. On the 7th of March 1530 Pope Clement issued a\nbrief forbidding Henry to make a second marriage, and ordering the\nrestitution of Catherine to her rights till the cause was determined;\nwhile at the same time he professed to the French ambassador, the bishop\nof Tarbes, his pleasure should the marriage with Anne Boleyn have been\nalready made, if only it were not by his authority.[5] The same year\nHenry obtained opinions favourable to the divorce from the English,\nFrench and most of the Italian universities, but unfavourable answers\nfrom Germany, while a large number of English peers and ecclesiastics,\nincluding Wolsey and Archbishop Warham, joined in a memorial to the pope\nin support of Henry's cause.\n\nMeanwhile, Catherine, while the great question remained unsolved, was\nstill treated by Henry as his queen, and accompanied him in his visits\nin the provinces and in his hunting expeditions. On the 31st of May 1531\nshe was visited by thirty privy councillors, who urged the trial of the\ncase in England, but they met only with a firm refusal. On the 14th of\nJuly Henry left his wife at Windsor, removing himself to Woodstock, and\nnever saw her again. In August she was ordered to reside at the Moor in\nHertfordshire, and at the same time separated from the princess Mary,\nwho was taken to Richmond. In October she again received a deputation of\nprivy councillors, and again refused to withdraw the case from Rome. In\n1532 she sent the king a gold cup as a new year's gift, which the latter\nreturned, and she was forbidden to hold any communication with him.\nAlone and helpless in confronting Henry's absolute power, her cause\nfound champions and sympathizers among the people, among the court\npreachers, and in the House of Commons, while Bishop Fisher had openly\ntaken her part in the legatine trial. Subsequently Catherine was removed\nto Bishops Hatfield, while Henry and Anne Boleyn visited Francis I.\nTheir marriage, anticipating any sentence of the nullity of the union\nwith Catherine, took place after their return about the 25th of January\n1533, in consequence of Anne's pregnancy. On the 10th of May Cranmer,\nfor whose consecration as archbishop of Canterbury Henry had obtained\nbulls from Rome, opened his court, and declared on the 23rd the nullity\nof Catherine's marriage and the validity of Anne's. On the 10th of\nAugust the king caused proclamation to be made forbidding her the style\nof queen; but Catherine refused resolutely to yield the title for that\nof princess-dowager. Not long afterwards she was removed to Buckden in\nHuntingdonshire. Here her household was considerably reduced, and she\nfound herself hemmed in by spies, and in fact a prisoner. In July she\nhad refused Henry the loan of a certain rich cloth, which had done\nservice at the baptism of her children, for the use of Anne Boleyn's\nexpected infant; and on the birth of Elizabeth and the refusal of Mary\nto give up the title of princess, the latter's household was entirely\ndismissed and she herself reduced to the position of attendant in\nElizabeth's retinue. A project for removing Catherine from Buckden to\nSomersham, an unhealthy solitude in the isle of Ely, with a still\nnarrower maintenance, was only prevented by her own determined\nresistance. The attempt in November to incriminate the queen in\nconnexion with Elizabeth Barton failed. She passed her life now in\nreligious devotions, taking strict precautions against the possibility\nof being poisoned. On the 23rd of March 1534 the pope pronounced her\nmarriage valid, but by this time England had thrown off the papal\njurisdiction, the parliament had transferred Catherine's jointure to\nAnne Boleyn, and the decree had no effect on Catherine's fortunes. She\nrefused to swear to the new act of succession, which declared her\nmarriage null and Anne's infant the heir to the throne, and soon\nafterwards she was removed to Kimbolton, where she was well treated. On\nthe 21st of May she was visited by the archbishop of York and Tunstall,\nbishop of Durham, who threatened her with death if she persisted in her\nrefusal, but only succeeded in confirming her resolution. She was kept\nin strict seclusion, separated from Mary and from all outside\ncommunications, and in December 1535 her health gave way, her death\ntaking place on the 8th of January 1536, not without suspicions of\npoison, which, however, may be dismissed. She was buried by the king's\norder in Peterborough cathedral. Before her death she dictated a last\nletter to Henry, according to Polydore Vergil, expressing her\nforgiveness, begging his good offices for Mary, and concluding with the\nastounding assurance--\"I vow that mine eyes desire you above all\nthings.\" The king himself affected no sorrow at her death, and thanked\nGod there was now no fear of war.\n\nCatherine is described as \"rather ugly than otherwise; of low stature\nand rather stout; very good and very religious; speaks Spanish, French,\nFlemish, English; more beloved by the islanders than any queen that has\never reigned.\" She was a woman of considerable education and culture,\nher scholarship and knowledge of the Bible being noted by Erasmus, who\ndedicated to her his book on _Christian Matrimony_ in 1526. She endured\nher bitter and undeserved misfortunes with extraordinary courage and\nresolution, and at the same time with great womanly forbearance, of\nwhich a striking instance was the compassion shown by her for the fallen\nWolsey.\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by J.\n  Gairdner, and those on Henry VIII. and Wolsey, where the case is\n  summed up very adversely to Henry, and _The Divorce of Catherine of\n  Aragon_, by J.A. Froude (1891), where it is regarded from the contrary\n  aspect; _Henry VIII._, by A. F. Pollard (1905); _Cambridge Mod.\n  History_ (1903), ii. 416 et seq. and bibliographies, p. 789; _The\n  Wives of Henry VIII._, by M. Hume (1905).     (P. C. Y.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] _Cat. of State Pap., England and Spain_, i. 469.\n\n  [2] _Letters and Papers_, iv. 6627, 6705, and app. 261.\n\n  [3] _Ib._ iv. 5072.\n\n  [4] _Cal. of State Pap., England and Spain_, iii. pt. ii. 779.\n\n  [5] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign and Dom._, iv. 6290.\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE OF BRAGANZA (1638-1705), queen consort of Charles II. of\nEngland, daughter of John IV. of Portugal, and of Louisa de Gusman,\ndaughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia, was born on the 15\/25 of\nNovember 1638 at Villia Vicosa. She was early regarded as a useful\nmedium for contracting an alliance with England, more necessary than\never to Portugal after the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 whereby\nPortugal was ostensibly abandoned by France. Negotiations for the\nmarriage began during the reign of Charles I., were renewed immediately\nafter the Restoration, and on the 23rd of June, in spite of Spanish\nopposition, the marriage contract was signed, England securing Tangier\nand Bombay, with trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies,\nreligious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese\ncrowns (about L300,000); while Portugal obtained military and naval\nsupport against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine. She reached\nEngland on the 13th of May 1662, but was not visited by Charles at\nPortsmouth till the 20th. The next day the marriage was solemnized\ntwice, according to the Roman Catholic and Anglican usages. Catherine\npossessed several good qualities, but had been brought up in a\nconventual seclusion and was scarcely a wife Charles would have chosen\nfor himself. Her personal charms were not potent enough to wean Charles\naway from the society of his mistresses, and in a few weeks after her\narrival she became aware of her painful and humiliating position as the\nwife of the selfish and licentious king. On the first presentation to\nher of Lady Castlemaine, Charles's mistress _en titre_, whom he insisted\non making lady of her bedchamber, she fainted away. She withdrew from\nthe king's society, and in spite of Clarendon's attempts to moderate her\nresentment, declared she would return to Portugal rather than consent to\na base compliance. To overcome her resistance nearly the whole of her\nPortuguese retinue was dismissed. She was helpless, and the violence of\nher grief and anger soon changed to passive resistance, and then to a\ncomplete forbearance and complaisance which gained the king's regard and\nfavour. In the midst of Charles's debauched and licentious court, she\nlived neglected and retired, often deprived of her due allowance, having\nno ambitions and taking no part in English politics, but keeping up\nrather her interest in her native country.\n\nAs the prospect diminished of her bearing children to Charles, several\nschemes were set on foot for procuring a divorce on various pretexts. As\na Roman Catholic and near to the king's person Catherine was the special\nobject of attack by the inventors of the Popish Plot. In 1678 the murder\nof Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey was ascribed to her servants, and Titus\nOates accused her of a design to poison the king. These charges, of\nwhich the absurdity was soon shown by cross-examination, nevertheless\nplaced the queen for some time in great danger. On the 28th of November\nOates accused her of high treason, and the Commons passed an address for\nher removal and that of all the Roman Catholics from Whitehall. A series\nof fresh depositions were sent in against her, and in June 1679 it was\ndecided that she must stand her trial; but she was protected by the\nking, who in this instance showed unusual chivalry and earned her\ngratitude. On the 17th of November Shaftesbury moved in the House of\nLords for a divorce to enable the king to marry a Protestant and have\nlegitimate issue; but he received little support, and the bill was\nopposed by Charles, who continued to show his wife \"extraordinary\naffection.\" During the winter the calumnies against the queen were\nrevived by Fitzharris, who, however, before his execution in 1681\nconfessed to their falsity; and after the revival of the king's\ninfluence subsequent to the Oxford parliament, the queen's position was\nno more assailed.\n\nDuring Charles's last illness in 1685 she showed great anxiety for his\nreconciliation with the Romish Church, and it was probably effected\nlargely through her influence. She exhibited great grief at his death.\nShe afterwards resided at Somerset House and at Hammersmith, where she\nhad privately founded a convent. She interceded with great generosity,\nbut ineffectually, for Monmouth the same year. On the 10th of June 1688\nshe was present at the birth of the prince of Wales and gave evidence\nbefore the council in favour of the genuineness of the child. She was\nstill in England at the Revolution, having delayed her return to\nPortugal to prosecute a lawsuit against the second earl of Clarendon,\nformerly her chamberlain. She maintained at first good terms with\nWilliam and Mary; but the practice of her religion aroused jealousies,\nwhile her establishment at Somerset House was said to be the home of\ncabals against the government; and in 1691 she settled for a short time\nat Euston. She left England finally with a train of one hundred persons\nin March 1692, travelling through France and arriving at Lisbon on the\n20th of January 1693. She took up her residence at the palace of\nBemposta, built by herself, near Lisbon. In 1703 she supported the\nMethuen Treaty, which cemented still further the alliance between\nPortugal and England, and in 1704 she was appointed regent of Portugal\nduring the illness of her brother King Pedro II., her administration\nbeing distinguished by several successes gained over the Spaniards. She\ndied on the 31st of December 1705, bequeathing her great wealth, the\nresult of long hoarding, after the payment of divers charitable\nlegacies, to King Pedro; and was buried with great ceremony and\nsplendour at Belem.\n\n  See L. C. Davidson, _Catherine of Braganza_ (1908).\n\n\n\n\nCATHERINE OF VALOIS (1401-1437), queen of Henry V. of England, daughter\nof Charles VI. of France by his wife Isabel of Bavaria, was born in\nParis on the 27th of October 1401. The lunacy of her father and the\ndepravity of her mother were serious drawbacks to Catherine, and her\nonly education was obtained in a convent at Poissy. About 1408 a\nmarriage was suggested between the princess and Henry, prince of Wales,\nafterwards Henry V., who renewed this proposal after he became king in\nMarch 1413. In addition to the hand of Catherine, however, the English\nking asked for a large dowry both in money and lands, and when these\ndemands were rejected war broke out. Once or twice during short\nintervals of peace the marriage project was revived, and was favoured by\nQueen Isabel. When peace was eventually made at Troyes in May 1420 Henry\nand Catherine were betrothed, and the marriage took place at Troyes on\nthe 2nd of June 1420. Having crossed to England with Henry, the queen\nwas crowned in Westminster Abbey on the 23rd of February 1421, and in\nthe following December gave birth to a son, afterwards King Henry VI.\nShe joined Henry in France in May 1422, returning to England after his\ndeath in the succeeding August. Catherine's name soon began to be\ncoupled with that of Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, and in 1428\nHumphrey, duke of Gloucester, secured the passing of an act to prevent\nher from marrying without the consent of the king and council. It\nappears, however, that by this time Catherine and Tudor were already\nmarried. They lived in obscurity till 1436, when Tudor was imprisoned,\nand Catherine retired to Bermondsey Abbey, where she died on the 3rd of\nJanuary 1437. Her body was buried in the Lady chapel of Westminster\nAbbey, and when the chapel was pulled down during the reign of Henry\nVII., was placed in Henry V.'s tomb. It lay afterwards under the\nVilliers monument, and in 1878 was re-buried in Henry V.'s chantry. By\nTudor Catherine had three sons and a daughter. Her eldest son by this\nmarriage, Edmund, was created earl of Richmond in 1452, and was the\nfather of Henry VII.\n\n  See Agnes Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, vol. iii.\n  (London, 1877).\n\n\n\n\nCATHETUS (Gr. [Greek: kathetos], a perpendicular line), in architecture\nthe eye of the volute, so termed because its position is determined, in\nan Ionic or voluted capital, by a line let down from the point in which\nthe volute generates.\n\n\n\n\nCATHOLIC (Gr. [Greek: katholikos], general, universal), a designation\nadopted in the 2nd century by the Christian Church to indicate\nChristendom as a whole, in contrast with individual churches. With this\nidea went the notions that Christianity had been diffused throughout the\nwhole earth by the apostles, and that only what was found everywhere\nthroughout the church could be true. The term thus in time became full\nof dogmatic and political meaning, connoting, when applied to the\nchurch, a universal authoritative and orthodox society, as opposed to\nGnostic and other \"sects\" (cf. the famous canon of Vincent of Lerins\nA.D. 434; _quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est_). The\nterm \"Catholic\" does not occur in the old Roman symbol; but Professor\nLoofs includes it in his reconstruction, based on typical phrases in\ncommon use at the time of the ante-Nicene creeds of the East. In the\noriginal form of the Nicene creed itself it does not occur; but in the\ncreed of Jerusalem (348), an amplification of the Nicene symbol, we find\n\"one Holy Catholic Church,\" and in the revision by Cyril of Alexandria\n(362) \"Catholic and Apostolic Church\" (see CREEDS). Thus, though the\nword \"Catholic\" was late in finding its way into the formal symbols of\nthe church, it is clear that it had long been in use in the original\nsense defined above. It must be borne in mind, however, that the\ndesignation \"Catholic\" was equally claimed by all the warring parties\nwithin the church at various times; thus, the followers of Arius and\nAthanasius alike called themselves Catholics, and it was only the\nultimate victory of the latter that has reserved for them in history the\nname of Catholic, and branded the former as Arian.\n\nWith the gradual development and stereotyping of the creed it was\ninevitable that the term \"Catholic\" should come to imply a more narrowly\ndefined orthodoxy. In the Eastern churches, indeed, the conception of\nthe church as the guardian of \"the faith once delivered to the saints\"\nsoon overshadowed that of interpretation and development by catholic\nconsent, and, though they have throughout claimed the title of Catholic,\ntheir chief glory is that conveyed in the name of the Holy Orthodox\nChurch. In the West, meanwhile, the growth of the power of the papacy\nhad tended more and more to the interpretation of the word \"catholic\" as\nimplying communion with, and obedience to, the see of Rome (see PAPACY);\nthe churches of the East, no less than the heretical sects of the West,\nby repudiating this allegiance, had ceased to be Catholic. This\nidentification of \"Catholic\" with \"Roman\" was accentuated by the\nprogress of the Reformation. The Reformers themselves, indeed, like\nother dissidents and reformers before them, did not necessarily\nrepudiate the name of Catholic; they believed, in fact, in Catholicism,\ni.e. the universal sanction of their beliefs, as firmly as did the\nadherents of \"the old religion\"; they included the Catholic creeds,\ndefinitions formulated by the universal church, in their service books;\nthey too appealed, as the fathers of Basel and Constance had done, from\nthe papal monarchy to the great ecclesiastical republic. The Church of\nEngland at least, emphasizing her own essential catholicity, retained in\nher translations of the ancient symbols the word \"catholic\" instead of\nreplacing it by \"universal.\" But the appeal to the verbally inspired\nBible was stronger than that to a church hopelessly divided; the Bible,\nand not the consent of the universal church, became the touchstone of\nthe reformed orthodoxy; in the nomenclature of the time, \"evangelical\"\narose in contradistinction to \"Catholic,\" while, in popular parlance,\nthe \"protest\" of the Reformers against the \"corruptions of Rome\" led to\nthe invention of the term \"Protestant,\" which, though nowhere assumed in\nthe official titles of the older reformed churches, was early used as a\ngeneric term to include them all.\n\n\"Catholic\" and \"Catholicism\" thus again changed and narrowed their\nmeaning; they became, by universal usage, identified definitely with\n\"Romanist\" and the creed and obedience of Rome. Even in England, where the\nchurch retained most strongly the Catholic tradition, this distinction of\n\"Protestant\" and \"Catholic\" was clearly maintained, at least till the\n\"Catholic revival\" in the Church of England of the 19th century. On the\ncontinent of Europe the equivalent words (e.g. Ger. _Katholik,\nKatholizismus_; Fr. _catholique, catholicisme_) are even more definitely\nassociated with Rome; they have lost the sense which they still convey to\na considerable school of Anglicans. The dissident \"Catholic\" churches are\nforced to qualify their titles: they are \"Old Catholics\"\n(_Alt-Katholiken_) or \"German Catholics\" (_Deutsch-Katholiken_). The\nChurch of Rome alone, officially and in popular parlance, is \"the Catholic\nChurch\" (_katholische Kirche, eglise catholique_), a title which she\nproudly claims as exclusively her own, by divine right, by the sanction of\nimmemorial tradition, and by reason of her perpetual protest against the\nidea of \"national\" churches, consecrated by the Reformation (see CHURCH\nHISTORY, and ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH). The additional qualification of\n\"Roman\" she tolerates, since it proclaims her doctrine of the see of Rome\nas the keystone of Catholicism; but to herself she is \"the Catholic\nChurch,\" and her members are \"Catholics.\"\n\nYet to concede this claim and surrender without qualification the word\n\"Catholic\" to a connotation which is at best only universal in theory,\nis to beg several very weighty questions. The doctrine of the Catholic\nChurch, i.e. the essential unity and interdependence of \"all God's\nfaithful people scattered throughout the world,\" is common to all\nsections of Christians. The creed is one; it is the interpretation that\ndiffers. In a somewhat narrower sense, too, the Church of England at\nleast has never repudiated the conception of the Catholic Church as a\ndivinely instituted organization for the safe-guarding and proclamation\nof the Christian revelation. She deliberately retained the Catholic\ncreeds, the Catholic ministry and the appeal to Catholic antiquity (see\nENGLAND, CHURCH OF). A large section of her members, accordingly, laying\nstress on this side of her tradition, prefer to call themselves\n\"Catholics.\" But, though the invention of the terms \"Roman Catholic\" and\n\"Roman Catholicism\" early implied the retention by the English Church of\nher Catholic claim, her members were never, after the Reformation,\ncalled Catholics; even the Caroline divines of the 17th century, for all\ntheir \"popish practices,\" styled themselves Protestants, though they\nwould have professed their adherence to \"the Catholic faith\" and their\nbelief in \"the Holy Catholic Church.\"\n\nClearly, then, the exact meaning of the term varies according to those\nwho use it and those to whom it is applied. To the Romanist \"Catholic\"\nmeans \"Roman Catholic\"; to the high Anglican it means whatever is common\nto the three \"historic\" branches into which he conceives the church to\nbe divided--Roman, Anglican and Orthodox; to the Protestant pure and\nsimple it means either what it does to the Romanist, or, in expansive\nmoments, simply what is \"universal\" to all Christians. In a yet broader\nsense it is used adjectivally of mere wideness or universality of view,\nas when we speak of a man as \"of catholic sympathies\" or \"catholic in\nhis tastes.\"\n\nThe name of _Catholic Epistles_ is given to those letters (two of Peter,\nthree of John, one of James, one of Jude) incorporated in the New\nTestament which (except 2 and 3 John) are not, like those of St Paul,\naddressed to particular individuals or churches, but to a larger and\nmore indefinite circle of readers. (See BIBLE: _New Testament, Canon_.)\n\nThe title of _Catholicus_ ([Greek: katholikos]) seems to have been used\nunder the Roman empire, though rarely, as the Greek equivalent of\n_consularis_ and _praefectus_. Thus Eusebius (_Hist. eccl._ viii. 23)\nspeaks of the catholicus of Africa ([Greek: katholikon tes Aphrikes]).\nAs an ecclesiastical title it was used to imply, not universal\n(ecumenical), but a great and widespread jurisdiction. Thus the bishop\nof the important see of Seleucia (Bagdad), though subordinate to the\npatriarch of Antioch, had the title of Catholicus and power to\nconsecrate even archbishops; and on the division of the see there were\ntwo _Catholici_ under the patriarch of Antioch. In Ethiopia, too, there\nwere _Catholici_ with less extensive powers, subject to the patriarch of\nAlexandria. The title now survives, however, only as that of the head of\nthe Armenian Church (q.v.). A bishop's cathedral church is, however, in\nGreek the _Catholicon_.\n\nAn isolated use of the word \"catholic\" as a secular legal term survives\nin Scots law; a _catholic creditor_ is one whose debt is secured over\nseveral or over all of the subjects belonging to the debtor.\n\n\n\n\nCATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH, THE, a religious community often called\n\"Irvingites,\" though neither actually founded nor anticipated by Edward\nIrving (q.v.). Irving's relation to this community was, according to its\nmembers, somewhat similar to that of John the Baptist to the early\nChristian Church, i.e. he was the forerunner and prophet of the coming\ndispensation, not the founder of a new sect; and indeed the only\nconnexion which Irving seems to have had with the existing organization\nof the Catholic Apostolic body was in \"fostering spiritual persons who\nhad been driven out of other congregations for the exercise of their\nspiritual gifts.\" Shortly after Irving's trial and deposition (1831),\ncertain persons were, at some meetings held for prayer, designated as\n\"called to be apostles of the Lord\" by certain others claiming prophetic\ngifts. In the year 1835, six months after Irving's death, six others\nwere similarly designated as \"called\" to complete the number of the\n\"twelve,\" who were then formally \"separated,\" by the pastors of the\nlocal congregations to which they belonged, to their higher office in\nthe universal church on the 14th of July 1835. This separation is\nunderstood by the community not as \"in any sense being a schism or\nseparation from the one Catholic Church, but a separation to a special\nwork of blessing and intercession on behalf of it.\" The twelve were\nafterwards guided to ordain others--twelve prophets, twelve evangelists,\nand twelve pastors, \"sharing equally with them the one Catholic\nEpiscopate,\" and also seven deacons for administering the temporal\naffairs of the church catholic. The apostles were the channels of the\nHoly Ghost and the mysteries of God, and the authoritative interpreters\nof \"prophetic utterance\"; their teaching was brought home to the people\nby the \"evangelists.\" The function of the prophets was to explain\nscripture and exhort to holiness, that of the \"pastors\" is explained by\ntheir title. The central episcopacy of forty-eight was regarded as\n\"indicated by prophecy,\" being foreshown in the forty-eight boards of\nthe Mosaic tabernacle. For ecclesiastical purposes the church universal\nis under their charge in twelve tribes; for Christendom is considered to\nbe divided into twelve portions or tribes, each tribe being under the\nspecial charge of an apostle and his co-ministers, and the seat of the\nApostolic College being at Albury, near Guildford. This is an ideal\noutline which has never been fulfilled. There has never been a \"central\nepiscopacy\" of forty-eight. The \"apostles\" alone always held the supreme\nauthority, though, as their number dwindled, \"coadjutors\" were appointed\nto assist the survivors, and to exercise the functions of the\n\"apostolate.\" The last \"apostle\" died on the 3rd of February 1901.\n\nFor the service of the church a comprehensive book of liturgies and\noffices was provided by the \"apostles.\" It dates from 1842 and is based\non the Anglican, Roman and Greek liturgies. Lights, incense, vestments,\nholy water, chrism, and other adjuncts of worship are in constant use.\nThe ceremonial in its completeness may be seen in the church in Gordon\nSquare, London, and elsewhere. The daily worship consists of \"matins\"\nwith \"proposition\" (or exposition) of the sacrament at 6 A.M., prayers\nat 9 A.M. and 3 P.M., and \"vespers\" with \"proposition\" at 5 P.M. On all\nSundays and holy days there is a \"solemn celebration of the eucharist\"\nat the high altar; on Sundays this is at 10 A.M. On other days \"low\ncelebrations\" are held in the side-chapels, which with the chancel in\nall churches correctly built after apostolic directions are separated or\nmarked off from the nave by open screens with gates. The community has\nalways laid great stress on symbolism, and in the eucharist, while\nrejecting both transubstantiation and consubstantiation, holds strongly\nto a real (mystical) presence. It emphasizes also the \"phenomena\" of\nChristian experience and deems miracle and mystery to be of the essence\nof a spirit-filled church.\n\nEach congregation is presided over by its \"angel\" or bishop (who ranks\nas angel-pastor in the Universal Church), under him are four-and-twenty\npriests, divided into the four ministries of \"elders, prophets,\nevangelists and pastors,\" and with these are the deacons, seven of whom\nregulate the temporal affairs of the church--besides whom there are also\n\"sub-deacons, acolytes, singers, and door-keepers.\" The understanding is\nthat each elder, with his co-presbyters and deacons, shall have charge\nof 500 adult communicants in his district; but this has been but\npartially carried into practice. This is the full constitution of each\nparticular church or congregation as founded by the \"restored apostles,\"\neach local church thus \"reflecting in its government the government of\nthe church catholic by the angel or high priest Jesus Christ, and His\nforty-eight presbyters in their fourfold ministry (in which apostles and\nelders always rank first), and under these the deacons of the church\ncatholic.\" The priesthood is supported by tithes; it being deemed a duty\non the part of all members of the church who receive yearly incomes to\noffer a tithe of their increase every week, besides the free-will\noffering for the support of the place of worship, and for the relief of\ndistress. Each local church sends \"a tithe of its tithes\" to the\n\"Temple,\" by which the ministers of the Universal Church are supported\nand its administrative expenses defrayed; by these offerings, too, the\nneeds of poorer churches are supplied. It claims to have among its\nclergy many of the Roman, Anglican and other churches, the orders of\nthose ordained by Greek, Roman and Anglican bishops being recognized by\nit with the simple confirmation of an \"apostolic act.\" The community has\nnot changed recently in general constitution or doctrine. It does not\npublish statistics, and its growth during late years is said to have\nbeen more marked in the United States and in certain European countries,\nsuch as Germany, than in Great Britain. There are nine congregations\nenumerated in _The Religious Life of London_ (1904).\n\n  For further details of doctrines, ritual, &c., see R. N. Bosworth,\n  _Restoration of Apostles and Prophets, Readings on the Liturgy, The\n  Church and Tabernacle_, and _The Purpose of God in Creation and\n  Redemption_ (6th ed., 1888); G. Miller, _History and Doctrines of\n  Irvingism_ (1878).\n\n\n\n\nCATILINE [LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINA] (c. 108-62 B.C.), a member of an\nancient but impoverished patrician family of Rome, the prime mover in\nthe conspiracy known by his name. He appears in history first as a\nsupporter of Sulla, and during the proscription he was conspicuous for\nhis greed and cruelty. He slew his inoffensive brother-in-law with his\nown hand, and tortured and mutilated the much-loved Marius Gratidianus.\nHe was believed to have made away with his wife and his son to win the\nprofligate and wealthy Aurelia Orestilla; it was even suspected that he\nhad been guilty of an intrigue with the Vestal Fabia. In 77 he was\nquaestor, in 68 praetor, and in 67-66 governor of Africa. His extortions\nand subsequent impeachment by P. Clodius Pulcher having disqualified him\nas a candidate for the consulship, he formed a conspiracy, in which he\nwas joined by young men of all classes, even Crassus and Caesar,\naccording to rumour, being implicated. The new consuls were to be\nmurdered on the 1st of January; but the plot--the execution of which\nwas deferred till the 5th of February--failed in consequence of the\nimpatience of Catiline, who gave the signal too hastily. Soon after,\nCatiline, having bribed both judges and accuser, was acquitted in the\ntrial for extortion. His scheme was forthwith immensely widened. The\ncity was to be fired, and those who opposed the revolution were to be\nslain; all debts were to be cancelled; and there was to be a\nproscription of all the wealthy citizens. Among the conspirators were\nmany men of the first rank and influence. Arms and money were collected,\nsoldiers were enlisted, and the assistance of the slaves was sought. But\nCatiline's hopes were again disappointed; once more he failed to obtain\nthe consulship (64); and, moreover, it soon became apparent that one of\nthe new consuls, Cicero, was mysteriously able to thwart all the schemes\nof the conspirators. He was, in fact, informed of every detail, through\nFulvia, the mistress of Curius, one of the plotters, who was himself\nsoon persuaded to turn informer. The other consul, C. Antonius, in whom\nCatiline hoped to find a supporter, was won over and got out of the way\nby Cicero, who resigned the province of Macedonia in his favour. Before\nthe next _comitia consularia_ assembled, the orator had given so\nimpressive a warning of the danger which was impending, that Catiline\nwas once more rejected (63), and the consuls were invested with absolute\nauthority. Catiline now resolved upon open war; preparations were set on\nfoot throughout Italy, especially in Etruria, where the standard of\nrevolt was raised by the centurion C. Manlius (or Mallius), one of\nSulla's veterans. A plan to murder Cicero in his own house on the\nmorning of the 7th of November was frustrated. On the next day Cicero\nattacked Catiline so vigorously in the senate (in his first Catilinarian\noration) that he fled to his army in Etruria. Next day Cicero awoke the\nterror of the people by a second oration delivered in the forum, in\nconsequence of which Catiline and Manlius were declared public enemies,\nand the consul Antonius was despatched with an army against them.\nMeanwhile the imprudence of the conspirators in Rome brought about their\nown destruction. Some deputies from the Allobroges, who had been sent to\nRome to obtain redress for certain grievances, were approached by P.\nLentulus Sura, the chief of the conspirators, who endeavoured to induce\nthem to join him. After considerable hesitation, the deputies decided to\nturn informers. The plot was betrayed to Cicero, at whose instigation\ndocumentary evidence was obtained, implicating Lentulus and others. They\nwere arrested, proved guilty, and on the 5th of December condemned to\ndeath and strangled in the underground dungeon on the <DW72> of the\nCapitol. This act, which was opposed by Julius Caesar and advocated by\nCato Uticensis (and, indirectly, by Cicero), was afterwards vigorously\nattacked as a violation of the constitution, on the ground that the\nsenate had no power of life and death over a Roman citizen. Thus a heavy\nblow was dealt to the cause of Catiline, who, in the beginning of 62,\nsaw his legions, only partially armed and diminished by desertion, shut\nin between those of Metellus Celer and C. Antonius. Near Pistoria he\nhazarded battle with the forces of the latter, but was completely\ndefeated in a desperate encounter. He himself, fighting with the utmost\nbravery, rushed into the ranks of the enemy and met his death.\n\nSuch was the conspiracy of Catiline and the character of its author, as\nwe find them in the speeches of Cicero, and the histories of Sallust and\nDio Cassius (see also Plutarch, _Cicero_; Vell. Pat. ii. 35; Florus iv.\n1; Appian, _B.C._ ii. 6; Eutropius vi. 15). It must not be forgotten,\nhowever, that our authorities were all members of the aristocratic\nparty. Some of the incidents given as facts by Dio Cassius are manifest\nabsurdities; and Cicero paid more regard to the effect than to the\ntruthfulness of an accusation. We find him at one time admitting that\nCatiline had almost persuaded him of his honesty and merit, and even\nseeking a political union with him; at another, when his alliance had\nbeen rejected and an election was at hand, declaiming against him as a\nmurderer and a profligate. Lastly, though Sallust's vivid narrative is\nconsistent throughout, it is obvious that he cherished very bitter\nfeelings against the democratic party. Nevertheless, we cannot regard\nCatiline as an honest enemy of the oligarchy, or as a disinterested\nchampion of the provincials. It is held by some historians that there\nwas at the time on the part of many of the Roman nobles a determination\nto raise themselves to power, despite the opposition of the senate:\nothers with greater probability maintain that Catiline's object was\nsimply the cancelling of the huge debts which he and his friends had\naccumulated. Catiline, by his bravery, his military talents, his\nvigorous resolution, and his wonderful power over men, was eminently\nqualified as a revolutionary leader. He is the subject of tragedies by\nBen Jonson and P. Crebillon, and of the _Rome sauvee_ of Voltaire.\n\n  See P. Merimee, _Etudes sur la guerre sociale et la conjuration de\n  Catiline_ (1844); E. Hagen, _Catilina_ (1854), with introductory\n  discussion of the authorities; E.S. Beesley, \"Catiline as a Party\n  Leader\" (_Fortnightly Review_, June 1865), in defence of Catiline; C.\n  John, _Die Entstehungsgeschichte der catilinarischen Verschworung_\n  (1876), a critical examination of Sallust's account; E. von Stern,\n  _Catilina und die Parteikampfe in Rom_ 66-63 (1883), with bibliography\n  in preface; C. Thiaucourt, _Etude sur la conjuration de Catiline_\n  (1887), a critical examination of Sallust's account and of his object\n  in writing it; J.E. Blondel, _Histoire economique de la conjuration de\n  Catiline_ (1893), written from the point of view of a political\n  economist; Gaston Boissier, _La Conjuration de Catiline_ (1905), and\n  _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans.); Tyrrell and Purser's ed. of\n  Cicero's _Letters_ (index vol. s.v. \"Sergius Catilina\"); J.L. Strachan\n  Davidson, _Cicero_ (1894), ch. v.; Warde Fowler's _Caesar_ (1892); see\n  also art. ROME: _History, The Republic_.\n\n\n\n\nCATINAT, NICOLAS (1637-1712), marshal of France, entered the Gardes\nFrancaises at an early age and distinguished himself at the siege of\nLille in 1667. He became a brigadier ten years later, _marechal de camp_\nin 1680, and lieutenant-general 1688. He served with great credit in the\ncampaigns of 1676-1678 in Flanders, was employed against the Vaudois in\n1686, and after taking part in the siege of Philipsburg at the opening\nof the War of the League of Augsburg, he was appointed to command the\nFrench troops in the south-eastern theatre of war. In 1690 he conquered\nSavoy, and in 1691 Nice; the battle of Staffarda, won by him over the\nduke of Savoy in 1690, and that of Marsaglia in 1693, were amongst the\ngreatest victories of the time. In 1696 Catinat forced the duke to make\nan alliance with France. He had in 1693 been made a marshal of France.\nAt the beginning of the war of the Spanish Succession, Catinat was\nplaced in charge of operations in Italy, but he was much hampered by the\norders of the French court and the weakness of the forces for their\ntask. He suffered a reverse at Carpi (1701) and was soon afterwards\nsuperseded by Villeroy, to whom he acted as second-in-command during the\ncampaign of Chiari. He died at St Gratien in 1712. His memoirs were\npublished in 1819.\n\n  See E. de Broglie, _Catinat, 1637-1712_ (Paris, 1902).\n\n\n\n\nCATLIN, GEORGE (1796-1872), American ethnologist, was born at\nWilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, in 1796. He was educated as a lawyer and\npractised in Philadelphia for two years; but art was his favourite\npursuit, and forsaking the law he established himself at New York as a\nportrait painter. In 1832, realizing that the American Indians were\ndying out, he resolved to rescue their types and customs from oblivion.\nWith this object he spent many years among the Indians in North and\nSouth America. He lived with them, acquired their languages, and studied\nvery thoroughly their habits, customs and mode of life, making copious\nnotes and many studies for paintings. In 1840 he came to Europe with his\ncollection of paintings, most of which are now in the National Museum,\nWashington, as the Catlin Gallery; and in the following year he\npublished the _Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American\nIndians_ in two volumes, illustrated with 300 engravings. This was\nfollowed in 1844 by _The North American Portfolio_, containing 25 plates\nof hunting scenes and amusements in the Rocky Mountains and the prairies\nof America, and in 1848 by _Eight Years' Travels and Residence in\nEurope_. In 1861 he published a curious little volume, in \"manugraph,\"\nentitled _The Breath of Life_, on the advantage of keeping one's mouth\nhabitually closed, especially during sleep; and in 1868, _Last Rambles\namongst the Indians of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes_. He died in\nJersey City, New Jersey, on the 22nd of December 1872.\n\n\n\n\nCATO, DIONYSIUS, the supposed author of the _Dionysii Catonis Disticha\nde Moribus ad Filium_. The name usually given is simply Cato, an\nindication of the wise character of the maxims inculcated, but Dionysius\nis added on the authority of a MS. declared by Scaliger to be of great\nantiquity. This MS. also contains Priscian's translation of the\nPeriegesis of the geographer Dionysius Periegetes; this has probably led\nto the _Disticha_ also being attributed to him. In the middle ages the\nauthor on the _Disticha_ was supposed to be Cato the Elder, who wrote a\n_Carmen de Moribus_, but extracts from this in Aulus Gellius show that\nit was in prose. Nothing is really known of the author or date of the\n_Disticha_; it can only be assigned to the 3rd or 4th century A.D. It is\na small collection of moral apophthegms, each consisting of two\nhexameters, in four books. They are monotheistic in character, not\nspecially Christian. The diction and metre are fairly good. The book had\na great reputation in the middle ages, and was translated into many\nlanguages; it is frequently referred to by Chaucer, and in 1483 a\ntranslation was issued from Caxton's press at Westminster.\n\n  Editions by F. Hauthal (1869), with full account of MSS. and early\n  editions, and G. Nemethy (1895), with critical notes; see also F.\n  Zarncke, _Der deutsche Cato_ (1852), a history of middle age German\n  translations; J. Nehab, _Der altenglische Cato_ (1879); E. Bischoff,\n  _Prolegomena zum sogenannten Dionysius Cato_ (1893), in which the name\n  is discussed; F. Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909), 663; for medieval\n  translations and editions see Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Lit._ S 398, 3.\n\n\n\n\nCATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234-149 B.C.), Roman statesman, surnamed \"The\nCensor,\" _Sapiens, Priscus_, or _Major_ (the Elder), to distinguish him\nfrom Cato of Utica, was born at Tusculum. He came of an ancient plebeian\nfamily, noted for some military services, but not ennobled by the\ndischarge of the higher civil offices. He was bred, after the manner of\nhis Latin forefathers, to agriculture, to which he devoted himself when\nnot engaged in military service. But, having attracted the notice of L.\nValerius Flaccus, he was brought to Rome, and became successively\nquaestor (204), aedile (199), praetor (198), and consul (195) with his\nold patron. During his term of office he vainly opposed the repeal of\nthe lex Oppia, passed during the Second Punic War to restrict luxury and\nextravagance on the part of women. Meanwhile he served in Africa, and\ntook part in the crowning campaign of Zama (202). He held a command in\nSardinia, where he first showed his strict public morality, and again in\nSpain, which he reduced to subjection with great cruelty, and gained\nthereby the honour of a triumph (194). In the year 191 he acted as\nmilitary tribune in the war against Antiochus III. of Syria, and played\nan important part in the battle of Thermopylae, which finally delivered\nGreece from the encroachments of the East. His reputation as a soldier\nwas now established; henceforth he preferred to serve the state at home,\nscrutinizing the conduct of the candidates for public honours and of\ngenerals in the field. If he was not personally engaged in the\nprosecution of the Scipios (Africanus and Asiaticus) for corruption, it\nwas his spirit that animated the attack upon them. Even Africanus, who\nrefused to reply to the charge, saying only, \"Romans, this is the day on\nwhich I conquered Hannibal,\" and was absolved by acclamation, found it\nnecessary to retire self-banished to his villa at Liternum. Cato's\nenmity dated from the African campaign when he quarrelled with Scipio\nfor his lavish distribution of the spoil amongst the troops, and his\ngeneral luxury and extravagance.\n\nCato had, however, a more serious task to perform in opposing the spread\nof the new Hellenic culture which threatened to destroy the rugged\nsimplicity of the conventional Roman type. He conceived it to be his\nspecial mission to resist this invasion. It was in the discharge of the\ncensorship that this determination was most strongly exhibited, and\nhence that he derived the title (the Censor) by which he is most\ngenerally distinguished. He revised with unsparing severity the lists of\nsenators and knights, ejecting from either order the men whom he judged\nunworthy of it, either on moral grounds or from their want of the\nprescribed means. The expulsion of L. Quinctius Flamininus for wanton\ncruelty was an example of his rigid justice. His regulations against\nluxury were very stringent. He imposed a heavy tax upon dress and\npersonal adornment, especially of women, and upon young slaves purchased\nas favourites. In 181 he supported the lex Orchia (according to others,\nhe first opposed its introduction, and subsequently its repeal), which\nprescribed a limit to the number of guests at an entertainment, and in\n169 the lex Voconia, one of the provisions of which was intended to\ncheck the accumulation of an undue proportion of wealth in the hands of\nwomen. Amongst other things he repaired the aqueducts, cleansed the\nsewers, prevented private persons drawing off public water for their own\nuse, ordered the demolition of houses which encroached on the public\nway, and built the first basilica in the forum near the curia. He raised\nthe amount paid by the publican for the right of farming the taxes, and\nat the same time diminished the contract prices for the construction of\npublic works.\n\nFrom the date of his censorship (184) to his death in 149, Cato held no\npublic office, but continued to distinguish himself in the senate as the\npersistent opponent of the new ideas. He was struck with horror, along\nwith many other Romans of the graver stamp, at the licence of the\nBacchanalian mysteries, which he attributed to the fatal influence of\nGreek manners; and he vehemently urged the dismissal of the philosophers\n(Carneades, Diogenes and Critolaus), who came as ambassadors from\nAthens, on account of the dangerous nature of the views expressed by\nthem. He had a horror of physicians, who were chiefly Greeks. He\nprocured the release of Polybius, the historian, and his\nfellow-prisoners, contemptuously asking whether the senate had nothing\nmore important to do than discuss whether a few Greeks should die at\nRome or in their own land. It was not till his eightieth year that he\nmade his first acquaintance with Greek literature. Almost his last\npublic act was to urge his countrymen to the Third Punic War and the\ndestruction of Carthage. In 157 he was one of the deputies sent to\nCarthage to arbitrate between the Carthaginians and Massinissa, king of\nNumidia. The mission was unsuccessful and the commissioners returned\nhome. But Cato was so struck by the evidences of Carthaginian prosperity\nthat he was convinced that the security of Rome depended on the\nannihilation of Carthage. From this time, in season and out of season,\nhe kept repeating the cry: \"Delenda est Carthago.\"\n\nTo Cato the individual life was a continual discipline, and public life\nwas the discipline of the many. He regarded the individual householder\nas the germ of the family, the family as the germ of the state. By\nstrict economy of time he accomplished an immense amount of work; he\nexacted similar application from his dependents, and proved himself a\nhard husband, a strict father, a severe and cruel master. There was\nlittle difference apparently, in the esteem in which he held his wife\nand his slaves; his pride alone induced him to take a warmer interest in\nhis sons. To the Romans themselves there was little in this behaviour\nwhich seemed worthy of censure; it was respected rather as a traditional\nexample of the old Roman manners. In the remarkable passage (xxxix. 40)\nin which Livy describes the character of Cato, there is no word of blame\nfor the rigid discipline of his household.\n\nCato perhaps deserves even more notice as a literary man than as a\nstatesman or a soldier. He was the first Latin prose writer of any\nimportance, and the first author of a history of Rome in Latin. His\ntreatise on agriculture (_De Agricultura_, or _De Re Rustica_) is the\nonly work by him that has been preserved; it is not agreed whether the\nwork we possess is the original or a later revision. It contains a\nmiscellaneous collection of rules of good husbandry, conveying much\ncurious information on the domestic habits of the Romans of his age. His\nmost important work, _Origines_, in seven books, related the history of\nRome from its earliest foundations to his own day. It was so called from\nthe second and third books, which described the rise of the different\nItalian towns. His speeches, of which as many as 150 were collected,\nwere principally directed against the young free-thinking and\nloose-principled nobles of the day. He also wrote a set of maxims for\nthe use of his son (_Praecepta ad Filium_), and some rules for everyday\nlife in verse (_Carmen de Moribus_). The collection of proverbs in\nhexameter verse, extant under the name of Cato, probably belongs to the\n4th century A.D. (See CATO, DIONYSIUS.)\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--There are lives of Cato by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch and\n  Aurelius Victor, and many particulars of his career and character are\n  to be gathered from Livy and Cicero. See also F.D. Gerlach, _Marcus\n  Porcius Cato der Censor_ (Basel, 1869); G. Kurth, _Caton l'ancien_\n  (Bruges, 1872); J. Cortese, _De M. Porcii Catonis vita, operibus, et\n  lingua_ (Turin, 1883); F. Marcucci, _Studio critico sulle Opere di\n  Catone il Maggiore_ (1902). The best edition of the _De Agricultura_\n  is by H. Keil (1884-1891), of the fragments of the _Origines_ by H.\n  Peter (1883) in _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_, of the fragments\n  generally by H. Jordan (1860); see also J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and\n  Specimens of Early Latin_ (1874); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen\n  Litteratur_ (1898); article in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman\n  Biography_, Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. iii. ch. xi\n  and xiv.; Warde Fowler, _Social Life at Rome_ (1909).\n\n\n\n\nCATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.C.), Roman philosopher, called _Uticensis_\nto distinguish him from his great-grandfather, \"the Censor.\" On the\ndeath of his parents he was brought up in the house of his uncle, M.\nLivius Drusus. After fighting with distinction in the ranks against\nSpartacus (72 B.C.), he became a military tribune (67), and served a\ncampaign in Macedonia, but he never had any enthusiasm for the military\nprofession. On his return he became quaestor, and showed so much zeal\nand integrity in the management of the public accounts that he obtained\na provincial appointment in Asia, where he strengthened his reputation.\nThough filled with disgust at the corruption of the public men with whom\nhe came in contact, he saw much to admire in the discipline which\nLucullus had enforced in his own eastern command, and he supported his\nclaims to a triumph, while he opposed the inordinate pretensions of\nPompey. When the favour of the nobles gained him the tribuneship, he\nexerted himself unsuccessfully to convict L. Licinius Murena (2), one of\ntheir chief men, of bribery. Cicero, who defended Murena, was glad to\nhave Cato's aid when he urged the execution of the Catilinarian\nconspirators. Cato's vote on this matter drew upon him the bitter\nresentment of Julius Caesar, who did his utmost to save them.\n\nCato had now become a great power in the state. Though possessed of\nlittle wealth and no family influence, his unflinching resolution in the\ncause of the ancient free state rendered him a valuable instrument in\nthe hands of the nobles. He vainly opposed Caesar's candidature for the\nconsulship in 59, and his attempt, in conjunction with Bibulus, to\nprevent the passing of Caesar's proposed agrarian law for distributing\nlands amongst the Asiatic veterans, proved unsuccessful. Nevertheless,\nalthough his efforts were ineffectual, he was still an obstacle of\nsufficient importance for the triumvirs to desire to get rid of him. At\nthe instigation of Caesar he was sent to Cyprus (58) with a mission to\ndepose its king, Ptolemy (brother of Ptolemy Auletes), and annex the\nisland. On his return two years later he continued to struggle against\nthe combined powers of the triumvirs in the city, and became involved in\nscenes of violence and riot. He succeeded in obtaining the praetorship\nin 54, and strenuously exerted himself in the hopeless and thankless\ntask of suppressing bribery, in which all parties were equally\ninterested. He failed to attain the consulship, and had made up his mind\nto retire from the arena of civic ambition when the civil war broke out\nin 49. Feeling that the sole chance for the free state lay in conceding\nan actual supremacy to Pompey, whom he had formerly vigorously opposed,\nhe did not scruple to support the unjust measures of the nobles against\nCaesar. At the outset of the war he was entrusted with the defence of\nSicily, but finding it impossible to resist the superior forces of C.\nScribonius Curio, who had landed on the island, he joined Pompey at\nDyrrhachium. When his chief followed Caesar to Thessaly he was left\nbehind in charge of the camp, and thus was not present at the battle of\nPharsalus. After the battle, when Pompey abandoned his party, he\nseparated himself from the main body of the republicans, and conducted a\nsmall remnant of their forces into Africa. After his famous march\nthrough the Libyan deserts, he shut himself up in Utica, and even after\nthe decisive defeat at Thapsus (46), in spite of the wishes of his\nfollowers, he determined to keep the gates closed till he had sent off\nhis adherents by sea. While the embarkation was in progress he continued\ncalm and dignified; when the last of the transports had left the port he\ncheerfully dismissed his attendants, and soon afterwards stabbed\nhimself.\n\nHe had been reading, we are told, in his last moments Plato's dialogue\non the immortality of the soul, but his own philosophy had taught him to\nact upon a narrow sense of immediate duty without regard to the future.\nHe conceived that he was placed in the world to play an active part, and\nwhen disabled from carrying out his principles, to retire gravely from\nit. He had lived for the free state, and it now seemed his duty to\nperish with it. In politics he was a typical doctrinaire, abhorring\ncompromise and obstinately blind to the fact that his national ideal was\na hopeless anachronism. From the circumstances of his life and of his\ndeath, he has come to be regarded as one of the most distinguished of\nRoman philosophers, but he composed no works, and bequeathed to\nposterity no other instruction than that of his example. The only\ncomposition by him which we possess is a letter to Cicero (_Ad Fam._ xv.\n5), a polite refusal of the orator's request that he would endeavour to\nprocure him the honour of a triumph. The school of the Stoics, which\ntook a leading part in the history of Rome under the earlier emperors,\nlooked to him as its saint and patron. It continued to wage war against\nthe empire, hardly less openly than Cato himself had done, for two\ncenturies, till at last it became actually seated on the imperial throne\nin the person of Marcus Aurelius. Immediately after his death Cato's\ncharacter became the subject of discussion; Cicero's panegyric _Cato_\nwas answered by Caesar in his _Anticato_. Brutus, dissatisfied with\nCicero's work, produced another on the same subject; in Lucan Cato is\nrepresented as a model of virtue and disinterestedness.\n\n  See _Life_ by Plutarch, and compare Addison's tragedy. Modern\n  biographies by H. Wartmann (Zurich, 1859), and F.D. Gerlach (Basel,\n  1866); C.W. Oman, _Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic, Cato\n  ..._ (1902); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. v.;\n  article in Smith's _Dictionary of Classical Biography_; Gaston\n  Boissier, _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897), esp. pp. 277\n  foll.; Warde Fowler, _Social Life at Rome_ (1909).\n\n\n\n\nCATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS, Roman poet and grammarian, was born about 100\nB.C. He is of importance as the leader of the \"new\" school of poetry\n(_poetae novi_, [Greek: neoteroi], as Cicero calls them). Its followers\nrejected the national epic and drama in favour of the artificial\nmythological epics and elegies of the Alexandrian school, and preferred\nEuphorion of Chalcis to Ennius. Learning, that is, a knowledge of Greek\nliterature and myths, and strict adherence to metrical rules were\nregarded by them as indispensable to the poet. The [Greek: neoteroi]\nwere also determined opponents of Pompey and Caesar. The great influence\nof Cato is attested by the lines:--\n\n  \"Cato grammaticus, Latina Siren,\n   Qui solus legit ac facit poetas.\"[1]\n\nOur information regarding his life is derived from Suetonius (_De\nGrammaticis_, 11). He was a native of Cisalpine Gaul, and lost his\nproperty during the Sullan disturbances before he had attained his\nmajority. He lived to a great age, and during the latter part of his\nlife was in very reduced circumstances. He was at one time possessed of\nconsiderable wealth, and owned a villa at Tusculum which he was obliged\nto hand over to his creditors. In addition to grammatical treatises,\nCato wrote a number of poems, the best-known of which were the _Lydia_\nand _Diana_. In the _Indignatio_ (perhaps a short poem) he defended\nhimself against the accusation that he was of servile birth. It is\nprobable that he is the Cato mentioned as a critic of Lucilius in the\nlines by an unknown author prefixed to Horace, _Satires_, i. 10.\n\n  Among the minor poems attributed to Virgil is one called _Dirae_ (or\n  rather two, _Dirae_ and _Lydia_). The _Dirae_ consists of imprecations\n  against the estate of which the writer has been deprived, and where he\n  is obliged to leave his beloved Lydia; in the _Lydia_, on the other\n  hand, the estate is regarded with envy as the possessor of his\n  charmer. Joseph Justus Scaliger was the first to attribute the poem\n  (divided into two by F. Jacobs) to Valerius Cato, on the ground that\n  he had lost an estate and had written a _Lydia_. The question has been\n  much discussed; the balance of opinion is in favour of the _Dirae_\n  being assigned to the beginning of the Augustan age, although so\n  distinguished a critic as O. Ribbeck supports the claims of Cato to\n  the authorship. The best edition of these poems is by A.F. Nake\n  (1847), with exhaustive commentary and excursuses; a clear account of\n  the question will be found in M. Schanz's _Geschichte der romischen\n  Litteratur_; for the \"new\" school of poetry see Mommsen, _Hist. of\n  Rome_, bk. v. ch. xii.; F. Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909), 188.\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] \"Cato, the grammarian, the Latin siren, who alone reads aloud the\n    works and makes the reputation of poets.\"\n\n\n\n\nCATS, JACOB (1577-1660), Dutch poet and humorist, was born at\nBrouwershaven in Zeeland on the 10th of November 1577. Having lost his\nmother at an early age, and being adopted with his three brothers by an\nuncle, Cats was sent to school at Zierikzee. He then studied law at\nLeiden and at Orleans, and, returning to Holland, he settled at the\nHague, where he began to practise as an advocate. His pleading in\ndefence of a wretched creature accused of witchcraft brought him many\nclients and some reputation. He had a serious love affair about this\ntime, which was broken off on the very eve of marriage by his catching a\ntertian fever which defied all attempts at cure for some two years. For\nmedical advice and change of air Cats went to England, where he\nconsulted the highest authorities in vain. He returned to Zeeland to\ndie, but was cured mysteriously by a strolling quack. He married in 1602\na lady of some property, Elisabeth von Valkenburg, and thenceforward\nlived at Grypskerke in Zeeland, where he devoted himself to farming and\npoetry. His best works are: _Emblemata_ or _Minnebeelden_ with\n_Maegdenplicht_ (1618); _Spiegel van den ouden en nieuwen Tijt_ (1632);\n_Houwelijck ..._ (1625); _Selfstrijt_ (1620); _Ouderdom, Buitem leven\n... en Hofgedachten op Sorgvliet_ (1664); and _Gedachten op slapelooze\nnachten_ (1661). In 1621, on the expiration of the twelve years' truce\nwith Spain, the breaking of the <DW18>s drove him from his farm. He was\nmade pensionary (stipendiary magistrate) of Middelburg; and two years\nafterwards of Dort. In 1627 Cats came to England on a mission to Charles\nI., who made him a knight. In 1636 he was made grand pensionary of\nHolland, and in 1648 keeper of the great seal; in 1651 he resigned his\noffices, but in 1657 he was sent a second time to England on what proved\nto be an unsuccessful mission to Cromwell. In the seclusion of his villa\nof Sorgvliet (Fly-from-Care), near the Hague, he lived from this time\ntill his death, occupied in the composition of his autobiography\n(_Eighty-two Years of My Life_, first printed at Leiden in 1734) and of\nhis poems. He died on the 12th of September 1660, and was buried by\ntorchlight, and with great ceremony, in the Klooster-Kerk at the Hague.\nHe is still spoken of as \"Father Cats\" by his countrymen.\n\nCats was contemporary with Hooft and Vondel and other distinguished\nDutch writers in the golden age of Dutch literature, but his Orangist\nand Calvinistic opinions separated him from the liberal school of\nAmsterdam poets. He was, however, intimate with Constantin Huygens,\nwhose political opinions were more nearly in agreement with his own. For\nan estimate of his poetry see DUTCH LITERATURE. Hardly known outside of\nHolland, among his own people for nearly two centuries he enjoyed an\nenormous popularity. His diffuseness and the antiquated character of his\nmatter and diction, have, however, come to be regarded as difficulties\nin the way of study, and he is more renowned than read. A statue to him\nwas erected at Brouwershaven in 1829.\n\n  See Jacob Cats, _Complete Works_ (1790-1800, 19 vols.), later editions\n  by van Vloten (Zwolle, 1858-1866; and at Schiedam, 1869-1870); Pigott,\n  _Moral Emblems, with Aphorisms, &c., from Jacob Cats_ (1860); and P.C.\n  Witsen Gejisbek, _Het Leven en de Verdiensten van Jacob Cats_ (1829).\n  Southey has a very complimentary reference to Cats in his \"Epistle to\n  Allan Cunningham.\"\n\n\n\n\nCAT'S-EYE, a name given to several distinct minerals, their common\ncharacteristic being that when cut with a convex surface they display a\nluminous band, like that seen by reflection in the eye of a cat. (1)\nPrecious cat's-eye, oriental cat's-eye or chrysoberyl cat's-eye. This,\nthe rarest of all, is a chatoyant variety of chrysoberyl (q.v.), showing\nin the finest stones a very sharply defined line of light. One of the\ngrandest known specimens was in the Hope collection of precious stones,\nexhibited for many years at the Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) Quartz\ncat's-eye. This is the common form of cat's-eye, in which the effect is\ndue to the inclusion of parallel fibres of asbestos. Like the\nchrysoberyl, it is obtained chiefly from Ceylon, but though coming from\nthe East it is often called \"occidental cat's-eye\"--a term intended\nsimply to distinguish it from the finer or \"oriental\" stone. It is\nreadily distinguished by its inferior density, its specific gravity\nbeing only 2.65, whilst that of oriental cat's-eye is as high as 3.7. A\ngreenish fibrous quartz, cut as cat's-eye, occurs at Hof and some other\nlocalities irr Bavaria. (3) Crocidolite cat's-eye, a beautiful golden\nbrown mineral, with silky fibres, found in Griqualand West, and much\nused in recent years as an ornamental stone, sometimes under the name of\n\"South African cat's-eye.\" It consists of fibrous quartz,  with\noxide of iron, and results from the alteration of crocidolite (q.v.). It\nis often distinguished as \"tiger's-eye\" (or more commonly \"tiger-eye\"),\nwhilst a blue variety, less altered, is known as \"hawk's-eye.\" By the\naction of hydrochloric acid the colour of tiger's-eye may to a large\nextent be removed, and a greyish cat's-eye obtained. (4) Corundum\ncat's-eye. In some asteriated corundum (see ASTERIA) the star is\nimperfect and may be reduced to a luminous zone, producing an indistinct\ncat's-eye effect. According to the colour of the corundum the stone is\nknown as sapphire cat's-eye, ruby cat's-eye, topaz cat's-eye, &c.\n     (F. W. R.*)\n\n\n\n\nCATSKILL, a village and the county-seat of Greene county, New York,\nU.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, 33 m. S. of Albany. Pop.\n(1890) 4920; (1900) 5484; of whom 657 were foreign-born; (1910) 5206. It\nis served by the West Shore railway, by several lines of river\nsteamboats, and by the Catskill Mountain railway, connecting it with the\npopular summer resorts in the Catskill mountains. A ferry connects with\nCatskill station (Greendale) on the east side of the Hudson. The village\nis in a farming country, and manufactures woollen goods and bricks, but\nit is best known as a summer resort, and as the principal gateway to the\nbeautiful Catskill Mountain region. The _Recorder_, a weekly newspaper,\nwas established here in 1792 as the _Packet_. The first settler on the\npresent site of Catskill was Derrick Teunis van Vechten, who built a\nhouse here in 1680. The village was not incorporated until 1806.\n\n  See J.D. Pinckney, _Reminiscences of Catskill_ (Catskill, 1868).\n\n\n\n\nCATSKILL (formerly KAATSKIL) MOUNTAINS, a group of moderate elevation\npertaining to the Alleghany Plateau, and not properly included in the\nAppalachian system of North America because they lack the internal\nstructures and the general parallelism of topographic features which\ncharacterize the Appalachian ranges. The group contains many summits\nabove 3000 ft. elevation and half a dozen approaching 4000, Slide\nMountain (4205 ft.), and Hunter Mountain (4025 ft.), being the only ones\nexceeding that figure. The bottom lands along the creeks which drain the\nmountains, together with rolling uplands rising to elevations of from\n1500 to 2000 ft., are under cultivation, the mountain <DW72>s being\nforested or devoted to grazing. The pure and cool atmosphere attracts\nsummer visitors, for whose accommodation many hotels have been built,\nsome of which have become celebrated. Stoney Clove and Kaaterskill Clove\nare picturesque gorges, the former being traversed by a rail way, and\nthe latter containing three cascades having a total fall of about 300\nft. The growing need of New York City for an increased water-supply has\ndriven her engineers to the Catskills, where several great reservoirs\nhave been projected to supplement those of the Croton watershed.\n\n\n\n\nCATTANEO, CARLO (1801-1869), Italian philosopher and patriot. A\nrepublican in his convictions, during his youth he had taken part in the\nCarbonarist movement in Lombardy. He devoted himself to the study of\nphilosophy, hoping to regenerate the Italian people by withdrawing them\nfrom romanticism and rhetoric, and turning their attention to the\npositive sciences. He expounded his ideas in a review founded by him at\nMilan in 1837, called _Il Politecnico_. But when the revolution of 1848\nbroke out he threw himself heart and soul into the fray, and became one\nof the leading spirits of the insurrection against the Austrians, known\nas the Five Days of Milan (March 18-22, 1848). Together with Terzaghi,\nCernuschi and Clerici he formed a council of war which, having its\nheadquarters at Casa Taverna, directed the operations of the insurgents.\nHe was second to none in self-sacrificing energy and heroic resolution.\nWhen on the 18th of March Field Marshal Radetzky, feeling that the\nposition of the Austrian garrison was untenable, sounded the rebels as\nto their terms, some of the leaders were inclined to agree to an\narmistice which would give time for the Piedmontese troops to arrive\n(Piedmont had just declared war), but Cattaneo insisted on the complete\nevacuation of Lombardy. Again on the 21st, Radetzky tried to obtain an\narmistice, and Durini and Borromeo were ready to grant it, for it would\nhave enabled them to reorganize the defences and replenish the supplies\nof food and ammunition, which could only last another day. But Cattaneo\nreplied: \"The enemy having furnished us with munitions thus far, will\ncontinue to furnish them. Twenty-four hours of victuals and twenty-four\nhours of hunger will be many more hours than we shall need. This\nevening, if the plans we have just arranged should succeed, the line of\nthe bastions will be broken. At any rate, even though we should lack\nbread, it is better to die of hunger than on the gallows.\" On the\nexpulsion of the Austrians the question arose as to the future\ngovernment of Milan and Italy. Cattaneo was an uncompromising republican\nand a federalist; so violent was his dislike of the Piedmontese monarchy\nthat when he heard that King Charles Albert had been defeated by the\nAustrians, and that Radetzky was marching back to reoccupy Milan, he\nexclaimed: \"Good news, the Piedmontese have been beaten. Now we shall be\nour own masters; we shall fight a people's war, we shall chase the\nAustrians out of Italy, and set up a Federal Republic.\" When the\nAustrians returned Cattaneo had to flee, and took refuge at Lugano,\nwhere he gave lessons, wrote his _Storia della Rivoluzione del 1848_,\nthe _Archivio triennale delle cose d' Italia_ (3 vols., 1850-1855), and\nthen early in 1860 he started the _Politecnico_ once more. He bitterly\nattacked Cavour for his unitarian views, and for the cession of Nice and\nSavoy. In 1860 Garibaldi summoned him to Naples to take part in the\ngovernment of the Neapolitan provinces, but he would not agree to the\nunion with Piedmont without local autonomy. After the union of Italy he\nwas frequently asked to stand for parliament, but always refused because\nhe could not conscientiously take the oath of allegiance to the\nmonarchy. In 1868 the pressure of friends overcame his resistance, and\nhe agreed to stand, but at the last moment he drew back, still unable to\ntake the oath, and returned to Lugano, where he died in 1869. As a\nwriter Cattaneo was learned and brilliant, but far too bitter a partisan\nto be judicious, owing to his narrowly republican views; his ideas on\nlocal autonomy were perhaps wise, but, at a moment when unity was the\nfirst essential, inopportune.\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. and J. Mario, _Carlo Cattaneo_ (Florence, 1884); E.\n  Zanoni, _Carlo Cattaneo nella vita e nelle opere_ (Rome, 1898); see\n  also his own _Opere edite ed inedite_ (7 vols., Florence, 1881-1892),\n  _Scritti politici ed epistolari_ (3 vols., Florence, 1892-1901),\n  _Scritti storici, letterari_ (Milan, 1898, &c.).\n\n\n\n\nCATTARO (Serbo-Croatian _Kotor_), the chief town of an administrative\ndistrict in Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) of town, 3021; of commune,\n5418. Cattaro occupies a narrow ledge between the Montenegrin Mountains\nand the Bocche di Cattaro, a winding and beautiful inlet of the Adriatic\nSea. This inlet expands into five broad gulfs, united by narrower\nchannels, and forms one of the finest natural harbours in Europe. Teodo,\non the outermost gulf, is a small naval port. Cattaro is strongly\nfortified, and about 3000 troops are stationed in its neighbourhood. On\nthe seaward side, the defensive works include Castelnuovo (_Erceg\nNovi_), which guards the main entrance to the Bocche. On the landward\nside, the long walls running from the town to the castle of San\nGiovanni, far above, form a striking feature in the landscape; and the\nheights of the Krivoscie or Crevoscia (_Krivosije_), a group of barren\nmountains between Montenegro, Herzegovina and the sea, are crowned by\nsmall forts. Cattaro is divided almost equally between the Roman\nCatholic and Orthodox creeds. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,\nwith a small cathedral, a collegiate church and several convents. The\ntransit trade with Montenegro is impeded by high tariffs on both sides\nof the frontier. Foreign visitors to Montenegro usually land at Cattaro,\nwhich is connected by steamer with Trieste and by road with Cettigne.\nThe railway from Ragusa terminates at Zelenika, near Castelnuovo.\n\nThere are many interesting places on the shores of the Bocche.\nCastelnuovo is a picturesque town, with a dismantled 14th-century\ncitadel, which has, at various times, been occupied by Bosnians, Turks,\nVenetians, Spaniards, Russians, French, English and Austrians. The\northodox convent of St Sava, standing amid beautiful gardens, was\nfounded in the 16th century, and contains many fine specimens of\n17th-century silversmiths' work. There is a Benedictine monastery on a\nsmall island opposite to Perasto (_Perast_), 8 m. east of Castelnuovo.\nPerasto itself was for a time an independent state in the 14th century.\nRhizon, the modern hamlet of Risano, close by, was a thriving \"Illyrian\"\ncity as early as 229 B.C., and gave its name to the Bocche, then known\nas _Rhizonicus Sinus_. Rhizon submitted to Rome in 168 B.C., and about\nthe same time Ascrivium, or Ascruvium, the modern Cattaro, is first\nmentioned as a neighbouring city. Justinian built a fortress above\nAscrivium in A.D. 535, after expelling the Goths, and a second town\nprobably grew up on the heights round it, for Constantine\nPorphyrogenitus, in the 10th century, alludes to \"Lower Cattaro\" [Greek:\nto kato Dekatera]. The city was plundered by the Saracens in 840, and by\nthe Bulgarians in 1102. In the next year it was ceded to Servia by the\nBulgarian tsar Samuel, but revolted, in alliance with Ragusa, and only\nsubmitted in 1184, as a protected state, preserving intact its\nrepublican institutions, and its right to conclude treaties and engage\nin war. It was already an episcopal see, and, in the 13th century,\nDominican and Franciscan monasteries were established to check the\nspread of Bogomilism. In the 14th century the commerce of Cattaro\nrivalled that of Ragusa, and provoked the jealousy of Venice. The\ndownfall of Servia in 1389 left the city without a guardian, and, after\nbeing seized and abandoned by Venice and Hungary in turn, it passed\nunder Venetian rule in 1420. It was besieged by the Turks in 1538 and\n1657, visited by plague in 1572, and nearly destroyed by earthquakes in\n1563 and 1667. By the treaty of Campo-Formio in 1797 it passed to\nAustria; but in 1805, by the treaty of Pressburg, it was assigned to\nItaly, and was united in 1810 with the French empire. In 1814 it was\nrestored to Austria by the congress of Vienna. The attempt to enforce\ncompulsory military service, made and abandoned in 1869, but finally\nsuccessful in 1881, led to two short-lived revolts among the\nKrivoscians, during which Cattaro was the Austrian headquarters.\n\n  See G. Gelcich (Gelcic), _Memorie storiche sulle Bocche di Cattaro_\n  (Zara, 1880).\n\n\n\n\nCATTEGAT, or KATTEGAT (Scand. \"cat's-throat\"), a strait forming part of\nthe connexion between the Baltic and the North Seas. It lies north and\nsouth between Sweden and Denmark, and connects north with the Skagerrack\nand south through the Sound, the Great Belt and the Little Belt with the\nBaltic Sea. Its length is about 150 m. and its extreme breadth about 90\nm.\n\n\n\n\nCATTERMOLE, GEORGE (1800-1868), English painter, chiefly in\nwater-colours, was born at Dickleburgh, near Diss, Norfolk, in August\n1800. At the age of sixteen he began working as an architectural and\ntopographical draughtsman; afterwards he contributed designs to be\nengraved in the annuals then so popular; thence he progressed into\nwater-colour painting, becoming an associate of the Water-Colour Society\nin 1822, and a full member in 1833. In 1850 he withdrew from active\nconnexion with this society, and took to painting in oil. His most\nfertile period was between 1833 and 1850. At the Paris exhibition of\n1855 he received one of the five first-class gold medals awarded to\nBritish painters. He also enjoyed professional honours in Amsterdam and\nin Belgium. He died on the 24th of July 1868. Among his leading works\nare \"The Murder of the Bishop of Liege\" (15th century), \"The Armourer\nrelating the Story of the Sword,\" \"The Assassination of the Regent\nMurray by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh,\" and (in oil) \"A Terrible Secret.\"\nHe was largely employed by publishers, illustrating the _Waverley\nNovels_ and the _Historical Annual_ of his brother the Rev. Richard\nCattermole (his scenes from the wars of Cavaliers and Roundheads in this\nseries are among his best engraved works), and many other volumes\nbesides. Cattermole was a painter of no inconsiderable gifts, and of\ngreat facility in picturesque resource; he was defective in solidity of\nform and texture, and in realism or richness of colour. He excelled in\nrendering scenes of chivalry, of medievalism, and generally of the\nromantic aspects of the past.\n\n\n\n\nCATTLE (Norman Fr. _catel_, from Late Lat. _capitate_, wealth or\nproperty, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and\nparticularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as\n\"chattel\" or \"chattle\"), a general term for the cows and oxen of\nagricultural use. For the zoological account, see BOVIDAE, and the\nsubordinate articles there referred to; for details concerning\ndairy-farming, see DAIRY.\n\nOxen appear to have been among the earliest of domesticated animals, as\nthey undoubtedly were among the most important agents in the growth of\nearly civilization. They are mentioned in the oldest written records of\nthe Hebrew and Hindu peoples, and are figured on Egyptian monuments\nraised over 3000 years B.C.; while remains of domesticated specimens\nhave been found in Swiss lake-dwellings along with the stone implements\nand other relics of Neolithic man. In infant communities a man's wealth\nwas measured by the number and size of his herds--Abraham, it is said,\nwas rich in cattle--and oxen for a long period formed, as they still do\namong many savage or semi-savage tribes, the favourite medium of\nexchange between individuals and communities. After the introduction of\na metal coinage into ancient Greece, this method of exchange was\ncommemorated by stamping the image of an ox on the new money; while the\nconnexion between cattle and coin as symbols of wealth has left its mark\non the languages of Europe, as is seen in the Latin word _pecunia_ and\nthe English \"pecuniary,\" derived from _pecus_, cattle. The value\nattached to cattle in ancient times is further shown by the Bull\nfiguring among the signs of the zodiac; in its worship by the ancient\nEgyptians under the title of Apis; in the veneration which has always\nbeen paid to it by the Hindus, according to whose sacred legends it was\nthe first animal created by the three divinities directed by the supreme\nDeity to furnish the earth with animated beings; and in the important\npart it played in Greek and Roman mythology. The Hindus were not allowed\nto shed the blood of the ox, and the Egyptians could only do so in\nsacrificing to their gods. Both Hindus and Jews were forbidden to muzzle\nit when treading out the corn; to destroy it wantonly was a crime among\nthe Romans, punishable with exile.\n\n_Breeds_.--There exist in Britain four interesting remnants of what were\nat one time numerous enclosed herds of ancient forest cattle,[1] with\nblack or red points, in parks at Chillingham, Cadzow, Vaynol (near\nBangor, North Wales) and Chartley. A few of the last have been removed\nto Woburn. Other representatives of old stock are a resuscitated white\nWelsh breed with black points, derived from white specimens born of\nblack Welsh cows; several herds of a white polled breed with black\npoints; a herd of the ancient Polled Suffolk Dun, an excellent milking\nbreed; a White Belted Galloway and a White Belted Welsh breed; the old\nGloucester breed at Badminton, with a white rump, tail and underline,\nrelated to the now extinct Glamorgan breed; the Shetland breed; and a\nfew herds of Dutch cattle preserved for their superior milking powers.\n\nThe prominent breeds of cattle in the British Isles[2] comprise the\nShorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, South Devon,\nSussex, Welsh, Longhorn, Red Polled, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, West\nHighland, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Kerry and Dexter.\n\nThe Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, South Devon,\nSussex, Longhorn and Red Polled breeds are native to England; the\nAberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Highland and Ayrshire breeds to Scotland; and\nthe Kerry and Dexter breeds to Ireland. The Jersey and Guernsey\nbreeds--often spoken of as Channel Islands cattle--belong to the\nrespective islands whose names they bear, and great care is taken to\nkeep them isolated from each other. The term Alderney is obsolete, the\ncattle of Alderney being mainly a type of the Guernsey breed.\n\nAmong breeds well known in the United States[2] and not mentioned above,\nthe more important are the Holsteins, large black and white cattle\nhighly valued for their abundant milk production, and the Dutch Belted\nbreed, black with a broad white band round the body, also good milkers.\n\nThe _Shorthorn_[3] is the most widely distributed of all the breeds of\ncattle both at home and abroad. No census of breeds has ever been taken\nin the United Kingdom, but such an enumeration would show the Shorthorn\nfar to exceed in numbers any other breed, whilst the great majority of\ncross-bred cattle contain Shorthorn blood. During the last quarter of\nthe 18th century the brothers Charles Colling (1751-1836) and Robert\nColling (1749-1820), by careful selection and breeding, improved the\ncattle of the Teeswater district in the county of Durham. If the\nShorthorn did not originate thus, it is indisputable that the efforts of\nthe Collings[4] had a profound influence upon the fortunes of the breed.\nIt is still termed the Durham breed in most parts of the world except\nthe land of its birth, and the geographical name is far preferable, for\nthe term \"shorthorn\" is applicable to a number of other breeds. Other\nskilled breeders turned their attention to the Shorthorns and\nestablished famous strains, the descendants of which can still be\ntraced. By Thomas Booth, of Killerby and Warlaby in Yorkshire (1777),\nthe \"Booth\" strains of Shorthorns were originated; by Thomas Bates, of\nKirklevington in Yorkshire, the \"Bates\" families[5] (1800).\n\nThe Shorthorn is sometimes spoken of as the ubiquitous breed, its\nstriking characteristic being the ease with which it adapts itself to\nvarying conditions of soil, climate and management. It is also called\nthe \"red, white and roan.\" The roan colour is very popular, and dark red\nhas its supporters, as in the case of the _Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns_;\nwhite is not in favour, especially abroad. The Shorthorn breed is more\nnoted for its beef-making than for its milk-yielding properties,\nalthough the non-pedigree milking Shorthorn of the north of England is\nan excellent cow with dual-purpose qualifications of the first order. An\neffort is being made to restore milking qualities to certain strains of\npedigree blood.\n\nThe culmination of what may be termed the Booth and Bates period was in\nthe year 1875, when the sales took place of Lord Dunmore's and William\nTorr's herds, which realized extraordinary prices. In that black year of\nfarming, 1879, prices were declining, and they continued to do so till\nwithin the last few years of the close of the 19th century, when there\nset in a gradual revival, stimulated largely by the commercial\nprosperity of the country. The result of extremely high prices when\nline-bred animals were in fashion was a tendency to breed from all kinds\nof animals that were of the same tribe, without selection. A\ndeterioration set in, which was aggravated by the overlooking of the\nmilking properties. Shorthorn breeders came to see that change of blood\nwas necessary. Meanwhile, for many years breeders in Aberdeenshire had\nbeen holding annual sales of young bulls and heifers from their herds.\nThe late Amos Cruickshank began his annual sales in the 'forties, and\nthe late W.T. Talbot-Crosbie had annual sales from his Shorthorn herd in\nthe south-west of Ireland for a number of years. Many Aberdeen farmers\nemigrated to Canada, and bought Shorthorn calves in their native county\nto take with them. The Cruickshanks held their bull sales at that time,\nand many of their animals were bought by the small breeders in Canada.\nThis continued until 1875, when the Cruickshanks had so much private\ndemand that they discontinued their public sales. Subsequently, when\nCruickshank sold his herd privately to James Nelson & Sons for\nexportation, the animals could not all be shipped, and W. Duthie, of\nCollynie, Aberdeenshire, bought some of the older cows, whilst J. Deane\nWillis, of Bapton Monar, Wilts, bought the yearling heifers. Duthie\nthereupon resumed the sales that the Cruickshanks had relinquished, his\naverages being L30 in 1892, about L50 in 1893-1894, and L80 in 1895.\nThese prices advanced through English breeders requiring a little change\nof blood, and also through the increasing tendency to exhibit animals of\ngreat substance, or rather to feed animals for show. The success of this\nmovement strengthened the demand, whilst an inquiry for his line of\nblood arose in the United States and Canada. A faithful contemporary\nhistory of the Shorthorn breed is to be found in _Thornton's Circular_,\npublished quarterly since 1868; see also J. Sinclair, _History of\nShorthorn Cattle_ (1907); R. Bruce, _Fifty Years among Shorthorns_\n(1907); A.H. Sanders, _Shorthorn Cattle_ (Chicago, 1901).\n\nThe _Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns_ are the best dual-purpose cattle--for\nmilk and meat--that possess a pedigree record, in the United Kingdom,\nand their uniform cherry red colour has brought them into high favour in\ntropical countries for crossing with the native breeds.\n\nThe _Hereford_ breed is maintained chiefly in Herefordshire and the\nadjoining counties. Whilst a full red is the general colour of the body,\nthe Herefords are distinguished by their white face, white chest and\nabdomen, and white mane. The legs up to the knee or hock are also often\nwhite. As a protection against the sun in a hot climate dark spots on\nthe eyelids or round the orbits are valuable. The horns are moderately\nlong. Herefords, though they rear their own calves, have acquired but\nlittle fame as dairy cattle. They are very hardy, and produce beef of\nexcellent quality. Being docile, they fatten easily and readily, and as\ngraziers' beasts they are in high favour.\n\nWhen the Bates' Shorthorn bubble burst in America about 1877, the\nHereford gradually replaced the Shorthorn of the western ranches, and it\nis now the most numerous ranch animal in the United States and Canada.\nThe bulls beat the bulls of all other breeds in \"rustling\" capacity.\n\nIn America the ranch-bred Herefords have got too small in the bone in\nrecent years, and Shorthorns, chiefly of the Scottish type, are being\nintroduced to increase their size by crossing. In the \"feed lot\" a\nwell-bred Hereford steer feeds more quickly than either a Shorthorn or\nan Aberdeen-Angus.\n\nIn Queensland, Hereford cattle bred from the \"Lord Wilton\" strain by\nRobert Christison of Lammermoor have for years been triumphant as\nbeef-producers in competition with the Shorthorn. When these are\nquartered in the ordinary butchers' fashion, the hind-quarters outweigh\nthe fore-quarters, which is a reversal of the prevailing rule.\n\n_North Devons_.--The \"Rubies of the West,\" as they are termed from their\nhue, are reared chiefly in Devon and Somerset. The colour is a whole\nred, its depth or richness varying with the individual, and in summer\nbecoming mottled with darker spots. The Devons stand somewhat low; they\nare neat and compact, and possess admirable symmetry. Although a smaller\nbreed than the Shorthorn or the Hereford, they weigh better than either.\nThe horns of the female are somewhat slender, and often curve neatly\nupwards. Being fine-limbed, active animals, they are well adapted for\ngrazing the poor pastures of their native hills, and they turn their\nfood to the best account, yielding excellent beef. They have not yet\nattained much celebrity as milch kine, for, though their milk is of\nfirst-class quality, with a few notable exceptions, its quantity is\nsmall. Latterly, however, the milking qualities have received more\nattention from breeders, whose object is to qualify the Devon as a\ndual-purpose breed.\n\nThe _South Devon_ or _South Hams_ cattle are almost restricted to that\nsouthern part of the county of Devon known as the Hams, whence they are\nalso called \"Hammers.\" With a somewhat ungainly head, lemon-yellow hair,\nyellow skin, and large but hardly handsome udder, the South Devon breed\nmore resembles the Guernsey, with which it is supposed to be connected,\nthan the trim-built cattle of the hills of North Devon. The cows are\nlarge, heavy milkers, and produce excellent butter. They are rarely\nseen outside their locality except when they appear in the showyards.\n\nThe _Sussex_ breed resembles the North Devon in many respects, but it is\nbigger, less refined in appearance, less graceful in outline, and of a\ndeeper brown-chestnut colour than the \"dainty Devon,\" as the latter may\nwell be called when compared with them. As a hardy race, capable of\nthriving on poor rough pastures, the Sussex are highly valued in their\nnative districts, where they were rapidly improved before the end of the\n19th century. They are essentially a beef-producing breed, the cows\nhaving little reputation as milkers. By stall-feeding they can be\nripened for the butcher at an early age. Sussex cattle are said to \"die\nwell,\" that is, to yield a large proportion of meat in the best parts of\nthe carcase.\n\nIn the _Welsh_ breed of cattle black is the prevailing colour, and the\nhorns are fairly long. They do not mature very rapidly, but some of them\ngrow eventually into great ponderous beasts, and their beef is of prime\nquality. The cows often possess considerable reputation as milkers. As\ngraziers' beasts Welsh cattle are well known in the midland counties of\nEngland, where, under the name of \"Welsh runts,\" large herds of bullocks\nare fattened on the pastures or \"topped up\" in the yards in winter.\n\nAll the remaining strains of Welsh cattle were recognized as one breed\nin 1904, when the Welsh Black Cattle Society united into one register\nthe Herd Books of North and South Wales.\n\nThe _Longhorn_ or \"Dishley\" breed of cattle is one of the most\ninteresting historically. It was with Longhorns that Robert Bakewell, of\nDishley, Leicestershire (1726-1795), showed his remarkable skill as an\nimprover of cattle in the middle of the 18th century.[6] At one period\nLonghorns spread widely over England and Ireland, but, as the Shorthorns\nextended their domain, the Longhorns made way for them. They are big,\nrather clumsy animals, with long drooping horns, which are very\nobjectionable in these days of cattle transport by rail and sea. They\nare slow in coming to maturity, but are very hardy. The bullocks feed up\nto heavy weights, and the cows are fair milkers. No lover of cattle can\nview these quaint creatures without a feeling of satisfaction that the\nefforts made to resuscitate a breed which has many useful qualities to\ncommend it have been successful, and that the extinction which\nthreatened it in the 'eighties of last century is no longer imminent. In\n1907 there were twenty-two Longhorn herds containing about four hundred\nregistered cattle located mainly in the English midlands and Man.\n\nThe _Red Poll_ breed, though old, has only come into prominence within\nrecent years. They were known as the East Anglian Polls, and later as\nthe Norfolk and Suffolk Polled cattle, being confined chiefly to these\ntwo counties. They are symmetrically built, of medium size, and of\nuniformly red colour. They have a tuft of hair on the poll. As dairy\ncattle, they are noted for the length of the period during which they\ncontinue in milk. Not less are they valued as beef-producers, and, as\nthey are hardy and docile, they fatten readily and mature fairly early.\nHence, like the Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, they may claim to be a\ndual-purpose breed. As beef cattle they are always seen to advantage at\nthe Norwich Christmas cattle show, held annually in November.\n\nThe _Aberdeen-Angus_, a polled, black breed, the cows of which are often\ntermed \"Doddies,\" belongs to Aberdeenshire and adjacent parts of\nScotland, but many herds are maintained in England and some in Ireland.\nThe steers and heifers fed for the butcher attain great weight, make\nfirst-class show beasts, and yield beef of excellent quality. The cross\nbetween the Shorthorn and the Aberdeen-Angus is a favourite in the meat\nmarkets and at fat-stock competitions.\n\nThe _Galloways_ are named from the district, Kirkcudbright and\nWigtonshire, in the south-west of Scotland, to which they are native.\nLike the Aberdeen-Angus cattle, they are hornless, and normally of a\nblack colour. But, with a thicker hide and shaggy hair, suited to a wet\nclimate, they have a coarser appearance than the Aberdeen-Angus, the\nproduct of a less humid region, though it approaches the latter in\nsize. Galloways yield superior beef, but mature less rapidly than the\nAberdeen-Angus. They make admirable beasts for the grazier, and the\ncross between the Galloway and the white Shorthorn bull, known as a\n\"Blue Grey,\" is much sought after by the grazier and the butcher.\n\n\nPLATE I. BREEDS OF ENGLISH CATTLE.\n\n  [Illustration: SHORTHORN BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: DEVON BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: HEREFORD BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: SOUTH DEVON BULL.]\n\n\nPLATE II. BREEDS OF ENGLISH AND WELSH CATTLE.\n\n  [Illustration: LONGHORN BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: RED POLLED BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: WELSH BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: SUSSEX BULL.]\n\n  (From photographs by F. Babbage.)\n\n\nPLATE III. BREEDS OF SCOTCH CATTLE.\n\n  [Illustration: ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: GALLOWAY BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: AYRSHIRE COW.]\n\n  [Illustration: HIGHLAND BULL.]\n\n\nPLATE IV. BREEDS OF IRISH AND CHANNEL ISLANDS CATTLE.\n\n  [Illustration: DEXTER BULL.]\n\n  [Illustration: KERRY COW.]\n\n  [Illustration: GUERNSEY COW.]\n\n  [Illustration: JERSEY COW.]\n\n  The comparative sizes of the animals are indicated by the scale of\n  reproduction of the photographs.\n\n  (From photographs by F. Babbage.)\n\n\nThe _West Highland_ or Kyloe breed are perhaps the most hardy and\npicturesque of British cattle. Their home is amidst the wild romantic\nscenery of the Highlands and the Western Isles of Scotland, though\nHighland bullocks with long, spreading curved horns may be seen in\nEnglish parks. They have not made much progress towards early maturity,\nbut their slowly ripened beef is of the choicest quality. The colour of\ntheir thick shaggy hair varies from white and light dun to tawny yellow\nof many shades, and black.\n\nThe _Ayrshires_ are the dairy breed of Scotland, where they have\nconsiderably overstepped the limits of the humid western county whence\nthey take their name. They are usually of a white and brown colour, the\npatches being well defined. The neat, shapely, upstanding horns are\ncharacteristic. The Ayrshires are under medium size and move gracefully,\nand the females display the wedge-shape typical of dairy cows. They are\na hardy breed, and, even from poor pastures, give good yields of milk,\nespecially useful for cheese-making purposes. The milking powers of the\nbreed are being improved under a system of milk-testing and records\nsupported by the Highland and Agricultural Society.\n\nThe _Jerseys_ are graceful, deer-like cattle, whose home is in the\nisland of Jersey, where, by means of stringent regulations against the\nimportation of cattle, the breed has been kept pure for many\ngenerations. As its milk is especially rich in fat (so rich that it\nrequires to be diluted with a little water before it can be safely fed\nto calves), the Jersey has attained a wide reputation as a\nbutter-producing breed. It is a great favourite in England, where many\npure-bred herds exist. The colours most preferred are \"whole\" fawns of\nmany shades. The light silver-grey, which was in high repute in England\nin the early 'seventies of the 19th century, is out of favour. Browns\nand brindles are rarely seen. The grey zone surrounding the black muzzle\ngives the appearance designated \"mealy-mouthed.\" The horns are short,\nand generally artificially curved inwards; the bones are fine. The best\nmilch cows have a yellowish circle round the eye, and the skin at the\nextremity of the tail is of a deep yellow, almost orange colour. The\ncows are gentle and docile when reared in close contact with human\nbeings, but the bulls, despite their small size, are often fierce.\n\n_Guernsey_ cattle are native to the islands of Guernsey, Alderney, Sark\nand Herm. They are kept pure by importation restrictions. Herds of\npure-bred Guernseys also exist in the Isle of Wight and in various\ncounties of England and Scotland. They have not the refined and elegant\nappearance of the Jerseys, which, however, they exceed in size. They are\nusually of a rich yellowish-brown colour, patched with white, in some\ncases their colour almost meriting the appellation of \"orange and\nlemon.\" The yellow colour inside the ears is a point always looked for\nby judges. The cows, large-bellied and narrow in front, are truly\nwedge-shaped, the greatly developed udder adding to the expanse of the\nhinder part of the body. They yield an abundance of milk, rich in fat,\nand are excellent butter-producers. The horns are yellow at the base,\ncurved, and not coarse. The nose is flesh- and free from black\nmarkings.\n\nThe _Canadian_ breed, black with a narrow brown stripe down the back and\na light ring round the muzzle, are descended from old Brittany cattle\nimported into Canada by French settlers three hundred years ago, and are\nin consequence related to the Channel Islands cattle. They are\nremarkably hardy and good milkers, and it is claimed they produce butter\nfat at 2 c. a lb. less cost than any other breed.\n\nThe _Kerry_ is a breed of small black cattle belonging to the south-west\nof Ireland, whence they have spread into many parts, not only of their\nnative land, but of England as well. Although they are able to subsist\non the roughest and scantiest of fare, and are exceedingly hardy, the\ncows are, nevertheless, excellent milkers, and have acquired celebrity\nas a dairy breed. The colour is black, but the cows sometimes have a\nlittle white on the udder. The horns are white, with black tips, and are\nturned upwards. The Kerry is active and graceful, long and lithe in\nbody, and light-limbed. On the rich pastures of England it has increased\nconsiderably in size.\n\nThe _Dexter_ breed is reputed to take its name from one Dexter, agent of\nMaude, Lord Hawarden, who is credited with having established it by\nselection and breeding from the best mountain types of the Kerry. Until\nrecently it was called the Dexter-Kerry. It is smaller and more compact\nthan the Kerry, shorter in the leg, and intoed before and behind. Whilst\nvaluable as a beef-making animal, it is equally noted for its\nmilk-producing capacity. Black is the usual colour, but red is also\nrecognized, with, in either case, a little white. When of a red colour,\nthe appearance of the animal has been aptly compared to that of a grand\nShorthorn viewed through the wrong end of a telescope. The Kerry and the\nDexter are readily distinguishable. The Kerry has a gay, light,\ndeer-like head and horn, light limbs and thin skin. The Dexter has\ncoarser limbs, a square body, flat back, thick shoulder, short neck, and\nhead and horn set on low.\n\nA herd of _Dexter-Shorthorns_ was founded by Major Barton at Straffan,\nIreland, in 1860, in which prominent characteristics of the two breeds\nhave been permanently blended so that they breed true to type.\n\nAs milk-producers, and therefore as dairy cattle, certain strains of the\nShorthorn (registered as well as non-pedigree), the Lincolnshire Red\nShorthorn, South Devon, Longhorn, Red Polled, Ayrshire, Jersey,\nGuernsey, Kerry and Dexter breeds have acquired eminence. Such breeds as\nthe Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, South Devon, Welsh, Red\nPolled and Dexter are claimed as useful beef-makers as well as\nmilk-producers, and are classified as dual-purpose animals. The others\nbelong to the beef-producers. As regards colour, red is characteristic\nof the Lincolnshire Shorthorn, the Hereford, Devon, Sussex and Red\nPolled. Black is the dominating colour of the Welsh, Aberdeen-Angus,\nGalloway, Kerry and Dexter. A yellowish hue is seen in the West\nHighland, Guernsey and South Devon breeds. Various shades of fawn colour\nare usual in Jersey cattle and also appear among Highlanders. The\nHerefords, though with red bodies, have white faces, manes, and dewlaps,\nwhilst white prevails to a greater or less extent in the Shorthorn,\nLonghorn and Ayrshire breeds. The Shorthorn breed is exceedingly\nvariable in colour; pure-bred specimens may be red, or white, or roan,\nor may be marked with two or more of these colours, the roan resulting\nfrom a blending of the white and red. Black is not seen in a pure-bred\nShorthorn. The biggest and heaviest cattle come from the beef-making\nbreeds, and are often cross-bred. Very large or heavy beasts, if\npure-bred, usually belong to one or other of the Shorthorn, Hereford,\nSussex, Welsh, West Highland, Aberdeen-Angus and Galloway breeds. The\nDevon, Red Polled and Guernsey are medium-sized cattle; the Ayrshires\nare smaller, although relatively the bullocks grow larger than bulls or\ncows. The Jerseys are small, graceful cattle, but the smaller type of\nKerries, the Dexters and the Shetlanders furnish the smallest cattle of\nthe British Isles.\n\n  See generally the _Herd Books_ of the various breed societies.\n       (W. Fr.; R. W.)\n\n_Rearing and Feeding._[7]--A calf at birth scales from one-twelfth to\none-fourteenth the weight of the dam. A sucking calf of one of the large\nbreeds should gain 3 lb. per day for the first month, 2.5 lb. for the\nsecond, and 2 lb. during the later calf period. Colostrum, or first-day\nmilk after calving, contains more than five times the albuminoid\ncompounds found in average cows' milk. In the course of three or four\ndays it gradually becomes normal in composition, although the peculiar\nflavour remains a few days longer. Nature has specially prepared it for\nthe young calf with extremely nourishing and also laxative properties,\nand it is of practically no value for any other purpose. Normal cows'\nmilk has an albuminoid ratio slightly narrower than 1 : 4--colostrum\n1 : .71. [The ratio is arrived at by adding to the percentage of\nmilk-sugar, possessing about the food equivalent of starch, the fat\nmultiplied by 2.268, and dividing by the total albuminoids--all\ndigestible.]\n\n  Common nutrient ratios for older animals are stated in the following\n  table of food standards by Dr Emil Wolff:--\n\n    +-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+\n    |                                   |              Food Consumed per Day.            |\n    |                                   +---------------------+--------------------------+\n    |                                   |         Dry.        |       Digestible.        |\n    |                                   +------+-------+------+------+--------+----------+\n    |                                   | Live |Organic|Albu- |      |Carbo-  |Albuminoid|\n    |                                   |Weight|Matter |minoid| Fats |Hydrates|  Ratio.  |\n    +-----------------------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+----------+\n    |                                   |  lb. |  lb.  |  lb. |  lb. |   lb.  |  lb.     |\n    |Calves,    growing, 2 to  3 months |  150 |  3.3  | 0.6  | 0.30 |   2.1  | 1 : 4.7  |\n    |Young cattle  \"     3 to  6   \"    |  300 |  7.0  | 1.0  | 0.30 |   4.1  | 1 : 5    |\n    |  \"           \"     6 to 12   \"    |  500 | 12.0  | 1.2  | 0.30 |   6.8  | 1 : 6    |\n    |  \"           \"    12 to 18   \"    |  700 | 16.8  | 1.4  | 0.28 |   9.1  | 1 : 7    |\n    |  \"           \"    18 to 24   \"    |  850 | 20.4  | 1.4  | 0.26 |  10.3  | 1 : 8    |\n    |Oxen in complete rest              | 1000 | 27.5  | 0.7  | 0.15 |   8.0  | 1 : 12   |\n    | \"   fattening, 1st period         | 1000 | 27.0  | 2.5  | 0.50 |  15.0  | 1 : 65   |\n    | \"       \"      2nd period         | 1000 | 26.0  | 3.0  | 0.70 |  14.8  | 1 : 5.5  |\n    | \"       \"      3rd period         | 1000 | 25.0  | 2.7  | 0.60 |  14.8  | 1 : 6    |\n    |Milch cows                         | 1000 | 24.0  | 2.5  | 0.40 |  12.5  | 1 : 5.4  |\n    +-----------------------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+----------+\n\n  Digestible albuminoid nitrogen is the scarcest and consequently the\n  costliest ingredient in food-stuffs, but, since the introduction of\n  vegetable proteid made by Mitchell's process from the castor bean, an\n  easy and inexpensive means of balancing cattle food ratios is\n  available. By this means the manurial value of the excrement is\n  increased. The calculations necessary in arriving at a ratio are\n  simplified by the employment of Jeffers's calculator (Plainsboro,\n  N.J.).\n\nThere are three common methods of rearing calves, (1) The calf sucks its\nmother or foster-mother. This is the natural method and the best for the\nshow-yard and for early fattening purposes; but it is the most\nexpensive, and the calves, if not handled, grow up wild and dangerous.\nStore stock may be also raised by putting two calves to one cow and\nweaning at three months old; a second pair in turn yielding place to a\nsingle calf. (2) Full milk from the cow at about 90 deg. F. is given\nalone until the latter part of the milk period; then the calf is trained\nto eat supplementary foods to preserve the calf-fat after weaning. A\nlarge calf at first receives daily three quarts of milk at three meals.\nThe amount is increased to 2 gallons by the end of the fourth week, and\nto 2-1\/2 gallons at 3 months, when gradual weaning begins. Linseed cake\nmeal is specially suitable for such calves. (3) The calf receives full\nmilk from the mother for one to two weeks, or better, for three to four\nweeks; then it is slowly transferred to fortified separated milk or milk\nsubstitutes. Cod-liver oil, 2 oz. daily, is a good substitute for butter\nfat. In America cotton-seed oil, 1\/2 oz. to the quart of milk, or an\nequivalent of oleomargarine heated to 110 deg. F. and churned with\nseparated milk, has produced a live-weight-increase of 2 lb. daily.\nLinseed simmered to a jelly and added to separated milk gives good\nresults. Moderate amounts are easily digested. Oatmeal or maize meal\ncontaining 10% of linseed meal does well, later, at less cost. Milk\nsubstitutes and calf meals require close attention in preparation, and\nwould not fetch the prices they do if feeders possessed the technical\nknowledge necessary to select and mix common foods. Ground cake or\nlinseed meal is, after a time, better given dry than cooked, being then\nbetter masticated and not so liable to produce indigestion.\n\nGrass or fine hay in racks is provided when the calf can chew the cud.\nAs cattle get older, live-weight-increase grows less. Smithfield\nweights[8] show that a good bullock up to a year old will increase 2 lb.\ndaily, a two-year-old 1-3\/4 lb., and a three-year-old a little over\n1-1\/2 lb.\n\nCattle feeding on a farm consume crude produce that is inconvenient to\nmarket, and make farmyard manure; but there is frequently no profit\nleft. To secure the balance on the right side the inlaid price per live\ncwt. requires to be 5s. less than the sale price--say 32s. per cwt. for\nlean cattle, and 37s. per cwt. for the animal when sold fat and capable\nof producing 60% of dressed beef. The ordinary animal yields only about\n57%. A well-bred fattening bullock begins with 2 lb. of cake and meal\nper day, increasing to 8 lb. at the end of five months (6 lb. on an\naverage), and receives 3\/4 cwt. of roots and 12 lb. of straw; at an\naverage cost of about 4s. 3d. per imperial stone or 50s. per cwt. of\ndressed carcase. Heifers feed faster than bullocks, and age tells on the\nrate at which an animal will mature: a three-year-old will develop into\nprime beef more quickly and easily than a two-year-old. It is difficult\nto produce \"baby beef\" at a profit, and it can only be done with picked\nanimals of the best flesh-producing breeds, which cannot be bought at a\nprice per cwt. below the finished sale price, for animals producing baby\nbeef must from start to finish (under two years old) be at all times fit\nto go to the fat market. It is true that a very young animal can give a\nbetter account of food than an older one, but this advantage is\ncounterbalanced by the tendency to grow rather than to fatten. (See also\nAGRICULTURE.)\n\nIn cold and stormy districts cattle thrive best in covered courts, but\nin a mild climate they do equally well in open yards with shelter-sheds.\nThe more air they get the less liable they are to tuberculosis--example\nLincolnshire and the drier south-eastern counties. The ideal method of\nhouse-feeding cattle is singly in boxes 10 ft. square, where they are\nundisturbed, and where the best manure is made because it is not washed\nby rain.\n\nOn the finest British grazing lands two lots of cattle are fed in one\nseason. The first is finished early in July, having, without artificial\nfeeding, laid on eight to nine stones of beef. The second lot requires\nthree or four pounds of undecorticated cotton cake each towards the end\nof September and in October when grass begins to fail.     (R. W.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] Rev. J. Storer, _The Wild White Cattle of Great Britain_ (1879).\n\n  [2] See Wallace's _Farm Live Stock of Great Britain_ (1907), Low's\n    _Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles_ (1842,\n    illustrated, and 1845), and E.V. Wilcox's _Farm Animals_ (1907), an\n    American work.\n\n  [3] Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1822). Sec. E.J.\n    Powell, 12 Hanover Square, London, W.\n\n  [4] C.J. Bates, \"The Brothers Colling,\" _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._\n    (1899).\n\n  [5] C.J. Bates, _Thomas Bates and the Kirklevington Shorthorns: a\n    Contribution to the History of Pure Durham Cattle_\n    (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1897).\n\n  [6] Housman, \"Robert Bakewell,\" _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._ (1894).\n\n  [7] See E. Wolff, _Farm Foods_, by H.H. Cousins (1895); A.D. Hall,\n    _Rothamsted Experiments_ (1905); R. Warington, _Chemistry of the\n    Farm_ (15th ed., 1902); W.A. Henry, _Feeds and Feeding_ (1907); H.W.\n    Mumford, _Beef Production_ (1907); H.P. Armsby, _Animal Nutrition_\n    (2nd ed., 1906); T. Shaw, _Animal Breeding_ (1903); R. Wallace, _Farm\n    Live Stock of Great Britain_ (4th ed., 1907).\n\n  [8] E. J. Powell, _History of the Smithfield Club from 1798 to 1900_\n    (1902).\n\n\n\n\nCATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-54 B.C.), the greatest lyric poet of Rome.\nAs regards his names and the dates of his birth and death, the most\nimportant external witness is that of Jerome, in the continuation of the\nEusebian _Chronicle_, under the year 87 B.C., \"Gaius Valerius Catullus,\nscriptor lyricus Veronae nascitur,\" and under 57 B.C., \"Catullus xxx.\naetatis anno Romae moritur.\" There is no controversy as to the gentile\nname, _Valerius_. Suetonius, in his _Life of Julius Caesar_ (ch. 73),\nmentions the poet by the names \"Valerium Catullum.\" Other persons who\nhad the _cognomen_ Catullus belonged to the Valerian gens, e.g. M.\nValerius Catullus Messalinus, a _delator_ in the reign of Domitian,\nmentioned in the fourth satire of Juvenal (l. 113):--\n\n  \"Et cum mortifero prudens Veiento Catullo.\"\n\nInscriptions show, further, that _Valerius_ was a common name in the\nnative province of Catullus, and belonged to other inhabitants of Verona\nbesides the poet and his family (Schwabe, _Quaestiones Catullianae_, p.\n27). Scholars have been divided in opinion as to whether his _praenomen_\nwas _Gaius_ or _Quintus_, and in the best MSS. the volume is called\nsimply _Catulli Veronensis liber_. For _Gaius_ we have the undoubted\ntestimony, not only of Jerome, which rests on the much earlier authority\nof Suetonius, but also that of Apuleius. In support of _Quintus_ a\npassage was quoted from the _Natural History_ of Pliny (xxxvii. 6, 81).\nBut the _praenomen_ Q. is omitted in the best MSS., and in other\npassages of the same author the poet is spoken of as \"Catullus\nVeronensis.\" The mistake may have arisen from confusion with Q. Catulus,\nthe colleague of Marius in the Cimbric War, himself also the author of\nlyrical poems. Allusions in the poems show that the date of his death\ngiven by Jerome (57 B.C.) is wrong, and that Catullus survived the\nsecond consulship of Pompey (55 B.C.) (cf. lv. 6, cxiii. 2), and was\npresent in August of the following year at the prosecution of Vatinius\nby Licinius Calvus (cf. liii.). The allusion in lii. 3--\n\n  \"Per consulatum peierat Vatinius,\"\n\ndoes not prove that Catullus must have lived to see the consulship\nbestowed on Vatinius in the end of 47 B.C. but only that Vatinius, after\nbeing praetor in 55 B.C., was in the habit of boasting of the certainty\nof his attaining the consulship, as Cleopatra was in the habit of\nconfirming her most solemn declarations by appealing to her hope of one\nday administering justice in the Capitol (cf. Haupt, \"Quaestiones\nCatullianae,\" _Opuscula_, vol. i. 1875). There is then nothing to prove\nthat Catullus lived beyond the month of August 54 B.C. Some of the poems\n(as xxxvii. and lii.) may have been written during his last illness. If\nhe died in 54 B.C. or early in 53 B.C., Catullus must either have been\nborn later than 87 B.C., or have lived to a greater age than thirty.\nCatullus is described by Ovid as \"hedera iuvenalia cinctus Tempora\"\n(_Amor_. iii. 9. 61),--a description somewhat more suitable to a man who\ndies in his thirtieth year than to one who dies three or four years\nlater. Further, the age at which a man dies is more likely to be\naccurately remembered than the particular date either of his death or of\nhis birth, and the common practice of recording the age of the deceased\nin sepulchral inscriptions must have rendered a mistake about this less\nlikely to occur. It seems, therefore, on the whole, most likely that\nJerome's words \"xxx. aetatis anno\" are correct, and that Catullus was\nborn in 84 B.C.\n\nThe statement that he was born at Verona is confirmed by passages in\nOvid and Martial. Pliny the elder, who was born at Como, speaks of\nCatullus in the preface to his _Natural History_, as his \"countryman\"\n(_conterraneus_), and the poet speaks of Verona as his home, or at least\nhis temporary residence, in more than one place. His occasional\nresidence in his native place is further attested by the statement of\nSuetonius (_Julius Caesar_, 73), that \"Julius Caesar accepted the poet's\napology for his scurrilous verses upon him, invited him to dine with him\non the same day, and continued his intimacy with his father as before.\"\nAs this incident could only have happened during the time that Julius\nCaesar was pro-consul, the scene of it must have been in the Cisalpine\nprovince, and at the house of the poet's father, in or near Verona. The\nverses apologized for were those contained in poems xxix. and lvii., the\nformer of which must have been written after Caesar's invasion of\nBritain, so that this interview probably took place in the winter of\n55-54 B.C. The fact that his father was the host of the great\npro-consul, and lived on terms of intimacy with him, justifies the\ninference, that he was, in wealth and rank, one of the principal men of\nthe province. The only other important statement concerning the poet's\nlife which rests on external authority is that of Apuleius, that the\nreal name of the Lesbia of the poems was Clodia. Another, which concerns\nthe reputation which he enjoyed after his death, is given in the _Life\nof Atticus_ by Cornelius Nepos (12. 4). It is to the effect that he\nregarded Lucretius and Catullus as the two greatest poets of his own\ntime.\n\nThe poems of Catullus consist of 116 pieces, varying in length from 2 to\n408 lines, the great mass of them being, however, short pieces, written\nin lyric, iambic or elegiac metre. The arrangement cannot be the poet's;\nit is neither chronological nor in accordance with the character of the\ntopics. The shorter poems, lyric or iambic, are placed first, next the\nlonger epithalamia, (most being written in hexameters) amongst which the\n_Attis_ is inserted and then those written in the elegiac metre. But,\nthough no chronological order is observed, yet internal evidence enables\nus to determine the occasions on which many of the poems were written,\nand the order in which they followed one another. They give a very vivid\nimage of various phases of the poet's life, and of the strong feelings\nwith which persons and things affected him. They throw much light also\non the social life of Rome and of the provincial towns of Italy in the\nyears preceding the outbreak of the second civil war. In this respect\nthey may be compared with the letters of Cicero.\n\nThe poems extend over a period of seven or eight years, from 61 or 62\ntill 54 B.C. Among the earliest are those which record the various\nstages of the author's passion for Lesbia. It is in connexion with this\npassion that he is generally mentioned, or alluded to, by the later\nRoman poets, such as Propertius, Ovid, Juvenal and Martial. Her real\nname, as we learn from Apuleius, was Clodia. The admiration of Catullus\nfor Sappho, the Lesbian poetess, which is clearly indicated by the\nimitation of her language in his fifty-first and sixty-second poems,\naffords an obvious explanation of the Greek name which he gave to his\nRoman mistress. Clodia was the notorious sister of Publius Clodius\nPulcher, and in the year 56 she charged M. Caelius Rufus, after tiring\nof him, as she had of Catullus, with an attempt to poison her. It was in\ndefence of Rufus that Cicero described the spell she exercised over\nyoung men, in language which might have been applied to her previous\nrelations with the youthful poet, as well as those with the youthful\norator and politician.\n\nPoems concerning Lesbia occur among both the earliest and the latest of\nthose contained in the series. They record the various stages of passion\nthrough which Catullus passed, from absolute devotion and a secure sense\nof returned affection, through the various conditions of distrust and\njealousy, attempts at renunciation, and short-lived \"amoris\nintegrationes,\" through the \"odi et amo\" state, and the later state of\nsavage indignation against both Lesbia and his rivals, and especially\nagainst Caelius Rufus, till he finally attains, not without much\nsuffering and loss, the last state of scornful indifference. Among the\nearliest of the poems connected with Lesbia, and among those written in\nthe happiest vein, are ii. and iii., and v. and vii. The 8th, \"Miser\nCatulle, desinas ineptire,\" perhaps the most beautiful of them all,\nexpresses the first awakening of the poet to a sense of her\nunworthiness, before the gentler have given place to the fiercer\nfeelings of his nature. His final renunciation is sent in a poem written\nafter his return from the East, with a union of imaginative and scornful\npower, to his two butts, Furius and Aurelius (xi., \"Furi et Aureli,\ncomites Catulli\"), who, to judge by the way Catullus writes of them,\nappear to have been hangers-on upon him, who repaid the pecuniary and\nother favours they received by giving him grounds for jealousy, and\nmaking imputations on his character (cf. xv., xvi., xviii., xxiii.).\n\nThe intrigue of Caelius Rufus with Lesbia began in 59 or 58 B.C. It was\nprobably in the earlier stages of this liaison that the 68th poem was\nwritten, from which it appears that Catullus, at the time living at\nVerona, and grieving for the recent death of his brother in the Troad,\nhad heard of Lesbia's infidelity, and, in consideration of her previous\nfaithlessness in his favour, was not inclined to resent it very warmly.\nTwo other poems in the series express the grief which Catullus felt for\nthe death of his brother,--one, the 65th, addressed to the orator\nHortensius, who is there, as in some of Cicero's letters, called\nHortalus or Ortalus, and sent to him along with the _Coma Berenices_\n(lxvi.), a translation of a famous elegy of Callimachus. The other poem\nreferring to this event (ci.) must have been composed some years later,\nprobably in 56 B.C., when Catullus visited his brother's tomb in the\nTroad, on his return from Bithynia. Between 59 and 57 B.C. most of the\nlampoons on Lesbia and her numerous lovers must have been written (e.g.\nxxxvii., xxxix., &c.). Some, too, of the poems expressive of his more\ntender feelings to her, such as viii. and lxxvi. belong also to these\nyears; and among the poems written either during this period or perhaps\nin the early and happier years of his liaison, some of the most charming\nof his shorter pieces, expressing the affection for his young friends\nVerannius and Fabullus (ix., xii., xiii.), may be included.\n\nIn the year 57 the routine of his life was for a short time broken by\nhis accompanying the propraetor C. Memmius, the friend to whom Lucretius\ndedicates his great poem, as one of his staff, to the province of\nBithynia. His object was probably to better his fortunes by this absence\nfrom Rome, as humorous complaints of poverty and debt (xiii., xxvi.)\nshow that his ordinary means were insufficient for his mode of life. He\nfrankly acknowledges the disappointment of these hopes, and still more\nfrankly his disgust with his chief (x., xxviii.). Some of the most\ncharming and perfect among the shorter poems express the delight with\nwhich the poet changed the dulness and sultry climate of the province\nfor the freedom and keen enjoyment of his voyage home in his yacht,\nbuilt for him at Amastris on the Euxine, and for the beauty and peace of\nhis villa on the shores of Lake Benacus, which welcomed him home\n\"wearied with foreign travel.\" To this period and to his first return to\nRome after his visit to his native district belong the poems xlvi., ci.,\niv., xxxi. and x., all showing by their freshness of feeling and vivid\ntruth of expression the gain which the poet's nature derived from his\ntemporary escape from the passions, distractions and animosities of\nRoman society. Two poems, written in a very genial and joyous spirit,\nand addressed to his younger friend Licinius Calvus (xiv. and l.), who\nis ranked as second only to himself among the lyrical poets of the age,\nand whose youthful promise pointed him out as likely to become one of\nthe greatest of Roman orators, may, indeed, with most probability be\nassigned to these later years (xiv.). From the expression \"Odissem te\nodio Vatiniano,\" in the third line of xiv., it may be inferred that the\npoem was written not earlier than December (the \"Saturnalia\") of the\nyear 56 B.C., as it was early in that year, as we learn from a letter of\nCicero to his brother Quintus (ii. 4. 1), that Calvus first announced\nhis intention of prosecuting Vatinius. The short poem numbered liii.\nwould be written in August 54 B.C. The poems which have left the\ngreatest stain on the fame of Catullus--those \"referta contumeliis\nCaesaris,\" the licentious abuse of Mamurra, and probably some of those\npersonal scurrilities addressed to women as well as men, or too frank\nconfessions, which posterity would willingly have let die, may well have\nbeen written in the last years of his life, under the influence of the\nbitterness and recklessness induced by his experience. It cannot be\ndetermined with certainty whether the longer and more artistic pieces,\nwhich occupy the middle of the volume--the _Epithalamium_ in celebration\nof the marriage of Manlius Torquatus, the 62nd poem, written in\nimitation of the Epithalamia of Sappho, \"Vesper adest: iuvenes,\nconsurgite\"; the _Attis_, and the Epic Idyll representing the marriage\nfestival of Peleus and Thetis--belong to the earlier or the later period\nof the poet's career. If the person addressed in the first part of the\n68th is the Manlius of the _Epithalamium_, and the lines from 3 to 8--\n\n  \"Naufragum ut eiectum ... pervigilat,\"\n\nrefer to the death of Vinia, it would follow that the first Epithalamium\nwas written some time before that poem, and thus belongs to the earlier\ntime. While the translations of Sappho,--\n\n  \"Ille mi par esse deo videtur,\"\n\nand of Callimachus (lxvi.),--\n\n  \"Omnia qui magni dispexit lumina mundi,\"\n\nbelong to the earlier period, the _Attis_ and the _Peleus and Thetis_;\nalthough perhaps suggested by the treatment of the same or similar\nsubjects in Greek authors, are executed with such power and originality\nas declare them to be products of the most vigorous stage in the\ndevelopment of the poet's genius. That his genius came soon to maturity\nis a reason for hesitation in assigning any particular time between 62\nand 54 B.C. for the composition of the _Attis_ and of that part of the\n_Epithalamium_ (\"Peliaco quondam prognatae vertice pinus\") which deals\nwith the main subject of the poem. But the criticism of Munro in his\nedition of Lucretius, which shows similarities of expression that cannot\nbe mere casual coincidences, between the Ariadne-episode in the\n_Epithalamium_ of Catullus (from line 52 to 266) and the poem of\nLucretius, leaves little doubt that that portion at least of the poem\nwas written after the publication of the _De rerum natura_, in the\nwinter of 55-54 B.C.\n\nNo ancient author has left a more vivid impression of himself on his\nwritings than Catullus. Coming to Rome in early youth from a distant\nprovince, not at that time included within the limits of Italy, he lived\nas an equal with the men of his time of most intellectual activity and\nrefinement, as well as of highest social and political eminence. Among\nthose to whom his poems are addressed, or who are mentioned in them, we\nfind the names of Hortensius, Cicero, Cornelius Nepos, Licinius Calvus,\nHelvius Cinna and Asinius Pollio, then only a youth (xii. 8). Catullus\nbrought into this circle the genius of a great poet, the social\nvivacity of a vigorous nature, the simplicity and sincerity of an\nunambitious, and the warmth of an affectionate disposition. He betrays\nall the sensitiveness of the poetic temperament, but it is never the\nsensitiveness of vanity, for he is characterized by the modesty rather\nthan the self-confidence which accompanies genius, but the sensitiveness\nof a heart which gives and expects more sympathy and loyalty in\nfriendship than the world either wants or cares to give in return. He\nshows also in some of his lighter pieces the fastidiousness of a refined\ntaste, intolerant of all boorishness, pedantry, affectation and sordid\nways of life. The passionate intensity of his temperament displays\nitself with similar strength in the outpourings of his animosity as of\nhis love and affection. It was, unfortunately, the fashion of the time\nto employ in the expression of these animosities a licence of speech and\nof imputation which it is difficult for men living under different\nsocial conditions to understand, still more difficult to tolerate. Munro\nhas examined the 29th poem--\n\n  \"Quis hoc potest videre, quis potest pati,\"\n\nthe longest and most important of the lampoons on Caesar and Mamurra,\nand shown with much learning and acuteness the motives and intention of\nCatullus in writing them. Had Julius Caesar really believed, as\nSuetonius, writing two hundred years afterwards, says he did, that \"an\neternal stigma had been cast upon him by the verses concerning Mamurra,\"\nwe should scarcely apply the word magnanimity to his condonation of the\noffence. But these verses survive as a memorial not of any scandal\naffecting Julius Caesar which could possibly have been believed by his\ncontemporaries, but of the licence of speech which was then indulged in,\nof the jealousy with which the younger members of the Roman aristocracy,\nwho a little later fought on the side of Pompey, at that time regarded\nthe ascendancy both of the \"father-in-law and the son-in-law,\" and the\nsocial elevation of some of their instruments, and also, to a certain\nextent, of the deterioration which the frank and generous nature of\nCatullus underwent from the passions which wasted, and the faithlessness\nwhich marred his life.\n\nThe great age of Latin poetry extends from about the year 60 B.C. till\nthe death of Ovid in 17 A.D. There are three marked divisions in this\nperiod, each with a distinct character of its own: the first represented\nby Lucretius and Catullus, the second by Virgil and Horace, the last by\nOvid. Force and sincerity are the great characteristics of the first\nperiod, maturity of art of the second, facility of the last. The\neducating influence of Greek art on the Roman mind was first fully\nexperienced in the Ciceronian age, and none of his contemporaries was so\nsusceptible of that influence as Catullus. With the susceptibility to\nart he combined a large share of the vigorous and genial qualities of\nthe Italian race. Like most of his younger contemporaries, he studied in\nthe school of the Alexandrine poets, with whom the favourite subjects of\nart were the passion of love, and stories from the Greek mythology,\nwhich admitted of being treated in a spirit similar to that in which\nthey celebrated their own experiences. It was under this influence that\nCatullus wrote the _Coma Berenices_, the 68th poem, which, after the\nmanner of the Alexandrines, interweaves the old tale of Protesilaus and\nLaodamia with the personal experiences of the poet himself, and the\n_Epithalamium_ of Peleus and Thetis, which combines two pictures from\nthe Greek mythology, one of the secure happiness of marriage, the other\nof the passionate despair of love betrayed. In this last poem Catullus\ndisplays a power of creative pictorial imagination far transcending that\ndisplayed in any of the extant poetry of Alexandria. We have no means of\ndetermining what suggested the subject of the _Attis_ to Catullus,\nwhether the previous treatment of the subject by some Greek writer, some\nsurvival of the myth which he found still existing during his residence\namong the \"Phrygii Campi,\" or the growth of various forms of Eastern\nsuperstition and fanaticism, at Rome, in the last age of the Republic.\nWhatever may have been its origin, it is the finest specimen we possess,\nin either Greek or Latin literature, of that kind of short poem more\ncommon in modern than ancient times, in which some situation or passion\nentirely alien to the writer, and to his own age, is realized with\ndramatic intensity. But the genius of Catullus is, perhaps, even\nhappier in the direct expression of personal feeling than in artistic\ncreation, or the reproduction of tales and situations from mythology.\nThe warmth, intensity and sincerity of his own nature are the sources of\nthe inspiration in these poems. The most elaborate and one of the finest\nof them is the _Epithalamium_ in honour of the marriage of a member of\nthe old house of Manlius Torquatus with Vinia Aurunculeia, written in\nthe glyconic in combination with the pherecratean metre. To this metre\nCatullus imparts a peculiar lightness and grace by making the trochee,\ninstead of the spondee as in Horace's glyconics and pherecrateans, the\nfirst foot in the line. His elegiac metre is constructed with less\nsmoothness and regularity than that of Ovid and Tibullus or even of\nPropertius, but as employed by him it gives a true echo to the serious\nand plaintive feelings of some of his poems, while it adapts itself, as\nit did later in the hands of Martial, to the epigrammatic terseness of\nhis invective. But the perfection of the art of Catullus is seen in his\nemployment of those metres which he adapted to the Latin tongue from the\nearlier poets of Greece, the pure iambic trimeter, as in iv.--\n\n  \"Phaselus ille quem videtis hospites,\"\n\nthe scazon iambic, employed in viii. and xxxi.--\n\n  \"Paeninsularum, Sirmio, insularumque,\"\n\nand the phalecian hendecasyllabic, a slight modification of the Sapphic\nline, which is his favourite metre for the expression of his more joyful\nmoods, and of his lighter satiric vein. The Latin language never flowed\nwith such ease, freshness and purity as in these poems. Their perfection\nconsists in the entire absence of all appearance of effort or\nreflection, and in the fulness of life and feeling, which gives a\nlasting interest and charm to the most trivial incident of the passing\nhour. In reference to these poems Munro has said with truth and force:\n\"A generation had yet to pass before the heroic attained to its\nperfection; while he (Catullus) had already produced glyconics,\nphalecians and iambics, each 'one entire and perfect chrysolite,'\n'cunningest patterns' of excellence, such as Latium never saw before or\nafter,--Alcaeus, Sappho, and the rest then and only then having met\ntheir match.\"\n\n  The work of Catullus has not come down to us intact, as is shown by\n  lacunae and quotations in ancient writers which cannot now be found in\n  his poems. Out of the MSS. only three have claims to intrinsic\n  importance. The oldest and best appears to be the Bodleian (Canon.\n  30). But little inferior is the _Sangermanensis_ (Par. 14137). Of the\n  third, the _Romanus_, we shall be better able to judge when its\n  discoverer, Prof. W.G. Hale, has published his collation. None of\n  these MSS. are older than the 14th century. One poem, 62, is, however,\n  preserved in a MS. of the 9th century (the _Thuaneus_, Par. 8071).\n  Prof. R. Ellis's discovery of the Bodleian MS. and E. Baehrens's\n  recognition of its value opened a new chapter in the history of the\n  text. Ellis's contributions comprise an indispensable commentary (ed.\n  2, 1889), an elaborate critical edition (ed. 2, 1878) and an English\n  translation (1871) in the metres of the original. The text in the\n  Oxford series, published in 1905, is inferior to those specified\n  below. Baehrens's edition, 2 volumes (text 1876, the second edition by\n  K.P. Schulze is a misnomer; and Latin commentary 1885) is still of\n  value. Amongst other editions with critical or explanatory notes or\n  both may be mentioned those of A. Riese (1884), L. Schwabe (1886, with\n  _index verborum_), B. Schmidt (1887), J.P. Postgate (1889, text\n  differing little from that in the new _Corpus Poetarunt_), E. Benoist\n  and E. Thomas, with French translation by Rostand (2 vols.,\n  1882-1890), S.G. Owen (1893, an _edition de luxe_), W.T. Merrill\n  (1893, Boston, U.S.A., with succinct English notes), A. Palmer (1896,\n  one of the best of this scholar's works); M. Haupt's text of the three\n  poets Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, edited by J. Vahlen, reached\n  its sixth edition in 1904. Of the numerous contributions to the\n  textual and literary criticism of the poems may be named the papers in\n  M. Haupt's _Opuscula_, L. Schwabe's _Quaestiones Catullianae_ (1862),\n  B. Schmidt's _Prolegomena_, H.A.J. Munro's _Criticisms and\n  Elucidations of Catullus_ (1878; second edition by J.D. Duff, 1905).\n  Translations into English verse by J. Cranstoun (1867), Sir T. Martin\n  (1861, 1876), R. Ellis (above); a recent version in prose with the\n  Latin text by F.W. Cornish (1904). For further information see\n  Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_ (tr. by Warre), S 214, or the\n  more recent accounts by M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen\n  Litteratur_, i. SS 102-106, and Frederic Plessis, _La Poesie latine_\n  (1909), pp. 143-173.     (W. Y. S.; X.)\n\n\n\n\nCATULUS, the name of a distinguished family of ancient Rome of the gens\nLutatia. The following are its most important members.\n\n1. GAIUS LUTATIUS CATULUS, Roman commander during the First Punic War,\nconsul 242 B.C. He was sent with a fleet of 200 ships to Sicilian\nwaters, and almost without opposition occupied the harbours of Lilybaeum\nand Drepanum. A hurriedly equipped fleet sent out from Carthage under\nHanno was intercepted by the praetor Publius Valerius Falto and totally\ndefeated (battle of the Aegates Islands, March 10, 241). Catulus, who\nhad been wounded at Drepanum, took no part in the operations, but on his\nreturn to Rome was accorded the honour of a triumph, which against his\nwill he shared with Valerius. (See PUNIC WARS: First, ad fin.).\n\n2. QUINTUS LUTATIUS CATULUS, Roman general and consul with Marius in 102\nB.C. In the war against the Cimbri and Teutones he was sent to defend\nthe passage of the Alps but found himself compelled to retreat over the\nPo, his troops having been reduced to a state of panic (see MARIUS,\nGAIUS). In 101 the Cimbri were defeated on the Raudine plain, near\nVercellae, by the united armies of Catulus and Marius. The chief honour\nbeing ascribed to Marius, Catulus became his bitter opponent. He sided\nwith Sulla in the civil war, was included in the proscription list of\n87, and when Marius declined to pardon him, committed suicide. He was\ndistinguished as an orator, poet and prose writer, and was well versed\nin Greek literature. He is said to have written the history of his\nconsulship and the Cimbrian War after the manner of Xenophon; two\nepigrams by him have been preserved, one on Roscius the celebrated actor\n(Cicero, _De Nat. Deorum_, i. 28), the other of an erotic character,\nimitated from Callimachus (Gellius xix. 9). He was a man of great\nwealth, which he spent in beautifying Rome. Two buildings were known as\n\"Monumenta Catuli\": the temple of _Fortuna hujusce diei_, to commemorate\nthe day of Vercellae, and the Porticus Catuli, built from the sale of\nthe Cimbrian spoils.\n\n  See Plutarch, _Marius, Sulla_; Appian, _B.C._ i. 74; Vell. Pat. ii.\n  21; Florus iii. 21; Val. Max. vi. 3, ix. 13; Cicero, _De Oratore_,\n  iii, 3. 8, _Brutus_, 35.\n\n3. QUINTUS LUTATIUS CATULUS (c. 120-61 B.C.), sometimes called\nCapitolinus, son of the above, consul in 102. He inherited his father's\nhatred of Marius, and was a consistent though moderate supporter of the\naristocracy. In 78 he was consul with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who after\nthe death of Sulla proposed the overthrow of his constitution, the\nre-establishment of the distribution of grain, the recall of the\nbanished, and other democratic measures. Catulus vigorously opposed\nthis, and a temporary compromise was effected. But Lepidus, having\nlevied troops in his province of Transalpine Gaul, returned to Rome at\nthe head of an army. Catulus defeated him at the Mulvian bridge and near\nCosa in Etruria, and Lepidus made his escape to Sardinia, where he died\nsoon afterwards. In 67 and 66 Catulus unsuccessfully opposed, as\nprejudicial to constitutional freedom, the Gabinian and Manilian laws,\nwhich conferred special powers upon Pompey (q.v.). He consistently\nopposed Caesar, whom he endeavoured to implicate in the Catilinarian\nconspiracy. Caesar, in return, accused him of embezzling public money\nduring the reconstruction of the temple on the Capitol, and proposed to\nobliterate his name from the inscription and deprive him of the office\nof commissioner for its restoration. Catulus's supporters rallied round\nhim, and Caesar dropped the charge. Catulus was the last _princeps\nsenatus_ of republican times; he held the office of censor also, but\nsoon resigned, being unable to agree with his colleague Licinius\nCrassus. Although not a man of great abilities, Catulus exercised\nconsiderable influence through his political consistency and his\nundoubted solicitude for the welfare of the state.\n\n  See Sallust, _Catilina_, 35. 49; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 13; Plutarch,\n  _Crassus_; Suetonius, _Caesar_, 15.\n\n\n\n\nCAUB, or KAUB, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of\nHesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 28 m. N.W. from Wiesbaden,\non the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Cologne. Pop. 2200. It has a\nRoman Catholic and an Evangelical church, and a statue of Blucher. The\ntrade mainly consists of the wines of the district. On a crag above the\ntown stands the imposing ruin of Gutenfels, and facing it, on a rock in\nthe middle of the Rhine, the small castle Pfalz, or Pfalzgrafenstein,\nwhere, according to legend, the Palatine countesses awaited their\nconfinement, but which in reality served as a toll-gate for merchandise\non the Rhine.\n\nCaub, first mentioned in the year 983, originally belonged to the lords\nof Falkenstein, passed in 1277 to the Rhenish Palatinate, and attained\ncivic rights in 1324. Here Blucher crossed the Rhine with the Prussian\nand Russian armies, on New Year's night 1813-1814, in pursuit of the\nFrench.\n\n\n\n\nCAUCA, a large coast department of Colombia, South America, lying\nbetween the departments of Bolivar, Antioquia, Caldas and Tolima on the\nE., and the Pacific Ocean and Panama on the W., and extending from the\nCaribbean Sea S. to the department of Narino. Pop. (1905, estimate)\n400,000; area 26,930 sq. m. Although Cauca was deprived of extensive\nterritories on the upper Caqueta and Putumayo, and of a large area\nbordering on Ecuador in the territorial redistribution of 1905, it\nremained the largest department of the republic. The Western Cordillera,\ntraversing nearly its whole length from south to north, and the Central\nCordillera, forming a part of its eastern frontier, give a very\nmountainous character to the region. It includes, besides, the fertile\nand healthful valley of the upper Cauca, the hot, low valley of the\nAtrato, and a long coastal plain on the Pacific. The region is rich in\nmines and valuable forests, but its inhabitants have made very little\nprogress in agriculture because there are not adequate transportation\nfacilities. The capital of the department is Popayan at its southern\nextremity, with an estimated population in 1905 of 10,000, other\nimportant towns are Cali (16,000), Buga, Cartago and Buenaventura.\n\n\n\n\nCAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS, a governor-generalship of Russia, occupying the\nisthmus between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov on the west and the\nCaspian Sea on the east, as well as portions of the Armenian highlands.\nIts northern boundary is the Kuma-Manych depression, a succession of\nnarrow, half-desiccated lakes and river-beds, only temporarily filled\nwith water and connecting the Manych, a tributary of the Don, with the\nKuma, which flows into the Caspian. This depression is supposed to be a\nrelic of the former post-Pliocene connexion between the Black Sea and\nthe Caspian, and is accepted by most geographers as the natural frontier\nbetween Europe and Asia, while others make the dividing-line coincide\nwith the principal water-parting of the Caucasus mountain system. The\nsouthern boundary of Caucasia is in part coincident with the river Aras\n(Araxes), in part purely conventional and political. It was shifted\nseveral times during the 19th century, but now runs from a point on the\nBlack Sea, some 20 m. south of Batum, in a south-easterly and easterly\ndirection to Mt. Ararat, and thence along the Aras to within 30 m. of\nits confluence with the Kura, where it once more turns south-east, and\neventually strikes the Caspian at Astara (30 deg. 35' N.). This large\nterritory, covering an area of 180,843 sq. m., and having in 1897\n9,248,695 inhabitants (51 per sq. m.), may be divided into four natural\nzones or sections:--(i.) the plains north of the Caucasus mountains,\ncomprising the administrative division of Northern Caucasia; (ii.) the\nCaucasus range and the highlands of Daghestan; (iii.) the valleys of the\nRion and the Kura, between the Caucasus range and the highlands of\nArmenia; and (iv.) the highlands of Armenia.\n\n  (i.) The _plains of Northern Caucasia_, which include most of the\n  provinces of Kuban and Terek and of the government of Stavropol, <DW72>\n  gently downwards from the foot of the Caucasus range towards the\n  Kuma-Manych depression. It is only in their centre that they reach\n  altitudes of as much as 2000-2500 ft. e.g. in the Stavropol \"plateau,\"\n  which stretches northwards, separating the tributaries of the Kuban\n  from those of the Terek and the Kuma. Towards the foothills of the\n  Caucasus they are clothed with thick forests, while in the west they\n  merge into the steppes of south Russia or end in marshy ground, choked\n  with reeds and rushes, in the delta of the Kuban. In the north and\n  east they give place, as the Manych and the coasts of the Caspian are\n  approached, to arid, sandy, stony steppes. The soil of these plains is\n  generally very fertile and they support a population of nearly\n  2,800,000 Russians, composed of Cossacks and peasant immigrants,\n  settled chiefly along the rivers and grouped in large, wealthy\n  villages. They carry on agriculture--wheat-growing on a large\n  scale--with the aid of modern agricultural machines, and breed cattle\n  and horses. Vines are extensively cultivated on the low levels, and a\n  variety of domestic trades are prosecuted in the villages. The higher\n  parts of the plains, which are deeply trenched by the upper\n  tributaries of the rivers, are inhabited by various Caucasian\n  races--Kabardians and Cherkesses (Circassians) in the west, Ossetes in\n  the middle, and several tribal elements from Daghestan, described\n  under the general name of Chechens, in the east; while nomadic Nogai\n  Tatars and Turkomans occupy the steppes.\n\n  (ii.) The _Caucasus range_ runs from north-west to south-east from the\n  Strait of Kerch to the Caspian Sea for a length of 900 m., with a\n  varying breadth of 30 to 140 m., and covers a surface of 12,000 sq. m.\n  The orographical characteristics of the Caucasus are described in\n  detail under that heading.\n\n  (iii.) The combined _valleys of the Rion and the Kura_, which\n  intervene between the Caucasus and the Armenian highlands, and stretch\n  their axes north-west and south-east respectively, embrace the most\n  populous and most fertile parts of Caucasia. They correspond roughly\n  with the governments of Kutais, Tiflis, Elisavetpol and Baku, and have\n  a population of nearly 3,650,000. The two valleys are separated by the\n  low ridge of the Suram or Meskes mountains.\n\n  Spurs from the Caucasus and from the Armenian highlands fill up the\n  broad latitudinal depression between them. Above (i.e. west of) Tiflis\n  these spurs so far intrude into the valley that it is reduced to a\n  narrow strip in breadth. But below that city it suddenly widens out,\n  and the width gradually increases through the stretch of 350 m. to the\n  Caspian, until in the Mugan steppe along that sea it measures 100 m.\n  in width. The snow-clad peaks of the main Caucasus, descending by\n  short, steep <DW72>s, fringe the valley on the north, while an abrupt\n  escarpment, having the characteristics of a border ridge of the\n  Armenian highlands, fronts it on the south. The floor of the valley\n  <DW72>s gently eastwards, from 1200 ft. at Tiflis to 500 ft. in the\n  middle, and to 85 ft. _below_ normal sea-level beside the Caspian. But\n  the uniformity of the <DW72> is interrupted by a plateau (2000-3000 ft.\n  in altitude) along the southern foothills of the east central\n  Caucasus, in the region known as Kakhetia, drained by the Alazan, a\n  left-hand tributary of the Kura. The deep, short gorges and glens\n  which seam the southern <DW72>s of the Caucasus are inhabited by\n  Ossetes, Tushes, Pshavs and Khevsurs in the west, and by various\n  tribes of Lesghians in the east. In these high and stony valleys every\n  available patch of ground is utilized for the cultivation of barley,\n  even up to altitudes of 7000 and 8000 ft. above the level of the sea;\n  but cattle-breeding is the principal resource of the mountaineers,\n  whose little communities are often separated from one another by\n  passes, few of which are lower than 10,000 ft. The steppes along the\n  bottom of the principal valley are for the most part too dry to be\n  cultivated without irrigation. It is only in Kakhetia, where numerous\n  mountain streams supply the fields and gardens of the plateau of\n  Alazan, that wheat, millet and maize are grown, and orchards,\n  vineyards and mulberry plantations are possible. Lower down the valley\n  cattle-breeding is the chief source of wealth, while in the small\n  towns and villages of the former Georgian kingdom various petty\n  trades, exhibiting a high development of artistic taste and technical\n  skill, are widely diffused. The <DW72>s of the Armenian highlands are\n  clothed with fine forests, and the vine is grown at their base, while\n  on the wide-stretching steppes the Turko-Tatars pasture cattle, horses\n  and sheep. The lower part of the Kura valley assumes the character of\n  a dry steppe, the rainfall not reaching 14 in. annually at Baku, and\n  it is still less in the Mugan steppe, though quite abundant in the\n  adjacent region of Lenkoran. The vegetation of the steppe is on the\n  whole scanty. Trees are generally absent, except for thickets of\n  poplars, dwarf oaks and tamarisks along the course of the Kura, the\n  delta of which is smothered under a jungle of reeds and rushes. The\n  Mugan steppe is, however, in spite of its dryness, a more fertile\n  region in virtue of the irrigation practised; but the Kura has\n  excavated its bed too deeply to admit of that being done along its\n  course. The Lenkoran district, sometimes called Talysh, on the western\n  side of the Kizil-Agach bay, is blessed with a rich vegetation, a\n  fertile soil, and a moist climate.\n\n  The inhabitants of the Kura valley consist principally of Iranian\n  Tates and Talyshes, of Armenians and Lesghians, with Russians, Jews\n  and Arabs. This conjoint valley of the Rion-Kura was in remote\n  antiquity the site of several Greek colonial settlements, later the\n  seat of successive kingdoms of the Georgians, and for centuries it has\n  formed a bulwark against hostile invasions from the south and east. It\n  is still inhabited chiefly by Georgian tribes--Gurians, Imeretians,\n  Mingrelians, Svanetians--in the basin of the Rion, and by Georgians\n  intermingled with Armenians in the valley of the Kura, while the\n  steppes that stretch away from the lower course of the latter river\n  are ranged over by Turko-Tatars. Mingrelia and Imeretia (valley of\n  Rion) are the gardens of Caucasia, but the high valleys of Svanetia,\n  farther north on the south <DW72>s of the Caucasus mountains, are wild\n  and difficult of access. In the cultivated parts the land is so\n  exceedingly fertile and productive that it sells for almost fabulous\n  prices, and its value is still further enhanced by the discovery of\n  manganese and copper mines in the basin of the Rion, and of the almost\n  inexhaustible supplies of naphtha and petroleum at Baku in the\n  Apsheron peninsula. The principal products of the soil are mentioned\n  lower down, while the general character of the vegetation is\n  indicated under CAUCASUS: _Western Caucasus._ In the basin of the\n  Rion, in that of the Chorokh (which runs off the Pontic highlands into\n  the Black Sea south of Batura), and on the Black Sea littoral from\n  Batum northwards to Sukhum-kaleh, and beyond, the climate is extremely\n  hot and the rainfall heavy (see under _Climate_ below). It is in this\n  valley that the principal towns (except Vladikavkaz at the north foot\n  of the Caucasus) of Caucasia are situated, namely, Baku (179,133\n  inhabitants in 1900), Tiflis (160,645 in 1897), Kutais (32,492), and\n  the two Black Sea ports of Batum (28,512) and Poti (7666).\n\n  (iv.) The _highlands of Armenia_ are sometimes designated the Minor\n  Caucasus, Little Caucasus and Anti-Caucasus. But to use such terms for\n  what is not only an independent, but also an older, orographical\n  formation than the Caucasus tends to perpetuate confusion in\n  geographical nomenclature. The Armenian highlands, which run generally\n  parallel to the Caucasus, though at much lower elevations (5000-6000\n  ft.), are a plateau region, sometimes quite flat, sometimes gently\n  undulating, clothed with luxuriant meadows and mostly cultivable. From\n  it rise double or triple ranges connected by cross-ridges and spined\n  with outer spurs. These double and triple ranges, which have a general\n  elevation of 8500-10,000 ft., stretch from the south-east angle of the\n  Black Sea, 400 m. south-eastwards to the Kara-dagh and Salavat\n  mountains in north Persia, and the latter link them on to the Elburz\n  mountains that skirt the southern end of the Caspian Sea. Various\n  names are given to the different parts of the constituent ranges, or,\n  perhaps more correctly, elongated groups of mountains. The Ajar,\n  Akhalt-sikh and Meskes or Trialety groups in the west are succeeded\n  farther east by the Somkhet, Murguz, Ganji and Karabakh sections,\n  forming the southern rim of the Kura basin, while parallel with them,\n  but farther south, run the Mokry, Miskhan, Akmangan and Paltapin\n  ranges, marking the northern edge of the Aras drainage area. These two\n  sets of parallel ranges are linked together transversely by the\n  cross-ridges of Bezobdal, Pambak, Shah-dagh and Gok-cha. From this\n  last branches off the highest range in the entire series, namely, the\n  Zangezur, which soars up to 10,000 ft. above the left bank of the\n  Aras. From it again there shoot away at right angles, one on each\n  side, the ranges of the Dar-alagoz and Bergushet. These highlands\n  exhibit very considerable evidences of volcanic activity both in\n  remote geological periods and also since the Tertiary epoch. Large\n  areas are overlain with trachyte, basalt, obsidian, tuff and pumice.\n  The most conspicuous features of the entire region, Mount Ararat\n  (16,930 ft.) and Mount Alagoz (13,440 ft.), are both solid masses of\n  trachyte; and both rise above the limits of perpetual snow. Extinct\n  volcanoes are numerous in several of the ranges, e.g. Akmangan, Mokry,\n  Karabakh and Egri-dagh (see below). It is in this region of the\n  Armenian highlands that the largest lakes of Caucasia are situated,\n  namely, the Gok-cha or Sevanga (540 sq. m. in area) at an altitude of\n  6340 ft., the Chaldir-gol (33 sq. m.) at 6520 ft., and several smaller\n  ones, such as the _gols_ of Khozapin, Khopchalu, Arpa, Toporavan and\n  Tabiztskhur, all situated between 6500 and 7000 ft. above sea-level.\n  The principal water-divide in this highland region is, however, the\n  range of Egri-dagh (Ararat), which just south of 40 deg. S. forms for\n  100 m. the boundary between Russian and Turkish Armenia, having Ararat\n  at its eastern extremity and the extinct volcano of Kessa-dagh (11,260\n  ft.) at its western. Its importance lies in the fact that it divides\n  the streams which flow into the Black Sea and Caspian from those which\n  make their way into the Persian Gulf. The Egri-dagh possesses a\n  sharply defined crest, ranges at a general elevation of 8000 ft., is\n  bare of timber, scantily supplied with water, and rugged and deeply\n  fissured.\n\n  The transverse water-parting between the Black Sea and the Caspian\n  begins on the south side of the main range of the Caucasus, at Mount\n  Zikara (12,560 ft.), a little south-west of Kasbek, and runs\n  south-west along the sinuous crests of the Racha, Suram or Meskes\n  (3000-5000 ft.), Vakhan (10,000-11,000 ft.), Arzyan (7000-10,000 ft.),\n  and its continuation the Soganluk, thus linking the Caucasus ranges\n  with those of the Armenian highlands. This line of heights separates\n  the basins of the Chorokh and the Rion (Black Sea) from those of the\n  Aras and the Kura (Caspian Sea). North of the Caucasus ranges the\n  water-divide between these two seas descends from Mount Elbruz along\n  the Sadyrlar Mountains (11,000 ft.), and finally sinks into the\n  Stavropol \"plateau\" (1600 ft.). But the main axis of the transverse\n  upheavals would appear to be continued in a north-eastern direction in\n  the Andi and other parallel ranges of Daghestan, as stated under\n  CAUCASUS.\n\n  The population in this region consists principally of Armenians,\n  Tatars, Turks, Kurds, Ossetes, Greeks, with Persians, Tates and a few\n  Russians (see particulars below).\n\n_Climate_.--Owing in part to the great differences in altitude in\ndifferent regions of Caucasia and in part to the directions in which the\nmountain ranges run, and consequently the quarters towards which their\n<DW72>s face, the climate varies very greatly according to locality.\nGenerally speaking, it may be characterized as a climate of extremes on\nthe Armenian highlands, in the Kura valley and in northern Caucasia, and\nas maritime and genial in Lenkoran, on the Black Sea coastlands, and in\nthe valley of the Rion. The greatest recorded range of temperature is\nat Erivan (altitude 3230 ft.), namely, of 64 deg. between a January\naverage of 14.9 deg. and an August average of 78.8 deg. F. At\nSukhum-kaleh, on the Black Sea, the corresponding range is only 27.3\ndeg., between a January average of 48.8 deg. and an August average of\n76.1 deg. The highest mean temperatures for the whole year are those of\nLenkoran (60.3 deg.) and of Sukhum-kaleh and Poti (about 58 deg.), and\nthe lowest at Ardahan (5840 ft.), in the province of Kars, namely, 37.9\ndeg., and at Gudaur (7245 ft.), a few miles south of Kasbek, namely,\n38.6 deg. The following table gives particulars of temperature averages\nat a few typical places:--\n\n  +-------------+--------------+--------+---------+-------+\n  |             |              | Annual | January | July  |\n  |    Place.   |   Altitude.  |  Mean. |  Mean.  | Mean. |\n  |             |              | [deg.] | [deg.]  |[deg.] |\n  +-------------+--------------+--------+---------+-------+\n  | Stavropol   | 2030         |  47.0  |   24.0  | 70.0  |\n  | Vladikavkaz | 2345         |  47.3  |   23.4  | 68.0  |\n  | Gudaur      | 7245         |  38.6  |   20.3  | 57.2  |\n  | Baku        | on Caspian   |  58.0  |   38.0  | 80.0  |\n  | Tiflis      | 1490         |  55.0  |   32.0  | 76.5  |\n  | Batum       | on Black Sea |  59.0  |   42.0  | 75.0  |\n  | Sochi       | on Black Sea |  56.3  |   40.3  | 76.1  |\n  | Lenkoran    | on Caspian   |  60.3  |   39.0  | 80.6  |\n  | Erivan      | 3170         |  51.0  |   51.0  | 75.0  |\n  +-------------+--------------+--------+---------+-------+\n\nIn respect of precipitation the entire region of Caucasia may be divided\ninto two strikingly contrasted regions, a wet and a dry. To the former\nbelong the Black Sea littoral, where the rainfall averages 59 to 93 in.\nannually, and the valleys that open upon it or are exposed to winds\nblowing off it, in which the rainfall varies, however, from 20 in.\n(Abbas-tuman, Borzhom) to 60 (Kutais). In Lenkoran also the rainfall\naverages 40 to 50 in. in the year. Between 16 and 40 in. fall as a rule\nat the northern foot of the Caucasus (Mozdok, Pyatigorsk) and in the\nKura valley (Tiflis, Novo-bayazet). On the Armenian highlands and on the\nsteppes north of Pyatigorsk the rainfall is less than 12 in. annually,\nand even in some places less than 8 in., e.g. at the foot of Ararat.\nMost rain falls at Batum and at Lenkoran in the autumn, in northern\nCaucasia and in Transcaucasia in spring and summer, but in the vicinity\nof the Sea of Azov in winter.\n\n_Flora and Fauna._--Plant-life, in such a mountainous country as\nCaucasia, being intimately dependent upon aspect and altitude, is\ntreated under CAUCASUS. The wild animals of Caucasia are for the most\npart the same as those which frequent the mountainous parts of central\nEurope, though there is also an irruption of Asiatic forms, e.g. the\ntiger (in Lenkoran only), panther, hyaena and jackal. The more important\nof the carnivores which haunt the forests, valleys and mountain <DW72>s\nare the bear (_Ursus arctos_), wolf, lynx, wild cat and fox (_Vulpes\nmelanotus_). The wild boar occurs around Borzhom. The aurochs (_Bos\nurus_) appears to exist still in the forests of the western Caucasus. Of\ninterest for sportsmen, as well as serving as prey for the carnivores,\nare red deer, goats (_Capra pallasit_ and _C. aegagrus_), chamois,\nroebuck, moufflon (_Ovis musimon_), argali or Asiatic wild sheep (_O.\nAmman_), another species of sheep in _O. gmelini_, and fallow deer\n(_Capreolus pigargns_) in northern Caucasus only. Rodents are numerous,\nthe mouse (_Mus sylvaticus_) is very destructive, and beavers are met\nwith in places. The birds of prey are the same as these of central\nEurope, and include the sea eagle, alpine vulture (_Gyps fulvus_),\nbuzzard, kites (_Gypaetus barbatus_ and _Milvus ater_), hawks (e.g.\n_Astur nisus_), goshawk (_A. palumbarius_), fish-hawk (_Pandion\nhaliaetus_) and owls. Among the smaller birds may be enumerated finches,\nthe siskin, bullfinch, pipit, titmouse, wagtail, lark, fine-crested\nwren, hedge-sparrow, corn-wren, nut-hatch, starling, swallow, martin,\nswift, thrush, butcher bird, shrike, dipper, yellow-hammer, ortolan and\na warbler (_Accentor alpinus_). The game birds consist of grouse,\nblackcock, moorhen, quail and partridge. The pheasant derives its name\nfrom the ancient name (_Phasis_) of the Rion.\n\nIn the seas and rivers about 190 species of fishes have been enumerated.\nOf these, 115 species are Mediterranean, 30 are common to the Caspian\nSea, and the remaining species are peculiar to the Black Sea. The most\nuseful economically are several species of sturgeon and of herring,\ntrout, barbel, chubb, bream, ray, sea-dace, carp, anchovy. Insects\nabound, especially Coleoptera. Flies, lice, gadflies and mosquitoes are\nthe worst of the insect plagues. There are several snakes, including the\nviper (_Pelias berus_).\n\n_Ethnology_.--The population of Caucasia is increasing rapidly. In 1897\nit numbered 9,291,090, of whom 4,886,230 were males and 4,404,867 were\nfemales. The most densely-peopled provinces were Kutais and Tiflis, each\nwith 80 inhabitants to the square mile; the thinnest the Black Sea\ngovernment (20-1\/2 per sq. m.), Terek (31), and Kars (39). Of the total\npopulation 3,725,543 lived in northern Caucasia and 5,564,547 in\nTranscaucasia (including Daghestan). In the latter territorial division\nthere exists a great disproportion between the sexes, namely, to every\n100 males only 86 females; indeed in the Black Sea government there are\nonly 65.5 females to every 100 males. Ethnologically the population\nbelongs to a great variety of races. The older authorities asserted that\nthese numbered as many as 150, or even 300; the more recent researches\nof Baron P.V. Uslar, F. Anton, von Schiefner, Zagursky, and others have\ngreatly reduced this number; but even then there are not less than fifty\nrepresented.\n\nAccording to the languages spoken the populations of Caucasia admit of\nbeing classified as follows,[1] according to Senator N. Trointsky,\npresident of the Russian Census Committee for 1897.\n\n  ARYANS                4,901,412\n    _Slavs_                        3,183,870\n      Great Russians                          1,829,793\n      Little Russians                         1,305,463\n      White Russians                             19,642\n      Poles                                      25,117\n    _Germans_                         47,391\n    _Greeks_                         100,299\n    _Rumanians_                        7,232\n    _French and Italians_              1,435\n    _Lithuanians_                      6,687\n      Lithuanians proper                          5,121\n      Letts                                       1,511\n    _Iranians_                       315,695\n      Persians                                   13,929\n      Talyshes                                   34,994\n      Tates                                      95,056\n      Ossetes                                   171,716\n    _Kurds_                           99,836\n    _Armenians_                    1,116,461\n    _Gypsies_                          3,041\n\n  SEMITES                  46,739\n    _Jews_                            40,498\n    _Chaldaeans_ (Aisors)              5,353\n\n  URAL-ALTAIANS         1,902,142\n    _Finns_                            7,422\n      Esthonians                                  4,281\n    _Turko-Tatars_                 1,879,908\n      Tatars                                  1,509,785\n      Osmanli Turks                             139,419\n      Nogai Tatars                               64,048\n      Turkomans                                  24,522\n      Bashkirs                                      953\n      Chuvashes                                     411\n      Kirghiz                                        98\n      Sarts                                         158\n      Karachais                                  27,222\n      Kumyks                                     83,408\n      Kara-papaks                                29,902\n      Kalmucks                                   14,409\n\n  CAUCASIANS            2,439,071\n    _Georgians_ (including Imeretians,\n         Gurians, Svanetians, Lazes,\n         Mingrelians, &c.)         1,352,455\n    _Circassians_\n      Cherkesses (Adigheh) and Kabardians       144,847\n      Abkhasians                                 72,103\n    _Chechens_                       274,318\n      Chechens proper                           226,496\n      Ingushes[2]                                47,409\n      Kistines                                      413\n    _Lesghians_                      600,514\n      Avaro-Andians                             212,692\n      Darghis                                   130,209\n      Kurins                                    159,213\n      Udins                                       7,100\n      Others                                     91,300\n\n_Religion_.--Most of the Russians and the Georgians belong to the\nOrthodox Greek Church (over 4,000,000 in all); but considerable numbers\n(estimated at nearly 122,000, though in reality probably a good many\nmore) are Nonconformists of different denominations. The Georgian Lazes\nare, however, Mussulmans. The Armenians are Christians, mostly of the\nnational Gregorian Church (979,566), though 34,000 are Roman Catholics.\nThe Caucasian races (except the Gregorians), together with the Turks and\nTatars, are Mussulmans of the Sunnite sect (2,021,300), and the Iranian\nraces mostly Mussulmans of the Shiite sect (884,100). The Kalmucks and\nother Mongolic tribes are Lamaists (20,300), and some of the Kurds\nprofess the peculiar tenets of the Yezids.\n\n_Industries_.--The principal occupation of the settled inhabitants is\nagriculture and of the nomadic the breeding of live stock, including\ncamels. The cultivation of the soil is, however, attended in many parts\nwith great difficulties owing to the scanty rainfall and the very\nprimitive implements still in use, and in the valley of the Kura heavy\nlosses are frequently incurred from depredations by locusts. But where\nirrigation is employed the yield of crops is excellent. Rye and wheat\nare the most important crops harvested in northern Caucasia, but oats,\nbarley and maize are also cultivated, whereas in Transcaucasia the\nprincipal crops are maize, rice, tobacco and cotton. The rice is grown\nchiefly in the valley of the Kura and in Lenkoran; the tobacco in the\nRion valley and on the Black Sea coastlands, also to some extent in\nKuban; and the cotton in the eastern provinces. Various kinds of fodder\ncrops are grown in Transcaucasia, such as hay, rye-grass and lucerne. It\nis estimated that nearly 54,000 acres are under vineyards in northern\nCaucasia and some 278,000 acres in Transcaucasia, the aggregate yield of\nwine being 30 million gallons annually. The best wine grows in Kakhetia,\na district lying north-east and east of Tiflis; this district alone\nyields nearly 8 million gallons annually. Large numbers of mulberry\ntrees are planted for rearing silkworms, especially in Kutais, Erivan,\nElisavetpol (Nukha) and Baku (Shemakha); the groves occupy nearly\n150,000 acres, and the winding of the silk gives employment to large\nnumbers of the population. Melons and water-melons are also important\nobjects of cultivation. Sunflowers are very extensively grown for oil in\nthe government of Kuban and elsewhere, and also some flax. Liquorice is\nan article of export. Many varieties of fruit are grown, especially good\nbeing the apricots, peaches, walnuts and hazel nuts. A limited area (not\nmore than 1150 acres) of the Black Sea coast between Sukhum-kaleh and\nBatum is planted with the tea-shrub, which succeeds very well. In the\nsame district bamboos, ramie-fibre and attar (otto) of roses are\ncultivated.\n\nThe _mining_ industry is growing rapidly in importance in spite of\ncostly and deficient means of communication, want of capital, and lack\nof general initiative. So far the principal developments of the industry\nhave been in the governments of Kutais, Batum, Elisavetpol and Kuban.\nCopper ore is extracted above the Murgul river (some 30 m. south of\nBatum), at Akhtala south of Tiflis, and at Kedabek in Elisavetpol;\nmanganese to a considerably greater extent (over 400,000 tons annually)\nat Chiaturi in the Kvirila valley in Kutais. Steam coal of good quality\nis reported to exist about 30 m. inland from the open roadstead of\nOchemchiri in Kutais, but it is not mined. About 50,000 tons of coal of\nvery poor quality are, however, extracted annually, and the same\nquantity of salt in the Armenian highlands and in Kuban. Small\nquantities of quicksilver, sulphur and iron are obtained. But all these\nare insignificant in comparison with the mineral oil industry of Baku,\nwhich in normal times yields annually between ten and eleven million\ntons of crude oil (naphtha). A good deal of this is transported by\ngravitation from Baku to Batum on the Black Sea by means of a pipe laid\noverland. The refined oil is exported as kerosene or petroleum, the\nheavier refuse (_mazut_) is used as fuel. Naphtha is also obtained,\nthough in much smaller quantities, in Terek and Kuban, in Tiflis and\nDaghestan. Numerous mineral springs (chalybeate and sulphurous) exist\nboth north and south of the Caucasus ranges, e.g. at Pyatigorsk,\nZhelesnovodsk, Essentuki, and Kislovodsk in Terek, and at Tiflis,\nAbbas-tuman and Borzhom in the government of Tiflis.\n\n_Manufacturing_ industry is confined to a few articles and commodities,\nsuch as cement, tea, tin cans (for oil), cotton goods, oil refineries,\ntobacco factories, flour-mills, silk-winding mills (especially at Shusha\nand Jebrail in the south of Elisavetpol), distilleries and breweries. On\nthe other hand, the domestic industries are extensively carried on and\nexhibit a high degree of technical skill and artistic taste. Carpets\n(especially at Shusha), silk, cotton and woollen goods, felts and fur\ncloaks are made, and small arms in Daghestan and at Tiflis, Nukha and\nSukhum-kaleh; silversmiths' work at Tiflis, Akhaltsikh and Kutais;\npottery at Elisavetpol and Shusha; leather shoe-making at Alexandropol,\nNukha, Elisavetpol, Shusha and Tiflis; saddlery at Sukhum-kaleh and\nOchemchiri on the Black Sea and at Temirkhan-shura in Daghestan; and\ncopper work at Derbent and Alexandropol. But industries of every\ndescription were most seriously crippled by the spirit of turbulence and\ndisorder which manifested itself throughout Transcaucasia in the years\n1904-1906, accentuated as they were further by the outbreak of the\nlong-rooted racial enmities between the Armenians and the Tatars,\nespecially at Baku in 1905.\n\n_Commerce_.--The exports through the Black Sea ports of Batum, Poti and\nNovo-rossiysk average in value a little over L10,000,000 annually,\nthough showing a tendency to increase slightly. By far the most\nimportant commodity is petroleum, fully one-half of the total value. In\naddition large quantities are shipped at Baku direct for the Volga and\nthe Transcaspian port of Krasnovodsk. The export that comes next in\nvalue is silk, and after it may be named wheat, barley, manganese ore,\nmaize, wool, oilcake, carpets, rye, oats, liquorice and timber. The\nimport trade reaches nothing like the same value, and what there is is\nconfined almost entirely to Batum. The annual average vahie may be put\nat not quite L2,000,000, machinery and tin-plate being a long way the\nmost important items. There is further a small transit trade through\nTranscaucasia from Persia to the value of less than half a million\nsterling annually, and chiefly in carpets, cocoons and silk, wool, rice\nand boxwood; and further a sea-borne trade between Persia and Caucasian\nports (Baku and Petrovsk) to the value of over 1-1\/2 millions sterling\nin all. The very extensive internal trade with Russia can only be\nmentioned.\n\n_Railways_.--The principal approach to Caucasia from Russia by rail is\nthe line that runs from Rostov-on-Don to Vladikavkaz at the foot of the\ncentral Caucasus range. Thence, or rather from the junction of Beslan,\n14 m. north of Vladikavkaz, the main line proceeds east of Petrovsk on\nthe Caspian, and from Petrovsk skirts the shore southwards as far as\nBaku, the distance from Vladikavkaz to Baku being 414 m. This railway,\ntogether with the driving roads over the Caucasus mountains via the\nMamison pass (the Ossetic military road) and the Darial pass (the\nGeorgian military road), and the route across the Black Sea to Poti or\nBatum are the chief means of communication between southern Russia and\nTranscaucasia. Baku and Batum (also Poti) are connected by another main\nline, 560 m. long, which traverses the valleys of the Kura and the Rion,\nsouth of the Caucasus. From Tiflis, nearly midway on this last line, a\nrailway proceeds south as far as Erivan (234 m.), with a branch to Kars\n(48 m.). The Erivan line is being continued into Persia, namely, to\nTabriz via Julfa on the Aras.\n\n_History_.--To the ancient Greeks Caucasia, and the mighty range which\ndominates it, were a region of mystery and romance. It was there that\nthey placed the scene of the sufferings of Prometheus (_vide_ Aeschylus,\n_Prometheus Vinctus_), and there, in the land of Colchis, which\ncorresponds to the valley of the Rion, that they sent the Argonauts to\nfetch the golden fleece. Outside the domain of myth, the earliest\nconnexion of the Greeks with that part of the world would appear to have\nbeen through the maritime colonies, such as Dioscurias, which the\nMilesians founded on the Black Sea coast in the 7th century B.C. For\nmore than two thousand years the most powerful state in Caucasia was\nthat of Georgia (q.v.), the authentic history of which begins with its\nsubmission to Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. The southern portion of\nTranscaucasia fell during the 1st century B.C. under the sway of\nArmenia, and with that country passed under the dominion of Rome, and so\neventually of the Eastern empire. During the 3rd century A.D. Georgia\nand Armenia were invaded and in great part occupied by the Khazars, and\nthen for more than a thousand years the mountain fastnesses of this\nborderland between Europe and Asia were the refuge, or the\nresting-place, of successive waves of migration, as people after people\nand tribe after tribe was compelled to give way to the pressure of\nstronger races harassing them in the rear. The Huns, for instance, and\nthe Avars appeared in the 6th century, and the Mongols in the 13th. In\nthe 10th century bands of Varangians or Russified Scandinavians sailed\nout of the Volga and coasted along the Caspian until they had doubled\nthe Apsheron peninsula, when they landed and captured Barda, the chief\ntown of Caucasian Albania.\n\nBut, apart from Georgia, historical interest in Caucasia centres in the\nlong and persistent attempts which the Russians made to conquer it, and\nthe heroic, though unavailing, resistance offered by the mountain races,\nmore especially the Circassian and Lesghian tribes. Russian aggression\nbegan somewhat early in the 18th century, when Peter the Great,\nestablishing his base at Astrakhan on the Volga, and using the Caspian\nfor bringing up supplies and munitions of war, captured Derbent from the\nPersians in 1722, and Baku in the following year. But these conquests,\nwith others made at the expense of Persia, were restored to the latter\npower after Peter's death, a dozen years later. At that period the\nGeorgians were divided into various petty principalities, the chief of\nwhich were Imeretia and Georgia (Kharthlia), owing at times a more or\nless shadowy allegiance to the sultan of the Ottoman Turks at\nConstantinople. In 1770, during the course of a war between Russia and\nTurkey, the Russians crossed over the Caucasus and assisted the\nImeretians to resist the Turks, and from the time of the ensuing peace\nof Kuchuk-kainarji the Georgian principalities looked to their powerful\nnorthern neighbour as their protector against the southern aggressors\nthe Turks. In 1783 George XIII., prince of Georgia and Mingrelia,\nformally put himself under the suzerainty of Russia, and after his death\nGeorgia was converted (1801) into a Russian province. The same fate\novertook Imeretia, nine years later. Meanwhile the Russians had also\nsubdued the Ossetes (1802) and the Lesghian tribes (1803) of the middle\nCaucasus. By the peace of Gulistan in 1813 Persia ceded to Russia\nseveral districts in eastern Caucasia, from Lenkoran northwards to\nDerbent. Nevertheless the mountain tribes who inhabited the higher parts\nof the Caucasus were still independent, and their subjugation cost\nRussia a sustained effort of thirty years, during the course of which\nher military commanders were more than once brought almost to the point\nof despair by the tenacity, the devotion and the adroitness and daring\nwhich the mountaineers displayed in a harassing guerilla warfare. The\nanimating spirit of their resistance was Shamyl (Samuel), a chief and\npriest of the Lesghians, who, a Mahommedan, proclaimed a \"holy war\"\nagainst the \"infidel\" aggressors. At first the Russians were able to\ncontinue their policy of conquest and annexation without serious check.\nAfter acquiring the northern edge of the Armenian plateau, partly from\nPersia in 1828 and partly from Turkey in 1829, Russia crushed a rising\nwhich had broken out in the Caspian coast districts of Daghestan on the\nnorth of the Caucasus. This took place during the years 1831-1832. The\nnext seven years were occupied with the subjugation of the Abkhasians\nalong the Black Sea coast, and of other Circassian tribes in the west.\nMeanwhile Shamyl had roused the Lesghian tribes farther east and begun\nhis twenty years' struggle for freedom, a struggle which called forth\nthe sympathy and admiration of nearly the whole of Europe. More than\nonce he escaped, in a manner that seemed little short of marvellous, out\nof the hands of the Russians when they held him closely invested in some\nmountain fastness, as at Himry in 1831, at Akhulgo in 1839, and again at\nthe same stronghold in 1849. The general who at last broke the back of\nthe long opposition of the prophet-chief of the Lesghians was Prince\nBaryatinsky, who after three years of strenuous warfare succeeded in\ncapturing Shamyl's stronghold of Weden, and then in surrounding that\nchieftain himself on the inaccessible rocky platform of Gunib in the\nheart of Daghestan. There the hitherto indomitable champion of Caucasian\nindependence was forced to surrender to the Russians on the 6th of\nSeptember 1859. Nevertheless the spirit of resistance in these stubborn\nmountaineers was not finally broken until 1864, when the Russians\neventually stifled all opposition in the difficult valleys and glens of\nthe western Caucasus. But this was followed, during the next fourteen\nyears, by the wholesale emigration of thousands upon thousands of\nCircassians, who sought an asylum in Turkish territory, leaving their\nnative region almost uninhabited and desolate, a condition from which it\nhas not recovered even at the present day. During the Russo-Turkish War\nof 1877-78 the self-exiled Circassians and other Caucasian mountaineers,\nsupported by a force of 14,000 Turks, made a determined attempt to wrest\ntheir native glens from the power of Russia; but, after suffering a\nsevere defeat at the hands of General Alkhazov, the Turks withdrew, and\nwere accompanied by some 30,000 Abkhasians, who settled in Asia Minor. A\nfew months later the Lesghians in Daghestan, who had risen in revolt,\nwere defeated and their country once more reduced to obedience. By the\nensuing peace of Adrianople, Russia still further enlarged her\nTranscaucasian territories by the acquisition of the districts of Kars,\nBatum and Ardahan. After a peaceful period of a quarter of a century the\nArmenian subjects of Russia in Transcaucasia were filled with bitterness\nand discontent by the confiscation of the properties of their national\n(Gregorian) church by the Russian treasury. Nor were their feelings more\nthan half allayed by the arrangement which made their ecclesiastics\nsalaried officers of the Russian state. This ferment of unrest, which\nwas provoked in the years 1903-1904, was exacerbated in the winters that\nfollowed by the renewed outbreak of the century-long racial feud between\nthe Tatars and the Armenians at Baku and other places. In fact, nearly\nthe whole of the region between the Caucasus and the Perso-Turkish\nfrontier on the south, from the Caspian Sea on the one side to the Black\nSea on the other, was embroiled in a civil war of the most sanguinary\nand ruthless character, the inveterate racial animosities of the\ncombatants being in both cases inflamed by religious fanaticism.\nComplete anarchy prevailed at the worst centres of disorder, as Baku and\nBatum, the imperial authorities being more powerless to preserve even\nthe semblance of order than they were in the interior of Russia. Many of\nthe oil wells at Baku were burned, and massacres took place at that\ntown, at Shusha, at Erivan, at Tiflis, at Batum, at Jebrail and at other\nplaces. An end was put to these disorders only by the mutual agreement\nof the two contestants, alike horrified and exhausted by the fierce\noutburst of passion, in September 1905.     (J. T. Be.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] _Premier Recensement general de la population de l'empire de\n    Russie_, ed. N. Trointsky (St Petersburg, 1905, 2 vols.), in Russian\n    and French.\n\n  [2] Although the Ingushes speak a Chechen dialect, they have recently\n    been proved to be, anthropologically, quite a distinct race.\n\n\n\n\nCAUCASUS, a mountain range of Asia, wholly within the Russian empire,\nstretching north-west to south-east from the Strait of Kerch (between\nthe Black Sea and Sea of Azov) to the Caspian Sea, over a length of 900\nm., with a breadth varying from 30 to 140 m. In its general character\nand conformation the Caucasus presents a closer analogy with the\nPyrenees than with the Alps. Its general uniformity of direction, its\ncomparatively narrow width, and its well-defined limits towards both\nsouth and north are all features which it has in common with the former.\nThe range of the Caucasus, like that of the Pyrenees, maintains for\nconsiderable distances a high average elevation, and is not cleft by\ndeep trenches, forming natural passes across the range, such as are\ncommon in the Alps. In both ranges, too, some of the highest summits\nstand on spurs of the main range, not on the main range itself; as Mont\nPerdu and Maladetta lie south of the main backbone of the Pyrenees, so\nMount Elbruz and Kasbek, Dykh-tau, Koshtan-tau, Janga-tau and\nShkara--all amongst the loftiest peaks of the Caucasus--stand on a\nsubsidiary range north of the principal range or on spurs connecting the\ntwo. On the other hand, it is interesting to compare the arrangement of\nthe drainage waters of the Caucasus with those of the Alps. In both\norographical systems the principal rivers start nearly all together from\na central nucleus, and in both cases they radiate to opposite quarters\nof the compass; but whereas in the Alps the Rhone and the Rhine, flowing\nsouth-west and north-east respectively, follow longitudinal valleys, and\nthe Aar and the Ticino, flowing north-west and south-east respectively,\nfollow transverse valleys, in the Caucasus the streams which flow\nsouth-west and north-east, namely, the headwaters of the Rion and the\nTerek, travel along transverse valleys, and those of the Kura and the\nKuban, flowing south-east and north-west respectively, traverse\nlongitudinal valleys. For purposes of description it is convenient to\nconsider the range in four sections, a western, a middle with two\nsubsections, and an eastern.\n\n1. WESTERN CAUCASUS. This section, extending from the Strait of Kerch to\nMount Elbruz in 42 deg. 40' E., is over 420 m. long, and runs parallel\nto the north-east coast of the Black Sea and at only a short distance\nfrom it. Between the main range and the sea there intervene at least two\nparallel ranges separated by deep glens, and behind it a third\nsubsidiary parallel range, likewise separated by a deep trough-like\nvalley, and known as the Bokovoi Khrebet. All these ranges are shorn\nthrough transversely by numerous glens and gorges, and, the rainfall\nbeing heavy and the exposure favourable, they are densely clothed with\nvegetation. Many of the spurs or broken segments of ranges thus formed\nabut steeply upon the Black Sea, so that this littoral region is on the\nwhole very rugged and not readily accessible, especially as the general\nelevations are considerable. The seaward flanking ranges run up to 4000\nft. and more, and in many places shoot out cliffs which overhang the\ncoast some 2000-3000 ft. sheer, while the main range gradually ascends\nto 10,000-12,000 ft. as it advances eastwards, the principal peaks being\nFisht (8040 ft.), Oshten (9210 ft.), Shuguz (10,640 ft.), and Psysh\n(12,425 ft.). And whereas the main range is built up of hard eruptive or\ncrystalline rocks, the subsidiary chains are composed of softer\n(Cretaceous and Tertiary) laminated formations, which easily become\ndisintegrated and dislocated. The snow-line runs here at about 9000 ft.\non the loftiest summits, and east of Oshten the crest of the main range\nis capped with perpetual snow and carries many hanging glaciers, while\nlarger glaciers creep down the principal valleys. The passes lie at\nrelatively great altitudes and are few in number, so that although the\nnorthern versants of the various ranges all have a tolerably gentle\n<DW72>, communication between the Black Sea and the valley of the Kuban,\nand the low steppe country beyond, is the reverse of easy. The more\nimportant passes, proceeding from west to east, are Pshekh (5435 ft.)\nwest of Oshten, and Shetlib (6060 ft.) east of Oshten, Pscashka (6880\nft.) east of Shuguz, Sanchar (7990 ft.) west of Psysh; and between the\nlast-named mountain and Elbruz, facilitating communication between\nSukhum-Kaleh (and the coast as far as Poti) and the upper valley of the\nKuban, are the passes of Marukh (11,500 ft.), Klukhor (9450 ft.) and\nNakhar (9615 ft.).\n\n_Flora._--The southern exposure of this littoral region, the shelter\nafforded against the bitter winds of the north by the lofty Caucasus\nrange, and the copious rainfall all combine to foster a luxuriant and\nabundant vegetation. The most distinguishing feature of the flora of\nthis region is the predominance of arborescent growths; forests cover in\nfact 56% of the area, and are not only dense but laced together with\nclimbing and twining plants. The commonest species of trees are such as\ngrow in central Europe, namely, ash, fir, pine, beech, acacia, maple,\nbirch, box, chestnut, laurel, holm-oak, poplar, elm, lime, yew, elder,\nwillow, oak. The common box is especially prevalent, but the\npreponderating species are _Coniferae_, including the Caucasian species\n_Pinus halepensis_ and _P. insignis_. The commonest firs are _Abies\nnordmannia_ and _A. orientalis_. There are two native oaks, _Quercus\nponticus_ and _Q. sessiliflora_. A great variety of shrubs grow on these\n<DW72>s of the western Caucasus, chiefly the following species, several\nof which are indigenous--_Rhododendron ponticum, Azalea pontica,\nAristotelia maqui, Agave americana, Cephalaria tatarica, Coloneaster\npyracantha, Citrus aurantium, Diospyros ebenum, Ficus carica, Illicium\nanisatum, Ligustrum caucasicum, Punica granatum, Philadelphus\ncoronarius, Pyrus salicifolia, Rhus cotinus_ and six species of\n_Viburnum_. Aquatic plants thrive excellently and occur in great\nvariety. The following purely Caucasian species also grow on the\ncoast--five species of spearwort, three of saxifrage, _Aster caucasica,\nDioscorea caucasica, Echinops raddeanus, Hedera colchica, Helleborus\ncaucasica_ and _Peucedanum caucasicum_. Here too are found many of the\nmore beautiful open-air flowering plants of a shrubby character, e.g.\nmagnolia, azalea, camellia, begonia and paulownia. Among the cultivated\ntrees and shrubs the most valuable economically are the vine, peach,\npomegranate, fig, olive (up to 1500 ft. above sea-level), chestnut,\napricot, apple, pear, plum, cherry, melon, tea (on the coast between\nSukhum-Kaleh and Batum), maize (yielding the staple food of the\ninhabitants), wheat (up to 6000 ft.), potatoes, peas, currants, cotton,\nrice, colza and tobacco. Before the Russian conquest the native\ninhabitants of this region were Kabardians, Circassians (Adigheh) and\nAbkhasians, also a Circassian race. But half a million of these people\nbeing Mahommedans, and refusing to submit to the yoke of Christian\nRussia, emigrated into Turkish territory between 1864 and 1878, and the\ncountry where they had lived remained for the most part unoccupied until\nafter the beginning of the 20th century. Then, however, the Russian\ngovernment held out inducements to settlers, and these have been\nresponded to by Russians, Greeks, Armenians and Rumanians, but the\nprocess of repeopling the long deserted territory is slow and difficult.\nThe coast-line is remarkably regular, there being no deep bays and few\nseaports. The best accommodation that these latter afford consists of\nmore or less open roadsteads, e.g. Novo-rossiysk, Gelenjik, Anapa,\nSukhum-Kaleh, Poti and Batum. Along the coast a string of summer bathing\nresorts is springing up similar to those that dot the south-east coast\nof the Crimea. The most promising of these little seaside places are\nAnapa, Gelenjik and Gagry.\n\n2. MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (a) _Western Half._--This sub-section, with a length\nof 200 m., reaches from Mount Elbruz to Kasbek and the Pass of Darial.\nIt contains the loftiest summits of the entire range, fully a dozen\nexceeding Mont Blanc in altitude (see table below).\n\n  _List of Peaks in the west central Caucasus, with their altitudes,\n  names and dates of mountaineers who have climbed them._\n\n  +--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+\n  |   Name of Peak.    |Altitude|             By whom ascended.            |Date|\n  |                    |in Feet.|                                          |    |\n  +--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+\n  |Elbruz, E. peak     | 18,345 |D.W. Freshfield, A.W. Moore and C. Tucker |1868|\n  |Elbruz, W. peak     | 18,465 |F.C. Grove, H. Walker and F. Gardiner     |1874|\n  |  \"       \"         |   \"    |H. Woolley                                |1889|\n  |Donguz-orun         | 14,600 |G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller         |1890|\n  |    \"               |   \"    |Donkin and H. Fox                         |1888|\n  |    \"               |   \"    |Helbling, Reichert and Weber              |1903|\n  |Shtavler            | 13,105 |Ficker, W.R. Rickmers, Scheck and Wigner  |1903|\n  |Ledosht-tau         | 12,580 |Schuster and Wigner                       |1903|\n  |Hevai               | 13,055 |Schuster and Wigner                       |1903|\n  |Lakra-tau           | 12,185 |Rolleston and Longstaff                   |1903|\n  |Ushba, N.E. peak    | 15,400 |Cockin                                    |1888|\n  |Ushba, S.W. peak    | 15,410 |Helbling, Schulze, Reichert, Schuster and |1903|\n  |                    |        |  Weber                                   |    |\n  |Ushba, both peaks   |        |Distel, Leuchs and Pfann                  |1903|\n  |Sultran-kol-bashi   | 12,495 |Grove, Walker and Gardiner                |1874|\n  |Bak                 | 11,739 |Collier, Solly and Newmarch               |1894|\n  |Gulba               | 12,500 |Freshfield                                |1887|\n  |Salynan-bashi       | 14,700 |Cockin and H.W. Holder                    |1888|\n  |Shikildi-tau        | 14,170 |Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber     |1903|\n  |Bshedukh            | 14,010 |Distel, Leuchs and Pfann                  |1903|\n  |Ullu-tau-chana      | 13,800 |Rolleston and Longstaff                   |1903|\n  |Adyr-su-bashi       | 14,335 |Holder, Cockin and Woolley                |1896|\n  |Sullu-kol-bashi     | 13,970 |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|\n  |Tikhtengen          | 15,135 |Rolleston and Longstaff                   |1903|\n  |Gestola             | 15,940 |C.T. Dent and Donkin                      |1886|\n  |Tetnuld             | 15,920 |Freshfield                                |1887|\n  |   \"                |   \"    |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|\n  |Adish or Katuyn-tau | 16,295 |Holder and Woolley                        |1888|\n  |Janga-tau, E. peak  | 16,525 |Cockin                                    |1888|\n  |  \"      \"          |   \"    |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|\n  |Janga-tau, E. and W.| W. peak|                                          |    |\n  |  peaks             | 16,660 |Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber     |1903|\n  |Shkara              | 17,040 |Cockin                                    |1888|\n  |Ailama              | 14,855 |Woolley                                   |1889|\n  |Ullu-auz            | 15,350 |V. Sella                                  |1888|\n  |Dykh-tau *          | 17,050 |Cockin, Holder and Woolley                |1888|\n  |Koshtan-tau **      | 16,875 |Woolley                                   |1888|\n  |Mishirghi-tau       |        |                                          |    |\n  |  E. peak           | 16,350 |Woolley                                   |1889|\n  |Laboda              | 14,170 |Dent and Woolley                          |1895|\n  |Tsikhvarga, E. peak | 13,575 |V. Sella                                  |1890|\n  |    \"       W. peak | 13,575 |Holder and Cockin                         |1890|\n  |Karagom-khokh or    |        |                                          |    |\n  | Burdshula          | 14,295 |Holder and Cockin                         |1890|\n  |Adai-khokh          | 15,275 |Holder and Cockin                         |1890|\n  |Tepli               | 14,510 |V. Sella                                  |1896|\n  |Kasbek              | 16,545 |Freshfield, Moore and Tucker              |1868|\n  |  \"                 |   \"    |Woolley                                   |1889|\n  |  \"                 |   \"    |Merzbacher                                |1890|\n  |  \"                 |   \"    |V. Sella                                  |1896|\n  |Gimarai-khokh       | 15,670 |Merzbacher                                |1890|\n  |Laila, N. peak      | 13,045 |Freshfield and Powell                     |1889|\n  |Laila, middle peak  | 13,155 |V. Sella                                  |1889|\n  |Laila, S. peak      | 13,105 |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|\n  |Khamkhakhi-khokh    | 14,065 |M. de Dechy                               |1884|\n  +--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+\n\n     * Formerly the Koshtan-tau.\n    ** Formerly the Dykh-tau.\n\n  In addition to the peaks enumerated in the table, the following also\n  exist between Elbruz and Kasbek all exceeding 13,000 ft. in altitude:\n  Dong-osenghi, 14,265 ft.; Kurmychi, 13,310 ft.; Ullu-kara-tau, 14,070\n  ft.; Jailyk, 17,780 ft.; Sarikol-bashi, 13,965 ft.; Dumala-tau, 14,950\n  ft.; Sugan-tau, 14,730 ft.; Tiutiu-bashi, 14,500 ft.; Nuamkuam, 13,975\n  ft.; Zurungal, 13,915 ft.; Mala-tau, 14,950 ft.; Tiutiun-tau, 15,115\n  ft.; Khrumkol-tau, 14,653 ft.; Bubis-khokh, 14,500 ft.; Giulchi,\n  14,680 ft.; Doppakh, 14,240 ft.; Nakhashbita-khokh, 14,405 ft.;\n  Shan-khokh, 14,335 ft.; Mishirghi-tau (W. peak), 16,410 ft.;\n  Fytnargyn-tau, 13,790 ft.; Gezeh-tau, 14,140 ft.; and Kaltber, 14,460\n  ft.\n\nThe crest of the main range runs continuously at an altitude exceeding\n10,000 ft., but even it is surpassed in elevation by the secondary range\nto the north, the Bokovoi Khrebet. These two ranges are connected by\nmore than half a dozen short transverse spurs or necks, inclosing as\nmany cirques or high cauldron glens. Besides the Bokovoi Khrebet several\nother short subsidiary ranges branch off from the main range at acute\nangles, lifting up high montane glens between them; for instance, the\ntwo ranges in Svanetia, which divide, the one the river (glen) Ingur\nfrom the river (glen) Tskhenis-Tskhali, and the other the river (glen)\nTskhenis-Tskhali from the rivers (glens) Lechkhum and Racha. Down all\nthese glens glacier streams descend, until they find an opportunity to\npierce through the flanking ranges, which they do in deep and\npicturesque gorges, and then race down the northern <DW72>s of the\nmountains to enter the Terek or the Kuban, or down the southern versant\nto join the Rion or the Kura. Amongst all these high glens there is a\nremarkable absence of lakes and waterfalls; nor are there down in the\nlower valleys at the foot of the mountains, as one would naturally\nexpect in a region so extensively glaciated, any sheets of water\ncorresponding to the Swiss lakes. In this section of the Caucasus the\nloftiest peaks do not as a rule rise on the main range, but in many\ncases on the short spurs that link it with the Bokovoi Khrebet and other\nsubsidiary ranges.\n\n  \"The central chain of the Caucasus,\" writes Mr Douglas W.\n  Freshfield,[1] \"consists of a number of short parallel or curved\n  horseshoe ridges, crowned with rocky peaks and enclosing basins filled\n  by the _neves_ of great glaciers.... On either side of the main chain\n  the same succession is repeated, with one important difference. On the\n  north the schists come first, sometimes rising into peaks and ridges\n  in a state of ruin ... but more often worn to rolling downs; then the\n  limestone range--writing-desk mountains that turn their steep fronts\n  to the central snows; lastly low Cretaceous foothills, that sink\n  softly into the steppe. But on the south side the crystalline rocks\n  are succeeded by a broad belt of slates, as to the age of which the\n  evidence is at present conflicting and the opinion of geologists\n  divided. East of Adai-khokh, by what seems a strange freak of nature,\n  the granitic [main] range is rent over and over again to its base by\n  gorges, the watershed being transferred to the parallel chain of clay\n  slates ... which has followed it from the Black Sea, attaining on its\n  way the height of 13,400 ft. in the Laila, and limiting the great\n  parallel basins of the Rion, Ingur and Skenis Shali\n  [= Tskhenis-Tskhali]....\" \"At the base of the central core of the chain\n  spread (to the north) broad, smooth, grassy downs, the pastures of the\n  Turk and the Ossete.... Their ridges attain to 9000 to 10,000 ft. They\n  are composed of friable crystalline schists.... Beyond these schists\n  rises a broken wall of limestone, cleft to the base by gorges, through\n  which flow the mountain torrents, and capped by pale precipitous\n  battlements, which face the central chain at a height of 11,000 to\n  12,000 ft. Beyond, again, lies a broad furrow, or 'longitudinal fold,'\n  as geologists call it, parallel to the ridges, and then rises the last\n  elevation, a belt of low calcareous hills, on which, here and there\n  among the waves of beech forest, purple or blue with distance, a white\n  cliff retains its local colour and shines like a patch of fresh snow.\n  Beyond, once more beyond, spreads the Scythian steppe, not the dead\n  level of Lombardy, but an expanse of long low modulations, which would\n  be reckoned hills in our home counties, seamed by long shining\n  ribbons, which mark the courses of the tributaries of the Terek....\n  Southwards too, immediately under the snows, we find 'crystalline\n  schists,' smooth grassy heights, separated by shallow trenches, which\n  form the lesser undulations of the three basins, the _drei\n  Langenhochthaler Imeritiens_ of Dr Radde. These basins or\n  'longitudinal folds' are enclosed on the south by the long high ridge\n  of dark slates, which extends parallel to the crystalline [main] chain\n  from the neighbourhood of Sukhum-Kale to the Krestovaya Gora [pass of\n  Darial.] Behind this slate crest spreads a confused multitude of\n  hills, Jurassic and Cretaceous in their formation.... Their outer\n  edge, distant some 30 to 40 m. from the snows, is marked by a\n  limestone belt, lower and less continuous than that on the north,\n  which frames the gorges of the Rion, and rises in the Kuamli (6352\n  ft.) and Nakarala (4774 ft.) near Kutais, its best known\n  elevations.\"[2] It may be added that, south of the central watershed,\n  the strata, both Mesozoic and Palaeozoic, are compressed, crumpled,\n  faulted and frequently overfolded, with their apices pointing to the\n  south.\n\n_Glaciers._--As a rule the snow-line runs at 9500 to 10,000 ft. on the\nnorthern face and 1000 ft. higher on the southern face. It is estimated\nthat there are in all over nine hundred glaciers in this section of the\nrange, and although they often rival those of the Alps in size, they do\nnot descend generally to such low altitudes as the latter. The best\nknown are the Bezingi or Ullu, between Dykh-tau and Janga-tau, 10-1\/2 m.\nlong, covering an area of 31 sq.m., and descending to 6535 ft. above\nsea-level; Leksyr, situated south of Adyr-su-bashi, 7-1\/2 m. long, 19\nsq.m. in area, and creeping down to as low as 5690 ft., this being the\nlowest point to which any glacier descends on the south side of the\nrange; Tseya or Zea, descending 6 m. from the Adai-khokh to an altitude\nof 6730 ft.; Karagom, from the same mountain, 9-1\/2 m. long, 14 sq.m. in\narea and reaching down to 5790 ft., the lowest on the north side;\nDyevdorak or Devdorak, from Kasbek, 2-1\/2 m. long, its lower end at 7530\nft.; Khaldeh or Geresho 4-1\/4 m. long, from Shkara and Janga-tau; Tuyber\nfrom Tetnuld, 6-1\/2 m. long, area 21 sq.m., and reaching down to 6565\nft.; Tsanner or Zanner, the same length and the same area, but stopping\nshort 240 ft. higher, likewise given off by Tetnuld; while between that\npeak, Adish and Gestola originates the Adish or Lardkhat glacier, 5 m.\nlong and terminating at 7450 ft. The total area covered by glaciers in\nthe central Caucasus is estimated at 625 to 650 sq.m., the longest being\nthe Maliev on Kasbek, 36 m. long; but according to the investigations of\nM. Rossikov several of the largest glaciers are shrinking or\nretreating, the Tseya at the rate of something like 40-45 ft. per annum.\n\n_Passes._--It is in this section that the entire mountain system is\nnarrowest, and here it is that (apart from the \"gate\" at Derbent close\nbeside the Caspian) the principal means of communication exist between\nnorth and south, between the steppes of southern Russia and the\nhighlands of Armenia and Asia Minor. These means of communication are\nthe passes of Darial and Mamison. Over the former, which lies\nimmediately east of Kasbek, runs the Georgian military road (made\n1811-1864) from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis, cutting through the mountains by\na gorge (8 m. long) of singular beauty, shut in by precipitous mountain\nwalls nearly 6000 ft. high, and so narrow that there is only just room\nfor the carriage-road and the brawling river Terek side by side. The\npass by which this road crosses the main range, farther south, is known\nas the Krestovaya Gora (Mountain of the Cross) and lies 7805 ft. above\nsea-level. The Mamison Pass, over which runs the Ossetic military road\n(made passable for vehicles in 1889) from the Terek (below Vladikavkaz)\nto Kutais in the valley of the Rion, skirting the eastern foot of the\nAdai-khokh, lies at an altitude of 9270 ft. and is situated a little\nsouth of the main range. Scarce any of the remaining passes in this\nwest-central region are better than mountain paths; horses can traverse\nthe best of them only during a few weeks in the height of summer. They\nmostly range at altitudes of 9000-12,500 ft., and between the pass of\nNakhar in the west and that of Mamison in the east there is not a single\npass below 10,000 ft. The best known in this section are the three\nBaksan passes of Chiper (10,800 and 10,720 ft.), Bassa (9950 ft.) and\nDonguz-orun (10,490 ft.), south of Elbruz; those of Becho (11,070 ft.),\nAkh-su (12,465 ft.), Bak (10,220 ft.), Adyr-su (12,305 ft.) and Bezingi\n(10,090 ft.), between Elbruz and Dykh-tau; and those of Shari-vizk\n(11,560 ft.), Edena, Pasis-mta or Godivizk (11,270 ft.), Shtulu-vizk\n(10,860 ft.), Fytnargyn (11,130 ft.), between Dykh-tau and Adai-khokh;\nthe Bakh-fandak (9570 ft.), between Adai-khohk and Kasbek; and the two\nKaraul passes (11,680 and 11,270 ft.) and Gurdzi-vizk (10,970 ft.),\nconnecting the valley of the Urukh with that of the Rion. The most\nfrequented pass in Svanetia is that of Latpari (9260 ft.), situated in\nthe first of the southern subsidiary ranges mentioned above, and thus\nconnecting the valley of the Ingur with the valley of the\nTskhenis-Tskhali.\n\n_Flora._--In this section of the range again the southern <DW72>s are\nclothed with vegetation of remarkable luxuriance and richness, more\nespecially in the region of Svanetia (42 deg.-43 deg. E.). Not only are\nthe plants bigger than they grow in the Alps, but the blossoms are more\nabundant. Here again forests of _Coniferae_ predominate, especially on\nthe northern and eastern <DW72>s; and the other distinguishing features\nof the flora are gigantic male ferns (_Aspidium filix-mas_), _Paris\nincompleta_ (a member of the Trilliaceae), _Usnea_ or tree-moss, box,\nholly (_Ilex aquifolium_), _Lilium monadelphum_ and many of the familiar\nherbaceous plants which flower in English gardens, though here they grow\nto an altogether extraordinary size--\"monkshoods, _Cephalaria_,\n_Mulgedia_ and groundsels, among which men on horseback might play at\nhide and seek without stooping\" (E. Levier). Other prominent species are\n_Campanula_, _Pyrethrum_, aconite, _Cephaelis_, speedwell, _Alchemilla\nsericea_, _Centaurea macrocephala_, _Primula grandis_ and a species of\nprimrose. And the great height (13,000 ft.) at which the flowering\nplants blossom is not less remarkable than the great beauty and\nabundance of the flowers. Species which grow on both the northern and\nthe southern <DW72>s ascend 2000 ft. higher on the latter than on the\nformer. Walnuts grow up to an altitude of 5400 ft., the vine and\nmulberry up to 3250 ft., the lime and ash to 4000 ft. The forests extend\nto the upper end of the limestone gorges. Above that the crystalline\nschists are bare of tree vegetation. The upper limit of arborescent\nvegetation is considered to run at 7000-7500 ft., of shrubs such as\nrhododendrons at 8500 ft., and of pasture-lands up to 9000 ft. The\nprincipal cultivated varieties of plants in this section are wheat, rye,\noats, barley, beans, millet and tobacco.\n\n3. MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (b) _Eastern Part._--In this sub-section, which\nstretches from Kasbek and the Darial gorge eastwards to the Baba-dagh\nin 48 deg. 25' E., a distance of 230 m., the Caucasus attains its\ngreatest breadth. For the whole of that distance the main range keeps at\nan average elevation of 10,000 ft., though the peaks in many instances\ntower up 2000 to nearly 5000 ft. higher, the altitudes increasing\ntowards the east. As the main range approaches the Caspian its granite\ncore gradually disappears, giving place to Palaeozoic schists, which\nspread down both the northern and the southern <DW72>s. The glaciers too\ndecrease in the same proportion both in magnitude and in extent. Here\nthe principal peaks, again found for the most part on the spurs and\nsubsidiary ranges, are the Tsmiakom-khokh (13,570 ft.), Shan-tau (14,530\nft.), Kidenais-magali (13,840 ft.), Zilga-khokh (12,645 ft), Zikari\n(12,565 ft.), Choukhi (12,110 ft.), Julti-dagh (12,430 ft.),\nAlakhun-dagh (12,690 ft.) and Maghi-dagh (12,445 ft.). On the main range\nitself stand Borbalo (10,175 ft.), Great Shavi-kildeh (12,325 ft.),\nMurov (11,110 ft.), Ansal (11,740 ft.), Ginor-roso (11,120 ft), while\nfarther east come Trfan-dagh (13,765 ft.) and Bazardyuz or Kichen\n(14,727 ft.). In the same direction, but again outside the main range,\nlie Shah-dagh (13,955 ft.), Shalbuz (13,675 ft.) and Malkamud (12,750\nft.).\n\nBut the most noteworthy feature of this section is the broad _highland\nregion of Daghestan_, which flanks the main range on the north, and\nsinks down both eastwards to the Black Sea and northwards to the valley\nof the Terek. On the north-west this rugged highland region is well\ndefined by the distinctive transverse ridge of Andi, which to the east\nof Kasbek strikes off from the Caucasus range almost at right angles.\nThe rest of the Daghestan region consists of a series of roughly\nparallel folds, of Jurassic or Cretaceous age, ranging in altitudes from\n7500 up to 12,500 ft., separated from one another by deep gorge-like\nriver glens which cut it up into a number of arid, treeless plateaus\nwhich have something of the appearance of independent ranges, or rather\nelongated tablelands of a mountainous character. The most prominent of\nthese tablelands is Bash-lam, which stretches east and west between the\nChanti Argun and the Andian Koisu, both tributaries of the Terek. Upon\nit rise the conspicuous peaks of Tebulos-mta (14,775 ft.), Tugo-mta\n(13,795 ft.), Komito-tavi or Kachu (14,010 ft.), Donos-mta (13,560 ft.),\nDiklos-mta (13,740 ft.), Kvavlos-mta or Kolos-mta (13,080 ft.),\nMotshekh-tsferi (13,140 ft.) and Galavanas-tsferi (13,260 ft.). Farther\neast come the Bogos tableland, stretching from south-south-west to\neast-north-east between the Andian Koisu and the Avarian Koisu and\nrising to over 13,400 ft. in several peaks, e.g. Antshovala (13,440\nft.), Botshokh-meer (13,515 ft.), Kosara-ku (13,420 ft.) and\nAddala-shuogchol-meer (13,580 ft.); and the Dyulty tableland, reaching\n12,400 ft. between the Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu. On some of\nthese peaks again there is a considerable amount of glaciation, more\nparticularly on the <DW72>s of Diklos-mta, where the glaciers descend to\n7700 ft. on the north side and to 8350 ft. on the south side. In this\nsection of the Caucasus the passes run somewhat lower than those between\nElbruz and Kasbek, though still at appreciable heights, fully equal to\nthose that lead up from the Black Sea to the valley of the Kuban in the\nwestern section of the range. The best known are the Krestovaya Gora\n(7805 ft.) on the Georgian military road, south of Darial; Kodor (9300\nft.) and Satskheni, leading up from Telav in the upper valley of the\nAlazan; and Gudur (10,120 ft.) and Salavat (9280 ft.), carrying the\nAkhty military road from the valley of the Samur up past the Shah-dagh\nand the Bazar-dyusi to the valley of the Alazan.\n\nThe _flora_ of this section bears a general resemblance to that farther\nwest. Ample details will be found in Dr G. Radde's (1831-1903)\nmonographs on Daghestan, quoted at the end of the present article.\n\n4. The EASTERN SECTION of the Caucasus gradually dies away east of\nBaba-dagh (11,930 ft.) towards the Caspian, terminating finally in the\npeninsula of Apsheron. It is, however, continued under the waters of the\nCaspian, as stated in the article on that sea, and reappears on its\neastern side in the Kopet-dagh, which skirts the north-east frontier of\nPersia. In this section of the Caucasus no peak exceeds 9000 ft. in\naltitude and the crest of the main range retains no snow. The most\nfrequented pass, that of Alty-agach, necessitates a climb of not more\nthan 4355 ft.\n\n_Slopes of Range._--Between the northern and the southern sides of the\nrange there is quite as great a difference in climate, productions and\nscenery as there is between the Swiss and the Italian sides of the Alps.\nIn the south-western valleys and on the south-western <DW72>s of the\nCaucasus, where a heavy rainfall is combined with a warm temperature,\nmagnificent forests clothe the mountain-sides and dip their skirts into\nthe waters of the Black Sea. There not only the littoral from (say)\nSukhum-Kaleh to Batum but the inland parts of the basin of the Rion will\nbear comparison with any of the provinces of Italy in point of\nfertility, and in richness and variety of products. But farther inland,\nupon proceeding eastwards towards Tiflis, a great change becomes\nnoticeable on the other side of the transverse ridge of the Suram or\nMeskes mountains. Arid upland plains and parched hillsides take the\nplace of the rich verdure and luxuriant arborescent growth of Imeretia,\nSvanetia and Mingrelia, the districts which occupy the valleys of the\nIngur and Rion and the tributaries of the latter. A very similar change\nlikewise becomes noticeable in the higher regions of the Caucasus\nMountains upon proceeding north of the pass of Mamison, which separates\nthe head-waters of the Rion from those of the Ardon, an important\ntributary of the Terek. The valleys of the two streams last mentioned,\nand of others that flow in the same direction, are almost wholly\ndestitute of trees, but where the bare rock does not prevail, the\nmountain <DW72>s are carpeted with grass. Freshfield's description of the\nvalley of the Terek above Kasbek will apply pretty generally to all the\nvalleys that descend on that face of the range: \"treeless valleys, bold\nrocks, <DW72>s of forbidding steepness (even to eyes accustomed to those\nof the Alps), and stonebuilt villages, scarcely distinguishable from the\nneighbouring crags.\" But, austere and unattractive though these valleys\nare, the same epithets cannot be applied to the deep gorges by which in\nmost cases the streams make their escape through the northern subsidiary\nrange. These defiles are declared to be superior in grandeur to anything\nof the kind in the Alps. That of Darial (the Terek) is fairly well\nknown, but those of the Cherek and the Urukh, farther west, are stated\nto be still more magnificent. And not only do the snow-clad ranges and\nthe ice-panoplied peaks which tower up above them surpass the loftiest\nsummits of the Alps in altitude; they also in many cases excel them in\nboldness and picturesqueness of outline, and equal the most difficult of\nthem in steepness and relative inaccessibility.\n\n_Hydrography._--Nearly all the larger rivers of Caucasia have their\nsources in the central parts of the Caucasus range. The short, steep,\ntorrential streams of Mdzimta, Pzou, Bzyb and Kodor drain the country\nwest of Elbruz. The Ingur, Tskhenis-Tskhali, Rion and its tributaries\n(e.g. the Kvirila) are longer, but also in part torrential; they drain\nthe great glacier region between Elbruz and Kasbek. The Rion is the\n_Phasis_ of the ancients and flows through the classic land of Colchis,\nassociated with the legends of Medea and the Argonauts. The Lyakhva and\nAragva, tributaries of the Kura, carry off the waters of the main range\nsouth of Kasbek, and other tributaries, such as the Yora and the Alazan,\ncollect the surplus drainage of the main Caucasus range farther east.\nThe other large river of this region, the Aras, has its sources, not in\nthe Caucasus range, but on the Armenian highlands a long way south-west\nof Ararat. The rivers which go down from the central Caucasus northwards\nhave considerably longer courses than those on the south side of the\nrange, partly as a consequence of the gentler versant and partly also\nbecause of the great distances to which the steppes extend across which\nthey make their way to the sea. The most important of these are the\nKuban and the Terek; but it is the latter that picks up most of the\nstreams which have their sources among the central glaciers, e.g. the\nMalka, Baksan, Chegem, Cherek, Urukh, Ardon, all confined to deep narrow\nglens until they quit the mountains. The Kuma, which alone pursues an\nindependent course through the steppes, farther north than the Terek,\nhas its sources, not in the main ranges of the Caucasus, but in an\noutlying group of mountains near Pyatigorsk, the highest summit of\nwhich, Besh-tau, does not exceed 4600 ft. But its waters become absorbed\nin the sands of the desert steppes before they reach the Caspian. Of the\nstreams that carve into chequers the elevated plateau or highland region\nof Daghestan four are known by the common name of the Koisu, being\ndistinguished _inter se_ as the Andian Koisu, the Avarian Koisu, the\nKara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu, which all unite to form the Sulak.\nThe only other stream deserving of mention in this province is the\nSamur. Both rivers discharge their waters into the Caspian; as also does\nthe Zumgail, a small stream which drains the eastern extremity of the\nCaucasus range in the government of Baku.\n\n_Volcanic Evidences._--Ancient, but now extinct, volcanic upheavals are\npretty common at the intersections of the main range with the transverse\nranges; of these the most noteworthy are Elbruz and Kasbek. The town of\nShemakha, near the eastern end of the system, was the scene of volcanic\noutbreaks as late as 1859, 1872 and 1902; while in the adjacent\npeninsula of Apsheron mud volcanoes exist in large numbers. All along\nthe northern foot of the system hot mineral springs gush out at various\nplaces, such as Pyatigorsk, Zhelesnovodsk, Essentuki and Kislovodsk; and\nthe series is continued along the north-eastern foot of the highlands of\nDaghestan, e.g. Isti-su, Eskiendery, Akhta. In this connexion it may\nalso be mentioned that similar evidences of volcanic activity\ncharacterize the northern border of the Armenian highlands on the\nsouthern side of the Rion-Kura depression, in the mountains of Ararat,\nAlagoz, Akmangan, Samsar, Godoreby, Great and Little Abull, and in the\nmineral springs of Borzhom, Abbas-tuman, Sleptzov, Mikhailovsk and\nTiflis.     (J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)\n\n  _Geology._--The general structure of the Caucasus is comparatively\n  simple. The strata are folded so as to form a fan. In the centre of\n  the fan lies a band of crystalline rocks which disappears towards the\n  east. Beneath it, on both sides, plunge the strongly folded Palaeozoic\n  and Jurassic schists. On the northern flank the folded beds are\n  followed by a zone of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds which rapidly\n  assume a gentle inclination towards the plain. On the south the\n  corresponding zone is affected by numerous secondary folds which\n  involve the Sarmatian or Upper Miocene deposits. In the eastern part\n  of the chain the structure is somewhat modified. The crystalline band\n  is lost. The northern Mesozoic zone is very much broader, and is\n  thrown into simple folds like those of the Jura. The southern Mesozoic\n  zone is absent, and the Palaeozoic zone sinks abruptly in a series of\n  faulted steps to the plain of the Kura, beneath which no doubt the\n  continuation of the Mesozoic zone is concealed.\n\n  [Illustration]\n\n  The geological sequence begins with the granite and schists of the\n  central zone, which form a band extending from Fisht on the west to a\n  point some distance beyond Kasbek on the east. Then follow the\n  Palaeozoic schists and slates. Fossils are extremely rare in these\n  beds; _Buthotrephis_ has long been known, and doubtful traces of\n  _Calamites_ and ferns have been found, but it was not until 1897 that\n  undoubted Palaeozoic fossils were obtained. They appear to indicate a\n  Devonian age. Upon the Palaeozoic beds rest a series of Mesozoic\n  deposits, beginning with the Lias and ending with the Upper\n  Cretaceous. Whether the series is continuous or not is a matter of\n  controversy. F. Loewinson-Lessing states that there is a more or less\n  marked discordance between the Lias and the Upper Jurassic and between\n  the latter and the Cretaceous; E. Fournier asserts that there exists a\n  very strongly marked unconformity at the base of the Tithonian, and\n  other writers have expressed other views. In general the Upper\n  ajurassic beds are much more calcareous on the north flank of the\n  chain than they are on the south. The Mesozoic beds are followed by\n  the Tertiary deposits, which on the north are nearly horizontal but on\n  the south are in part included in the folds--the Eocene and Miocene\n  being folded, while the later beds, though sometimes elevated, are not\n  affected by the folding. The final folding of the chain undoubtedly\n  occurred at the close of the Miocene period. That there were earlier\n  periods of folding is almost equally certain, but there is\n  considerable difference of opinion as to their dates. The difference\n  in character of the Jurassic beds on the two sides of the chain\n  appears to indicate that a ridge existed in that period. The last\n  phase in the history of the Caucasus was marked by the growth of the\n  great volcanoes of Elbruz and Kasbek, which stand upon the old rocks\n  of the central zone, and by the outflow of sheets of lava upon the\n  sides of the chain. The cones themselves are composed largely of acid\n  andesites, but many of the lavas are augite andesites and basalts.\n  There seem to have been two periods of eruption, and as some of the\n  lavas have flowed over Quaternary gravels, the latest outbursts must\n  have been of very recent date.\n\n  [Illustration]\n\n  Near the northern foot of the Caucasus, especially in the\n  neighbourhood of the hot mineral springs of Pyatigorsk, a group of\n  hills of igneous rocks rises above the plain. They are laccolites of\n  trachytic rock, and raised the Tertiary beds above them in the form of\n  blisters. Subsequent denudation has removed the sedimentary covering\n  and exposed the igneous core. (P. La.)\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the older works the following are still useful: A.\n  von Haxthausen, _Transkaukasia_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1856); A.\n  Petzholdt, _Der Kaukasus_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1866-1867); M.G. von\n  Thielmann, _Travels in the Caucasus_ (Eng. trans., 2 vols., London,\n  1875); F.C. Grove, _The Frosty Caucasus_ (London, 1875); G. Radde,\n  _Reisen im mingrelischen Hochgebirge_ (Tiflis, 1866) and _Vier\n  Vortrage uber den Kaukasus_ (Gotha, 1874); E. Favre, _Recherches\n  geologiques dans la partie centrale de la chaine du Caucase_ (Geneva,\n  1875); Batsevich, Simonovich and others, _Mat. dlya geologiy Kavkaza_\n  (Tiflis, 1873 seq.); O. Schneider, _Naturwissenschaftliche Beitrage\n  zur Kenntnis der Kaukasuslander_ (Dresden, 1879), and J. Bryce,\n  _Transcaucasia_ (London, 1878). The more important amongst the more\n  recent books are D.W. Freshfield, _Exploration of the Caucasus_ (2nd\n  ed., 1902, 2 vols., London); A.F. Mummery, _My Climbs in the Alps and\n  Caucasus_ (London, 1895); H. Abich, _Geologische Forschungen in den\n  kaukasischen Landern_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1878-1887), _Aus kaukasischen\n  Landern_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1896), and \"Vergleichende Grundzuge des\n  Kaukasus wie der armenischen und nordpersischen Gebirge,\" in _Mem.\n  Acad. Sc. St-Petersb._ (ser. 6, _Math. et Phys._, vii. 359-534); R.\n  von Erckert, _Der Kaukasus und seine Volker_ (Leipzig, 1887); E.\n  Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (4 vols., Lyons\n  and Paris, 1885-1887); C. von Hahn, _Aus dem Kaukasus_ (Leipzig,\n  1892), _Kaukasische Reisen und Studien_ (Leipzig, 1896), and _Bilder\n  aus dem Kaukasus_ (Leipzig 1900); V. Sella and D. Vallino, _Nel\n  Caucaso Centrale_ (Turin, 1890); K. Koch, _Der Kaukasus_ (Berlin,\n  1882); C. Phillipps Woolley, _Savage Svanetia_ (2 vols., London,\n  1883); E. Levier, _A travers le Caucase_ (Paris, ed. 1905), especially\n  valuable for botany; G. Merzbacher, _Aus den Hochregionen des\n  Kaukasus_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1901); A. Fischer, _Zwei Kaukasische\n  Expeditionen_ (Berne, 1891); E. Fournier, _Description geologique du\n  Caucase central_ (Marseilles, 1896); G. Radde, _Reisen an der\n  persisch-russischen Grenze. Talysch und seine Bewohner_ (Leipzig,\n  1886), _Die Fauna und Flora des sudwestlichen Kaspigebiets_ (Leipzig,\n  1886), _Karabagh_ (Gotha, 1890), and _Aus den daghestanischen\n  Hochalpen_ (Gotha, 1887); and Count J. Zichy, _Voyages au Caucase_ (2\n  vols., Budapest, 1897). F. Loewinson-Lessing has an account of the\n  geology of the district along the military road from Vladikavkaz to\n  Tiflis in the _Guide des Excursions du VII^e Congres geol. internat_.\n  (St Petersburg, 1897). N.Y. Dinnik writes on the fauna in _Bull. Soc.\n  Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou_ (1901); J. Mourier on the\n  folk-tales in _Contes et legendes du Caucase_ (1888); and on modern\n  history G. Baumgarten, _Sechzig Jahre des kaukasischen Krieges_\n  (Leipzig, 1861). But a very great amount of most valuable information\n  about the Caucasus is preserved in articles in encyclopaedias and\n  scientific periodicals, especially the _Izvestia_ and _Zapiski_ of the\n  Russian and Caucasian geographical societies, in P.P. Semenov's\n  _Geographical Dictionary_ (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg,\n  1863-1884), and in the _Russkiy encyklopedicheskiy slovar_ (1894), and\n  in the _Kavkazskiy kalendar_ (annually at Tiflis). See also G. Radde\n  and E. Koenig, \"Der Nordfuss des Daghestan und das vorlagernde\n  Tiefland bis zur Kuma\" (Erganzungsheft No. 117 to _Petermanns\n  Mitteilungen_), and \"Das Ostufer des Pontus und seine kulturelle\n  Entwickelung im Verlaufe der letzten 30 Jahre\" (Erganzungsheft No. 112\n  of the same); by V. Dingelstedt in _Scot. Geog. Mag_.--\"Geography of\n  the Caucasus\" (July 1889); \"The Caucasian Highlands\" (June 1895); \"The\n  Hydrography of the Caucasus\" (June 1899); \"The Riviera of Russia\"\n  (June 1904), \"The Small Trades of the Caucasus\" (March 1892); and\n  \"Caucasian Idioms\" (June 1888). The best map is that of the Russian\n  General Staff on the scale of 1:210,000 (ed. 1895-1901).\n       (J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] _Exploration of the Caucasus_ (2nd ed., 1902), i. 30-31.\n\n  [2] Op. cit. i. 35-36.\n\n\n\n\nCAUCHOIS-LEMAIRE, LOUIS FRANCOIS AUGUSTE (1789-1861), French journalist,\nwas born in Paris on the 28th of August 1789. Towards the end of the\nFirst Empire he was proprietor of the _Journal de la litterature et des\narts_, which he transformed at the Restoration into a political journal\nof Liberal tendencies, the _Nain jaune_, in which Louis XVIII. himself\nhad little satirical articles secretly inserted. After the return from\nElba the _Nain jaune_ became Bonapartist and fell into discredit. It was\nsuppressed at the second Restoration. Cauchois-Lemaire then threw\nhimself impetuously into the Liberal agitation, and had to take refuge\nin Brussels in 1816, and in the following year at the Hague, whence he\nwas expelled for publishing an _Appel a l'opinion publique et aux Etats\nGeneraux en faveur des patriotes francais_. Returning to France in 1819,\nhe resumed the struggle against the ultra-royalist party with such\ntemerity that he was condemned to one year's imprisonment in 1821 and\nfifteen months' imprisonment in 1827. After the revolution of July 1830\nhe refused a pension of 6000 francs offered to him by King Louis\nPhilippe, on the ground that he wished to retain his independence even\nin his relations with a government which he had helped to establish. He\nmade a bitter attack upon the Perier ministry in his journal _Bon sens_,\nand in 1836 was one of the founders of a new opposition journal, the\n_Siecle_. He soon, however, abandoned journalism for history and, having\nno private means, in 1840 accepted the post of head of a department in\nthe Royal Archives. Of a _Histoire de la Revolution de Juillet_, which\nhe then undertook, he published only the first volume (1842), which\ncontains a historical summary of the Restoration and a preliminary\nsketch of the democratic movement. He died in Paris on the 9th of August\n1861.\n\n\n\n\nCAUCHON, PIERRE (d. 1442), French bishop, was born near Reims in the\nlatter half of the 14th century. We find him rector of the university of\nParis in October 1397. In 1413 he joined the Burgundian faction, and was\nexiled by the parlement of Paris. But on the triumph of his party this\ndecree was annulled, and Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, gave him a\ncanonry at Beauvais, sent him to the council of Constance, procured him\nthe post of _maitre des requetes_ in 1418, and finally in 1420 had him\nmade bishop of Beauvais. But the people were hostile to him, and he was\ndriven from his bishopric in 1429; whereupon he attached himself to the\nEnglish court, and in 1431 endeavoured to procure the surrender of Reims\nto the English, so that Henry VI. might be crowned there. In this he\nfailed, and Henry was crowned in Paris on the 17th of December 1431 by\nHenry Beaufort, cardinal bishop of Winchester, assisted by the bishops\nof Beauvais and Noyon. On the 24th of May 1430, Joan of Arc having been\ntaken prisoner at Compiegne, within the limits of his diocese, Cauchon\nacted as her accuser, and demanded the right of judging her. Joan was\ntaken to Rouen, whither Cauchon followed her, having been driven from\nBeauvais. He conducted the trial with marked partiality and malevolence,\ncondemned the maid to imprisonment for life, and then, under pressure\nfrom the populace and the English, had recourse to fresh perfidies,\ndeclared Joan a relapsed heretic, excommunicated her, and handed her\nover to the secular arm on the 30th of May 1431. As, in consequence of\nthis, it was impossible for him to return to his own diocese, he\nobtained the bishopric of Lisieux in 1432 by favour of the king of\nEngland. He assisted at the council of Basel in 1435, and died suddenly\non the 18th of December 1442. Excommunicated posthumously by Pope\nCalixtus IV., his body was exhumed and thrown in the common sewer.\n\n  See Cerf, \"Pierre Cauchon de Sommievre, chanoine de Reims et de\n  Beauvais, eveque de Beauvais et de Lisieux, son origine, ses dignites,\n  sa mort et sa sepulture,\" in the _Transactions_ of the Academy of\n  Reims (1896-1898).\n\n\n\n\nCAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, BARON (1789-1857), French mathematician, was\nborn at Paris on the 21st of August 1789, and died at Sceaux (Seine) on\nthe 23rd of May 1857. Having received his early education from his\nfather Louis Francois Cauchy (1760-1848), who held several minor public\nappointments and counted Lagrange and Laplace among his friends, Cauchy\nentered Ecole Centrale du Pantheon in 1802, and proceeded to the Ecole\nPolytechnique in 1805, and to the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees in 1807.\nHaving adopted the profession of an engineer, he left Paris for\nCherbourg in 1810, but returned in 1813 on account of his health,\nwhereupon Lagrange and Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and\nto devote himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the\nEcole Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in 1830 on the\naccession of Louis Philippe, finding it impossible to take the necessary\noaths. A short sojourn at Freiburg in Switzerland was followed by his\nappointment in 1831 to the newly-created chair of mathematical physics\nat the university of Turin. In 1833 the deposed king Charles X. summoned\nhim to be tutor to his grandson, the duke of Bordeaux, an appointment\nwhich enabled Cauchy to travel and thereby become acquainted with the\nfavourable impression which his investigations had made. Charles created\nhim a baron in return for his services. Returning to Paris in 1838, he\nrefused a proffered chair at the College de France, but in 1848, the\noath having been suspended, he resumed his post at the Ecole\nPolytechnique, and when the oath was reinstituted after the _coup\nd'etat_ of 1851, Cauchy and Arago were exempted from it. A profound\nmathematician, Cauchy exercised by his perspicuous and rigorous methods\na great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings\ncover the entire range of mathematics and mathematical physics.\n\nCauchy had two brothers: ALEXANDRE LAURENT (1792-1857), who became a\npresident of a division of the court of appeal in 1847, and a judge of\nthe court of cassation in 1849; and EUGENE FRANCOIS (1802-1877), a\npublicist who also wrote several mathematical works.\n\n  The genius of Cauchy was promised in his simple solution of the\n  problem of Apollonius, i.e. to describe a circle touching three given\n  circles, which he discovered in 1805, his generalization of Euler's\n  theorem on polyhedra in 1811, and in several other elegant problems.\n  More important is his memoir on wave-propagation which obtained the\n  _Grand Prix_ of the Institut in 1816. His greatest contributions to\n  mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he\n  introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great treatises,\n  _Cours d'analyse de l'Ecole Polytechnique_ (1821); _Le Calcul\n  infinitesimal_ (1823); _Lecons sur les applications du calcul\n  infinitesimal a la geometrie_ (1826-1828); and also in his courses of\n  mechanics (for the Ecole Polytechnique), higher algebra (for the\n  Faculte des Sciences), and of mathematical physics (for the College de\n  France). His treatises and contributions to scientific journals (to\n  the number of 789) contain investigations on the theory of series\n  (where he developed with perspicuous skill the notion of convergency),\n  on the theory of numbers and complex quantities, the theory of groups\n  and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations\n  and determinants. He clarified the principles of the calculus by\n  developing them with the aid of limits and continuity, and was the\n  first to prove Taylor's theorem rigorously, establishing his\n  well-known form of the remainder. In mechanics, he made many\n  researches, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical\n  displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter. In\n  optics, he developed the wave theory, and his name is associated with\n  the simple dispersion formula. In elasticity, he originated the theory\n  of stress, and his results are nearly as valuable as those of S.D.\n  Poisson. His collected works, _OEuvres completes d'Augustin Cauchy_,\n  have been published in 27 volumes.\n\n  See C.A. Valson, _Le Baron Augustin Cauchy: sa vie et ses travaux_\n  (Paris, 1868).\n\n\n\n\nCAUCUS, a political term used in America of a special form of party\nmeeting, and in Great Britain of a system of party organization. The\nword originated in Boston, Massachusetts, in the early part of the 18th\ncentury, when it was used as the name of a political club, the \"Caucus\"\nor \"Caucas\" club. Here public matters were discussed, and arrangements\nmade for local elections and the choosing of candidates for offices. The\nfirst mention of the club in contemporary documents occurs in the diary\nof John Adams in 1763, but William Gordon (_History of the Independence\nof the United States of America_, 1788) speaks of the Caucus as having\nbeen in existence some fifty years before the time of writing (1774),\nand describes the methods used for securing the election of the\ncandidates the club had selected. The derivation of the word has been\nmuch disputed. It was early connected with \"caulkers,\" and it was\nsupposed referred to meetings of the caulkers in the dockyard at Boston\nin 1770, to protest against the action of the British troops, or with a\ncontemptuous allusion to the lower class of workmen frequenting the\nclub. This is, however, a mere guess, and does not agree with the\nearlier date at which the club is known to have existed, nor with the\naccounts given of it. That it was a fanciful classical name for a\nconvivial club, derived from the late Greek [Greek: kaukos], a cup, is\nfar-fetched, and the most plausible origin is an Algonquin word\n_kaw-kaw-was_, meaning to talk. Indian words and names have been popular\nin America as titles for societies and clubs; cf. \"Tammany\" (see _Notes\nand Queries._ sixth series, vols. xi. and xii.). In the United States\n\"caucus\" is used strictly of a meeting either of party managers or of\nparty voters. Such might be a \"nominating caucus,\" either for nominating\ncandidates for office or for selecting delegates for a nominating\nconvention. The caucus of the party in Congress nominated the candidates\nfor the offices of president and vice-president from 1800 till 1824,\nwhen the convention system was adopted, and the place of the local\n\"nominating caucus\" is taken by the \"primaries\" and conventions. The\nword is used in America of the meetings of a party in Congress and other\nlegislative bodies and elsewhere which decide matters of policy and plan\ncampaigns. \"Caucus\" came first into use in Great Britain in 1878. The\nLiberal Association of Birmingham (see LIBERAL PARTY) was organized by\nMr Joseph Chamberlain and Mr F. Schnadhorst on strict disciplinary\nlines, more particularly with a view to election management and the\ncontrol of voters on the principle of \"vote as you are told.\" This\nmanaging body of the association, known locally as the \"Six Hundred,\"\nbecame the model for other Liberal associations throughout the country,\nand the Federation of Liberal Associations was organized on the same\nplan. It was to this supposed imitation of the American political\n\"machine\" that Lord Beaconsfield gave the name \"caucus,\" and the name\ncame to be used, not in the American sense of a meeting, but of a\nclosely disciplined system of party organization, chiefly used as a\nstock term of abuse applied by opponents to each other's party\nmachinery.\n\n\n\n\nCAUDEBEC-EN-CAUX, a town of France, in the department of\nSeine-Inferieure, 27 m. W.N.W. of Rouen by the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop.\n(1906) 2141. It is situated on the right bank of the Seine, the tidal\nwave of which (_mascaret_) can be well seen at this point. The chief\ninterest of the town lies in its church, a building of the 15th and the\nearly 16th centuries. Round its top run balustrades formed of Gothic\nletters, which read as part of the Magnificat. Its west portal, the\ndecoration of the spire of the tower, and its stained glass are among\nthe features which make it one of the finest churches of the Rouen\ndiocese. The town also possesses several old houses. Its industries\ninclude tanning and leather-currying, and there is trade in grain. The\nport has a small trade in coal, live-stock and farm produce.\n\n\n\n\nCAUDINE FORKS (_Furculae Caudinae_), a pass in Samnium, famous for the\ndisaster which befell the Roman army in the second Samnite War (321\nB.C.). Livy (ix, 2) describes it as formed by two narrow wooded gorges,\nbetween which lay a plain, grassy and well-watered, but entirely\nenclosed by mountains. Through this plain the road (later the Via Appia)\nled. The Romans, marching from Calatia to the relief of Luceria, entered\nthe valley unopposed, but found the exit blocked by the enemy; on\nmarching back they saw that the entrance and the hills surrounding the\nplain were also occupied, and there was no way of escape. The plain\nwhich lies west of Caudium (Montesarchio) seems, despite the older\nviews, to be the only possible site for such a disaster to an army of as\nmany as 40,000 men; and there is no doubt that the Romans wished to\nleave it by the defile on the east, through which later ran the Via\nAppia to Beneventum. The existence of three ancient bridges on the line\nof the modern road renders it impossible to suppose that its course can\nbe essentially different from that of the ancient, though Hulsen makes\nthe two diverge considerably after passing Montesarchio. There are,\nhowever, two possible entrances--one on the north by Moiano, and one on\nthe west by Arpaia; the former seems to answer better to Livy's\ndescription (_via alia per cavam rupem_), while the latter is the\nshortest route, having been, later on, followed by the Via Appia, and\nbore the name Furculae Caudinae in the middle ages.\n\n  See C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. (1802).\n       (T. As.)\n\n\n\n\nCAUDLE (through the O. Fr. _caudel_, from the Med. Lat. _caldellum_, a\ndiminutive of _caldum_, a warm drink, from _calidus_, hot), a drink of\nwarm gruel, mixed with spice and wine, formerly given to women in\nchildbed.\n\n\n\n\nCAUL (from O. Eng. _calle_, Fr. _cale_, a cap), a close-fitting woman's\ncap, especially one made of network worn in the 16th and 17th centuries;\nhence the membranous covering to the heart or brain, the _omentum_, or\nthe similar covering to the intestines, and particularly, a portion of\nthe _amnion_, which is sometimes found remaining round the head of a\nchild after birth. To this, called in Scotland \"sely how,\" holy or lucky\nhood, many superstitions have been attached; it was looked on as a sign\nof good luck, and when preserved, was kept as a protection against\ndrowning.\n\n\n\n\nCAULAINCOURT, ARMAND AUGUSTIN LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1773-1827), French\ngeneral and diplomatist, was born of a noble family. He early entered\nthe army, did not emigrate in the revolution, but was deprived of his\ngrade as captain in 1793 and served in the ranks. In 1795, through the\nprotection of L. Hoche, he became captain again, was colonel in the Army\nof the Rhine in 1799-1800, and after the peace of Luneville (1801) was\nsent to St Petersburg to negotiate an understanding between Russia and\nFrance. On his return he was named aide-de-camp of the First Consul. He\nwas employed to seize some agents of the English government in Baden in\n1804, which led to the accusation that he was concerned in the arrest of\nthe due d'Enghien, an accusation against which he never ceased to\nprotest. After the establishment of the empire he received various\nhonours and the title of duke of Vicenza (1808). Napoleon sent him in\n1807 as ambassador to St Petersburg, where Caulaincourt tried to\nmaintain the alliance of Tilsit, and although Napoleon's ambition made\nthe task a difficult one, Caulaincourt succeeded in it for some years.\nIn 1811 he strongly advised Napoleon to renounce his proposed expedition\nto Russia. During the war he accompanied the emperor, and was one of\nthose whom Napoleon took along with him when he suddenly abandoned his\narmy in Poland to return to Paris (December 1812). During the last years\nof the empire, Caulaincourt was charged with all the diplomatic\nnegotiations. He signed the armistice of Pleswitz, June 1813,\nrepresented France at the congress of Prague, in August 1813, at the\ncongress of Chatillon, in February 1814, and concluded the treaty of\nFontainebleau on the 10th of April 1814. During the first Restoration,\nCaulaincourt lived in obscure retirement. When Napoleon returned from\nElba, he became minister of foreign affairs, and tried to persuade\nEurope of the emperor's peaceful intentions. After the second\nRestoration, Caulaincourt's name was on the list of those proscribed,\nbut it was erased on the personal intervention of Alexander I. with\nLouis XVIII.\n\n  Caulaincourt's memoirs appeared under the title _Souvenirs du duc de\n  Vicence_ in 1837-1840. See A. Vandal, _Napoleon et Alexandre_ (Paris,\n  1891-1895); Tatischeff, _Alexandre I^er et Napoleon_ (Paris, 1892); H.\n  Houssaye, 1814 (Paris, 1888), and 1815 (Paris, 1893).\n\n\n\n\nCAULICULUS (from Lat. _caulis_, a stalk), in architecture, the Stalks\n(eight in number) with two leaves from which rise the helices or spiral\nscrolls of the Corinthian capital to support the abacus.\n\n\n\n\nCAULON (Gr. [Greek: Kaulonia]), a town of the district of the Bruttii,\nItaly, on the east coast. Its exact site is uncertain (though the name\nhas been given to a modern village), and depends on the identification\nof the river Sagras. It was the southernmost of the Achaean colonies,\nfounded either by Croton or direct from Greece itself. In the 7th\ncentury it was allied with Croton and Sybaris, and its coins, which go\nback to 550 B.C., prove its importance. It took the side of Athens in\nthe Peloponnesian War. In 388 B.C. it was destroyed by Dionysius, but\nsoon afterwards restored. It was captured during the invasion of Pyrrhus\nby Campanian troops. Strabo speaks of it as deserted in his time. The\nerection of the lighthouse at Capo Stilo, on the site of one of the\nmedieval guard towers of the coast, led to the discovery of a wall of\nGreek origin, and close by of a number of terra-cottas, belonging\nperhaps to a temple erected in honour of the deities of the sea. Other\nremains were found at Fontanelle, 2-1\/2 m. away, including the fragment\nof a capital of an archaic Greek temple (P. Orsi in _Notizie degli\nScavi_, 1891, 61). These buildings may be connected with the Caulon or a\nvillage dependent on it.     (T. As.)\n\n\n\n\nCAUSATION or CAUSALITY (Lat. _causa_, derived perhaps from the root\n_cav-_, as in _caveo_, and meaning something taken care of;\ncorresponding to Gr. [Greek: aitia]), a philosophical term for the\noperation of causes and for the mental conception of cause as operative\nthroughout the universe. The word \"cause\" is correlative to \"effect.\"\nThus when one thing B is regarded as taking place in consequence of the\naction of another thing A, then A is said to be the cause of B, and B\nthe effect of A. The philosophical problems connected with causation are\nboth metaphysical and psychological. The metaphysical problem is part of\nthe whole theory of existence. If everything is to be regarded as\ncausally related with simultaneous and prior things or actions, it\nfollows logically that the investigation of existence must, by\nhypothesis, be a regress to infinity, i.e. that we cannot conceive a\nbeginning to existence. This explanation has led to the postulate of a\nFirst Cause, the nature of which is variously explained. The empirical\nschool sees no difficulty in assuming a single event; but such a theory\nseems to deny the validity of the original hypothesis. Theologians\nassert a divine origin in the form of a personal self-existent creator,\nwhile some metaphysical schools, preferring an impersonal First Cause,\nsubstitute the doctrine of the Absolute (q.v.). All the explanations are\nalike in this respect, that at a certain point they pass from the sphere\nof the senses, the physical world, to a metaphysical sphere in which the\ndata and the intellectual operation of cognizing them are of a totally\ndifferent quality. For example, the causal connexion between drunkenness\nand alcohol is not of the same observable character as that which is\ninferred between the infinite First Cause and the whole domain of\nsense-given phenomena.\n\nA second metaphysical problem connected with causation arises when we\nconsider the nature of necessity. It is generally assumed when two\nthings are spoken of as cause and effect that their relation is a\nnecessary one, or, in other words, that given the cause the effect must\nfollow. The arguments connected with this problem belong to\npsychological discussions of causation. It is sufficient here to state\nthat, in so far as causation is regarded as necessary connexion, it can\nform no part of a purely empirical theory of existence. The senses can\nsay only that in all observed cases B has followed A, and this does not\nestablish necessary connexion. The idea of causation is a purely\nintellectual (a priori) one.\n\nThe psychological problems connected with causation refer (1) to the\norigin of the conception in our minds; (2) to the validity of the\nconception. As regards the origin of the conception modern psychological\nanalysis does not carry us beyond the doctrine of Locke contained in his\nchapter on \"Power\" (_Essay_, bk. ii. ch. 21), wherein he shows that the\nidea of power is got from the knowledge of our own activity. \"Bodies by\ntheir causes,\" he says, \"do not afford us so clear and distinct an idea\nof active power as we have from reflection on the operation of our\nminds.\" Putting Locke's doctrine into modern language, we may say that a\nman has the conception of cause primarily because he himself is a cause.\nThe conception thus obtained we \"project,\" that is, transfer to external\nobjects, so far as we may find it useful to do so. Thus it is by a sort\nof analogy that we say that the sun is the \"cause\" of daylight. The\nrival theory to Locke's is that of Hume (_Treatise_, bk. i.), who\nderives the conception from the unaided operation of custom. When one\nobject, A, has been noticed frequently to precede another object, B, an\nassociation between A and B is generated; and by virtue of this\nassociation, according to Hume, we say that A is the cause of B. The\nweakness of this account is that many invariable successions, such as\nday and night, do not make us regard the earlier members of the\nsuccessions as causing the later; while in numberless cases we assert a\ncausal connexion between two objects from a single experience of them.\n\nWe may proceed now to consider the validity of the conception of\ncausation, which has been attacked from two sides. From the side of\nabsolute idealism it is argued that the conception of cause, as\ninvolving a transition in time, cannot be ultimately valid, since the\ntime-relation is not ultimately real. Upon this view (ably stated in\nProfessor Bosanquet's _Logic_, bk. i. ch. 6) the more we know of causes\nand effects the less relevant becomes the time-relation and the nearer\ndoes the conception of cause and effect approach to another conception\nwhich is truly valid, the conception of ground and consequence. This\nmeans that, viewed from the standpoint of science, a draught of alcohol\n_causes_ intoxication in no other sense than the triangularity of a\ntriangle causes the interior angles to be equal to two right angles.\nThis argument ceases to have cogency so soon as we deny its fundamental\nproposition that the time-relation is not ultimately real, but is\nirrelevant from the standpoint of science. This is a sheer assertion,\ncontrary to all ordinary experience, which we have as much right to deny\nas the absolute idealists to affirm. It is only plausible to those who\nare committed to the Hegelian view of reality as consisting of a static\nsystem of universals, a view which has long been discredited in Germany,\nits native land, and is fast losing ground in England. Against the\nHegelians we must maintain that the common distinction between \"ground\"\nand \"cause\" is perfectly justifiable. Whereas \"ground\" is an appropriate\nterm for the relations within a static, simultaneous system, \"cause\" is\nappropriate to the relations within a dynamic, successive system.\n\nFrom the other side the validity of causation has been attacked in the\ninterests of the naturalism of the mechanical sciences. J.S. Mill argues\nthat, scientifically, the cause of anything is the total assemblage of\nthe conditions that precede its appearance, and that we have no right to\ngive the name of cause to one of them exclusively of the others. The\nanswer to this is that Mill fails to recognize that cause is a\nconception which we find useful in our dealings with nature, and that\nwhatever conceptions we find useful we are justified in using. Among the\nconditions of an event there are always one or two that stand in\nspecially close relation to it from our point of view; e.g. the draught\nof alcoholic liquor is more closely related to the man's drunkenness\nthan is the attraction of the earth's gravity, though that also must\nco-operate in producing the effect. Such closely related conditions we\nfind it convenient to single out by a term which expresses their analogy\nto the cause of causes, human volition.\n\nThese are the questions respecting causation which are matters of\npresent controversy; there are in addition many other points which\nbelong to the controversies of the past. Among the most important are\nAristotle's classification of causes into material, formal, efficient\nand final, set forth in his _Physics_ and elsewhere, and known as his\ndoctrine of the Four Causes; Geulincx's Occasional Causes, meant as a\nsolution of certain difficulties in the cosmology of Descartes;\nLeibnitz's law of Sufficient Reason; and Kant's explanation of cause and\neffect as an a priori category of the understanding, intended as an\nanswer to Hume's scepticism, but very much less effective than the line\nof explanation suggested by Locke.\n\nThe following is a list of the various technical terms connected with\ncausation which have been distinguished by logicians and psychologists.\n\nThe four Aristotelian causes are: (1) _Material cause_ ([Greek: yle])\nthe material out of which a thing is made; the material cause of a house\nis the bricks and mortar of which it is composed. (2) _Formal cause_\n([Greek: eidos, logos, to ti en einai]), the general external\nappearance, shape, form of a thing; the formal cause of a triangle is\nits triangularity. (3) _Efficient cause_ ([Greek: arche tes kineseos]),\nthe alcohol which makes a man drunk, the pistol-bullet which kills. This\nis the cause as generally understood in modern usage. (4) _Final cause_\n([Greek: telos, to ou eneka]), the object for which an action is done or\na thing produced; the final cause of a commercial man's enterprise is to\nmake his livelihood (see TELEOLOGY). This last cause was rejected by\nBacon, Descartes and Spinoza, and indeed in ordinary usage the cause of\nan action in relation to its effect is the desire for, and expectation\nof, that effect on the part of the agent, not the effect itself. The\n_Proximate cause_ of a phenomenon is the immediate or superficial as\nopposed to the _Remote_ or _Primary cause_. Plurality of Causes is the\nmuch criticized doctrine of J.S. Mill that a fact may be the uniform\nconsequent of several different antecedents. _Causa essendi_ means the\ncause whereby a change is what it is, as opposed to the _causa\ncognoscendi_, the cause of our knowledge of the event; the two causes\nevidently need not be the same. An object is called _causa immanens_\nwhen it produces its changes by its own activity; a _causa transiens_\nproduces changes in some other object. _Causa sui_ is a term applied to\nGod by Spinoza to denote that he is dependent on nothing and has no need\nof any external thing for his existence. _Vera causa_ is a term used by\nNewton in his _Principia_, where he says, \"No more causes of natural\nthings are to be admitted than such as are both true and sufficient to\nexplain the phenomena of those things\"; _verae causae_ must be such as\nwe have good inductive grounds to believe do exist in nature, and do\nperform a part in phenomena analogous to those we would render an\naccount of.\n\n\n\n\nCAUSEWAY, a path on a raised dam or mound across marshes or low-lying\nground; the word is also used of old paved highways, such as the Roman\nmilitary roads. \"Causey\" is still used dialectically in England for a\npaved or cobbled footpath. The word is properly \"causey-way,\" from\n_causey_, a mound or dam, which is derived, through the Norman-French\n_caucie_ (cf. modern _chaussee_), from the late Latin _via calciata_, a\nroad stamped firm with the feet (_calcare_, to tread).\n\n\n\n\nCAUSSES (from Lat. _calx_ through local Fr. _caous_, meaning \"lime\"),\nthe name given to the table-lands lying to the south of the central\nplateau of France and sloping westward from the Cevennes. They form\nparts of the departments of Lozere, Aveyron, Card, Herault, Lot and\nTarn-et-Garonne. They are of limestone formation, dry, sterile and\ntreeless. These characteristics are most marked in the east of the\nregion, where the Causse de Sauveterre, the Causse Mejan, the Causse\nNoir and the Larzac flank the Cevennes. Here the Causse Mejan, the most\ndeserted and arid of all, reaches an altitude of nearly 4200 ft. Towards\nthe west the lesser causses of Rouergue and Quercy attain respectively\n2950 ft. and 1470 ft. Once an uninterrupted table-land, the causses are\nnow isolated from one another by deep rifts through which run the Tarn,\nthe Dourbie, the Jonte and other rivers. The summits are destitute of\nrunning water, since the rain as it falls either sinks through the\npermeable surface soil or runs into the fissures and chasms, some of\ngreat depth, which are peculiar to the region. The inhabitants\n(_Caussenards_) of the higher causses cultivate hollows in the ground\nwhich are protected from the violent winds, and the scanty herbage\npermits of the raising of sheep, from the milk of which Roquefort\ncheeses are made. In the west, where the rigours of the weather are less\nsevere, agriculture is more easily carried on.\n\n\n\n\nCAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, ARMAND-PIERRE (1795-1871), French orientalist, was\nborn in Paris on the 13th of January 1795. His father, Jean Jacques\nAntoine Caussin de Perceval (1759-1835), was professor of Arabic in the\nCollege de France. In 1814 he went to Constantinople as a student\ninterpreter, and afterwards travelled in Asiatic Turkey, spending a year\nwith the Maronites in the Lebanon, and finally becoming dragoman at\nAleppo. Returning to Paris, he became professor of vulgar Arabic in the\nschool of living Oriental languages in 1821, and also professor of\nArabic in the College de France in 1833. In 1849 he was elected to the\nAcademy of Inscriptions. He died at Paris during the siege on the 15th\nof January 1871.\n\nCaussin de Perceval published (1828) a useful _Grammaire arabe\nvulgaire_, which passed through several editions (4th ed., 1858), and\nedited and enlarged Elie Bocthor's[1] _Dictionnaire francais-arabe_ (2\nvols., 1828; 3rd ed., 1864); but his great reputation rests almost\nentirely on one book, the _Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant\nl'Islamisme, pendant l'epoque de Mahomet_ (3 vols., 1847-1849), in which\nthe native traditions as to the early history of the Arabs, down to the\ndeath of Mahommed and the complete subjection of all the tribes to\nIslam, are brought together with wonderful industry and set forth with\nmuch learning and lucidity. One of the principal MS. sources used is the\ngreat _Kitab al-Aghani_ (Book of Songs) of Abu Faraj, which has since\nbeen published (20 vols., Boulak, 1868) in Egypt; but no publication of\ntexts can deprive the _Essai_, which is now very rare, of its value as a\ntrustworthy guide through a tangled mass of tradition.\n\n\n\n\nCAUSTIC (Gr. [Greek: kaustikos], burning), that which burns. In surgery,\nthe term is given to substances used to destroy living tissues and so\ninhibit the action of organic poisons, as in bites, malignant disease\nand gangrenous processes. Such substances are silver nitrate (lunar\ncaustic), the caustic alkalis (potassium and sodium hydrates), zinc\nchloride, an acid solution of mercuric nitrate, and pure carbolic acid.\nIn mathematics, the \"caustic surfaces\" of a given surface are the\nenvelopes of the normals to the surface, or the loci of its centres of\nprincipal curvature.\n\nIn optics, the term _caustic_ is given to the envelope of luminous rays\nafter reflection or refraction; in the first case the envelope is termed\na catacaustic, in the second a diacaustic. Catacaustics are to be\nobserved as bright curves when light is allowed to fall upon a polished\nriband of steel, such as a watch-spring, placed on a table, and by\nvarying the form of the spring and moving the source of light, a variety\nof patterns may be obtained. The investigation of caustics, being based\non the assumption of the rectilinear propagation of light, and the\nvalidity of the experimental laws of reflection and refraction, is\nessentially of a geometrical nature, and as such it attracted the\nattention of the mathematicians of the 17th and succeeding centuries,\nmore notably John Bernoulli, G.F. de l'Hopital, E.W. Tschirnhausen and\nLouis Carre.\n\n\n    Caustics by reflection.\n\n  The simplest case of a caustic curve is when the reflecting surface is\n  a circle, and the luminous rays emanate from a point on the\n  circumference. If in fig. 1 AQP be the reflecting circle having C as\n  centre, P the luminous point, and PQ any incident ray, and we join CQ\n  it follows, by the law of the equality of the angles of incidence and\n  reflection, that the reflected ray QR is such that the angles RQC and\n  CQP are equal; to determine the caustic, it is necessary to determine\n  the envelope of this line. This may be readily accomplished\n  geometrically or analytically, and it will be found that the envelope\n  is a cardioid (q.v.), i.e. an epicycloid in which the radii of the\n  fixed and rolling circles are equal. When the rays are parallel, the\n  reflecting surface remaining circular, the question can be similarly\n  treated, and it is found that the caustic is an epicycloid in which\n  the radius of the fixed circle is twice that of the rolling circle\n  (fig. 2). The geometrical method is also applicable when it is\n  required to determine the caustic after any number of reflections at a\n  spherical surface of rays, which are either parallel or diverge from a\n  point on the circumference. In both cases the curves are epicycloids;\n  in the first case the radii of the rolling and the fixed circles are\n  a(2n - 1)\/4n and a\/2n, and in the second, an\/(2n + 1) and a\/(2n + 1),\n  where a is the radius of the mirror and n the number of reflections.\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 1. c = a]\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 2. c = [oo]]\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 3. c = (1\/3)a]\n\n  The Cartesian equation to the caustic produced by reflection at a\n  circle of rays diverging from any point was obtained by Joseph Louis\n  Lagrange; it may be expressed in the form\n\n    {(4c^2 - a^2)(x^2 + y^2) - 2a^2 cx - a^2 c^2 }^3 =\n           = 27a^4 c^2 y^2 (x^2 + y^2 - c^2)^2,\n\n  where a is the radius of the reflecting circle, and c the distance of\n  the luminous point from the centre of the circle. The polar form is\n  {(u + p) cos 1\/2[theta]}^2\/3 + {(u - p) sin 1\/2[theta]}^2\/3 = (2k)^2\/3,\n  where p and k are the reciprocals of c and a, and u the reciprocal of\n  the radius vector of any point on the caustic. When c = a or = [oo]\n  the curve reduces to the cardioid or the two cusped epicycloid\n  previously discussed. Other forms are shown in figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. These\n  curves were traced by the Rev. Hammet Holditch (_Quart. Jour. Math._\n  vol. i.).\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 4. c = 1\/2a]\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 5. c > a]\n\n  _Secondary caustics_ are orthotomic curves having the reflected or\n  refracted rays as normals, and consequently the proper caustic curve,\n  being the envelope of the normals, is their evolute. It is usually the\n  case that the secondary caustic is easier to determine than the\n  caustic, and hence, when determined, it affords a ready means for\n  deducing the primary caustic. It may be shown by geometrical\n  considerations that the secondary caustic is a curve similar to the\n  first positive pedal of the reflecting curve, of twice the linear\n  dimensions, with respect to the luminous point. For a circle, when the\n  rays emanate from any point, the secondary caustic is a limacon, and\n  hence the primary caustic is the evolute of this curve.\n\n  [Illustration: FIG. 6. a > c > 1\/2a]\n\n\n    Caustics by refraction.\n\n  The simplest instance of a caustic by refraction (or diacaustic) is\n  when luminous rays issuing from a point are refracted at a straight\n  line. It may be shown geometrically that the secondary caustic, if the\n  second medium be less refractive than the first, is an ellipse having\n  the luminous point for a focus, and its centre at the foot of the\n  perpendicular from the luminous point to the refracting line. The\n  evolute of this ellipse is the caustic required. If the second medium\n  be more highly refractive than the first, the secondary caustic is a\n  hyperbola having the same focus and centre as before, and the caustic\n  is the evolute of this curve. When the refracting curve is a circle\n  and the rays emanate from any point, the locus of the secondary\n  caustic is a Cartesian oval, and the evolute of this curve is the\n  required diacaustic. These curves appear to have been first discussed\n  by Gergonne. For the caustic by refraction of parallel rays at a\n  circle reference should be made to the memoirs by Arthur Cayley.\n\n  REFERENCES.--Arthur Cayley's \"Memoirs on Caustics\" in the _Phil.\n  Trans._ for 1857, vol. 147, and 1867, vol. 157, are especially to be\n  consulted. Reference may also be made to R.S. Heath's _Geometrical\n  Optics_ and R.A. Herman's _Geometrical Optics_ (1900).\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] Elie Bocthor (1784-1821) was a French orientalist of Coptic\n    origin. He was the author of a _Traite des conjugaisons_ written in\n    Arabic, and left his Dictionary in MS.\n\n\n\n\nCAUTERETS, a watering-place of south-western France in the department of\nHautes-Pyrenees, 20 m. S. by W. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1030. It\nlies in the beautiful valley of the Gave de Cauterets, and is well known\nfor its copious thermal springs. They are chiefly characterized by the\npresence of sulphur and silicate of soda, and are used in the treatment\nof diseases of the respiratory organs, rheumatism, skin diseases and\nmany other maladies. Their temperature varies between 75 deg. and 137\ndeg. F. The springs number twenty-four, and there are nine bathing\nestablishments. Cauterets is a centre for excursions, the Monne (8935\nft.), the Cabaliros (7655 ft.), the Pic de Chabarrou (9550 ft.), the\nVignemale (10,820 ft.), and other summits being in its neighbourhood.\n\n\n\n\nCAUTIN, a province of southern Chile, bounded N. by Arauco, Malleco and\nBio-Bio, E. by Argentina, S. by Valdivia, and W. by the Pacific. Its\narea is officially estimated at 5832 sq. m. Cautin lies within the\ntemperate agricultural and forest region of the south, and produces\nwheat, cattle, lumber, tan-bark and fruit. The state central railway\nfrom Santiago to Puerto Montt crosses the province from north to south,\nand the Cautin, or Imperial, and Tolten rivers (the latter forming its\nsouthern boundary) cross from east to west, both affording excellent\ntransportation facilities. The province once formed part of the\nterritory occupied by the Araucanian Indians, and its present political\nexistence dates from 1887. Its population (1905) was 96,139, of whom a\nlarge percentage were European immigrants, principally Germans. The\ncapital is Temuco, on the Rio Cautin; pop. (1895) 7078. The principal\ntowns besides Temuco are Lautaro (3139) and Nueva Imperial (2179), both\nof historic interest because they were fortified Spanish outposts in the\nlong struggle with the Araucanians.\n\n\n\n\nCAUTLEY, SIR PROBY THOMAS (1802-1871), English engineer and\npalaeontologist, was born in Suffolk in 1802. After some years' service\nin the Bengal artillery, which he joined in 1819, he was engaged on the\nreconstruction of the Doab canal, of which, after it was opened, he had\ncharge for twelve years (1831-1843). In 1840 he reported on the proposed\nGanges canal, for the irrigation of the country between the rivers\nGanges, Hindan and Jumna, which was his most important work. This\nproject was sanctioned in 1841, but the work was not begun till 1843,\nand even then Cautley found himself hampered in its execution by the\nopposition of Lord Ellenborough. From 1845 to 1848 he was absent in\nEngland owing to ill-health, and on his return to India he was appointed\ndirector of canals in the North-Western Provinces. After the Ganges\ncanal was opened in 1854 he went back to England, where he was made\nK.C.B., and from 1858 to 1868 he occupied a seat on the council of\nIndia. He died at Sydenham, near London, on the 25th of January 1871. In\n1860 he published a full account of the making of the Ganges canal, and\nhe also contributed numerous memoirs, some written in collaboration with\nDr Hugh Falconer, to the _Proceedings_ of the Bengal Asiatic Society and\nthe Geological Society of London on the geology and fossil remains of\nthe Sivalik Hills.\n\n\n\n\nCAUVERY, or KAVERI, a river of southern India. Rising in Coorg, high up\namid the Western Ghats, in 12 deg. 25' N. lat. and 75 deg. 34' E. long.,\nit flows with a general south-eastern direction across the plateau of\nMysore, and finally pours itself into the Bay of Bengal through two\nprincipal mouths in Tanjore district. Its total length is 472 m., the\nestimated area of its basin 27,700 sq.m. The course of the river in\nCoorg is very tortuous. Its bed is generally rocky; its banks are high\nand covered with luxuriant vegetation. On entering Mysore it passes\nthrough a narrow gorge, but presently widens to an average breadth of\n300 to 400 yds. Its bed continues rocky, so as to forbid all navigation;\nbut its banks are here bordered with a rich strip of cultivation. In its\ncourse through Mysore the channel is interrupted by twelve anicuts or\ndams for the purpose of irrigation. From the most important of these,\nknown as the Madadkatte, an artificial channel is led to a distance of\n72 m., irrigating an area of 10,000 acres, and ultimately bringing a\nwater-supply into the town of Mysore. In Mysore state the Cauvery forms\nthe two islands of Seringapatam and Sivasamudram, which vie in sanctity\nwith the island of Seringam lower down in Trichinopoly district. Around\nthe island of Sivasamudram are the celebrated falls of the Cauvery,\nunrivalled for romantic beauty. The river here branches into two\nchannels, each of which makes a descent of about 200 m. in a succession\nof rapids and broken cascades. After entering the Madras presidency, the\nCauvery forms the boundary between the Coimbatore and Salem districts,\nuntil it strikes into Trichinopoly district. Sweeping past the historic\nrock of Trichinopoly, it breaks at the island of Seringam into two\nchannels, which enclose between them the delta of Tanjore, the garden of\nsouthern India. The northern channel is called the Coleroon (Kolidam);\nthe other preserves the name of Cauvery. On the seaward face of its\ndelta are the open roadsteads of Negapatam and French Karikal. The only\nnavigation on any portion of its course is carried on in boats of\nbasket-work. It is in the delta that the real value of the river for\nirrigation becomes conspicuous. This is the largest delta system, and\nthe most profitable of all the works in India. The most ancient\nirrigation work is a massive dam of unhewn stone, 1080 ft. long, and\nfrom 40 to 60 ft. broad, across the stream of the Cauvery proper, which\nis supposed to date back to the 4th century, is still in excellent\nrepair, and has supplied a model to British engineers. The area of the\nancient system was 669,000 acres, the modern about 1,000,000 acres. The\nchief modern work is the anicut across the Coleroon, 2250 ft. long,\nconstructed by Sir Arthur Cotton between 1836 and 1838. The Cauvery\nFalls have been utilized for an electric installation, which supplies\npower to the Kolar gold-mines and light to the city of Mysore.\n\nThe Cauvery is known to devout Hindus as Dakshini Ganga, or the Ganges\nof the south, and the whole of its course is holy ground. According to\nthe legend there was once born upon earth a girl named Vishnumaya or\nLopamudra, the daughter of Brahma; but her divine father permitted her\nto be regarded as the child of a mortal, called Kavera-muni. In order to\nobtain beatitude for her adoptive father, she resolved to become a river\nwhose waters should purify from all sin. Hence it is that even the holy\nGanges resorts underground once in the year to the source of the\nCauvery, to purge herself from the pollution contracted from the crowd\nof sinners who have bathed in her waters.\n\n\n\n\nCAVA DEI TIRRENI, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the\nprovince of Salerno, 6 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Salerno. Pop.\n(1901) town, 7611; commune, 23,415. It lies fairly high in a richly\ncultivated valley, surrounded by wooded hills, and is a favourite resort\nof foreigners in spring and autumn, and of the Neapolitans in summer. A\nmile to the south-west is the village of Corpo di Cava (1970 ft.), with\nthe Benedictine abbey of La Trinita della Cava, founded in 1025 by St\nAlferius. The church and the greater part of the buildings were entirely\nmodernized in 1796. The old Gothic cloisters are preserved. The church\ncontains a fine organ and several ancient sarcophagi. The archives, now\nnational property, include documents and MSS. of great value (e.g. the\n_Codex Legum Longobardorum_ of 1004) and fine _incunabula_. The abbot is\nkeeper, and also head of a boarding school.\n\n  See M. Morcaldi, _Codex Diplomaticus Cavensis_ ( Naples and Milan,\n  1873-1893).\n\n\n\n\nCAVAEDIUM, in architecture, the Latin name for the central hall or court\nwithin a Roman house, of which five species are described by Vitruvius.\n(1) The _Tuscanicum_ responds to the greater number apparently of those\nat Pompeii, in which the timbers of the roof are framed together, so as\nto leave an open space in the centre, known as the compluvium; it was\nthrough this opening that all the light was received, not only in the\nhall itself, but in the rooms round. The rain from the roof was\ncollected in gutters round the compluvium, and discharged from thence\ninto a tank or open basin in the floor called the impluvium. (2) In the\n_tetrastylon_ additional support was required in consequence of the\ndimensions of the hall; this was given by columns placed at the four\nangles of the impluvium. (3) _Corinthian_ is the term given to the\nspecies where additional columns were required. (4) In the\n_displuviatum_ the roofs, instead of sloping down towards the\ncompluvium, sloped outwards, the gutters being on the outer walls; there\nwas still an opening in the roof, and an impluvium to catch the rain\nfalling through. This species of roof, Vitruvius states, is constantly\nin want of repair, as the water does not easily run away, owing to the\nstoppage in the rain-water pipes. (5) The _testudinatum_ was employed\nwhen the hall was small and another floor was built over it; no example\nof this type has been found at Pompeii, and only one of the cavaedium\ndispluviatum.\n\n\n\n\nCAVAGNARI, SIR PIERRE LOUIS NAPOLEON (1841-1879), British military\nadministrator, the son of a French general by his marriage with an Irish\nlady, was born at Stenay, in the department of the Meuse, on the 4th of\nJuly 1841. He nevertheless obtained naturalization as an Englishman, and\nentered the military service of the East India Company. After passing\nthrough the college at Addiscombe, he served through the Oudh campaign\nagainst the mutineers in 1858 and 1859. In 1861 he was appointed an\nassistant commissioner in the Punjab, and in 1877 became deputy\ncommissioner of Peshawar and took part in several expeditions against\nthe hill tribes. In 1878 he was attached to the staff of the British\nmission to Kabul, which the Afghans refused to allow to proceed. In May\n1879, after the death of the amir Shere Ali, Cavagnari negotiated and\nsigned the treaty of Gandamak with his successor, Yakub Khan. By this\nthe Afghans agreed to admit a British resident at Kabul, and the post\nwas conferred on Cavagnari, who also received the Star of India and was\nmade a K.C.B. He took up his residence in July, and for a time all\nseemed to go well, but on the 3rd of September Cavagnari and the other\nEuropean members of the mission were massacred in a sudden rising of\nmutinous Afghan troops. (See AFGHANISTAN.)\n\n\n\n\nCAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE (1762-1829), French politician, was born at\nGourdon (Lot). He was sent by his department as deputy to the\nConvention, where he associated himself with the party of the Mountain\nand voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was constantly employed on\nmissions in the provinces, and distinguished himself by his rigorous\nrepression of opponents of the revolution in the departments of Landes,\nBasses-Pyrenees and Gers. With his colleague Jacques Pinet (1754-1844)\nhe established at Bayonne a revolutionary tribunal with authority in the\nneighbouring towns. Charges of cruelty were preferred against him by a\nlocal society before the Convention in 1795, but were dismissed. He had\nrepresented the Convention in the armies of Brest and of the Eastern\nPyrenees in 1793, and in 1795 he was sent to the armies of the Moselle\nand the Rhine. He filled various minor administrative offices, and in\n1806 became an official at Naples in Murat's government. During the\nHundred Days he was prefect of the Somme. At the restoration he was\nproscribed as a regicide, and spent the last years of his life at\nBrussels, where he died on the 24th of March 1829. His second son was\nGeneral Eugene Cavaignac (q.v.).\n\nThe eldest son, ELEONORE LOUIS GODEFROI CAVAIGNAC (1801-1845), was, like\nhis father, a republican of the _intransigeant_ type. He was bitterly\ndisappointed at the triumph of the monarchical principle after the\nrevolution of July 1830, in which he had taken part. He took part in the\nParisian risings of October 1830, 1832 and 1834. On the third occasion\nhe was imprisoned, but escaped to England in 1835. When he returned to\nFrance in 1841 he worked on the staff of _La Reforme_, and carried on an\nenergetic republican propaganda. In 1843 he became president of the\nSociety of the Rights of Man, of which he had been one of the founders\nin 1832. He died on the 5th of May 1845. The recumbent statue (1847) of\nGodefroi Cavaignac on his tomb at Montmartre (Paris) is one of the\nmasterpieces of the sculptor Francois Rude.\n\nJean Baptiste's brother, JACQUES-MARIE, VICOMTE CAVAIGNAC (1773-1855),\nFrench general, served with distinction in the army under the republic\nand successive governments. He commanded the cavalry of the XI. corps in\nthe retreat from Moscow, and eventually became Vicomte Cavaignac and\ninspector-general of cavalry.\n\n\n\n\nCAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE (1802-1857), French general, son of J.B.\nCavaignac, was born at Paris on the 15th of October 1802. After going\nthrough the usual course of study for the military profession, he\nentered the army as an engineer officer in 1824, and served in the Morea\nin 1828, becoming captain in the following year. When the revolution of\n1830 broke out he was stationed at Arras, and was the first officer of\nhis regiment to declare for the new order of things. In 1831 he was\nremoved from active duty in consequence of his declared republicanism,\nbut in 1832 he was recalled to the service and sent to Algeria. This\ncontinued to be the main sphere of his activity for sixteen years, and\nhe won especial distinction in his fifteen months' command of the\nexposed garrison of Tlemcen, a command for which he was selected by\nMarshal Clausel (1836-1837), and in the defence of Cherchel (1840).\nAlmost every step of his promotion was gained on the field of battle,\nand in 1844 the duc d'Aumale himself asked for Cavaignac's promotion to\nthe rank of _marechal de camp_. This was made in the same year, and he\nheld various district commands in Algeria up to 1848, when the\nprovisional government appointed him governor-general of the province\nwith the rank of general of division. The post of minister of war was\nalso offered to Cavaignac, but he refused it owing to the unwillingness\nof the government to quarter troops in Paris, a measure which the\ngeneral held to be necessary for the stability of the new regime. On his\nelection to the National Assembly, however, Cavaignac returned to Paris.\nWhen he arrived on the 17th of May he found the capital in an extremely\ncritical state. Several _emeutes_ had already taken place, and by the\n22nd of June 1848 a formidable insurrection had been organized. The only\ncourse now open to the National Assembly was to assert its authority by\nforce. Cavaignac, first as minister of war and then as dictator, was\ncalled to the task of suppressing the revolt. It was no light task, as\nthe national guard was untrustworthy, regular troops were not at hand in\nsufficient numbers, and the insurgents had abundant time to prepare\nthemselves. Variously estimated at from 30,000 to 60,000 men, well armed\nand organized, they had entrenched themselves at every step behind\nformidable barricades, and were ready to avail themselves of every\nadvantage that ferocity and despair could suggest to them. Cavaignac\nfailed perhaps to appreciate the political exigencies of the moment; as\na soldier he would not strike his blow until his plans were matured and\nhis forces sufficiently prepared. When the troops at last advanced in\nthree strong columns, every inch of ground was disputed, and the\ngovernment troops were frequently repulsed, till, fresh regiments\narriving, he forced his way to the Place de la Bastille and crushed the\ninsurrection in its headquarters. The contest, which raged from the 23rd\nto the morning of the 26th of June, was without doubt the bloodiest and\nmost resolute the streets of Paris have ever seen, and the general did\nnot hesitate to inflict the severest punishment on the rebels.\n\nCavaignac was censured by some for having, by his delay, allowed the\ninsurrection to gather head; but in the chamber he was declared by a\nunanimous vote to have deserved well of his country. After laying down\nhis dictatorial powers, he continued to preside over the Executive\nCommittee till the election of a regular president of the republic. It\nwas expected that the suffrages of France would raise Cavaignac to that\nposition. But the mass of the people, and especially the rural\npopulation, sick of revolution, and weary even of the moderate\nrepublicanism of Cavaignac, were anxious for a stable government.\nAgainst the five and a half million votes recorded for Louis Napoleon,\nCavaignac received only a million and a half. Not without chagrin at his\ndefeat, he withdrew into the ranks of the opposition. He continued to\nserve as a representative during the short remainder of the republic. At\nthe _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd December 1851 he was arrested along with\nthe other members of the opposition; but after a short imprisonment at\nHam he was released, and, with his newly-married wife, lived in\nretirement till his death, which took place at Ourne (Sarthe) on the\n28th of October 1857.\n\nHis son, JACQUES MARIE EUGENE GODEFROI CAVAIGNAC (1853-1905), French\npolitician, was born in Paris on the 21st of May 1853. He made public\nprofession of his republican principles as a schoolboy at the Lycee\nCharlemagne by refusing in 1867 to receive a prize at the Sorbonne from\nthe hand of the prince imperial. He received the military medal for\nservice in the Franco-Prussian War, and in 1872 entered the Ecole\nPolytechnique. He served as a civil engineer in Angouleme until 1881,\nwhen he became master of requests in the council of state. In the next\nyear he was elected deputy for the arrondissement of Saint-Calais\n(Sarthe) in the republican interest. In 1885-1886 he was under-secretary\nfor war in the Henri Brisson ministry, and he served in the cabinet of\nEmile Loubet (1892) as minister of marine and of the colonies. He had\nexchanged his moderate republicanism for radical views before he became\nwar minister in the cabinet of Leon Bourgeois (1895-1896). He was again\nminister of war in the Brisson sabinet in July 1898, when he read in the\nchamber a document which definitely incriminated Captain Alfred Dreyfus.\nOn the 30th of August, however, he stated that this had been discovered\nto be a forgery by Colonel Henry, but he refused to concur with his\ncolleagues in a revision of the Dreyfus prosecution, which was the\nlogical outcome of his own exposure of the forgery. Resigning his\nportfolio, he continued to declare his conviction of Dreyfus's guilt,\nand joined the Nationalist group in the chamber, of which he became one\nof the leaders. He also was an energetic supporter of the Ligue de la\nPatrie Francaise. In 1899 Cavaignac was an unsuccessful candidate for\nthe presidency of the republic. He had announced his intention of\nretiring from political life when he died at his country-seat near Flee\n(Sarthe) on the 25th of September 1905. He wrote an important book on\nthe _Formation de la Prusse contemporaine_ (2 vols., 1891-1898), dealing\nwith the events of 1806-1813.\n\n\n\n\nCAVAILLON, a town of south-eastern France in the department of Vaucluse,\n20 m. S.E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 5760; commune, 9952.\nCavaillon lies at the southern base of Mont St Jacques on the right bank\nof the Durance above its confluence with the Coulon. It has a hotel de\nville of the 18th century, a church of the 12th century, dedicated to St\nVeran, and the mutilated remains of a triumphal arch of the Roman\nperiod. The town is an important railway junction and the commercial\ncentre of a rich and well-irrigated plain, which produces melons and\nother fruits, early vegetables (artichokes, tomatoes, celery, potatoes),\nand other products in profusion. Silk-worms are reared, and silk is an\nimportant article of trade. The preparation of preserved vegetables,\nfruits and other provisions, distilling, and the manufacture of straw\nhats and leather are carried on. Numerous minor relics of the Roman\nperiod have been found to the south of the present town, on the site of\nthe ancient _Cabellio_, a place of some note in the territory of the\nCavares. In medieval and modern history the town has for the most part\nfollowed the fortunes of the Comtat Venaissin, in which it was included.\nTill the time of the Revolution it was the see of a bishop, and had a\nlarge number of monastic establishments.\n\n\n\n\nCAVALCANTI, GUIDO (c. 1250-1300), Italian poet and philosopher, was the\nson of a philosopher whom Dante, in the _Inferno_, condemns to torment\namong the Epicureans and Atheists; but he himself was a friend of the\ngreat poet. By marriage with Beatrice, daughter of Farinata Uberti, he\nbecame head of the Ghibellines; and when the people, weary of continual\nbrawls, aroused themselves, and sought peace by banishing the leaders of\nthe rival parties, he was sent to Sarzana, where he caught a fever, of\nwhich he died. Cavalcanti has left a number of love sonnets and canzoni,\nwhich were honoured by the praise of Dante. Some are simple and\ngraceful, but many are spoiled by a mixture of metaphysics borrowed from\nPlato, Aristotle and the Christian Fathers. They are mostly in honour of\na French lady, whom he calls Mandetta. His _Canzone d'Amore_ was\nextremely popular, and was frequently published; and his complete\npoetical works are contained in Giunti's collection (Florence, 1527;\nVenice, 1531-1532). He also wrote in prose on philosophy and oratory.\n\n  See D.G. Rossetti, _Dante and his Circle_ (1874).\n\n\n\n\nCAVALIER, JEAN (1681-1740), the famous chief of the Camisards (q.v.),\nwas born at Mas Roux, a small hamlet in the commune of Ribaute near\nAnduze (Gard), on the 28th of November 1681. His father, an illiterate\npeasant, had been compelled by persecution to become a Roman Catholic\nalong with his family, but his mother brought him up secretly in the\nProtestant faith. In his boyhood he became a shepherd, and about his\ntwentieth year he was apprenticed to a baker. Threatened with\nprosecution for his religious opinions he went to Geneva, where he\npassed the year 1701; he returned to the Cevennes on the eve of the\nrebellion of the Camisards, who by the murder of the Abbe du Chayla at\nPont-de-Monvert on the night of the 24th of July 1702 raised the\nstandard of revolt. Some months later he became their leader. He showed\nhimself possessed of an extraordinary genius for war, and Marshal\nVillars paid him the high compliment of saying that he was as courageous\nin attack as he was prudent in retreat, and that by his extraordinary\nknowledge of the country he displayed in the management of his troops a\nskill as great as that of the ablest officers. Within a period of two\nyears he was to hold in check Count Victor Maurice de Broglie and\nMarshal Montrevel, generals of Louis XIV., and to carry on one of the\nmost terrible partisan wars in French history.\n\nHe organized the Camisard forces and maintained the most severe\ndiscipline. As an orator he derived his inspiration from the prophets of\nIsrael, and raised the enthusiasm of his rude mountaineers to a pitch so\nhigh that they were ready to die with their young leader for the sake of\nliberty of conscience. Each battle increased the terror of his name. On\nChristmas day 1702 he dared to hold a religious assembly at the very\ngates of Alais, and put to flight the local militia which came forth to\nattack him. At Vagnas, on the 10th of February 1703, he routed the royal\ntroops, but, defeated in his turn, he was compelled to find safety in\nflight. But he reappeared, was again defeated at Tour de Bellot (April\n30), and again recovered himself, recruits flocking to him to fill up\nthe places of the slain. By a long series of successes he raised his\nreputation to the highest pitch, and gained the full confidence of the\npeople. It was in vain that more rigorous measures were adopted against\nthe Camisards. Cavalier boldly carried the war into the plain, made\nterrible reprisals, and threatened even Nimes itself. On the 16th of\nApril 1704 he encountered Marshal Montrevel himself at the bridge of\nNages, with 1000 men against 5000, and, though defeated after a\ndesperate conflict, he made a successful retreat with two-thirds of his\nmen. It was at this moment that Marshal Villars, wishing to put an end\nto the terrible struggle, opened negotiations, and Cavalier was induced\nto attend a conference at Pont d'Avene near Alais on the 11th of May\n1704, and on the 16th of May he made submission at Nimes. These\nnegotiations, with the proudest monarch in Europe, he carried on, not as\na rebel, but as the leader of an army which had waged an honourable war.\nLouis XIV. gave him a commission as colonel, which Villars presented to\nhim personally, and a pension of 1200 livres. At the same time he\nauthorized the formation of a Camisard regiment for service in Spain\nunder his command.\n\nBefore leaving the Cevennes for the last time he went to Alais and to\nRibaute, followed by an immense concourse of people. But Cavalier had\nnot been able to obtain liberty of conscience, and his Camisards almost\nto a man broke forth in wrath against him, reproaching him for what they\ndescribed as his treacherous desertion. On the 21st of June 1704, with a\nhundred Camisards who were still faithful to him, he departed from Nimes\nand came to Neu-Brisach (Alsace), where he was to be quartered. From\nDijon he went on to Paris, where Louis XIV. gave him audience and heard\nhis explanation of the revolt of the Cevennes. Returning to Dijon,\nfearing to be imprisoned in the fortress of Neu-Brisach, he escaped with\nhis troop near Montbeliard and took refuge at Lausanne. But he was too\nmuch of a soldier to abandon the career of arms. He offered his services\nto the duke of Savoy, and with his Camisards made war in the Val\nd'Aosta. After the peace he crossed to England, where he formed a\nregiment of refugees which took part in the Spanish expedition under the\nearl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudesley Shovel in May 1705. At the\nbattle of Almansa the Camisards found themselves opposed to a French\nregiment, and without firing the two bodies rushed one upon the other.\nCavalier wrote later (July 10, 1707): \"The only consolation that\nremains to me is that the regiment I had the honour to command never\nlooked back, but sold its life dearly on the field of battle. I fought\nas long as a man stood beside me and until numbers overpowered me,\nlosing also an immense quantity of blood from a dozen wounds which I\nreceived.\" Marshal Berwick never spoke of this tragic event without\nvisible emotion.\n\nOn his return to England a small pension was given him and he settled at\nDublin, where he published _Memoirs of the Wars of the Cevennes under\nCol. Cavalier_, written in French and translated into English with a\ndedication to Lord Carteret (1726). Though Cavalier received, no doubt,\nassistance in the publication of the Memoirs, it is none the less true\nthat he provided the materials, and that his work is the most valuable\nsource for the history of his life. He was made a general on the 27th of\nOctober 1735, and on the 25th of May 1738 was appointed\nlieutenant-governor of Jersey. Writing in the following year (August 26,\n1739) he says: \"I am overworked and weary; I am going to take the waters\nin England so as to be in a fit condition for the war against the\nSpaniards if they reject counsels of prudence.\" He was promoted to the\nrank of major-general on the 2nd of July 1739, and died in the following\nyear. In the parochial register of St Luke's, Chelsea, there is an\nentry: \"Burial A.D. 1740, May 18, Brigadier John Cavalier.\"\n\nThere is a story which represents him as the fortunate rival of Voltaire\nfor the hand of Olympe, daughter of Madame Dunoyer, author of the\n_Lettres galantes_. During his stay in England he married the daughter\nof Captain de Ponthieu and Marguerite de la Rochefoucauld, refugees\nliving at Portarlington. Malesherbes, the courageous defender of Louis\nXVI., bears the following eloquent testimony to this young hero of the\nCevennes:--\"I confess,\" he says, \"that this warrior, who, without ever\nhaving served, found himself by the mere gift of nature a great\ngeneral,--this Camisard who was bold to punish a crime in the presence\nof a fierce troop which maintained itself by little crimes--this coarse\npeasant who, when admitted at twenty years of age into the society of\ncultivated people, caught their manners and won their love and esteem,\nthis man who, though accustomed to a stormy life, and having just cause\nto be proud of his success, had yet enough philosophy in him by nature\nto enjoy for thirty-five years a tranquil private life--appears to me to\nbe one of the rarest characters to be found in history.\"\n\n  For a more detailed account see F. Puaux, _Vie de Jean Cavalier_\n  (1868); David C.A. Agnew, _Protestant Exiles from France_, ii. 54-66\n  (Lond., 1871); Charvey, _Jean Cavalier: nouveaux documents inedits_\n  (1884). Eugene Sue popularized the name of the Camisard chief in _Jean\n  Cavalier ou les fanatiques des Cevennes_ (1840).     (F. Px.)\n\n\n\n\nCAVALIER, a horseman, particularly a horse-soldier or one of gentle\nbirth trained in knightly exercises. The word is taken from one of the\nFrench words which derived ultimately from the Late Lat. _caballarius_,\na horseman, from Lat. _caballus_, properly a pack-horse, which gave the\nFr. _cheval._ a _chevalier_. This last word is the regular French for\n\"knight,\" and is chiefly used in English for a member of certain foreign\nmilitary or other orders, particularly of the Legion of Honour. Cavalier\nin English was early applied in a contemptuous sense to an overbearing\nswashbuckler--a roisterer or swaggering gallant. In Shakespeare (_2\nHenry IV._ v. iii. 62) Shallow calls Bardolph's companions \"cavaleros.\"\n\"Cavalier\" is chiefly associated with the Royalists, the supporters of\nCharles I. in the struggle with the Parliament in the Great Rebellion.\nHere again it first appears as a term of reproach and contempt, applied\nby the opponents of the king. Charles in the _Answer to the Petition_\n(June 13, 1642) speaks of cavaliers as a \"word by what mistake soever it\nseemes much in disfavour.\" Further quotations of the use of the word by\nthe Parliamentary party are given in the _New English Dictionary_. It\nwas soon adopted (as a title of honour) by the king's party, who in\nreturn applied Roundhead to their opponents, and at the Restoration the\ncourt party preserved the name, which survived till the rise of the term\nTory (see WHIG AND TORY). The term \"cavalier\" has been adopted from the\nFrench as a term in fortification for a work of great command\nconstructed in the interior of a fort, bastion or other defence, so as\nto fire over the main parapet without interfering with the fire of the\nlatter. A greater volume of fire can thus be obtained, but the great\nheight of the cavalier makes it an easy target for a besieger's guns.\n\n\n\n\nCAVALIERE, EMILIO DEL, 16th-century Italian musical composer, was born\nin Rome about 1550 of a noble family. He held a post at the court of\nFerdinand I. of Tuscany from 1588 to 1597, and during his residence at\nFlorence was on terms of intimacy with J. Peri, O. Rinuccini, G. Caccini\nand the rest of the Bardi circle. In 1597 he returned to Rome, and\nbecame connected with the Congregation of the Oratory founded by St\nPhilip Neri. Here in 1600 was performed Cavaliere's contribution to the\nmusical reformation initiated by his circle of friends in Florence--_La\nRappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo_, a sacred drama, which is regarded\nas the first example of what is now called oratorio. It is generally\nsupposed that he was no longer living when the work was performed, but\nsome authorities assign 1602 as the date of his death.\n\nCavaliere's style is more facile than that of Peri and Caccini, but he\nis inferior to them in depth of musical expression. He is, however,\nimportant as being the first to apply the new monodic style to sacred\nmusic, and as the founder of the Roman school of the 17th century which\nincluded Mazzocchi, Carissimi and Alessandro Scarlatti.\n\n  See also H. Goldschmidt, _Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen\n  Oper im 17. Jahrhundert_, Band i.\n\n\n\n\nCAVALLI, FRANCESCO (1599?-1676), Italian musical composer, was born at\nCrema in 1599 or 1600. His real name was Pier Francesco Caletti-Bruni,\nbut he is better known by that of Cavalli, the name of his patron, a\nVenetian nobleman. He became a singer at St Mark's in Venice in 1617,\nsecond organist in 1639, first organist in 1665, and in 1668 _maestro di\ncappella_. He is, however, chiefly important for his operas. He began to\nwrite for the stage in 1639 (_Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo_), and soon\nestablished so great a reputation that he was summoned to Paris in 1660\nto produce an opera (_Serse_) at the Louvre in honour of the marriage of\nLouis XIV. He visited Paris again in 1662, bringing out his _Ercole\nAmante_. His death occurred in Venice on the 14th of January 1676.\nTwenty-seven operas of Cavalli are still extant, most of them being\npreserved in the library of St Mark at Venice. Monteverde had found\nopera a musico-literary experiment, and left it a magnificent dramatic\nspectacle. Cavalli succeeded in making opera a popular entertainment. He\nreduced Monteverde's extravagant orchestra to more practical limits,\nintroduced melodious arias into his music and popular types into his\n_libretti_. His operas have all the characteristic exaggerations and\nabsurdities of the 17th century, but they have also a remarkably strong\nsense of dramatic effect as well as a great musical facility, and a\ngrotesque humour which was characteristic of Italian grand opera down to\nthe death of Alessandro Scarlatti.\n\n\n\n\nCAVALLINI, PIETRO (c. 1259-1344), Italian painter, born in Rome, was an\nartist of the earliest epoch of the modern Roman school, and was taught\npainting and mosaic by Giotto while employed at Rome; it is believed\nthat he assisted his master in the mosaic of the Navicella or ship of St\nPeter, in the porch of the church of that saint. He also studied under\nthe Cosmati. Lanzi describes him as an adept in both arts, and mentions\nwith approbation his grand fresco of a Crucifixion at Assisi, still in\ntolerable preservation; he was, moreover, versed in architecture and in\nsculpture. According to George Vertue, it is highly probable that\nCavallini executed, in 1279, the mosaics and other ornaments of the tomb\nof Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey. He would thus be the\n\"Petrus Civis Romanus\" whose name is inscribed on the shrine; but a\ncomparison of dates invalidates this surmise. He died in 1344, at the\nage of eighty-five, in the odour of sanctity, having in his later years\nbeen a man of eminent piety. He is said to have carved for the Basilica\nof San Paolo fuori le Mura, close to Rome, a crucifix which spoke in\n1370 to a female saint. Some highly important works by Cavallini in the\nchurch of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome, have been recently\ndiscovered.\n\n\n\n\nCAVALLO, TIBERIUS (1749-1809), Anglo-Italian electrician and natural\nphilosopher, was born on the 30th of March 1749 at Naples, where his\nfather was a physician. In 1771 he came to England with the intention of\npursuing a mercantile career, but he soon turned his attention to\nscientific work. Although he made several ingenious improvements in\nscientific instruments, his mind was rather imitative and critical than\ncreative. He published numerous works on different branches of physics,\nincluding _A Complete Treatise on Electricity_ (1777), _Treatise on the\nNature and Properties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids_\n(1781), _History and Practice of Aerostation_ (1785), _Treatise on\nMagnetism_ (1787), _Elements of Natural and Experimental Philosophy_\n(1803), _Theory and Practice of Medical Electricity_ (1780), and\n_Medical Properties of Factitious Air_ (1798). He died in London on the\n21st of December 1809.\n\n\n\n\nCAVALLOTTI, FELICE (1842-1898), Italian politician, poet and dramatic\nauthor, was born at Milan on the 6th of November 1842. In 1860 and 1866\nhe fought with the Garibaldian Corps, but first attained notoriety by\nhis anti-monarchical lampoons in the _Gazzetta di Milano_ and in the\n_Gazzettina Rosa_ between 1866 and 1872. Elected to parliament as deputy\nfor Corteolona in the latter year, he took the oath of allegiance after\nhaving publicly impugned its validity. Eloquence and turbulent,\ncombativeness in and out of parliament secured for him the leadership of\nthe extreme Left on the death of Bertani in 1886. During his twelve\nyears' leadership his party increased in number from twenty to seventy,\nand at the time of his death his parliamentary influence was greater\nthan ever before. Though ambitious and addicted to defamatory methods of\npersonal attack which sometimes savoured of political blackmail,\nCavallotti's eloquent advocacy of democratic reform, and apparent\ngenerosity of sentiment, secured for him a popularity surpassed by that\nof no contemporary save Crispi. Services rendered in the cholera\nepidemic of 1885, his numerous lawsuits and thirty-three duels, his\nbitter campaign against Crispi, and his championship of French\ninterests, combined to enhance his notoriety and to increase his\npolitical influence. By skilful alliances with the marquis di Rudini he\nmore than once obtained practical control of the Italian government, and\nexacted notable concessions to Radical demands. He was killed on the 6th\nof March 1898 in a duel with Count Macola, editor of the conservative\n_Gazetta di Venezia_, whom he had assailed with characteristic\nintemperance of language. By his death the house of Savoy lost a\nrelentless foe, and the revolutionary elements in Italy a gifted, if not\nentirely trustworthy, leader.     (H. W. S.)\n\n\n\n\nCAVALRY (Fr. _cavalerie_, Ger. _Kavallerie_ or _Reiterei_, derived\nultimately from late Lat. _caballus_, horse), a word which came into use\nin military literature about the middle of the 16th century as applied\nto mounted men of all kinds employed for combatant purposes, whether\nintended primarily for charging in masses, in small bodies, or for\ndismounted fighting. By degrees, as greater refinement of terminology\nhas become desirable, the idea has been narrowed down until it includes\nonly \"horsemen trained to achieve the purpose of their commander by the\ncombined action of man and horse,\" and this definition will be found to\ncover the whole field of cavalry activity, from the tasks entrusted to\nthe cavalry \"corps\" of 10,000 sabres down to the missions devolving on\nisolated squadrons and even troops.\n\n\n  Early use of mounted warriors.\n\n_History_--The evolution of the cavalry arm has never been uniform at\nany one time over the surface of the globe, but has always been locally\nmodified by the conditions of each community and the stage of\nintellectual development to which at any given moment each had attained.\nThe first condition for the existence of the arm being the existence of\nthe horse itself, its relative scarcity or the reverse and its\nadaptability to its environment in each particular district have always\nexercised a preponderating influence on the development of cavalry\norganization and tactics. The indigenous horses of Europe and Asia being\nvery small, the first application of their capabilities for war purposes\nseems everywhere to have been as draught animals for chariots, the\nconstruction of which implies not only the existence of level surfaces,\nperhaps of actual roads, but a very considerable degree of mechanical\nskill in those who designed and employed them. The whole of the\nclassical and Oriental mythologies, together with the earliest monuments\nof Egypt, Assyria and India, are convincing on this point. Nowhere can\nwe find a trace either of description or delineation of animals\nphysically capable of carrying on their backs the armed men of the\nperiod. All the earliest allusions to the use of the horse in war either\npoint directly to the employment as a draught animal, or where not\nspecific, as in the description of the war-horse in Job, they would\napply equally well to one harnessed to a chariot as to one ridden under\nthe saddle.\n\nThe first trace of change is to be found, according to Prof. Wm.\nRidgeway (_Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_, p. 243), in\nan Egyptian relief showing Nubians mounted on horses of an entirely\ndifferent breed, taller and more powerful than any which had gone before\nthem. These horses appear to have come from the vicinity of Dongola, and\nthe strain still survives in the Sudan. The breed is traced into Arabia,\nwhere only second-rate horses had been reared hitherto, and thence to\ndifferent parts of Europe, where eventually centres of cavalry activity\ndeveloped. The first detailed evidence of the existence of organized\nbodies of mounted men is to be found in Xenophon, whose instructions for\nthe breaking, training and command of a squadron remain almost as a\nmodel for modern practice. Their tactical employment, however, seems\nstill to have been relatively insignificant, for the horses were still\nfar too small and too few to deliver a charge with sufficient momentum\nto break the heavy armed and disciplined hoplites. The strain of ancient\nbattle was of an entirely different order to that of modern fighting. In\nthe absence of projectiles of sufficient range and power to sweep a\nwhole area, the fighting was entirely between the front ranks of the\nopposing forces. When a front rank fighter fell, his place was\nimmediately taken by his comrade in the rear, who took up the individual\ncombat, excited by his comrade's fate but relatively fresh in mind and\nmuscle. This process of feeding the fight from the rear could be\nprotracted almost indefinitely. If then, as a consequence of a charge, a\nfew mounted men did penetrate the ranks, they encountered such a crowd\nof well-protected and fresh swordsmen that they were soon pulled off\ntheir ponies and despatched. Now and again great leaders, Alexander,\nHannibal and Scipio Africanus, for instance, succeeded in riding down\ntheir opponents, but in the main, and as against the Roman infantry in\nparticular, mounted troops proved of very little service on the\nbattlefield.\n\nIt was, however, otherwise in the sphere of strategy. There, information\nwas of even greater importance, because harder to obtain, than it is\nnowadays, and the army which could push out its feelers to the greater\ndistance, surround its enemy and intercept his communications, derived\nnearly the same advantages as it does at present. Hence both sides\nprovided themselves with horsemen, and when these met, each in the\nperformance of their several duties, charges of masses naturally ensued.\nThis explains the value attaching in the old days to the possession of\nhorse-flesh and the rapid spread of the relatively new Dongola or\nAfrican strain over the then known world.\n\nThe primitive instinct of aboriginal man is to throw stones or other\nmissiles for purposes of defence (apes will throw anything they can\nfind, but they never use sticks); hence, as the Romans penetrated ever\nfarther amongst the barbarian tribes, their horsemen in first line found\never-increasing need for protection against projectiles. But the greater\nthe weight of armour carried, the greater the demands upon the endurance\nof the horse. Then, as the weight-carrying breed was expensive and, with\nthe decay of the Roman Empire, corruption and peculation spread, a limit\nwas soon placed on the multiplication of charging cavalry, and it became\nnecessary to fall back on the indigenous pony, which could only carry a\nrider from place to place, not charge. Thus there was a gradual\nlevelling down of the mounted arms, the heavy cavalry becoming too heavy\nto gallop and the light not good enough for united action. Against such\nopponents, the lighter and better mounted tribesmen of Asia found their\ntask easy. They cut off the supplies of the marching infantry, filled up\nor destroyed the wells, &c., and thus demonstrated the strategic\nnecessity of superior mobility.\n\nWith the decay of civilization discipline also disappeared, and, as\ndiscipline consists essentially in the spirit of self-sacrifice for the\ngood of the community, its opposite, self-preservation, became the\nguiding principle. This in turn led to the increase of armour carried,\nand thence to the demand for heavier horses, and this demand working\nthrough several centuries led ultimately to the breeding of the great\nweight-carrying animals on whose existence that of medieval chivalry\ndepended. These horses, however, being very costly and practically\nuseless for general purposes, could only become the property of the\nwealthy, who were too independent to feel the need of combination, and\npreferred to live on the spoliation and taxation of the weak. This\nspoliation eventually impelled the weaker men to combine, and at first\ntheir combination took the form of the construction of fortified places,\nagainst which mounted men were powerless. On the other hand, expense put\na limit to the area which fortifications could enclose, and this again\nlimited the supplies for the garrison. Horsemen sweeping the country for\nmiles around had no difficulty in feeding themselves, and the surrender\nof all beleaguered places through starvation was ultimately inevitable,\nunless food could be introduced from allied towns in the vicinity. It\nwas of no use to introduce fighting men only into a place which\nprimarily required food (cf. Lucknow, 1857) to protract its resistance.\nHence some means had to be found to surround the supply-convoys with a\nphysically impenetrable shield, and eighteen-foot pikes in the hands of\npowerful disciplined soldiers met the requirements. Against eight to ten\nranks of such men the best cavalry in the world, relying only on their\nswords, were helpless, and for the time (towards the close of the 15th\ncentury) infantry remained masters of the field on the continent of\nEurope.\n\nEngland meanwhile had developed on lines of her own. Thanks to her\nlongbowmen and the military genius of her leaders, she might have\nretained indefinitely the command of the continent had it not been for\nthe invention of gunpowder, which, though readily accepted by the\nEnglish for sieges in France, proved the ultimate cause of their\nundoing. It was the French who developed the use of siege artillery most\nrapidly, and their cavalry were not slow to take the hint; unlike the\nlongbow and the crossbow, the pistol could be used effectively from\nhorseback, and presently the knights and their retainers, having the\ndeepest purses, provided themselves with long pistols in addition to\ntheir lances and swords. These weapons sent a bullet through any armour\nwhich a foot-soldier could conveniently carry, or his commander afford,\nand if anything went wrong with their mechanism (which was complicated\nand uncertain) the speed of his horse soon carried the rider out of\ndanger. A new form of attack against infantry, introduced by the French\nat Cerisoles, 1544, thus developed itself. A troop or squadron, formed\nin from twelve to sixteen ranks, trotted up to within pistol shot of the\nangle of the square to be attacked and halted; then each rank in\nsuccession cantered off man by man to the left, discharging his pistol\nat the square as he passed, and riding back to his place behind the\ncolumn to reload. This could be prolonged indefinitely, and against such\ntactics the infantry were powerless. The stakes carried by English\narchers to check the direct charge of horsemen became useless, as did\nalso _chevaux de frise_, though the latter (which originated in the 14th\ncentury) continued to be employed by the Austrians against the\nswiftly-charging Turks till the close of the 17th century. Thus it\nbecame necessary to devise some new impediment which, whilst remaining\nmobile, would also give cover and an advantage in the final hand-to-hand\nshock. The problem was solved in Bohemia, Poland and Moravia (Hussite\nwars, about 1420), where, distances being great and the country open,\ngreater mobility and capacity in the convoys became essential. Great\ntrains of wagons were placed in charge of an infantry escort, of which a\npart had become possessed of firearms, and these moved across country in\nas many as twelve parallel lines drilled to form _laagers_, as nowadays\nin South Africa. Again the cavalry proved helpless, and for nearly a\ncentury in central Europe the word \"_Wagenburg_\" (wagon-fortress) became\nsynonymous with \"army.\" Then an unfortunate inspiration came to the\nwagon-men. A large gun was relatively cheaper to manufacture, and more\neffective than a small one. To keep their assailants at a distance, they\nmounted wall-pieces of about one-inch bore on their wagons. For a moment\nthe balance inclined in their favour, but the cavalry were quick to see\ntheir advantage in this new idea, and they immediately followed suit.\nThey, too, mounted guns on wheels, and, as their mobility gave them\nchoice of position, they were able to concentrate their fire against any\nside of the laager, and again ultimate surrender was the only way out of\nthe defenders' dilemma.\n\nThe interesting problem thus raised was never finally solved, for the\nscene of action now shifted to western Europe, to the valley of the Po,\nand more particularly to the Netherlands, where fortresses were closer\ntogether and the clayey nature of the Rhine delta had already made paved\nroads necessary. Then, the _Wagenburg_ being no longer needed for the\nshort transits between one fortified town and another, the infantry\nreasserted themselves. Firearms having been much improved in the\ninterval the spearmen (pikemen) had already (about 1515) learnt to\nprotect themselves by musketeers trained to take advantage of cover and\nground somewhat in the same fashion as the modern skirmisher. These\nmusketeers kept light guns at a distance from their pikemen, but dared\nnot venture far out, as their fire was altogether inadequate to stop a\nrush of horsemen; when the latter threatened to intervene, they had to\nrun for safety to the squares of pikemen, whom they assisted in turn by\nkeeping the cavalry beyond pistol range. Hence the horsemen had to fall\nback upon more powerful guns, and these, being slow and requiring more\ntrain, could be most economically protected by infantry (see also\nARTILLERY).\n\n\n  17th-century progress.\n\nThus about the close of the 16th century western armies differentiated\nthemselves out into the still existing three types--cavalry, artillery\nand infantry. Moreover, each type was subdivided, the cavalry becoming\nheavy, medium and dragoons. At this period there was nothing to disturb\nthe equilibrium of two contending forces except the characters of their\nrespective leaders. The mercenary element had triumphed everywhere over\nthe feudal levies. The moral qualities of all were on the same\nindifferent level, and battles in the open followed one recognized\ncourse. Neither army being able to outmarch the other, both drew up\nmasses of pikes in parallel lines. The musketeers covered the deployment\nof the heavy guns on either side, the cavalry drew up on the wings and a\nstrictly parallel fight ensued, for in the absence of a common cause for\nwhich men were willing to die, plunder was the ruling motive, and all\ncontrol and discipline melted in the excitement of the contest.\n\nIt is to the growth of Protestantism that cavalry owes its next great\nforward leap. To sweep the battlefield, it was absolutely essential that\nmen should be ready to subordinate selfish considerations to the triumph\nof their cause. The Roman Catholicism of the day gave many loopholes for\nthe evasion of clear duty, but from these the reformed faith was free,\nand it is to the reawakened sense of duty that Gustavus Adolphus\nappealed. This alone rendered combination amongst his subordinate\nleaders possible, and on this power of combination all his victories\ndepended. Other cavalry soldiers, once let loose in the charge, could\nnever be trusted to return to the field, the prospective plunder of the\nenemy's baggage being too strong a temptation; but the king's men could\nbe depended on, and once brought back in formed bodies, they rode over\nthe enemy's skirmishers and captured his batteries. Then the equilibrium\nof force was destroyed, and all arms combined made short work of the\nopposing infantry alone (Breitenfeld, 1631). But the Swedish king\nperished with his work half done, and matters reverted to their former\ncondition until the appearance of Cromwell, another great leader capable\nof animating his men with the spirit of devotion, again rendered the\ncavalry arm supreme. The essence of his success lay in this, that his\nmen were ready everywhere and always to lay down their lives for their\ncommon cause. Whether scouting 70 m. to the front of their army, or\nfighting dismounted to delay the enemy at defiles or to storm fortified\nstrongholds, or charging home on the battlefield, their will power,\nfocused on, and in turn dependent on, the personality of their great\nleader, dominated all human instincts of fear, rapacity or selfishness.\nIt is true that they had not to ride against the modern rifle, but it is\nequally true that there was no quick-firing artillery to carry terror\nthrough the enemy's army, and it was against masses of spearmen and\nmusketeers, not then subjected to bursting shells or the lash of\nshrapnel and rifle bullets, that the final charges had always to be\nridden home.\n\nEach succeeding decade thereafter has seen a steady diminution in the\nultimate power of resistance of the infantry, and a corresponding\nincrease in the power of fire preparation at the disposal of the supreme\nleader; and the chances of cavalry have fluctuated with the genius of\nthat leader in the employment of the means at his disposal, and the\ntopographical conditions existing within each theatre of war. During the\ncampaigns in Flanders, with its multiplicity of fortresses and clayey\nsoil, cavalry rapidly degenerated into mounted infantry, throwing aside\nsword and lance-proof armour, and adopting long muskets and heavier\nammunition. Presently they abandoned the charge at a gallop and reverted\nto an approach at the trot, and if (as at Blenheim) their influence\nproved decisive on the field of battle, this was because the conditions\nwere common to both combatants, and the personal influence of \"Corporal\nJohn,\" as his soldiers called Marlborough, ensured greater steadiness\nand better co-operation.\n\n\n  Frederick II.; reform of the Prussian cavalry.\n\nWhen Frederick II. became king of Prussia (1740), he found his cavalry\nalmost at the nadir of efficiency; even his cuirassiers drilled\nprincipally on foot. \"They can manoeuvre,\" on foot, \"with the same\nprecision as my grenadiers, but unfortunately they are equally slow.\"\nHis enemies the Austrians, thanks to their wars against the Turks who\nalways charged at a gallop, had maintained greater dash and mobility,\nand at Mollwitz the Prussians only escaped disaster by the astounding\nrapidity of their infantry fire. In disgust the king then wrote, \"Die\nCavallerie is nicht einmal werth dasz sie der Teufel weck holet,\" and he\nimmediately set about their reform with his usual energy and\nthoroughness. Three years after Mollwitz, the result of his exertions\nwas apparent in the greatly increased importance the arm acquired on the\nbattlefield, and the charge of the Bayreuth dragoons at Hohenfriedberg\n(June 4, 1745), who with 1500 horses rode over and dispersed 20 Austrian\nbattalions, bringing in 2500 prisoners and 67 colours, will always rank\nas one of the most brilliant feats in military history.[1] The following\nyears of peace (1745-1756) were devoted to the methodical preparation of\nthe cavalry to meet the requirements that Frederick's methods of war\nwould make upon them, and it is to this period that the student should\ndevote special attention. From the very outbreak of the Seven Years' War\n(1756) this training asserted its influence, and Rossbach (1757) and\nZorndorf (1758) are the principal examples of what cavalry handled in\nmasses can effect. At Rossbach General v. Seydlitz, at the head of 38\nsquadrons, practically began and ended the destruction of the French\narmy, and at Zorndorf he saved the day for the Prussians by a series of\nthe most brilliant charges, which successively destroyed the Russian\nright wing and centre. These battles so conclusively demonstrated the\nsuperiority of the Prussian cavalry that their enemies completely\naltered their tactical procedure. They now utilized their enormous\nnumerical superiority by working in two separate armies, each almost as\nstrong as the whole Prussian force. When the latter moved against\neither, the one threatened immediately threw up heavy entrenchments,\nagainst which cavalry were, of course, ineffective, whilst the other\npursued its march. When Frederick, having more or less beaten his\nimmediate opponent, began to threaten the other army it entrenched\nlikewise. Against these methods the Prussian army soon wore itself out,\nand though from time to time the cavalry locally distinguished itself,\nno further opportunities for great decisive blows presented themselves.\n\nThe increased demands made upon the mobility of the Prussian horsemen\nnaturally resulted in the gradual rejection of everything which was not\nessential to their striking power. The long muskets and bayonets were\nlaid aside, but the cuirass was retained for the melee, and by the close\nof the great struggle the various branches of the arm had differentiated\nthemselves out into the types still adhered to, heavy cavalry, dragoons,\nhussars, whose equipment as regards essentials thenceforward hardly\nvaried up to the latter years of the 19th century. The only striking\ndifference lies in the entire rejection of the lance in the armament of\nthe charging squadrons, and the reason is characteristic of the\nprinciples of the day. The Prussian cavalry had realized that success\nwas decided, not primarily by actual collision, but by the moral effect\nof the appearance of an absolutely closed wall of horsemen approaching\nthe adversary at full speed. If the necessary degree of cohesion was\nattained, the other side was morally beaten before collision took place,\nand either turned to flight, or met the shock with so little resolution\nthat it was ridden over without difficulty. In the former case any\nweapon was good enough to kill a flying enemy; in the latter, in the\nmelee which then ensued, the crush in the ranks of the victors was still\nso great that the lance was a hindrance rather than a help.\n\nIn the years succeeding the war the efficiency of the Prussian cavalry\nsank very rapidly, the initial cause being the death of Seydlitz at the\nearly age of fifty-two. His personality had alone dominated the\ndiscontent, lethargy and hopelessness created by ruthless financial\neconomies. When he was gone, as always in the absence of a great leader,\nmen adapted their lives to the line of least resistance. In thirty years\nthe wreck was complete, and within the splendid squadrons which had been\naccustomed to manoeuvre with perfect precision at the highest speed,\nthere were (as F.A. von der Marwitz in his _Nachlass_ clearly shows) not\nmore than seven thoroughly trained men and horses to each, the remainder\nbeing trained for little longer and receiving less attention than is the\ncase with modern 2nd line or auxiliary cavalry.\n\n\n  Cavalry in the revolutionary wars.\n\nFor the generation preceding the outbreak of the French Revolution,\nFrederick the Great's army, and especially his cavalry, had become the\nmodel for all Europe, but the mainspring of the excellence of his\nsquadrons was everywhere overlooked. Seydlitz had manoeuvred great\nmasses of horsemen, therefore every one else must have great masses\nalso; but no nation grasped the secret, viz. the unconditional obedience\nof the horse to its rider, on which his success had depended. Neither\nwas it possible under the prevailing social conditions to secure the old\nstamp of horse, or the former attention to detail on the part of men and\nofficers. In France, owing to the agricultural decay of the country,\nsuitable remounts for charging cavalry were almost unobtainable, and as\nthis particular branch of the army was almost exclusively commanded by\nthe aristocracy it suffered most in the early days of the Revolution.\nThe hussars, being chiefly recruited and officered by Alsatians and\nGermans from the Rhine provinces, retained their individuality and\ntraditions much longer than the dragoons and cuirassiers, and, to the\nvery close of the great wars, we find them always ready to charge at a\ngallop; but the unsteadiness and poor horsemanship of the other branches\nwas so great that up to 1812, the year of their destruction, they always\ncharged at a trot only, considering that the advantage of superior\ncohesion thus gained more than balanced the loss of momentum due to the\nslower pace.\n\nGenerally, the growth of the French cavalry service followed the\nuniversal law. The best big horses went to the heavy charging cavalry,\nviz. the cuirassiers, the best light horses to the hussars, and the\ndragoons received the remainder, for in principle they were only\ninfantry placed on horseback for convenience of locomotion, and were not\nprimarily intended for combined mounted action. Fortunately for them,\ntheir principal adversaries, the Austrians, had altogether failed to\ngrasp the lesson of the Seven Years' War. Writing in 1780 Colonel Mack,\na very capable officer, said, \"Even in 1769, the cavalry could not ride,\ncould not manage to control their horses. Not a single squadron could\nkeep its dressing at a gallop, and before they had gone fifty yards at\nleast ten out of forty horses in the first rank would break out to the\nfront,\" and though the veteran field marshal Lacy issued new\nregulations, their spirit seems always to have escaped the executive\nofficers. The British cavalry was almost worse off, for economy had\nreduced its squadrons to mere skeletons, and the traditional British\nstyle of horsemanship, radically different from that in vogue in France,\nmade their training for combined action even more difficult than\nelsewhere. Hence the history of cavalry during the earlier campaigns of\nthe Revolution is marked by no decisive triumphs, the results are always\ninadequate when judged by the magnitude of the forces employed, and only\nthe brilliant exploit of the 15th Light Dragoons (now Hussars) at\nVillers en Couche (April 24, 1794) deserves to be cited as an instance\nof the extraordinary influence which even a few horsemen can exercise\nover a demoralized or untrained mob of infantry.\n\nUp to the campaign of Poland (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS) French victories\nwere won chiefly by the brilliant infantry fighting, cavalry only\nintervening (as at Jena) to charge a beaten enemy and complete his\ndestruction by pursuit. But after the terrible waste of life in the\nwinter of 1806-7, and the appalling losses in battle, Napoleon\nintroduced a new form of attack. The case-shot preparation of his\nartillery (see ARTILLERY) sowed confusion and terror in the enemy's\nranks, and the opportunity was used by masses of cavalry. Henceforward\nthis method dominated the Napoleonic tactics and strategy. The essential\ndifference between this system and the Frederician lies in this, that\nwith the artillery available in the former period it was not possible to\nsay in advance at what point the intervention of cavalry would be\nnecessary, hence the need for speed and precision of manoeuvre to ensure\ntheir arrival at the right time and place. Napoleon now selected\nbeforehand the point he meant to overwhelm and could bring his cavalry\nmasses within striking distance at leisure. Once placed, it was only\nnecessary to induce them to run away in the required direction to\noverwhelm everything by sheer weight of men and horses. This method\nfailed at Waterloo because the ground was too heavy, the <DW72> of it\nagainst the charge, and the whole condition of the horses too low for\nthe exertion demanded of them.\n\nThe British cavalry from 1793 to 1815 suffered from the same causes\nwhich at the beginning of the 20th century brought about its breakdown\nin the South African War. Over-sea transport brought the horses to land\nin poor condition, and it was rarely possible to afford them sufficient\ntime to recover and become accustomed to the change in forage, the\nconditions of the particular theatre of operations, &c., before they had\nto be led against the enemy--hence a heavy casualty roll and the\nintroduction into the ranks of raw unbroken horses which interfered with\nthe precision of manoeuvre of the remainder. Their losses (about 13% per\nannum) were small as compared with those of South Africa, but this is\nmainly accounted for by the fact that, operations being generally in the\nnorthern hemisphere, the change of climate was never so severe.\nTactically, they suffered, like the Austrians and Prussians, from the\nabsence of any conception of the Napoleonic strategy amongst their\nprincipal leaders. As it was not known where the great blow was to fall,\nthey were distributed along the whole line, and thus became habituated\nto the idea of operating in relatively small bodies. This is the worst\nschool for the cavalry soldier, because it is only when working in\nmasses of forty to sixty squadrons that the cumulative consequences of\nsmall errors of detail become so apparent as to convince all ranks of\nthe necessity of conforming accurately to established prescriptions.\nNevertheless, they still retained the practice of charging at a gallop,\nand as a whole were by far the most efficient body of horsemen who\nsurvived at the close of the great wars.\n\n\n  Later 19th century.\n\nIn the reaction that then ensued all over Europe, cavalry practically\nceased to exist. The financial and agricultural exhaustion of all\ncountries, and of Prussia in particular, was so complete that money was\nnowhere to be found for the great concentrations and manoeuvre practices\nwhich are more essential to the efficiency of the cavalry than to that\nof the other arms. Hence a whole generation of officers grew up in\nignorance of the fundamental principles which govern the employment of\ntheir arm. It was not till 1848 that the Prussians began again to unite\nwhole cavalry divisions for drill and manoeuvre, and the soldiers of the\nolder generation had not yet passed away when the campaigns of 1866 and\n1870 brought up again the realities of the battle-field. Meanwhile the\nintroduction of long-range artillery and small arms had entirely\ndestroyed the tactical relation of the three arms on which the\nNapoleonic tactics and strategy had been based, and the idea gained\nground that the battle-field would no longer afford the same\nopportunities to cavalry as before. The experiences gained by the\nAmericans in the Civil War helped to confirm this preconception. If in\nbattles waged between infantries armed only with muzzle-loading rifles,\ncavalry could find no opportunity to repeat past exploits, it was argued\nthat its chances could not fail to be still further reduced by the\nbreech-loader. But this reasoning ignored the principal factors of\nformer successes. The mounted men in America failed not as a consequence\nof the armament they encountered, but because the war brought out no\nNapoleon to create by his skill the opportunity for decisive cavalry\naction, and to mass his men beforehand in confident anticipation. The\nsame reasoning applies to the European campaigns of 1866 and 1870, and\nthe results obtained by the arm were so small, in proportion to the\nnumbers of squadrons available and to their cost of maintenance as\ncompared with the other arms, that a strong reaction set in everywhere\nagainst the existing institutions, and the re-creation of the dragoon,\nunder the new name of mounted rifleman, was advocated in the hope of\nobtaining a cheap and efficient substitute for the cavalryman.\n\nLater events in South Africa and in Manchuria again brought this\nquestion prominently to the front, but the essential difference between\nthe old and new schools of thought has not been generally realized. The\n\"mounted rifle\" adherents base their arguments on the greatly increased\nefficiency of the rifle itself. The \"cavalry\" school, on the other hand,\nmaintains that, the weapons themselves being everywhere substantially\nequal in efficiency, the advantage rests with the side which can create\nthe most favourable conditions for their employment, and that,\nfundamentally, superior mobility will always confer upon its possessor\nthe choice of the circumstances under which he will elect to engage.\nWhere the two sides are nearly equally matched in mobility, neither side\ncan afford the time to dismount, for the other will utilize that time to\nmanoeuvre into a position which gives him a relative superiority for\nwhichever form of attack he may elect to adopt, and this relative\nsuperiority will always more than suffice to eliminate any advantage in\naccuracy of fire that his opponent may have obtained by devoting his\nprincipal attention to training his men on the range instead of on the\nmounted manoeuvre ground.\n\nFinally, the \"cavalry\" school reasons that in no single campaign since\nNapoleon's time have the conditions governing encounters been normal.\nEither the roadless and barren nature of the country has precluded of\nitself the rapid marching which forms the basis of all modern strategy,\nas in America, Turkey, South Africa and Manchuria, or the relative power\nof the infantry and artillery weapons, as in Bohemia (1866) and in\nFrance (1870), has rendered wholly impossible the creation of the great\ntactical opportunity characteristic of Napoleon's later method, for\nthere then existed no means of overwhelming the enemy with a sufficient\nhail of projectiles to render the penetration of the cavalry feasible.\nThe latest improvement in artillery, viz. the perfected shrapnel and the\nquick-firing guns, have, however, enormously facilitated the attainment\nof this primary fire superiority, and, moreover, it has simplified the\nprocedure to such a degree that Napoleon is no longer needed to direct.\nThe battles of the future will thus, in civilized countries, revert to\nthe Napoleonic type, and the side which possesses the most highly\ntrained and mobile force of cavalry will enjoy a greater relative\nsuperiority over its adversary than at any period since the days of\nFrederick.\n\nThe whole experience of the past thus goes to show that no nation in\npeace has ever yet succeeded in maintaining a highly trained cavalry\nsufficiently numerous to meet all the demands of a great war. Hence at\nthe outbreak of hostilities there has always been a demand for some kind\nof supplementary force which can relieve the regular squadrons of those\nduties of observation and exploration which wear down the horses most\nrapidly and thus render the squadrons ineffective for their culminating\nduty on the battle-field. This demand has been met by the enrolment of\nmen willing to fight and rendered mobile by mounts of an inferior\ndescription, and the greater the urgency the greater has been the\ntendency to give them arms which they can quickly learn to use. To make\na man an expert swordsman or lancer has always taken years, but he can\nbe taught to use a musket or rifle sufficiently for his immediate\npurpose in a very short time. Hence, to begin with, arms of this\ndescription have invariably been issued to him. But once these bodies\nhave been formed, and they have come into collision with trained\ncavalry, the advantages of mobility, combined with the power of shock,\nhave become so apparent to all, that insensibly the \"dragoon\" has\ndeveloped into the cavalry soldier, the rate of this evolution being\nconditioned by the nature of the country in which the fighting took\nplace.\n\nThis evolution is best seen in the American Civil War. The men of the\nmounted forces engaged had been trained to the use of the rifle from\nchildhood, while the vast majority had never seen a sword, hence the\nformation of \"mounted rifles\"; and these \"mounted rifles\" developed\nprecisely in accordance with the nature of their surroundings. In\ndistricts of virgin forests and marshland they remained \"mounted\nrifles,\" in the open prairie country of the west they became cavalry\npure and simple, though for want of time they never rivalled the\nprecision of manoeuvre and endurance of modern Prussian or Austrian\nhorse. In South Africa the same sequence was followed, and had the Boer\nWar lasted longer it is certain that such Boer leaders as de Wet and de\nla Rey would have reverted to cavalry tactics of shock and cold steel at\nthe earliest possible opportunity.\n\nTherefore when we find, extending over a cycle of ages, the same causes\nproducing the same effects, the natural conclusion is that the evolution\nof the cavalry arm is subject to a universal law which persists in spite\nof all changes of armament.\n\n_Employment of Cavalry._--It is a fundamental axiom of all military\naction that the officer commanding the cavalry of any force comprising\nthe three arms of the service is in the strictest sense an executive\nofficer under the officer commanding that particular force as a whole.\nThe latter again is himself responsible to the political power he\nrepresents. When intricate political problems are at stake, it may be,\nand generally is, quite impracticable that any subordinate can share the\nsecret knowledge of the power to which he owes his allegiance.\n\nThe essence of the value of the cavalry soldier's services lies in this,\nthat the demand is never made upon him in its supremest form until the\ninstinct of the real commander realizes that the time has come. Whether\nit be to cover a retreat, and by the loss of hundreds to save the lives\nof tens of thousands, or to complete a victory with commensurate results\nin the opposite direction, the obligation remains the same--to stake the\nlast man and horse in the attainment of the immediate object in view,\nthe defeat of the enemy. This at once places the leader of cavalry in\nface of his principal problem. It is a matter of experience that the\nbroader the front on which he can deliver a charge, the greater the\nchances of success. However strong the bonds of discipline may be, the\nline is ultimately, and at a certain nervous tension, only a number of\nmen on horses, acting and reacting on one another in various ways. When\ntherefore, of two lines, moving to meet one another at speed, one sees\nitself overlapped to either hand, the men in the line thus overlapped\ninvariably and inevitably tend to open outwards, so as at least to meet\ntheir enemy on an equal frontage. Hence every cavalry commander tries\nto strike at the flank of his enemy, and the latter manoeuvres to meet\nhim, and if both have equal mobility, local collision must ensue on an\nequal and parallel front. Therefore both strive to put every available\nman and horse in their first line, and if men and horses were\ninvulnerable such a line would sweep over the ground like a scythe and\nnothing could withstand it. Since, however, bullets kill at a distance,\nand inequalities and unforeseen difficulties of the ground may throw\nhundreds of horses and riders, a working compromise has to be found to\nmeet eventualities, and, other things being equal, victory inclines to\nthe leader who best measures the risks and uncertainties of his\nundertaking, and keeps in hand a sufficient reserve to meet all chances.\n\nThus there has arisen a saying, which is sometimes regarded as\naxiomatic, that in cavalry encounters the last closed reserve always\nwins. The truth is really that he who has best judged the situation and\nthe men on both sides finds himself in possession of the last reserve at\nthe critical moment. The next point is, how to ensure the presence of\nthis reserve, and what is the critical moment. The battle-field is the\ncritical moment in each phase of every campaign--not the mere chance\nlocality on which a combat takes place, but the decisive arena on which\nthe strategic consequences of all pre-existing conditions of national\ncohesion, national organization and of civilization are focussed. It is\nindeed the judgment-seat of nature, on which the right of the race to\nsurvive in the struggle for existence is weighed and measured in the\nmost impartial scales.\n\nBefore, however, the final decision of the battle-field can be attained,\na whole series of subordinate decisions have to be fought out, success\nin each of which conditions the result of the next series of encounters.\nEvery commanding officer of cavalry thus finds himself successively\ncalled on to win a victory locally at any cost, and the question of\neconomy of force does not concern him at all. Hence the same fundamental\nrules apply to all cavalry combats, of whatever magnitude, and condition\nthe whole of cavalry tactics. Broadly speaking, if two cavalries of\napproximately equal mobility manoeuvre against each other in open\ncountry, neither side can afford the loss of time that dismounting to\nfight on foot entails. Hence, assuming that at the outset of a campaign\neach side aims at securing a decisive success, both seek out an open\nplain and a mounted charge, sword in hand, for the decision. When the\nspeed and skill of the combatants are approximately equal, collision\nensues simultaneously along parallel fronts, and the threat of the\noverlapping line is the principal factor in the decision. The better the\nindividual training of man and horse the less will be the chances of\nunsteadiness or local failures in execution, and the less the need of\nreserves; hence the force which feels itself the most perfect in the\nindividual efficiency of both man and horse (on which therefore the\nwhole ultimately depends) can afford to keep fewer men in reserve and\ncan thus increase the width of its first line for the direct collision.\nCareful preparation in peace is therefore the first guarantee of success\nin action. This means that cavalry, unlike infantry, cannot be expanded\nby the absorption of reserve men and horses on the outbreak of\nhostilities, but must be maintained at war strength in peace, ready to\ntake the field at a moment's notice, and this is actually the standard\nof readiness attained on the continent of Europe at the present day.\n\nFurther, uniformity of speed is the essential condition for the\nexecution of closed charges, and this obviously cannot be assured if big\nmen on little horses and small men on big horses are indiscriminately\nmixed up in the same units. Horses and men have therefore been sorted\nout everywhere into three categories, _light_, _medium_ and _heavy_, and\nin periods when war was practically chronic, suitable duties have been\nallotted to each. It is clear, on purely mechanical grounds, that the\ngreater the velocity of motion at the moment of collision the greater\nwill be the chances of success, and this greater speed will be on the\nside of the bigger horses as a consequence of their longer stride. On\nthe other hand, these horses, by reason of their greater weight, are\nused up much more rapidly than small ones. Hence, to ensure the greater\nspeed at the moment of contact, it is necessary to save them as much as\npossible to keep them fresh for the shock only, and this has been the\npractice of all great cavalry leaders all over the world, and has only\nbeen departed from under special circumstances, as by the Germans in\nFrance in 1870, when their cavalry practically rode everywhere\nunopposed.\n\nCollisions, however, must be expected by every body of troops large or\nsmall; hence each regiment--ultimately each squadron--endeavours to save\nits horses as far as this is compatible with the attainment of the\nspecial object in view, and this has led everywhere and always to a\ndemand for some intermediate arm, less expensive to raise and maintain\nthan cavalry proper, and able to cover the ground with sufficient\nrapidity and collect the information necessary to ensure the proper\ndirection of the cavalry commands. Originally this intermediate force\nreceived the designation of dragoons; but since under pressure of\ncircumstances during long periods of war these invariably improved\nthemselves into cavalry and became permanent units in the army\norganization, fresh names have had to be invented for them, of which\nMounted Infantry and Mounted Rifles are the latest, and every\nimprovement in firearms has led to an increased demand for their\nservices.\n\nIt is now relatively easy to trace out the considerations which should\ngovern the employment of his cavalry by the officer commanding a force\nof the three arms. Assuming for purposes of illustration an army\nnumerically weak in cavalry, what course will best ensure the presence\nof the greatest number of sabres at the decisive point, i.e. on the\nbattle-field? To push out cavalry screens far to the front will be to\ncourt destruction, nor is the information they obtain of much real\nservice unless the means to act upon it at once is at hand. This can\nonly be supplied economically by the use of strong advanced guards of\ninfantry, and such supplementary security and information as these may\nrequire will be best supplied by mounted infantry, the sacrifice of whom\nwill disturb least the fighting integrity of the whole army.\n\nImagine an army of 300,000 men advancing by five parallel roads on a\nfront of 50 m., each column (60,000 men, 2 army corps) being covered by\na strong advance guard, coming in contact with a similarly constituted\narmy moving in an opposite direction. A series of engagements will\nensue, in each of which the object of the local commander will be to\nparalyse his opponent's will-power by a most vigorous attack, so that\nhis superior officer following him on the same road will be free to act\nas he chooses. The front of the two armies will now be defined by a line\nof combats localized each about a comparatively small area, and between\nthem will be wide gaps which it will be the chief business of the\ndirecting minds on either side to close by other troops as soon as\npossible. Generally the call will be made upon the artillery for this\npurpose, since they can cover the required distances far more rapidly\nthan infantry. Now, as artillery is powerless when limbered up and\nalways very vulnerable on the flanks of the long lines, a strong cavalry\nescort will have to be assigned to them which, trotting forward to\nscreen the march, will either come in contact with the enemy's cavalry\nadvancing with a similar object, or themselves find an opportunity to\ncatch the enemy's guns at a disadvantage. These are opportunities for\nthe cavalry, and if necessary it must sacrifice itself to turn them to\nthe best account. The whole course of the battle depends on success or\nfailure in the early formation of great lines of guns, for ultimately\nthe victor in the artillery duel finds himself in command of the\nnecessary balance of guns which are needed to prepare the way for his\nfinal decisive infantry attack. If this latter succeeds, then any\nmounted men who can gallop and shoot will suffice for pursuit. If it\nfails, no cavalry, however gallant, has any hope of definitely restoring\nthe combat, for against victorious infantry, cavalry, now as in the\npast, can but gain a little time. This time may indeed be worth the\nprice at which it can be bought, but it will always be more economical\nto concentrate all efforts to prevent the emergency arising.\n\nAfter the Franco-German War much was written about the possibility of\nvast cavalry encounters to be fought far in advance of the main armies,\nfor the purpose of obtaining information, and ideas were freely mooted\nof wide-flung raids traversing the enemy's communications, breaking up\nhis depots, reserve formations, &c. But riper consideration has\nrelegated these suggestions to the background, for it is now evident\nthat such expeditions involve the dissemination of force, not its\nconcentration. Austria and France for example would scarcely throw their\nnumerically inferior cavalry against the Germans, and nothing would suit\nthem better than that the latter should hurl their squadrons against the\nfrontier guards, advanced posts, and, generally, against unbeaten\ninfantry; nor indeed would the Germans stultify their whole strategic\nteaching by weakening themselves for the decisive struggle. It follows\ntherefore that cavalry reconnaissance duties will be strictly local and\ntactical, and that arrangements will be made for procuring strategical\ninformation by wireless telegraphy, balloons, motor cars, bicycles, &c.,\nand that on the whole that nation will be best served in war which has\nprovided in peace a nucleus of mounted infantry capable of rapid\nexpansion to fill the gap which history shows always to have existed\nbetween the infantry and the cavalry. Such troops need not be organized\nin large bodies, for their mission is to act by \"slimness,\" not by\nviolence. They must be the old \"verlorene Haufe\" (_anglice_, \"forlorn\nhope\") of former days, men whose individual bravery and decision is of\nthe highest order. But they can never become a \"decision-compelling\narm,\" though by their devotion they may well hope to obtain the grand\nopportunity for their cavalry, and share with them in harvesting the\nfruits of victory.\n\nThe great cavalry encounters of forty to sixty squadrons on either side,\nwhich it has been shown must arise from the necessity of screening or\npreventing the formation of the all-important artillery lines, will take\ntheir form mainly from the topographical conditions of the district, and\nsince on a front of 60 to 100 m. these may vary indefinitely, cavalry\nmust be trained, as indeed it always has been, to fight either on foot\nor on horseback as occasion requires. In either case, thoroughness of\npreparation in horsemanship (which, be it observed, includes\nhorsemastership) is the first essential, for in the end victory will\nrest with the side which can put in the right place with the greatest\nrapidity the greatest number of sabres or rifles. In the case of rifles\nthere is a greater margin of time available and an initial failure is\nnot irremediable, but the underlying principle is the same in either\ncase; and since it is impossible to foretell exactly the conditions of\nthe collision, all alike, according to the class to which they belong,\nmust be brought up to the highest standard, for this alone guarantees\nthe smooth and rhythmical motion required for covering long distances\nwith the least expenditure of physical and nervous strength on the part\nboth of horse and rider. As a consequence of successes gained in these\npreliminary encounters, opportunities will subsequently arise for the\nbalance of fresh or rallied squadrons in hand to ride home upon masses\nof infantry disorganized and demoralized by the combined fire of\ninfantry and artillery, and such opportunities are likely to be much\nmore numerous at the outbreak of future wars than they have been in the\npast, because the enormous gain in range and rapidity of fire enables a\nfar greater weight of metal to be concentrated on any chosen area within\na given time. It cannot be too often reiterated that cavalry never has\nridden over unshaken infantry of average quality by reason of its\nmomentum alone, but that every successful cavalry charge has always owed\nits issue to a previously acquired moral superiority which has prevented\nthe infantry from making adequate use of their means of defence. Nor\nwill such charges entail greater losses than in the past, for, great\nthough the increase of range of modern infantry weapons has been, the\nspeed and endurance of cavalry has increased in a yet higher ratio;\nwhereas in Napoleon's days, with an extreme range for musketry of 1000\nyds., cavalry were expected only to trot 800 yds. and gallop for 200,\nnowadays with an extreme infantry range of under 4000 yds., the cavalry\nare trained to trot for 8000 yds. and gallop for 2000.\n\nNeither the experiences in South Africa nor those in Manchuria seriously\ninfluenced the views of the leading cavalry experts as above outlined,\nfor the conditions of both cases were entirely abnormal. No nation in\nwestern Europe can afford to mount the whole of its able-bodied\nmanhood, nor, with the restricted area of its possessions, could repeat\nthe Boer tactics with useful effect; in Manchuria, the theatre of\noperation was so far roadless, and the motives of both combatants so\ndistinct from any conceivable as a basis for European strategy, that\ntime was always available to construct entrenchments and obstacles\nphysically insuperable to mounted arms. In western Europe, with its\nextreme development of communications, such tactics are impracticable,\nand under the system of compulsory service which is in force in all\nnations, an early decision must be sought at any cost. This motive\nimposes a rapid-marching campaign in the Napoleonic style, and in such\nwarfare there is neither time nor energy available for the erection of\nextemporised fortresses. Victory must therefore fall to the side that\ncan develop the greatest fire power in the shortest time. The greatest\nfactor of fire power is the long artillery lines, and as cavalry is the\none arm which by its mobility can hamper or prevent the formation of\nsuch lines, on its success in this task all else must depend. Hence both\nsides will concentrate every available horse and man for this special\npurpose, and on the issue of the collisions this mutual concentration\nmust entail will hang the fate of the battle, and ultimately of the\nnation. But the cavalry which will succeed in this task will be the one\nin which the spirit of duty burns brightest, and the oath of allegiance,\nrenewed daily on the cross of the sword, is held in the highest esteem.\n\n_Organization._--The existing organization of cavalry throughout the\ncivilized world is an instance of the \"survival of the fittest\" in an\nextreme form. The execution of the many manoeuvres with the speed and\nprecision which condition success is only possible by a force in which,\nas Frederick the Great said, \"every horse and trooper has been finished\nwith the same care that a watchmaker bestows upon each wheel of the\nwatch mechanism.\" Uniformity of excellence is in fact the keystone of\nsuccess, and this is only attainable where the mass is subdivided into\ngroups, each of which requires superintendence enough to absorb the\nwhole energy of an average commander. Thus it has been found by ages of\nexperiment that an average officer, with the assistance of certain\nsubordinates to whom he delegates as much or as little responsibility as\nhe pleases, finds his time fully occupied by the care of about one\nhundred and fifty men and horses, each individual of which he must\nunderstand intimately, in character, physical strength and temper, for\nhorse and man must be matched with the utmost care and judgment if the\nbest that each is capable of is to be attained. The fundamental secret\nof the exceptional efficiency attained by the Prussian cavalry lies in\nthe fact that they were the first to realize what the above implies.\nAfter the close of the Napoleonic Wars they made their squadron\ncommanders responsible, not only for the training of the combatants of\ntheir unit, but also for the breaking in of remounts and the elementary\nteaching of recruits as well, and in this manner they obtained an\nintimate knowledge of their material which is almost unattainable by\nBritish officers owing to the conditions entailed by foreign service and\nfrequent changes of garrisons.\n\nFurther, to obtain the maximum celerity of manoeuvre with the minimum\nexertion of the horses, the squadron requires to be subdivided into\nsmaller units, generally known as _troops_, and experience has shown\nthat with 128 sabres in the ranks (the average strength on parade, after\ndeducting sick and young horses, and the N.C. officers required as troop\nguides, &c.) four troops best satisfy all conditions; as, with this\nnumber, the squadron will, under all circumstances of ground and\nsurroundings, make any change of formation in less time and with greater\naccuracy than with any other number of subdivisions. The size of the\nunit next above the squadron, the _regiment_, is again fixed by the\nnumber of subordinates that an average commander can control, and the\nuniversal experience of all arms has settled this as not less than four\nand not more than eight. Experiments with eight and even ten squadrons\nhave been tried both in Austria and Prussia, but only exceptional men\nhave succeeded in controlling such large bodies effectively, and in the\nend the normal has been fixed at four or five squadrons in quarters, and\nthree or four in the field. Of these, the larger number is undoubtedly\npreferable, for, with the work of the quartermaster and the adjutant to\nsupervise, in addition, the regimental commander is economically applied\nto the best advantage. The essential point, however, is that the officer\ncommanding the regiment does not interfere in details, but commands his\nfour squadron commanders, his quartermaster, and his adjutant, and holds\nthem absolutely responsible for results.\n\nThere is no unity of practice in the constitution of larger units.\nBrigades vary according to circumstances from two regiments to four, and\nthe composition of divisions fluctuates similarly. The custom in the\nGerman cavalry has been to form brigades of two regiments and divisions\nof three brigades, but this practice arose primarily from the system of\nrecruiting and has no tactical advantage. The territory assigned to each\narmy corps provides men and horses for two regiments of cuirassiers or\nlancers (classed as heavy in Germany), two of dragoons, and two of\nhussars, and since it is clearly essential to ensure uniformity of speed\nand endurance within those units most likely to have to work together,\nit was impossible to mix the different classes. But the views now\ncurrent as to the tactical employment of cavalry contemplate the\nemployment not only of divisions but of whole cavalry corps, forty to\nsixty squadrons strong, and these may be called on to fulfil the most\nvarious missions. The farthest and swiftest reconnaissances are the\nprovince of light cavalry, i.e. hussars, the most obstinate attack and\ndefence of localities the task of dragoons, and the decisive charges on\nthe battle-field essentially the duty of the heavy cavalry. It seems\nprobable then that the brigade will become the highest unit the\ncomposition of which is fixed in peace, and that divisions and corps\nwill be put together by brigades of uniform composition, and assigned to\nthe several sections of the theatre of war in which each is likely to\nfind the most suitable field for its special character. This was the\ncase in the Frederician and Napoleonic epochs, when efficiency and\nexperience in the field far outweighed considerations of administration\nand convenience in quarters.\n\nHitherto, horse artillery in Europe has always formed an integral\nportion of the divisional organization, but the system has never worked\nwell, and in view of the technical evolution of artillery material is no\nlonger considered desirable. As it is always possible to assign one or\nmore batteries to any particular brigade whose line of march will bring\nit across villages, defiles, &c. (where the support of its fire will be\nessential), and on the battle-field itself responsibility for the guns\nis likely to prove more of a hindrance than a help to the cavalry\ncommander, it is probable that horse artillery will revert to the\ninspection of its own technical officers, and that the sole tie which\nwill be retained between it and the cavalry will be in the batteries\nbeing informed as to the cavalry units they are likely to serve with in\nwar, so that the officers may make themselves acquainted with the\nidiosyncrasies of their future commanders. The same course will be\npursued with the engineers and technical troops required for the\ncavalry, but it seems probable that, in accordance with a suggestion\nmade by Moltke after the 1866 campaign, the supply columns for one or\nmore cavalry corps will be held ready in peace, and specially organized\nto attain the highest possible mobility which modern technical progress\ncan ensure.\n\nThe general causes which have led to the differentiation of cavalry into\nthe three types--hussars, dragoons and heavy--have already been dealt\nwith. Obviously big men on little horses cannot manoeuvre side by side\nwith light men on big horses. Also, since uniformity of excellence\nwithin the unit is the prime condition of efficiency, and the greatest\npersonal dexterity is required for the management of sword or lance on\nhorseback, a further sorting out became necessary, and the best light\nweights were put on the best light horses and called hussars, the best\nheavy weights on the best heavy horses and called lancers, the average\nof either type becoming dragoons and cuirassiers. In England, the lance\nnot being indigenous and the conditions of foreign service making\nadherence to a logical system impossible, lancers are medium cavalry,\nbut the difference of weights carried and type of horses is too small to\nrender these distinctions of practical moment. In Germany, where every\nsuitable horse finds its place in the ranks and men have no right of\nindividual selection, the distinctions are still maintained, and there\nis a very marked difference between the weights carried and the types of\nmen and horses in each branch, though the dead weight which it is still\nconsidered necessary to carry in cavalries likely to manoeuvre in large\nmasses hardly varies with the weight of the man or size of the horse.\n\nWhere small units only are required to march and scout, the kit can be\nreduced to a minimum, everything superfluous for the moment being\ncarried on hired transport, as in South Africa. But when 10,000 horsemen\nhave to move by a single road all transport must be left miles to the\nrear, and greater mobility for the whole is attained by carrying upon\nthe horse itself the essentials for a period of some weeks. Still, even\nallowing for this, it is impossible to account for the extraordinary\nload that is still considered necessary. In India, the British lancer,\naveraging 11 st. per man, could turn out in marching order at 17 st. 8\nlb. (less forage nets). In Germany, the hussar, averaging 10 st. 6 lb.,\nrode at 18 st., also without forage, and the cuirassier at 21 st. to 22\nst. Cavalry equipment is, in fact, far too heavy, for in the interests\nof the budgets of the departments which supply saddlery, harness, &c.,\neverything is made so as to last for many years. Cavalry saddles fifty\nyears old frequently remain in good condition, but the losses in\nhorse-flesh this excessive solidity entails are ignored. The remount\naccounts are kept separately, and few realize that in war it is cheaper\nto replace a horse than a saddle. In any case, the armament alone of the\ncavalry soldier makes great demands on the horses. His sword and\nscabbard weigh about 4 lb., carbine or rifle 7 lb. to 9 lb., 120 rounds\nof ammunition with pouches and belts about 12 lb., lance about 5 lb.,\nand two days' forage and hay at the lowest 40 lb., or a gross total of\n70 lb. or 5 st., which with 11 st. for the man brings the total to 16\nst.; add to this the lightest possible saddle, bridle, cloak and\nblanket, and 17 st. 8 lb. is approximately the irreducible minimum. It\nmay be imagined what care and management of the horses is required to\nenable them under such loads to manoeuvre in masses at a trot, and\ngallop for distances of 5 m. and upwards without a moment for\ndismounting.\n\n_Reconnaissance and Scouting._--After 1870 public opinion, misled by the\nperformances of the \"ubiquitous Uhlan\" and disappointed by the absence\nof great cavalry charges on the field of battle, came somewhat hastily\nto the conclusion that the day of \"shock tactics\" was past and the\nfuture of cavalry lay in acting as the eyes and ears of the following\narmies. But, as often happens, the fact was overlooked that the German\ncavalry screen was entirely unopposed in its reconnoitring expeditions,\nand it was not till long afterwards that it became apparent how very\nlittle these far-flung reconnaissances had contributed to the total\nsuccess.\n\nIt has been calculated by German cavalry experts that not 1% of the\nreports sent in by the scouts during the advance from the Saar to the\nMeuse, August 1870, were of appreciable importance to the headquarters,\nand that before the orders based upon this evidence reached the front,\nevents frequently anticipated them. Generally the conviction has\nasserted itself, that it is impossible to train the short-service\nsoldiers of civilized nations sufficiently to render their reports worth\nthe trouble of collating, and if a few cases of natural aptitude do\nexist nothing can ensure that these particular men should be\nsufficiently well mounted to transmit their information with sufficient\ncelerity to be of importance. It is of little value to a commander to\nknow that the enemy was at a given spot forty-eight hours previously,\nunless the sender of the report has a sufficient force at his disposal\nto compel the enemy to remain there; in other words, to attack and hold\nhim. Cavalry and horse artillery alone, however, cannot economically\nexert this holding power, for, whatever their effect against worn-out\nmen at the close of a great battle, against fresh infantry they are\nrelatively powerless. Hence, it is probable that we shall see a revival\nof the strategic advanced guard of all arms, as in the Napoleonic days,\nwhich will not only reconnoitre, but fix the enemy until the army itself\ncan execute the manoeuvre designed to effect his destruction. The\ngeneral situation of the enemy's masses will, in western Europe,\nalways be sufficiently fixed by the trend of his railway communications,\nchecked by reports of spies, newspapers, &c., for, with neutral\nfrontiers everywhere within a few hours' ride for a motor cyclist,\nanything approaching the secrecy of the Japanese in Manchuria is quite\nunattainable, and, once the great masses begin to move, the only\n\"shadowing\" which holds out any hope of usefulness is that undertaken by\nvery small selected parties of officers, perfectly mounted, daring\nriders, and accustomed to cover distances of 100 m. and upwards. These\nwill be supported by motor cars and advanced feelers from the field\ntelegraphs, though probably the motor car would carry the eye-witness to\nhis destination in less time than it would take to draft and signal a\ncomplete report.\n\n\nPLATE I.\n\n  [Illustration: SIXTEENTH-CENTURY CAVALRY.\n\n  (Walthausen's _Art militaire de la cavalerie_, circa 1600.)]\n\n\nPLATE II.\n\n  [Illustration: BATTLE OF STAFFARDA, 1690. (_From a contemporary\n  engraving._)]\n\n  [Illustration: ACTION ON THE BULGANAK, 1854. (_From a lithograph by W.\n  Simpson._)]\n\n  [Illustration: GERMAN GUARD DRAGOONS. (_Photo, Gebruder Haeckel._)]\n\n\nTactical scouting, now as always, is invaluable for securing the safety\nof the marching and sleeping troops, and brigade, divisional and corps\ncommanders will remain dependent upon their own squadrons for the\nsolution of the immediate tactical problem before them; but, since both\nsides will employ mounted men to screen their operations, intelligence\nwill generally only be won by fighting, and the side which can locally\ndevelop a marked fire superiority will be the more likely to obtain the\ninformation it requires. In this direction the introduction of the motor\ncar and of cyclists is likely to exercise a most important influence,\nbut, whatever may be the conveyance, it must be looked upon as a means\nof advance only, never of retreat. The troops thus conveyed must be used\nto seize villages or defiles about which the cavalry and guns can\nmanoeuvre.\n\n_Formations and Drill._--Cavalry, when mounted, act exclusively by\n\"shock\" or more precisely by \"the threat of their shock,\" for the\nimmediate result of collision is actually decided some instants before\nthis collision takes place. Experience has shown that the best guarantee\nfor success in this shock is afforded by a two-deep line, the men riding\nknee to knee within each squadron at least. Perfect cavalry can charge\nin larger bodies without intervals between the squadrons, but,\nordinarily, intervals of about 10 yds. between adjacent squadrons are\nkept to localize any partial unsteadiness due to difficulties of ground,\ncasualties, &c. The obvious drawbacks of a two-deep line are that it\nhalves the possible extent of front, and that if a front-rank horse\nfalls the rear-rank horse generally tumbles over it also. To minimize\nthe latter evil, the charge in two successive lines, 150 to 200 yds.\napart, has often been advocated, but this has never stood the test of\nserious cavalry fighting; first, because when squadrons are galloping\nfast and always striving to keep the touch to the centre, if a horse\nfalls the adjacent horses close in with such force that their sidelong\ncollision may throw down more and always creates violent oscillation;\nand secondly, because owing to the dust raised by the first rank the\nfollowing one can never maintain its true direction. It is primarily to\navoid the danger and difficulty arising from the dust that the ranks in\nmanoeuvre are closed to within one horse's length, as, when moving at\nspeed, the rear rank is past before the dust has time to rise.\n\nOf all formations, the line is the most difficult to handle, and,\nparticularly, to conceal--hence various formations in column are\nnecessary for the preliminary manoeuvres requisite to place the\nsquadrons in position for the final deployment previous to the charge.\nMany forms of these columns have been tried, but, setting aside the\ncolumns intended exclusively for marching along roads, of which\n\"sections\" (four men abreast) is most usual in England, only these\nsurvive:--\n\n  Squadron column.\n  Double column of squadrons.\n  Half column.\n\nIn _squadron column_, the troops of the squadron formed are in line one\nbehind the other at a distance equal to the front of the troop in line.\nThe ideal squadron consists of 128 men formed in two ranks giving 64\nfiles, and divided into four troops of 16 files--a larger number of\ntroops makes the drill too complicated, a smaller number makes each\ntroop slow and unhandy. When the squadron is weak, therefore, the troop\nshould still be maintained as near 16 files as possible, the number of\ntroops being if necessary reduced. Thus with only 32 files, two troops\nof 16 files would be better than four of only 8 files.\n\nAll other formations of the regiment or brigade are fundamentally\nderived from the squadron column, only varying with the order in which\nthe squadrons are grouped, and the intervals which separate them. Thus\nthe regiment may move in _line of squadron columns_ at close interval,\ni.e. 11 paces apart or in _double column_ as in the diagram. To form\n_line_ for the charge, the squadrons open out, still in column, to full\ninterval, i.e. the width they occupy when in line; and then on the\ncommand \"Line to the front,\" each troop moves up to its place in line as\nshown in the diagram. When in line a large body of cavalry can no longer\nvary its direction without sacrificing its appearance of order, and as\nabove pointed out, it is this appearance of order which really decides\nthe result of the charge before the actual collision. Since, however,\nthe enemy's movements may compel a change, an intermediate formation is\nprovided, known as the \"half column.\" When this formation is ordered,\nthe troops within each squadron wheel half right or left, and each\nsquadron is then able to form into column or line to the front as\ncircumstances demand, or the whole line can be formed into column of\ntroops by continuing the wheel and in this formation gallop out into a\nfresh direction, re-forming line by a simple wheel in the shortest\npossible time.\n\n[Illustration: Formations]\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G.H. Elliot, _Cavalry Literature_ (1893); v. Bismarck,\n  _Uses and Application of Cavalry in War_ (1818, English translation by\n  Lieut.-Col. Beamish, 1855); G.T. Denison, _A History of Cavalry_\n  (1877); Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, _Letters on Cavalry_\n  and _Conversations on Cavalry_ (English translations, 1880 and 1892);\n  Colonel Mitchell, _Considerations on Tactics_ (1854) and _Thoughts on\n  Tactics and Organization_ (1838); E. Nolan, _Cavalry, its History and\n  Tactics_ (1855); Roemer, _Cavalry, its History, Management and Uses_\n  (New York, 1863); Maitland, _Notes on Cavalry_ (1878); F.N. Maude,\n  _Cavalry versus Infantry and Cavalry, its Past and Future_; C. von\n  Schmidt, _Instructions for the Training, Employment and Leading of\n  Cavalry_ (English translation, 1881); V. Verdy du Vernois, _The\n  Cavalry Division_ (1873); Maj.-Gen. Walker, _The Organization and\n  Tactics of the Cavalry Division_ (1876); C.W. Bowdler Bell, _Notes on\n  the German Cavalry Regulations of 1886_; F. de Brack, _Light Cavalry\n  Outposts_ (English translation); Dwyer, _Seats and Saddles_ (1869); J.\n  Jacob, _Views and Opinions_ (1857); F. Hoenig, _Die Kavallerie als\n  Schlachtenkorper_ (1884); Sir Evelyn Wood, _Achievements of Cavalry_\n  (1893); H.T. Siborne, _Waterloo Letters_; Desbriere and Sautai, _La\n  Cavalerie de 1740 a 1789_ (1806); Warnery, _Remarques sur la\n  cavalerie_ (1781); v. Canitz, _Histoire des exploits et des\n  vicissitudes de la cavalerie prussienne dans les campagnes de Frederic\n  II_ (1849); Cherfils, _Cavalerie en campagne_ (1888), _Service de\n  surete strategique de la cavalerie_ (1874); Bonie, _Tactique\n  francaise, cavalerie en campagne, cavalerie au combat_ (1887-1888);\n  Foucart, _Campagne de Pologne, operations de la cavalerie, nov.\n  1806-jan. 1807_ (1882), _La Cavalerie pendant la campagne de Prusse_\n  (1880); De Galliffet, _Projet d'instruction sur l'emploi de la\n  cavalerie en liaison avec les autres armes_ (1880), _Rapport sur les\n  grandes manoeuvres de cavalerie de 1879_; Kaehler, _Die preussische\n  Reiterei 1806-1876_ (French translation, _La Cavalerie prussienne de\n  1806 a 1876_); _Cavalry Studies_ (translated from the French of Bonie\n  and the German of Kaehler, with a paper on U.S. cavalry in the Civil\n  War); v. Bernhardi, _Cavalry in Future Wars_ (English translation,\n  1906); P.S., _Cavalry in the Wars of the Future_ (translated from the\n  French by T. Formby, 1905); D. Haig, _Cavalry Studies_ (1907); v.\n  Pelet Narbonne, _Die Kavalleriedienst_ (1901). _Cavalry on Service_\n  (English translation, 1906); _Erziehung und Fuhrung von Kavallerie_.\n  The principal cavalry periodicals are the _Revue de cavalerie_, the\n  _Kavalleristische Monatshefte_ (Austrian), the _Cavalry Journal_\n  (British), and the _Journal of the U.S. Cavalry Association_.\n       (F. N. M.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] The loss of the regiment was twenty-eight killed and sixty-six\n    wounded.\n\n\n\n\nCAVAN, a county in the province of Ulster, Ireland, bounded N. by\nFermanagh and Monaghan, E. by Monaghan and Meath, S. by Meath, Westmeath\nand Longford, and W. by Longford and Leitrim. The area is 477,399 acres,\nor about 746 sq. m. The surface of the county is uneven, consisting of\nhill and dale, without any great extent of level ground, but only in its\nnorthern extremity attaining a mountainous elevation. The barony of\nTullyhaw, bordering on Fermanagh, a wild dreary mountain district, known\nas the kingdom of Glan or Glengavlin, contains the highest land in the\ncounty, reaching 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh, the place of inauguration for the\nMaguires, chieftains of Fermanagh, held in veneration by the peasantry,\nin connexion with legends and ancient superstitions. The remainder of\nthe county is not deficient in wood, and contains numerous lakes,\ngenerally of small dimensions, but of much beauty, especially Lough\nOughter, with its many inlets and islands formed by the Erne river,\nbetween the towns of Cavan and Killashandra. The county also shares with\nother counties the waters of Lough Gowna and Lough Sheelin, in which, as\nelsewhere in the county, the fishing is good. The chief river in the\ncounty is the Erne, which originates in Lough Scrabby, one of the minor\nsheets of water communicating with Lough Gowna on the borders of\nLongford. The river takes a northerly direction by Killashandra and\nBelturbet, being enlarged during its course by the Annalee and other\nsmaller streams, and finally enters Lough Erne near the northern limit\nof the county. The other waters, consisting of numerous lakes and their\nconnecting streams, are mostly tributary to the Erne. A copious spring\ncalled the Shannon Pot, at the foot of the Cuilcagh Mountain, in the\nbarony of Tullyhaw, is regarded as the source of the river Shannon. The\nBlackwater, a tributary of the Boyne, also rises in this county, near\nBailieborough. Several mineral springs exist in this county, the chief\nof which is near the once frequented village of Swanlinbar. In the\nneighbourhood of Belturbet, near the small lake of Annagh, is a\ncarbonated chalybeate spring. There are several other springs of less\nimportance; and the small Lough Leighs, or Lough-an-Leighaghs, which\nsignifies the healing lake, on the summit of a mountain between\nBailieborough and Kingscourt, is celebrated for its antiscorbutic\nproperties. The level of this lake never varies. It has no visible\nsupply nor vent for its discharge; nor is it ever frozen during the\nseverest winters.\n\n  _Geology_.--This elongated county includes on the north-west some of\n  the highland of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures that rises above\n  Lough Allen. The beds below these are referred to the English Yoredale\n  series, and include some flaggy sandstones. It is on this series that\n  the Shannon rises, under the high outlier of grit on Cuilcagh. The\n  Carboniferous Limestone then stretches down to Cavan town, a bold\n  outlier of the higher strata being left above Ballyconnell. The river\n  Erne forms, in the limestone area, a characteristic series of\n  expansions and loops, with islands between them, known as Lough\n  Oughter. At this point we pass on to the axis of underlying Silurian\n  strata that runs from Longford to Donaghadee in Co. Down, and the\n  country becomes hilly and irregular, culminating about Cross Keys on\n  the old Dublin coach-road. A patch of granite, indicating doubtless a\n  core like that exposed at Newry, is seen in a hollow at Crossdoney. On\n  the south side of this axis of older rocks, we reach Carboniferous\n  shale and limestone at Lough Sheelin, and here enter on the great\n  central plain. The extreme south-east of the county includes part of\n  the Triassic outlier of Kingscourt. The coal-seams and concretions of\n  clay-ironstone in the north-west area resemble those mentioned under\n  the head of Co. Roscommon. Anthracite, probably of inorganic origin,\n  has been mined without permanent success in the Silurian beds near\n  Kilnaleck, and is traceable freely, associated with veins of quartz\n  and haematite, at Ballyjamesduff a little farther east.\n\n_Climate and Industries._--The climate suffers from the dampness arising\nfrom the numerous lakes and the nature of the soil, and from the\nboisterous winds which frequently prevail, more especially in the higher\ndistricts. The soil is generally a stiff clay, cold and watery, but\ncapable of much improvement by drainage, for which its undulating\nsurface affords facilities. Only about one-sixteenth of the total area\nis quite barren. Agriculture makes little progress; the extent of the\nfarms being generally small. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops.\nFlax, once of some importance, is almost neglected. In the mountainous\nparts, however, where the land is chiefly under grazing, the farms are\nlarger, and in stock-raising the county is progressing.\n\nCavan is not a manufacturing county. The bleaching of linen and the\ndistillation of whisky are both carried on to a small extent, but the\npeople are chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits and in the sale of\nhome produce. The soil in those districts not well adapted for tillage\nis peculiarly favourable for trees. The woods were formerly very\nconsiderable, and the timber found in the bogs is of large dimensions;\nbut plantations are now chiefly found in demesnes, where they are\nextensive.\n\nThe county is not well served by railways. The Great Northern from\nClones to Cavan, and the Midland Great Western from Mullingar in\nWestmeath to Cavan, form a through line from north to south. The Great\nNorthern has branches to Belturbet from Ballyhaise, and to Cootehill\nfrom Ballybay; the Midland Great Western has a branch to Killashandra,\nand from Navan in Meath to Kingscourt, just within Cavan. The Cavan &\nLeitrim railway starts from Belturbet and soon leaves the county to the\nwest.\n\n_Population and Administration._--The population (111,917 in 1891;\n97,541 in 1901), of which about 80% are Roman Catholics, shows a\ndecrease among the most serious of the Irish counties, and emigration\nreturns are among the heaviest. The population is almost wholly rural,\nthe only towns being the small ones of Cavan (pop. 2822, the county\ntown), Cootehill (1509), Belturbet (1587) and Bailieborough (1004). The\ncounty is divided into eight baronies, and contains thirty-two parishes\nand parts of parishes. It is almost entirely within the Protestant and\nRoman Catholic dioceses of Kilmore. The assizes are held at Cavan, and\nquarter sessions are held at Cavan, Bailieborough, Cootehill and\nBallyconnell. Before the Union the county returned six members to the\nIrish parliament, two for the county at large, and two for each of the\nboroughs of Cavan and Belturbet; but since that period it has been\nrepresented in the imperial parliament by two members only, for the east\nand west divisions.\n\n_History and Antiquities._--At the period of the English settlement, and\nfor some centuries afterwards, this district was known as the Brenny,\nbeing divided between the families of O'Rourke and O'Reilly; and its\ninhabitants, protected by the nature of the country, long maintained\ntheir independence. In 1579 Cavan was made shire ground as part of\nConnaught, and in 1584 it was formed into a county of Ulster by Sir John\nPerrott, and subdivided into seven baronies, two of which were assigned\nto Sir John O'Reilly and three to other members of the family; while the\ntwo remaining, possessed by the septs of Mackernon and Magauran, and\nsituated in the mountains bordering on O'Rourke's country, were left\nsubject to their ancient tenures and the exactions of their Irish lord.\nThe county subsequently came within the scheme for the plantation of\nUlster under James I. The population is less mixed in race than in most\nparts of Ulster, being generally of Celtic extraction. Some few remains\nof antiquity remain in the shape of cairns, raths and the ruins of small\ncastles, such as Cloughoughter Castle on an island (an ancient crannog)\nof Lough Oughter. Three miles from the town of Cavan is Kilmore, with\nits cathedral, a plain erection containing a Romanesque doorway brought\nfrom the abbey of Trinity Island, Lough Oughter. The bishopric dates\nfrom about 1450. A portion of a round tower is seen in the churchyard\nof the parish of Drumlane at Belturbet.\n\n\n\n\nCAVAN, a market-town and the county town of Co. Cavan, Ireland, near the\ncentre of the county, in the west parliamentary division, 85-1\/2 m. N.W.\nof Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and the terminus of a\nbranch of the Great Northern railway from Clones. Pop. of urban district\n(1901), 2822. It is on one of the tributary streams of the Annalee\nriver, in a broad valley surrounded on every side by elevated ground,\nwith picturesque environs, notably the demesnes of Farnham and of\nKilmore, which belongs to the bishops of that diocese. Cavan has no\nbuildings of antiquarian interest, but the principal county institutions\nare here, and the most conspicuous building is the grammar school,\nfounded by Charles I. It was rebuilt in 1819 on an eminence overlooking\none of the main entrances into the town, and is capable of accommodating\n100 resident pupils. The college of St Patrick is near the town. Cavan\nhas some linen trade, and a considerable retail business is transacted\nin the town. A monastery of Dominican friars, founded by O'Reilly,\nchieftain of the Brenny, formerly existed here, and became the\nburial-place of the celebrated Irish general, Owen O'Neill, who died as\nis supposed by poison, in 1649, at Cloughoughter. There was also the\ncastle of the O'Reillys, but this and all other antiquities of the town\nwere swept away during the violent and continuous feuds to which the\ncountry was subjected. In 1690 the chief portion of the town was burned\nby the Enniskilleners under General Wolseley, when they routed a body of\nJames II.'s troops under the duke of Berwick.\n\n\n\n\nCAVANILLES, ANTONIO JOSE (1745-1804), Spanish botanist, was born at\nValencia on the 16th of January 1745. He was educated at the university\nof that town, and in 1777 went to Paris, where he resided twelve years,\nengaged in the study of botany. In 1801 he became director of the\nbotanic gardens at Madrid, where he died on the 4th of May 1804. In\n1785-1786 he published _Monadelphiae Classis Dissertationes X._, and in\n1791 he began to issue _Icones et descriptiones plantarum Hispaniae_.\n\nHis nephew, ANTONIO CAVANILLES (1805-1864), was a distinguished\nadvocate, and the author of a history of Spain, published at Madrid in\n1860-1864.\n\n\n\n\nCAVATINA (Ital. diminutive of _cavata_, the producing of tone from an\ninstrument, plural _cavatine_), originally a short song of simple\ncharacter, without a second strain or any repetition of the air. It is\nnow frequently applied to a simple melodious air, as distinguished from\na brilliant aria, recitative, &c., and often forms part of a large\nmovement or _scena_ in oratorio or opera.\n\n\n\n\nCAVE, EDWARD (1691-1754), English printer, was born at Newton,\nWarwickshire, on the 27th of February 1691. His father, Joseph Cave, was\nof good family, but the entail of the family estate being cut off, he\nwas reduced to becoming a cobbler at Rugby. Edward Cave entered the\ngrammar school of that town, but was expelled for robbing the master's\nhen-roost. After many vicissitudes he became apprentice to a London\nprinter, and after two years was sent to Norwich to conduct a printing\nhouse and publish a weekly paper. While still a printer he obtained a\nplace in the post office, and was promoted to be clerk of the franks. He\nwas at this time engaged in supplying London newsletters to various\ncountry papers; and his enemies, who had twice summoned him before the\nHouse of Commons for breach of privilege, now accused him of opening\nletters to obtain his news, and he was dismissed the service. With the\ncapital which he had saved, he set up a small printing office at St\nJohn's Gate, Clerkenwell, which he carried on under the name of R.\nNewton. He had long formed a scheme of a magazine \"to contain the essays\nand intelligence which appeared in the two hundred half-sheets which the\nLondon press then threw off monthly,\" and had tried in vain to persuade\nsome publisher to take it up. In 1731 he himself put it into execution,\nand began the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (see PERIODICALS), of which he was\nthe editor, under the pseudonym \"Sylvanus Urban, Gent.\" The magazine had\na large circulation and brought a fortune to the projector. In 1732 he\nbegan to issue reports of the debates in both Houses of Parliament. He\ncommissioned friends to note the speeches, which he published with the\ninitial and final letters of personal names. In 1738 Cave was censured\nby parliament for printing the king's answer to an address before it had\nbeen announced by the speaker. From that time he called his reports the\ndebates of a \"parliament in the empire of Lilliput\" (see REPORTING). To\npiece together and write out the speeches for this publication was\nSamuel Johnson's first literary employment. In 1747 Cave was reprimanded\nfor publishing an account of the trial of Lord Lovat, and the reports\nwere discontinued till 1752. He died on the 10th of January 1754. Cave\npublished Dr Johnson's _Rambler_, and his _Irene, London_ and _Life of\nSavage_, and was the subject of a short biography by him.\n\n\n\n\nCAVE, WILLIAM (1637-1713), English divine, was born at Pickwell in\nLeicestershire. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and\nsuccessively held the livings of Islington (1662), of All-Hallows the\nGreat, Thames Street, London (1679), and of Isleworth in Middlesex\n(1690). Dr Cave was chaplain to Charles II., and in 1684 became a canon\nof Windsor. The two works on which his reputation principally rests are\nthe _Apostolici_, or History of Apostles and Fathers in the first three\ncenturies of the Church (1677), and _Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum\nHistoria Literaria_ (1688). The best edition of the latter is the\nClarendon Press, 1740-1743, which contains additions by the author and\nothers. In both works he was drawn into controversy with Jean le Clerc,\nwho was then writing his _Bibliotheque universelle_, and who accused him\nof partiality. He wrote several other works of the same nature which\nexhibit scholarly research and lucid arrangement. He is said to have\nbeen a good talker and an eloquent preacher. His death occurred at\nWindsor on the 4th of July 1713.\n\n\n\n\nCAVE (Lat. _cavea_, from _cavus_, hollow), a hollow extending beneath\nthe surface of the earth. The word \"cavern\" (Lat. _caverna_) is\npractically a synonym, though a distinction is sometimes drawn between\nsea caves and inland caverns, but the term \"cave\" is used here as a\ngeneral description. Caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in\nall ages, and have been the centres round which have clustered many\nlegends and superstitions. They were the abode of the sibyls and the\nnymphs in Roman mythology, and in Greece they were the temples of Zeus,\nPan, Dionysus, Pluto and the Moon, as well as the places where the\noracles were delivered at Delphi, Corinth and Mount Cithaeron. In Persia\nthey were connected with the obscure worship of Mithras. Their names\nfrequently are survivals of the superstitious ideas of antiquity, as,\nfor example, the Fairy, Dragon's, or Devil's Caves of France and\nGermany. Long after the Fairies and Little Men had forsaken the forests\nand glens of Germany, they dwelt in their palaces deep in the Harz\nMountains, in the Dwarfholes, &c., whence they came from time to time\ninto the upper air.\n\nThe Seven Sleepers of Ephesus slept their long sleep in a cave. The\nhills of Granada are still believed by the Moorish children to contain\nthe great Boabdil and his sleeping host, who will awake, when an\nadventurous mortal invades their repose, to restore the glory of the\nMoors in Spain.\n\nCaves have been used in all ages by mankind for habitation, refuge and\nburial. In the Old Testament we read that when Lot went up out of Zoar\nhe dwelt in a cave with his two daughters. The five kings of the\nCanaanites took refuge from Joshua, and David from Saul, in the caves of\nPalestine, just as the Aquitani fled from Caesar to those of Auvergne,\nand the Arabs of Algeria to those of Dahra, where they were suffocated\nby Marshal Pelissier in 1845. In Central Africa David Livingstone\ndiscovered vast caves in which whole tribes found security with their\ncattle and household stuff.\n\nThe cave of Machpelah may be quoted as an example of their use as\nsepulchres, and the rock-hewn tombs of Palestine and of Egypt and the\nCatacombs of Rome probably owe their existence to the ancient practice\nof burial in natural hollows in the rock. We might therefore expect to\nfind in them most important evidence as to the ancient history of\nmankind, which would reach long beyond written record; and since they\nhave always been used by wild beasts as lairs we might reasonably\nbelieve also that their exploration would throw light upon the animals\nwhich have in many cases disappeared from the countries which they\nformerly inhabited. The labours of Buckland, Pengelly, Falconer, Lartet\nand Christy, and Boyd Dawkins have added an entirely new chapter to the\nhistory of man in Europe, as well as established the changes that have\ntaken place in the European fauna. The physical history of caves will be\ntaken first, and we shall then pass on to the discoveries relating to\nman and the lower animals which have been made in them of late years.\n\n_Physical History._--The most obvious agent in hollowing out caves is\nthe sea. The set of the currents, the force of the breakers, the\ngrinding of the shingle inevitably discover the weak places in the\ncliff, and leave caves as one of the results of their work, modified in\neach case by the local conditions of the rock. Those formed in this\nmanner are easily recognized from their floors being rarely much out of\nthe horizontal; their entrances are all in the same plane, or in a\nsuccession of horizontal and parallel planes, if the land has been\nelevated at successive times. From their inaccessible position they have\nbeen rarely occupied by man. Among them Fingal's Cave, on the island of\nStaffa, off the south-west coast of Scotland, hollowed out of columnar\nbasalt, is perhaps the most remarkable in Europe. In volcanic regions\nalso there are caves formed by the passage of lava to the surface of the\nground, or by the expansion of steam and gases in the lava while it was\nin a molten state. They have been observed in the regions round Vesuvius\nand Etna, in Iceland and Teneriffe. We may take as an example the Grotto\ndel Cane (\"cave of the dog\"), near Pozzuoli, a few miles to the\nsouth-west of Naples, remarkable for the flow of carbonic acid from\ncrevices in the floor, which fills the lower part of the cave and\nsuffocates any small animal, such as a dog, immersed long enough in it.\n\nThe most important class of caves, however, and that which immediately\ndemands our notice, is that composed of those which have been cut out of\ncalcareous rocks by the action of carbonic acid in the rain-water,\ncombined with the mechanical friction of the sand and stones set in\nmotion by the streams which have, at one time or another, flowed through\nthem. They occur at various levels, and are to be met with wherever the\nstrata are sufficiently compact to support a roof. Those of Brixham and\nTorquay and of the Eifel are in the Devonian limestone; those of Wales,\nSomerset, the Pennine chain, Ireland, the central and northern counties\nof Belgium, Saxony, and Westphalia, of Maine and Anjou, of Virginia and\nKentucky, are in that of the Carboniferous age. The cave of Kirkdale in\nYorkshire, and most of those in Franconia and Bavaria, penetrate\nJurassic limestones. The Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones contain\nmost of the caverns of France, rendered famous by the discovery of the\nremains of the cave-men along with the animals which they hunted; as\nwell as those of the Pyrenees, the Alps, Sicily, Greece, Dalmatia,\nCarniola and Palestine. The cave of Lunelviel near Montpellier is the\nmost important of those which have been hollowed in limestones of the\nTertiary age. They are also met with in rocks composed of gypsum; in\nThuringia, for example, they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata\nof the Zechstein, and in the gypseous Tertiary rocks of the\nneighbourhood of Paris, as, for example, at Montmorency.\n\nCaves formed by the action of carbonic acid and the action of water are\ndistinguished from others by the following characters. They open on the\nabrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various levels, and are arranged\nround the main axes of erosion, just as the branches are arranged round\nthe trunk of a tree. In a great many cases the relation of the valley to\nthe ravine, and of the ravine to the cave, is so intimate that it is\nimpossible to deny that all three have been produced by the same causes.\nThe caves themselves ramify in the same irregular fashion as the\nvalleys, and are to be viewed merely as the capillaries in the general\nvalley system through which the rain passes to join the main channels.\nSometimes, as in the famous caves of Adelsberg, Kentucky, Wookey Hole in\nSomersetshire, the Peak in Derbyshire, and in many in the Jura, they are\nstill the passages of subterranean streams; but very frequently the\ndrainage has found an outlet at a lower level, and the ancient\nwatercourses have been deserted. These in every case present\nunmistakable proof that they have been traversed by water in the sand,\ngravel and clay which they contain, as well as in the worn surfaces of\nthe sides and bottom. In all districts where there are caves there are\nfunnel-shaped depressions of various sizes called pot-holes or\nswallow-holes, or betoires, \"chaldrons du diable,\" \"marmites des\ngeants,\" or \"katavothra,\" in which the rain is collected before it\ndisappears into the subterranean passages. They are to be seen in all\nstages, some being mere hollows which only contain water after excessive\nrain, while others are profound vertical shafts into which the water is\ncontinually falling. Gaping Ghyl, 330 ft., and Helln Pot in Yorkshire,\n300 ft. deep, are examples of the latter class. The _cirques_ described\nby M. Desnoyers belong to the same class as the swallow-holes.\n\nThe history of swallow-holes, caves, ravines and valleys in calcareous\nstrata may be summed up as follows:--The calcareous rocks are invariably\ntraversed by joints or lines of shrinkage, which are lines of weakness\nby which the direction of the drainage is determined; and they are\ncomposed to a large extent of carbonate of lime, which is readily\nexchanged into soluble bicarbonate by the addition of carbonic acid. The\nrain in its passage through the air takes up carbonic acid, and it is\nstill further charged with it in percolating through the surface soil in\nwhich there is decomposing vegetable matter. As the raindrops converge\ntowards some one point, determined by some local accident on the\nsurface, and always in a line of joint, the carbonic acid attacks the\ncarbonate of lime with which it comes into contact, and thus a funnel is\ngradually formed ending in the vertical joint below. Both funnel and\nvertical joint below are being continually enlarged by this process.\nThis chemical action goes on until the free carbonic acid is used up.\nThe subterranean passages are enlarged in this manner, and what was\noriginally an insignificant network of fissures is developed into a\nseries of halls, sometimes as much as from 80 to 100 ft. high. These\nresults are considerably furthered by the mechanical friction of the\npebbles and sand hurried along by the current, and by falls of rock from\nthe roof produced by the removal of the underlying strata. In many cases\nthe results of this action have produced a regular subterranean river\nsystem. The thick limestones of Kentucky, for example, are traversed by\nsubterranean waters which collect in large rivers, and ultimately appear\nat the surface in full power. The river Axe, near Wells, the stream\nflowing out of the Peak Cavern at Castleton, Derbyshire, that at\nAdelsberg in Carniola, flow out of caverns in full volume. The river\nStyx and the waters of Acheron disappear in a series of caverns which\nwere supposed to lead down to the infernal regions.\n\nIf the direction of the drainage in the rock has been altered, either by\nelevations such as those with which the geologist is familiar, or by the\nopening out of new passages at a lower level, these watercourses become\ndry, and present us with the caves which have afforded shelter to man\nand the wild animals from the remotest ages, sometimes high up on the\nside of a ravine, at other times close to the level of the stream at the\nbottom.\n\nCaves, as a general rule, are as little effected by disturbances of the\nrock as the ravines and valleys, which have been formed, in the main,\nirrespective of the lines of fault or dislocation.\n\nWe must now examine what happens to the bicarbonate of lime which has\nbeen formed by the action of the acid on the limestone. If a current of\nair play upon the surface of the water, the carbonic acid, which floats\nup the lime, so to speak, is given off and the insoluble carbonate is\ndeposited, and as a result of this action we have the elaborate and\nfantastic stony incrustations termed stalactites and stalagmites. The\nwater percolating through the rock covers the sides of the cavern with a\nstalactitic drapery, and if a line of drops persistently falls from the\nsame point to the floor, the calcareous deposit gradually descends from\nthe roof, forming in some cases stony tassels, and in others long\ncolumns which are ultimately united to the calcareous boss formed by the\nplash of the water on the floor. The surface also of the pools is\nsometimes covered over with an ice-like sheet of stalagmite, which\nshoots from the sides, and sometimes forms a solid and firm floor when\nthe water on which it was supported has disappeared. Sometimes the drops\nform a little calcareous basin, beautifully polished inside, which\ncontains small pearl-like particles of carbonate of lime, polished by\nfriction one against the other. The most beautiful stalactitic caves in\nGreat Britain are those of Cheddar in Somerset, Caldy Island and Poole's\nCavern at Buxton. A portion only of the carbonate of lime is thus\ndeposited in the hollows of the rock from which it was taken; the rest\nis carried into the open air by the streams, in part deposited on the\nsides and bottom, forming tufa and the so-called petrifications, and\npartly being conveyed down to the sea to be ultimately secreted in the\ntissues of the Mollusca, Echinodermata and Foraminifera. Through these\nit is again collected in a solid form, and in the long course of ages it\nis again lifted up above the level of the water as limestone rock, and\nagain undergoes the same series of changes. Thus the cycle of carbonate\nof lime is a neverending one from the land to the ocean, from the ocean\nto the land, and so it has been ever since the first stratum of\nlimestone was formed out of the remains of the animals and plants of the\nsea. The rate of the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns is\nnecessarily variable, since it is determined by the presence of varying\ncurrents of air. In the Ingleborough cavern a stalagmite, measured in\n1839 and in 1873, is growing at the rate of .2946 in. per annum. It is\nobvious, therefore, that the vast antiquity of deposits containing\nremains of man underneath layers of stalagmite cannot be inferred from a\nthickness of a few inches or even of a few feet.\n\nThe intimate relation which exists between caves and ravines renders it\nextremely probable that many of the latter have been originally\nsubterranean watercourses, which have been unroofed by the degradation\nof the rock. In all limestone districts ravines are to be found\ncontinued in the same direction as the caves, and the process of\natmospheric erosion may be seen in the fallen blocks of stone which\ngenerally are to be met with at the mouths of the caverns. In\nillustration of this the valley and caves of Weathercote, in Yorkshire,\nmay be quoted, or the source of the Axe at Wookey; and the ravine formed\nin this way has very frequently been widened out into a valley by the\naction of subaerial waste, or by the grinding of glaciers through it\nduring the glacial stage of the Pleistocene period.\n\n  For further details as to the physical history of caverns we must\n  refer the reader to the works quoted at the end of this article, by\n  E.A. Martel, the intrepid explorer of most of the large European\n  caves, including those of Great Britain and Ireland. The history of\n  the _Glacieres_ or Ice-caves will be found in Browne's _Ice Caves in\n  France and Switzerland_.\n\n_Classification._--The caves which have offered shelter to the\n_mammalia_ are classified according to their contents, and are of\nvarious ages, ranging from the Pliocene to the present day. (1) Those\ncontaining the Pliocene _mammalia_ belong to that age. (2) Those with\nthe remains of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and other extinct species,\nor with paleolithic man (see ARCHAEOLOGY), are termed Pleistocene. These\nare sometimes called Quaternary, under the mistaken idea that they\nbelong to an age succeeding the Tertiary period. (3) Those which contain\nthe remains of the domestic animals in association with the remains of\nman either in the Neolithic, Bronze or Iron stages of civilization are\ntermed Prehistoric. (4) The fourth group consists of those which can be\nbrought into relation with the historic period, and are therefore termed\nHistoric.\n\n_The Pliocene Caves._--It is a singular fact, only to be explained by\nthe vast denudation of the earth's surface since the Pliocene Age, that\nonly one cave referable to that age has as yet been discovered, that at\nDoveholes near Buxton, Derbyshire, described by Boyd Dawkins in 1903\n(_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._). The cave consists of a large horizontal\nchamber and a small passage, connected with a swallow-hole close by, and\nexposed in the working face of a quarry in 1901, at a depth of about 40\nft. from the surface. The locality is in the limestone plateau, 1158 ft.\nhigh, which forms the divide between the waters flowing into the Mersey\non the west and the Humber on the east. Both swallow-hole and cave were\ncompletely blocked up with debris, and the latter was filled with red\nand yellow clay, horizontally stratified and containing pebbles of\nsandstone from the neighbouring ridge of Axe Edge, and bones and teeth\nof fossil mammals, some waterworn and others without traces of transport\nby water. All the mammals belong to well-known species found in the\nPliocene strata of East Anglia, and in Auvergne and Italy. Among them\nwere the sabre-toothed lion (_Machairodus crenatidens_), the hyena of\nAuvergne, the mastodon, and the southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_),\nand rhinoceros (_R. Etruscus_), and Steno's horse. Most of the bones had\nevidently been gnawed by hyenas and accumulated in one of their dens,\nand had afterwards been carried by water into the chambers deep down in\nthe rock, where they were found. Since that time the general level of\nthe district has been lowered by denudation to an extent of more than\n230 ft., and all the hyena dens destroyed with the Pliocene surface not\nonly in this district but generally over the world. In this case a\ncovering of limestone some 270 ft. thick, including the depth from the\npresent surface, protected the remains from the denuding forces.\n\n_The Pleistocene Caves._--The search after _ebur fossile_ or unicorns'\nhorn, or in other words the fossil bones which ranked high in the\n_materia medica_ of the 16th and 17th centuries, led to the discovery of\nthe ossiferous caverns of the Harz Mountains, and of Hungary and\nFranconia. The famous cave of Gailenreuth in the last of these districts\nwas explored by Goldfuss in 1810. The bones of the hyena, lion, wolf,\nfox and stag, which it contained, were identified by Baron Cuvier, and\nsome of the skulls have been proved by Busk to belong to the grizzly\nbear. They were associated with the bones of the reindeer, horse and\nbison, as well as with those of the great cave bear. These discoveries\nwere of very great interest, because they established the fact that the\nabove animals had lived in Germany in ancient times. The first bone cave\nsystematically explored in England was one at Oreston near Plymouth in\n1816, which proved that an extinct species of rhinoceros (_R.\nleptorhinus_) lived in that district. Four years later the famous hyena\nden at Kirkdale in Yorkshire was explored by Buckland. He brought\nforward proof that it had been inhabited by hyenas, and that the broken\nand gnawed bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, stag, bison and horse\nbelonged to animals which had been dragged in for food. He pointed out\nthat all these animals had lived in Yorkshire in ancient times, and that\nit was impossible for the carcases of the rhinoceros, hyena and mammoth\nto have been floated from tropical regions into the places where he\nfound their bones. He subsequently investigated bone caves in\nDerbyshire, South Wales and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and\npublished his _Reliquiae Diluvianae_ in 1822, a work which laid the\nfoundations of the new science of cavehunting in this country. The\nwell-known cave of Kent's Hole near Torquay furnished McEnery, between\nthe years 1825 and 1841, with the first flint implements discovered in\nintimate association with the bones of extinct animals. He recognized\nthe fact that they proved the existence of man in Devonshire while those\nanimals were alive, but the idea was too novel to be accepted by his\ncontemporaries. His discoveries have since been verified by the\nsubsequent investigations carried on by Godwin Austen, and ultimately by\nthe committee of the British Association, which worked for several years\nunder the guidance of Pengelly. There are four distinct strata in the\ncave. 1st, The surface is composed of dark earth, and contains medieval\nremains, Roman pottery and articles which prove that it was in use\nduring the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic Ages. 2nd, Below this is a\nstalagmite floor, varying in thickness from 1 to 3 ft., and covering\n(3rd) the red earth, which contained bones of the hyena, lion, mammoth,\nrhinoceros and other animals, in association with flint implements and\nan engraved antler, which proved man to have been an inhabitant of the\ncavern during the time of its deposition. 4th, Filling the bottom of the\ncave is a hard breccia, with the remains of bears and flint implements,\nin the main ruder than those found above; in some places it was no less\nthan 12 ft. thick. The most remarkable animal found in Kent's Hole is\nthe sabre-toothed carnivore, _Machairodus latidens_ of Owen. While the\nvalue of McEnery's discoveries was in dispute the exploration of the\ncave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved that man was coeval with the\nextinct mammalia, and in the following year additional proof was offered\nby the implements that were found in Wookey Hole. Similar remains have\nbeen met with in the caves explored since that time in Wales, and in\nEngland as far north as Derbyshire (Creswell), proving that palaeolithic\nman hunted the mammoth and rhinoceros and other extinct animals over the\nwhole of southern and middle England.\n\nThe discoveries in Kent's Hole and in the Creswell caves prove further\nthat palaeolithic man was in two stages of civilization--the ruder or\nriverdrift man, with implements of the type found in the river gravels\n(see ARCHAEOLOGY; and PALAEOLITHIC) being the older; and the more highly\nadvanced, or the cave-man, mainly characterized by the better\nimplements, and a singular facility in depicting animal life (as shown\nby the figure of a horse incised on the fragment of a bone found in the\nCreswell caves), being the newer. We may also conclude from the absence\nof palaeolithic implements from the glaciated regions in which most of\nthese caves occur, that both riverdrift and cave-men dwelt in middle and\nnorthern Britain in the pre-glacial age, their remains being protected\nin the caverns from the denuding forces that removed all traces of their\nexistence from the surface of the ground in glacial and post-glacial\ntimes. The riverdrift man is, however, proved to be post-glacial in\nsouthern and eastern England, by the occurrence of his implements in the\nriver gravels of that age. Both these peoples inhabited southern England\nand the continent before and after the glacial period. The riverdrift\nman, whose implements occur in river deposits in middle and southern\nEurope, in Africa, Palestine and Hindustan, is everywhere in the same\nage of primitive barbarism, and has not as yet been identified with any\nliving race. The cave-men are in a higher and more advanced stage, and\nled a life in Europe identical with that of the Eskimos in the Arctic\nregions.\n\n_The Pleistocene Caves of the European Continent._--The researches of\nMortillet have proved that the same two groups of cave-dwellers occur in\nthe caves of France, the older being represented by the Chelleen and\nMousterien sections, and the newer by that of Solutre and La Madelaine.\nTo the former belong the human remains found in the caverns of Spy and\nNeanderthal, which prove that the riverdrift man had \"the most brutal of\nall known human skulls.\" To the latter we must assign all the caves and\nrock-shelters of Perigord, with the better implements, explored by\nLartet and Christy in 1863-1864 in the valleys of the Vezere and\nDordogne. These offer as vivid a picture of the life of the cave-men as\nthat revealed of Italian manners in the 1st century by the buried cities\nof Herculaneum and Pompeii. The old floors of human occupation consist\nof broken bones of animals killed in the chase, mingled with rude\nimplements and weapons of bone and unpolished stone, and with charcoal\nand burnt stones, which indicate the position of the hearths. Flakes\nwithout number, awls, lance-heads, hammers and saws made of flint rest\n_pele-mele_ with bone needles, sculptured reindeer antlers, arrowheads\nand harpoons, and bones of the reindeer, bison, horse, ibex, Saiga\nantelope and musk sheep. These singular accumulations of debris mark the\nplaces where the ancient hunters lived, and are merely the refuse cast\naside. The reindeer formed by far the greater portion of the food, and\nmust have lived in enormous herds at that time in the centre of France.\nFrom this, as well as from the presence of the most arctic of the\nherbivores, the musk sheep, we may infer the severe climate of that\nportion of France at that time. Besides these animals the cave bear and\nlion have been met with in one, and the mammoth in five localities, and\ntheir remains bear marks of cutting or scraping which showed they fell a\nprey to the hunters. The most remarkable remains left behind in these\nrefuse heaps are the sculptured reindeer antlers and figures engraved on\nfragments of schist and on ivory. A well-defined outline of an ox stands\nout boldly from one piece of antler; a second represents a reindeer\nkneeling down in an easy attitude with his head thrown up in the air so\nthat the antlers rest on the shoulders, and the back forms an even\nsurface for a handle, which is too small to be grasped by an ordinary\nEuropean hand; in a third a man stands close to a horse's head, and on\nthe other side of the same cylinder are two heads of bisons drawn with\nsufficient clearness to ensure recognition by any one who has seen that\nanimal. On a fourth the natural curvature of one of the tines has been\ntaken advantage of by the artist to engrave the head and the\ncharacteristic recurved horns of the ibex; and on a fifth horses are\nrepresented with large heads, upright dishevelled manes and shaggy\nungroomed tails. The most striking figure is that of the mammoth\nengraved on a fragment of its own tusk; the peculiar spiral curvature of\nthe tusk and the long mane, which are now not to be found in any living\nelephant, prove that the original was familiar to the eye of the artist.\nThese drawings probably employed the idle hours of the hunter, and hand\ndown to us the scenes which he witnessed in the chase. They are full of\nartistic feeling and are evidently drawn from life. The mammoth is\nengraved in its own ivory, and the reindeer and the stag on their\nrespective antlers. Further researches have revealed the fact that in\nAuvergne and in the Pyrenees the cave-men ornamented some of their caves\nwith incised figures and polychrome frescoes of the wild animals.\nRiviere has discovered on the walls of the grotto of La Mouthe\n(Dordogne) three large hunting scenes, one with bisons and horses, a\nsecond representing a primitive hut, a bison, reindeer, ibex and\nmammoth, and a third with a mammoth, hinds and horses. In the Pyrenees\nsimilar frescoes have been described by Cartailhac and Breuil. They are\non the walls of the cavern and roof of Altamira, and on the walls of\nMarsoulas. The outlines have been engraved first, and afterwards filled\nin with colour in brown and red ochre and black oxide of manganese.\n\nThe cave-men ranged over middle Europe as far south as the Pyrenees and\nthe Alps, and inhabited the caverns of Belgium and Germany, Hungary and\nSwitzerland. Their remains have not as yet been met with in southern\nEurope. They lived by hunting and fishing, they were fire users, and lit\nup the darkness of their caves with stone lamps filled with fat\n(Altamira). They were clad in skins sewn together with sinews of\nreindeer or strips of intestines. They used huts as well as caves for\nhabitation. They had a marvellous facility for drawing animal figures.\nThey possessed no domestic animals, nor were they acquainted with\nspinning or with the potter's art. We have no evidence that they buried\ntheir dead--the interments, such as those of Aurignac, Les Eyzies and\nMentone, most probably belonging to a later age.\n\nIf these remains be compared with those of existing races, it will be\nfound that the cave-men were in the same hunter stage of civilization as\nthe Eskimos, and that they are unlike any other races of hunters. If\nthey were not allied to the Eskimos by blood, there can be no doubt that\nthey handed down to the latter their art and their manner of life. The\nbone needles, and many of the harpoons, as well as the flint spearheads,\narrowheads and scrapers, are of precisely the same form as those now in\nuse amongst the Eskimos. The artistic designs from the caves of France,\nBelgium and Switzerland, are identical in plan and workmanship with\nthose of the Eskimos, with this difference only, that the hunting scenes\nfamiliar to the Palaeolithic cave-dwellers were not the same as those\nfamiliar to the inhabitants of the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each\nrepresented the animals which he knew, and the whale, walrus and seal\nwere unknown to the inland dwellers of Aquitaine, just as the mammoth,\nbison and wild horse are unknown to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which\nthey both knew, is represented in the same way by both. The practice of\naccumulating large quantities of the bones of animals round their\ndwelling-places, and the habit of splitting the bones for the sake of\nthe marrow, are the same in both. The hides were prepared with the same\nsort of instruments, and the needles with which they were sewn together\nare of the same pattern. The stone lamps were used by both. In both\nthere was the same disregard of sepulture. All these facts can hardly be\nmere coincidences caused by both peoples leading a savage life under\nsimilar conditions. The conclusion, therefore, seems inevitable that, so\nfar as we have any evidence of the race to which the cave-dwellers\nbelong, that evidence points only in the direction of the Eskimos. It\nis to a considerable extent confirmed by a consideration of the animals\nfound in the caves. The reindeer and musk sheep afford food to the\nEskimos now in the Arctic Circle, just as they afforded it to the\ncave-men in Europe; and both these animals have been traced by their\nremains from the Pyrenees to the north-east through Europe and Asia as\nfar as the very regions in which they now live. The mammoth and bison\nalso have been tracked by their remains in the frozen river gravels and\nmorasses through Siberia as far as the American side of Bering Strait.\nPalaeolithic man appeared in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in\nEurope with them, and in all human probability retreated to the\nnorth-east along with them.\n\nThere are refuse heaps in north-eastern Siberia containing the remains\nof the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros as well as the reindeer and musk\nsheep, which may be referred with equal justice to the cave-men or to\nthe Eskimos.\n\n_Ancient Geography of Europe._--The remains of man and the animals\ndescribed in the preceding paragraphs have been introduced into the\ncaves either by man or the wild beasts, or by streams of water, which\nmay or may not now occupy their ancient courses; and the fact that the\nsame species are to be met with in the caves of France, Switzerland and\nBritain implies that our island formed part of the continent, and that\nthere were no physical barriers to prevent their migration from the Alps\nas far to the north-west as Ireland.\n\nThe same conclusion may be gathered from the exploration of caves in the\nsouth of Europe, which has resulted in the discovery of African species,\nin Gibraltar, Sicily and Malta. In the first of these the spotted hyena,\nthe serval and Kaffre cat lie side by side with the horse, grizzly bear\nand slender rhinoceros (_R. leptorhinus_)--see Falconer's\n_Palaeontographical Memoirs_. To these African animals inhabiting the\nIberian peninsula in the Pleistocene age, Lartet has added the African\nelephant and striped hyena, found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid,\nalong with flint implements. The hippopotamus, spotted hyena and African\nelephant occur in the caves of Sicily, and imply that in ancient times\nthere was a continuity of land between that spot and Africa, just as the\npresence of the _Elephas antiquus_ proves the non-existence of the\nStraits of Messina during a portion, to say the least, of the\nPleistocene age. A small species of hippopotamus (_H. Pentlandi_) occurs\nin incredible abundance in the Sicilian caves. It has also been found in\nthose of Malta along with an extinct pigmy elephant species (_E.\nMelitensis_). It has also been discovered in Candia and in the\nPeloponnese. For these animals to have found their way to these regions,\na continuity of land is necessary. The view advanced by Dr Falconer and\nAdmiral Spratt, that Europe was formerly connected with Africa by a\nbridge of land extending southwards from Sicily, is fully borne out by\nthese considerations. The present physical geography of the\nMediterranean has been produced by a depression of land to the amount of\nabout 400 fathoms, by which the Sicilo-African and Ibero-African\nbarriers have been submerged, and Crete and Malta separated from the\nSouth-European continent. It is extremely probable that this submergence\ntook place at the same time that the adjoining sea-bottom was elevated\nto about the same amount so as to constitute that region now known as\nthe Sahara.\n\n_Pleistocene Caves of the Americas and Australia._--The Pleistocene\ncaverns of the Euro-Asiatic continent contain the progenitors of the\nanimals now alive in some parts of the Old World, the extinct forms\nbeing closely allied to those now living in the same geographical\nprovinces. Those of Brazil and of Pennsylvania present us with animals\nwhose nearest analogues are to be found in North and South America, such\nas sloths, armadillos and agoutis. Those, again, of Australia present us\nwith marsupials (_metatheria_) only, allied to, or identical with, those\nof that most ancient continent. The extinct forms in each case are\nmainly those of the larger animals, which, from their large size, and\nlow fecundity, would be specially liable to be beaten in the battle for\nlife by their smaller and more fertile contemporaries, and less likely\nto survive those changes in their environment which have undoubtedly\ntaken place in the long lapse of ages. It is, therefore, certain that\nthe mammalian life in the Old, New and Australian worlds, was as well\nmarked out into geographical provinces in the Pleistocene age as at the\npresent time, and that it has been continuous in these areas from that\nremote time to the present day.\n\n_Prehistoric Caves of Neolithic Age in Europe._--The prehistoric caves\nare distinguished from Pleistocene by their containing the remains of\ndomestic animals, and by the wild animals to which they have afforded\nshelter belonging to living species. They are divisible into three\ngroups according to the traces of man which occur in them--into the\nNeolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages.\n\nThe Neolithic caves are widely spread throughout Europe, and have been\nused as the habitations and tombs of the early races who invaded Europe\nfrom the East with their flocks and herds. The first of these\nsystematically explored was at Perthi Chwareu, near the village of\nLlandegla, Denbighshire, in 1869. In the following years five others\nwere discovered close by, as well as a second group in the neighbourhood\nof Cefn on the banks of the Elwy. They contained polished celts, flint\nflakes, rude pottery and human skeletons, along with the broken bones of\nthe pig, dog, horse, Celtic shorthorn and goat. The remains of the wild\nanimals belong to the wolf, fox, badger, bear, wild boar, stag, roe,\nhare and rabbit. Most of the bones were broken or cut, and the whole\ngroup was obviously an accumulation which resulted from these caves\nhaving been used as dwellings. They had subsequently been used for\nburial. The human skeletons in them were of all ages, from infancy to\nold age; and the interments had been successive until each became\nfilled. The bodies were buried in the contracted posture which is so\ncharacteristic of Neolithic interments generally. The men to whom these\nskeletons belonged were a short race, the tallest being about 5 ft. 6\nin., and the shortest 4 ft. 10 in.; their skulls are orthognathic, or\nnot presenting jaws advancing beyond a vertical line dropped from the\nforehead, in shape long or oval, and of fair average capacity. The face\nwas oval, and the cheek bones were not prominent. Some of the\nindividuals were characterized by a peculiar flattening of the shinbone\n(platycnemism), which probably stood in relation to the free action of\nthe foot that was not hampered by the use of a rigid sole or sandal.\nThis, however, cannot be looked upon as a race character, or as a\ntendency towards a simian type of leg. These Neolithic cave-dwellers\nhave been proved to be identical in physique with the builders of the\ncairns and tumuli which lie scattered over the face of Great Britain and\nIreland. (See Thurnam, _Crania Britannica_.) They have also been met\nwith abundantly in France. In the Caverne de l'Homme Mort, for example,\nin the department of Lozere, explored in 1871, the association of\nremains was of precisely the same nature as those mentioned above, and\nthe human skeletons were of the same small type. The same class of\nremains has also been discovered in Gibraltar, in the caves of Windmill\nHill, and some others. The human remains examined by Busk are of\nprecisely the same type as those of Denbighshire. In the work of Don\nManuel Gongora J. Martinez (_Antiguedades prehistoricas de Andalusia_,\n1868), several interments are described in the cave of Murcielagos,\nwhich penetrates the limestone out of which the grand scenery of the\nsouthern Sierra Nevada has been to a great extent carved. In one place a\ngroup of three skeletons was met with, one of which was adorned with a\nplain coronet of gold, and clad in a tunic made of esparto grass finely\nplaited, so as to form a pattern like that on some of the gold ornaments\nin Etruscan tombs. In a second spot farther within, twelve skeletons\nformed a semicircle round one covered with a tunic of skin, and wearing\na necklace of esparto grass, ear-rings of black stone, and ornaments of\nshell and wild boar tusk. There were other articles of plaited esparto\ngrass, such as baskets and sandals. There were also flint flakes,\npolished-stone axes, implements of bone and wood, together with pottery\nof the same type as that from Gibraltar. The same class of remains have\nbeen discovered in the Woman's Cave, near Alhama de Granada. From the\nphysical identity of the human remains in all these cases it maybe\ninferred that in the Neolithic Age a long-headed, small race inhabited\nthe Iberian peninsula, extending through France, as far north as\nBritain, and to the north-west as far as Ireland--a race considered by\nProfessor Busk \"to be at the present day represented by at any rate a\npart of the population now inhabiting the Basque provinces.\" This\nidentification of the ancient Neolithic cave-dwellers with the modern\nBasque-speaking inhabitant of the western Pyrenees is corroborated by\nthe elaborate researches of Broca, Virchow and Thurnam on modern Basque\nskulls. It may, therefore, be concluded that in the Neolithic Age an\nIberian population occupied the whole of the area mentioned above,\ninhabiting caves and burying their dead in caves and chambered tombs,\nand possessed of the same habits of life. The remains of the same small,\noval-featured, long-headed race have been found in Belgium in the cave\nof Chauvaux, and they have been described by Sergi in southern Europe\nunder the name of the Mediterranean race.\n\nThere is no evidence that any other race except the Iberic buried their\ndead in the caves of Britain in the Neolithic Age. In Belgium, however,\nthe exploration of the cave of Sclaigneaux by Soreil proves that\nbroad-headed men of the type defined by Huxley and Thurnam as\nbrachycephalic, and characterized by high cheek-bones, projecting\nmuscles and large stature, the average height being 5 ft. 8.4 in.\n(Thurnam), inhabited and buried their dead in the caves of that region.\nIn France they occur in the sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) in\nassociation with those of the Iberic type. They have also been met with\nin Gibraltar. This type is undistinguishable from the Celtic (Goidelic)\nor Gaulish, found so abundantly in the chambered tombs of the Neolithic\nAge in France. Both these ancient races are represented at the present\nday by the Basques and Aquitanians of France and Spain, and by the Celts\nor Gauls of France, Britain and the Mediterranean border of Spain, their\nrelative antiquity being proved by an appeal to their history and\ngeographical distribution. For just as the earliest records show that\nthe Iberic power extended as far north as the Loire, and as far east as\nthe Rhone, so we have proof of the gradual retrocession of the Iberic\nfrontier southwards, under the attacks of the successive Celtic hordes,\nuntil ultimately we find the latter in possession of a considerable part\nof southern Spain, forming by their union with the conquered the\npowerful nation of Celt-Iberi. The Iberians were in possession of the\ncontinent before they were dispossessed by the Goidels, and at a later\ntime by the Brythons. They are recognized by Tacitus in Britain in the\nSilures of Wales; and they are still to be seen in the small, dark,\nlithe inhabitants of North Wales. The discovery of the characteristic\nskulls of both these races in the same family vault in the cave of Gop\nnear Prestatyn, Flintshire, proves that the two races were mingled\ntogether in Britain as far back as the Bronze Age.\n\nFrom the present distribution of this non-Aryan race it is obvious that\nthey were gradually pushed back westward by the advance of tribes coming\nfrom the East, and following those routes which were subsequently taken\nby the Low and High Germans.\n\nThe exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, in the island of Palmaria,\noverlooking the Gulf of Spezzia, in 1873, proves that the stories\nscattered through the classical writers, that the caves on the\nMediterranean shores were inhabited by cannibals, are not altogether\nwithout foundation. In it broken and cut bones of children and young\nadults were found along with those of the goat, hog, fox, wolf,\nwild-cat, flint flakes, bone implements and shells perforated for\nsuspension.\n\n_Prehistoric Caves of Bronze and Iron Ages._--The extreme rarity of\narticles of bronze in the European caves implies that they were rarely\nused by the Bronze folk for habitation or burial. Bronze weapons mingled\nwith gold ornaments have, however, been discovered in the Heatheryburn\ncave near Stanhope, Durham, as well as in those of Kirkhead in Cartmell,\nin Thor's cave in Staffordshire, and the Cat Hole in Gower in\nGlamorganshire. In the Iberian peninsula the cave of Cesareda, explored\nby Signor Delgado, in the valley of the Tagus, contained bronze\narticles, associated with broken and cut human bones, as well as those\nof domestic animals, rendering it probable that cannibalism was\npractised in early times in that region. Busk believes, however, that\nthe facts are insufficient to support the charge of cannibalism against\nthe ancient Portuguese.\n\nCaves containing articles of iron, and therefore belonging to that\ndivision of the prehistoric age, are so unimportant that they do not\ndeserve notice in this place. As man increased in civilization he\npreferred to live in houses of his own building, and he no longer buried\nhis dead in the natural sepulchres provided for him in the rock.\n\nPrehistoric caves have been rarely explored in extra-European areas.\nAmong those which abound in Palestine, one in Mount Lebanon, examined by\nCanon Tristram, contained flint implements along with charcoal and\nbroken bones and teeth, some of which may be referred to a small ox,\nundistinguishable from the small short-horn, _Bos longifrons_. In North\nAmerica the remains found by F.W. Putnam in the caves of Kentucky,\nconsisting of moccasins, rudely-plaited cloth, and other articles, may\nbe referred to the same division.\n\n_Historic Caves in Britain._--The historic caves have only attracted\nnotice in fairly recent years, and in Britain alone, principally through\nthe labours of the Settle Cave Committee from the year 1869 to the\npresent day. To them is due the exploration of the Victoria cave, which\nhad been discovered and partially investigated as early as the year\n1838. It consists of three large ill-defined chambers opening on the\nface of the cliff, 1450 ft. above the sea, and filled with debris very\nnearly up to the roof. It presented three distinct eras of\noccupation--one by hyenas, which dragged into it rhinoceroses, bisons,\nmammoths, horses, reindeer and bears. This was defined from the next\noccupation, which is probably of the Neolithic Age, by a layer of grey\nclay, on the surface of which rested a bone harpoon and a few flint\nflakes and bones. Then after an interval of debris at the entrance was a\nlayer of charcoal, broken bones, fragments of old hearths, and numerous\ninstruments of savage life associated with broken pottery, Roman coins,\nand the rude British imitations of them, various articles of iron, and\nelaborate personal ornaments, which implied a considerable development\nof the arts. The evidence of the coins stamps the date of the occupation\nof the cave to be between the first half of the 5th century and the\nEnglish conquest. Some of the brooches present a peculiar flamboyant and\nspiral pattern in relief, of the same character as the art of some of\nthe illuminated manuscripts, as for example one of the Anglo-Saxon\ngospels at Stockholm, and of the gospels of St Columban in Trinity\nCollege, Dublin. It is mostly allied to that work which is termed by\nFranks late Celtic. From its localization in Britain and Ireland, it\nseems to be probable that it is of Celtic derivation; and if this view\nbe accepted, there is nothing at all extraordinary in its being\nrecognized in the illuminated Irish gospels. Ireland, in the 6th and 7th\ncenturies, was the great centre of art, civilization and literature; and\nit is only reasonable to suppose that there would be intercourse between\nthe Irish Christians and those of the west of Britain, during the time\nthat the Romano-Celts, or Brit-Welsh, were being slowly pushed westwards\nby the heathen English invader. Proof of such an intercourse we find in\nthe brief notice of the _Annales Cambriae_, in which Gildas, the\nBrit-Welsh historian, is stated to have sailed over to Ireland in the\nyear A.D. 565. It is by no means improbable that about this time there\nwas a Brit-Welsh migration into Ireland, as well as into Brittany.\nObjects with these designs found in Germany are probably directly or\nindirectly due to the Irish missionaries, who spread Christianity\nthrough those regions. The early Christian art in Ireland grew out of\nthe late Celtic, and is to a great extent free from the influence of\nRome, which is stamped on the Brit-Welsh art of the same age in this\ncountry.\n\nSeveral other ornaments with enamel deserve especial notice. The enamel,\ncomposed of red, blue and yellow, has been inserted into the hollows in\nthe bronze, and then heated so as to form a close union with it. They\nare of the same design as those which have been met with in late Roman\ntumuli in this country, and in places which are mainly in the north.\nThey all belong to a class named late Celtic by Franks, and are\nconsidered by him to be of British manufacture. This view is supported\nby the only reference to the art of enamelling furnished by the\nclassical writers. Philostratus, a Greek sophist in the court of Julia\nDomna, the wife of the emperor Severus, writes, \"It is said that the\nbarbarians living in the ocean pour these colours (those of\nhorse-trappings) on heated bronze, and that these adhere, grow as hard\nas stone, and preserve the designs that are made in them.\" It is worthy\nof remark that, since the emperor Severus built the wall which bears his\nname, marched in person against the Caledonians, and died at York, the\naccount of the enamels may have reached Philostratus from the very\ndistrict in which the Victoria Cave is situated.\n\nAssociated with these were bronze ornaments inlaid with silver, and\nmiscellaneous iron articles, among which was a Roman key. Remains of\nthis kind have been met with in the Albert and Kelko caves in the\nneighbourhood, in that of Dowkerbottom near Arncliffe, in that of\nKirkhead on the northern shore of Morecambe Bay, in Poole's Cavern near\nBuxton, and in Thor's Cave near Ashbourne, and over a wide area ranging\nfrom Yorkshire and the Lake district southwards into Somerset and Devon.\n\n  _List of Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh\n  Strata in Caves._\n\n                              Thor's Cave.----------------------+\n                           Poole's Cavern.------------------+   |\n                                 Kirkhead.--------------+   |   |\n                             Dowkerbottom.----------+   |   |   |\n                                    Kelko.------+   |   |   |   |\n                                 Victoria.--+   |   |   |   |   |\n                                            |   |   |   |   |   |\n  +---------------------------------------+-|-+-|-+-|-+-|-+-|-+-|-+\n  |            Animals.                   | v | v | v | v | v | v |\n  +---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+\n  |DOMESTIC--                             |   |   |   |   |   |   |\n  |  _Canis familiaris_. Dog              | X | X | X | X | X | ? |\n  |  _Sus scrofa_. Pig                    | X | X | X | X | X | ? |\n  |  _Equus caballus_. Horse              | X | X | X | X | X | ? |\n  |  _Bos longifrons_. Celtic short-horn  | X | X | X | X | X | ? |\n  |  _Capra hircus_. Goat                 | X | X | X | X | X | ? |\n  |                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |\n  |WILD--                                 |   |   |   |   |   |   |\n  |  _Canis vulpes_. Fox                  | X |   | X | X | X | ? |\n  |  _Meles taxus_. Badger                | X |   | X |   |   | X |\n  |  _Cervus elaphus_. Stag               | X |   | X | X | X | ? |\n  |  _Cervus capreolus_. Roe              | X |   | X | X |   | ? |\n  |                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |\n  |  Roman coins, or imitations           | X | X | X | X | X | X |\n  |  Enamelled ornaments, in bronze       | X | X | X | X |   |   |\n  |  Bronze ornaments, inlaid with silver | X | X | X |   | X |   |\n  |  Iron articles                        | X | X | X |   | X | X |\n  |  Samian ware                          | X |   | X |   | X | X |\n  |  Black ware                           | X | X | X |   | X | X |\n  |  Bone spoon fibulae                   | X | X | X |   |   |   |\n  |  Bone combs                           | X | X | X |   |   | X |\n  +---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+\n\nIt is obvious in all these cases that men accustomed to luxury and\nrefinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great calamity, to\nflee for refuge to caves with whatever they could transport thither of\ntheir property. The number of spindle-whorls and personal ornaments\nimply that they were accompanied by their families. We may also infer\nthat they were cut off from the civilization to which they had been\naccustomed, because in some cases they extemporized spindle-whorls out\nof fragments of Samian ware, instead of using those which were expressly\nmanufactured for the purpose. Why the caves were inhabited is\nsatisfactorily explained by an appeal to contemporary history. In the\npages of Gildas, in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, and in the _Annales\nCambriae_, we have a graphic picture of that long war of invasion by\nwhich the inhabitants of the old Roman province of Britannia were driven\nback by the Jutes, Angles and Saxons, who crossed over with their\nfamilies and household stuff. Slowly, and in the chances of a war which\nextended through three centuries, they were gradually pushed back into\nCumberland, Wales and West Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. While this war\nwas going on the coinage became debased and Roman coins afforded the\npatterns for the small bronze minimi, which are to be met with equally\nin these caves and in the ruins of Roman cities. As the tide of war\nrolled to the west, the English tongue and, until towards the close of\nthe struggle, the worship of Thor and Odin supplanted the British tongue\nand the Christian faith, and a rude barbarism replaced what was left of\nthe Roman civilization in the island. It is to this period that relics\nof this kind in the caves must be assigned. They are traces of the\nanarchy of those times, and complete the picture of the desolation of\nBritain, revealed by the ashes of the cities and villas that were burnt\nby the invader. They prove that the vivid account given by Gildas of the\nstraits to which his countrymen were reduced was literally true.\n\nThe shrines of Zeus in the Idaean and Dictaean caves have been explored\nby Halbher and Orsi (_Antichita dell' antro de Zeus Ideo_) and by Arthur\nEvans and Hogarth (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_). These discoveries\nprove that the cult of Zeus began among the Mycenaean peoples some 2000\nyears B.C. according to Evans, and was practised far down into the later\nGreek times. They show that the Greeks are indebted to the Mycenaean\npeoples not only for their art, but for the chief of their divinities.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--1. Britain: Boyd Dawkins, _Cave-hunting_ (1874); _Early\n  Man_ (1880); Mattel, _Irlande et cavernes anglaises_ (1897); Buckland,\n  _Reliquiae Diluvianae_ (1821); _Brit. Assoc. Reports_ (1860-1875);\n  _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ (1870-1876); _Quart. Geol. Journ._\n  (1860-1875); Pengelly, _Trans. Devonshire Association_. 2. The\n  European Continent: Martel, _Les Abimes_ (1894); Cartailhac and\n  Breuil, _L'Anthropologie_, xv., xvi.; Lartet and Christy, _Reliquiae\n  Aquitanicae; Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology_; Marcel de\n  Serres, _Les Ossemens fossiles de Lunel Viel_; Dupont, _L'Homme\n  pendant les ages de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse_;\n  Schmerling, _Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles decouverts dans les\n  cavernes de Liege_; Merk, _Excavations at Kesserloch_, transl. J.E.\n  Lee (1876). For the chief American caves, see LURAY CAVERN, MAMMOTH\n  CAVE, WYANDOTTE CAVE, COLOSSAL CAVERN, JACOB'S CAVERN.     (W. B. D.)\n\n\n\n\nCAVEA, the Latin name given to the subterranean cells in which the wild\nbeasts were confined prior to the combats in the Roman arena. The term\nis sometimes applied to the amphitheatre (q.v.) itself.\n\n\n\n\nCAVEAT (Latin for \"let him beware,\" from _cavere_), in law, a notice\ngiven by the party interested (caveator) to the proper officer of a\ncourt of justice to prevent the taking of a certain step without\nwarning. It is entered in connexion with dealings in land registered in\nthe land registry, with the grant of marriage licences, to prevent the\nissuing of a lunacy commission, to stay the probate of a will, letters\nof administration, &c. Caveat is also a term used in United States\npatent law (see PATENTS).\n\n_Caveat emptor_ (\"let the buyer beware\") is a maxim which implies that\nthe responsibility for making a bad bargain over a purchase rests on the\npurchaser. In an ordinary contract for the sale of goods, there is no\nimplied warranty or condition as to the quality or fitness for any\nparticular purpose of the goods supplied, with certain exceptions, and,\ntherefore, the buyer takes at his own risk. The maxim does not apply (a)\nwhere the buyer, expressly or by implication, makes known to the seller\nthe particular purpose for which the goods are required, so as to show\nthat the buyer relies on the seller's skill or judgment, and that the\ngoods are of a description which it is in the course of the seller's\nbusiness to supply; (b) where goods are bought by description from a\nseller who deals in goods of that description, for there is an implied\ncondition that the goods are of merchantable quality, though if the\nbuyer has actually examined the goods, there is no implied condition as\nregards defects which the examination ought to have revealed; (c) where\nthe usage of trade annexes an implied warranty or condition to the goods\nas to their quality or fitness for a particular purpose. The maxim of\n_caveat emptor_ is said to owe its origin to the fact that in early\ntimes sales of goods took place principally in market overt. (See\nfurther SALE OF GOODS.)\n\n\n\n\nCAVEDONE, JACOPO (1577-1660), Italian painter, born at Sassuolo in the\nModenese, was educated in the school of the Caracci, and under them\npainted in the churches of Bologna. His principal works are the\n\"Adoration of the Magi,\" the \"Four Doctors,\" and the \"Last Supper\"; and\nmore especially the \"Virgin and Child in Glory,\" with San Petronio and\nother saints, painted in 1614, and now in the Bolognese Academy.\nCavedone became an assistant to Guido Reni in Rome; his art was\ngenerally of a subdued undemonstrative character, with rich Titianesque\ncolouring. In his declining years his energies broke down after his wife\nhad been accused of witchcraft, and after the death of a cherished son.\nHe died in extreme poverty, in a stable at Bologna.\n\n\n\n\nCAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1562?), English writer, the biographer of\nCardinal Wolsey, was the elder son of Thomas Cavendish, clerk of the\npipe in the exchequer, and his wife, Alice Smith of Padbrook Hall. He\nwas probably born at his father's manor of Cavendish, in Suffolk. Later\nthe family resided in London, in the parish of St Alban's, Wood Street,\nwhere Thomas Cavendish died in 1524. Shortly after this event George\nmarried Margery Kemp, of Spains Hall, an heiress, and the niece of Sir\nThomas More. About 1527 he entered the service of Cardinal Wolsey as\ngentleman-usher, and for the next three years he was divided from his\nwife, children and estates, in the closest personal attendance on the\ngreat man. Cavendish was wholly devoted to Wolsey's interests, and also\nhe saw in this appointment an opportunity to gratify his master-passion,\na craving \"to see and be acquainted with strangers, in especial with men\nin honour and authority.\" He was faithful to his master in disgrace, and\nshowed the courage of the \"loyal servitor.\" It is plain that he enjoyed\nWolsey's closest confidence to the end, for after the cardinal's death\nGeorge Cavendish was called before the privy council and closely\nexamined as to Wolsey's latest acts and words. He gave his evidence so\nclearly and with so much natural dignity, that he won the applause of\nthe hostile council, and the praise of being \"a just and diligent\nservant.\" He was not allowed to suffer in pocket by his fidelity to his\nmaster, but retired, as it would seem, a wealthy man to his estate of\nGlemsford, in West Suffolk, in 1530. He was only thirty years of age,\nbut his appetite for being acquainted with strange acts and persons was\napparently sated, for we do not hear of his engaging in any more\nadventures. It is not to be doubted that Cavendish had taken down notes\nof Wolsey's conversation and movements, for many years passed before his\nbiography was composed. At length, in 1557, he wrote it out in its final\nform. It was not, however, possible to publish it in the author's\nlifetime, but it was widely circulated in MS. Evidently one of these\nMSS. fell into Shakespeare's hands, for that poet made use of it in his\n_King Henry VIII._, although it is excessive to say, as Singer has done,\nthat Shakespeare \"merely put Cavendish's language into verse.\" The book\nwas first printed in 1641, in a garbled text, and under the title of\n_The Negotiations of Thomas Wolsey_. The genuine text, from contemporary\nMSS., was given to the world in 1810, and more fully in 1815. Until that\ntime it was believed that the book was the composition of George\nCavendish's younger brother William, the founder of Chatsworth, who also\nwas attached to Wolsey. Joseph Hunter proved this to be impossible, and\ndefinitely asserted the claim of George. The latter is believed to have\ndied at Glemsford in or about 1562. The intrinsic value of Cavendish's\n_Life of Cardinal Wolsey_ has long been perceived, for it is the sole\nauthentic record of a multitude of events highly important in a\nparticularly interesting section of the history of England. Its\nimportance as a product of biographical literature was first emphasized\nby Bishop Creighton, who insisted over and over again on the claim of\nCavendish to be recognized as the earliest of the great English\nbiographers and an individual writer of particular charm and\noriginality. He writes with simplicity and with a certain vivid\npicturesqueness, rarely yielding to the rhetorical impulses which\ngoverned the ordinary prose of his age.     (E. G.)\n\n\n\n\nCAVENDISH, HENRY (1731-1810), English chemist and physicist, elder son\nof Lord Charles Cavendish, brother of the 3rd duke of Devonshire, and\nLady Anne Grey, daughter of the duke of Kent, was born at Nice in\nOctober 1731. He was sent to school at Hackney in 1742, and in 1749\nentered Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left in 1753, without taking a\ndegree. Until he was about forty he seems to have enjoyed a very\nmoderate allowance from his father, but in the latter part of his life\nhe was left a fortune which made him one of the richest men of his time.\nHe lived principally at Clapham Common, but he had also a town-house in\nBloomsbury, while his library was in a house in Dean Street, Soho; and\nthere he used to attend on appointed days to lend the books to men who\nwere properly vouched for. So methodical was he that he never took down\na volume for his own use without entering it in the loan-book. He was a\nregular attendant at the meetings of the Royal Society, of which he\nbecame a fellow in 1760, and he dined every Thursday with the club\ncomposed of its members. Otherwise he had little intercourse with\nsociety; indeed, his chief object in life seems to have been to avoid\nthe attention of his fellows. With his relatives he had little\nintercourse, and even Lord George Cavendish, whom he made his principal\nheir, he saw only for a few minutes once a year. His dinner was ordered\ndaily by a note placed on the hall-table, and his women servants were\ninstructed to keep out of his sight on pain of dismissal. In person he\nwas tall and rather thin; his dress was old-fashioned and singularly\nuniform, and was inclined to be shabby about the times when the\nprecisely arranged visits of his tailor were due. He had a slight\nhesitation in his speech, and his air of timidity and reserve was almost\nludicrous. He was never married. He died at Clapham on the 24th of\nFebruary 1810, leaving funded property worth L700,000, and a landed\nestate of L8000 a year, together with canal and other property, and\nL50,000 at his bankers.\n\nCavendish's scientific work is distinguished for the wideness of its\nrange and for its extraordinary exactness and accuracy. The papers he\nhimself published form an incomplete record of his researches, for many\nof the results he obtained only became generally known years after his\ndeath; yet in spite of the absence of anything approaching\nself-advertisement he acquired a very high reputation within his own\ncountry and abroad, recognized by the Institute of France in 1803 when\nit chose him as one of its eight foreign associates. Arsenic formed the\nsubject of his first recorded investigation, on which he was engaged at\nleast as early as 1764, and in 1766 he began those communications to the\nRoyal Society on the chemistry of gases, which are among his chief\ntitles to fame. The first (_Phil. Trans._, 1766) consists of \"Three\npapers containing experiments on Factitious Airs,\" dealing mostly with\n\"inflammable air\" (hydrogen), which he was the first to recognize as a\ndistinct substance, and \"fixed air\" (carbon dioxide). He determined the\nspecific gravity of these gases with reference to common air,\ninvestigated the extent to which they are absorbed by various liquids,\nand noted that common air containing one part in nine by volume of fixed\nair is no longer able to support combustion, and that the air produced\nby fermentation and putrefaction has properties identical with those of\nfixed air obtained from marble. In the following year he published a\npaper on the analysis of one of the London pump-waters (from Rathbone\nPlace, Oxford Street), which is closely connected with the memoirs just\nmentioned, since it shows that the calcareous matter in that water is\nheld in solution by the \"fixed air\" present and can be precipitated by\nlime. Electrical studies seem next to have engaged his attention, and in\n1771 and 1772 he read to the Royal Society his \"Attempt to explain some\nof the principal phenomena of electricity by an elastic fluid,\" which\nwas followed in 1775 by an \"Attempt to imitate the effects of the\nTorpedo (a fish allied to the ray)\" (_Phil. Trans._, 1776). But these\ntwo memoirs contain only a part of the electrical researches he carried\nout between 1771 and 1781, and many more were found after his death in a\nnumber of sealed packets of papers. The contents of these for a long\ntime remained unknown, but ultimately by permission of the duke of\nDevonshire, to whom they belonged, they were edited by James Clerk\nMaxwell and published in 1879 by the Cambridge University Press as the\n_Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish_. About 1777 or 1778\nhe resumed his pneumatic inquiries, though he published nothing on the\nsubject till 1783. In that year he described a new eudiometer to the\nRoyal Society and detailed observations he had made to determine whether\nor not the atmosphere is constant in composition; after testing the air\non nearly 60 different days in 1781 he could find in the proportion of\noxygen no difference of which he could be sure, nor could he detect any\nsensible variation at different places. Two papers on \"Experiments with\nAirs,\" printed in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1784 and 1785, contain his\ngreat discoveries of the compound nature of water and the composition of\nnitric acid. Starting from an experiment, narrated by Priestley, in\nwhich John Warltire fired a mixture of common air and hydrogen by\nelectricity, with the result that there was a diminution of volume and a\ndeposition of moisture, Cavendish burnt about two parts of hydrogen\nwith five of common air, and noticed that almost all the hydrogen and\nabout one-fifth of the common air lost their elasticity and were\ncondensed into a dew which lined the inside of the vessel employed. This\ndew he judged to be pure water. In another experiment he fired, by the\nelectric spark, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (dephlogisticated air),\nand found that the resulting water contained nitric acid, which he\nargued must be due to the nitrogen present as an impurity in the oxygen\n(\"phlogisticated air with which it [the dephlogisticated air] is\ndebased\"). In the 1785 paper he proved the correctness of this\nsupposition by showing that when electric sparks are passed through\ncommon air there is a shrinkage of volume owing to the nitrogen uniting\nwith the oxygen to form nitric acid. Further, remarking that little was\nknown of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere, and thinking it\nmight fairly be doubted \"whether there are not in reality many different\nsubstances confounded together by us under the name of phlogisticated\nair,\" he made an experiment to determine whether the whole of a given\nportion of nitrogen (phlogisticated air) of the atmosphere could be\nreduced to nitric acid. He found that a small fraction, not more than\n1\/120th part, resisted the change, and in this residue he doubtless had\na sample of the inert gas argon which was only recognized as a distinct\nentity more than a hundred years later. His last chemical paper,\npublished in 1788, on the \"Conversion of a mixture of dephlogisticated\nand phlogisticated air into nitrous acid by the electric spark,\"\ndescribes measures he took to authenticate the truth of the experiment\ndescribed in the 1785 paper, which had \"since been tried by persons of\ndistinguished ability in such pursuits without success.\" It may be noted\nhere that, while Cavendish adhered to the phlogistic doctrine, he did\nnot hold it with anything like the tenacity that characterized\nPriestley; thus, in his 1784 paper on \"Experiments on Air,\" he remarks\nthat not only the experiments he is describing, but also \"most other\nphenomena of nature seem explicable as well, or nearly as well,\" upon\nthe Lavoisierian view as upon the commonly believed principle of\nphlogiston, and he goes on to give an explanation in terms of the\nantiphlogistic hypothesis.\n\nEarly in his career Cavendish took up the study of heat, and had he\npromptly published his results he might have anticipated Joseph Black as\nthe discoverer of latent heat and of specific heat. But he made no\nreference to his work till 1783, when he presented to the Royal Society\nsome \"Observations on Mr Hutchins's experiments for determining the\ndegree of cold at which quicksilver freezes.\" This paper, with others\npublished in 1786 and 1788, is concerned with the phenomena attending\nthe freezing of various substances, and is noteworthy because in it he\nexpresses doubt of the supposition that \"the heat of bodies is owing to\ntheir containing more or less of a substance called the matter of heat,\"\nand inclines to Newton's opinion that it \"consists in the internal\nmotion of the particles of bodies.\" His \"Account of the Meteorological\nApparatus used at the Royal Society's House\" (_Phil. Trans._, 1776)\ncontains remarks on the precautions necessary in making and using\nthermometers, a subject which is continued in the following year in a\nreport signed by him and six others.\n\nCavendish's last great achievement was his famous series of experiments\nto determine the density of the earth (_Phil. Trans._, 1798). The\napparatus he employed was devised by the Rev. John Michell, though he\nhad the most important parts reconstructed to his own designs; it\ndepended on measuring the attraction exercised on a horizontal bar,\nsuspended by a vertical wire and bearing a small lead ball at each end,\nby two large masses of lead. (See GRAVITATION.) The figure he gives for\nthe specific gravity of the earth is 5.48, water being 1, but in fact\nthe mean of the 29 results he records works out at 5.448. Other\npublications of his later years dealt with the height of an aurora seen\nin 1784 (_Phil. Trans._, 1790), the civil year of the Hindus (_Id._,\n1792), and an improved method of graduating astronomical instruments\n(_Id._, 1809). Cavendish also had a taste for geology, and made several\ntours in England for the purpose of gratifying it.\n\n  A life by George Wilson (1818-1859), printed for the Cavendish Society\n  in 1851, contains an account of his writings, both published and\n  unpublished, together with a critical inquiry into the claims of all\n  the alleged discoverers of the composition of water. Some of his\n  instruments are preserved in the Royal Institution, London, and his\n  name is commemorated in the Cavendish Physical Laboratory at\n  Cambridge, which was built by his kinsman the 7th duke of Devonshire.\n\n\n\n\nCAVENDISH [CANDISH], THOMAS (1555?-1592), the third circumnavigator of\nthe globe, was born at Trimley St Martin, Suffolk. On quitting Corpus\nChristi College, Cambridge (without a degree), he almost ruined himself\nby his extravagance as a courtier. To repair his fortune he turned to\nmaritime and colonial enterprise, and in 1585 accompanied Sir Richard\nGrenville to America. Soon returning to England, he undertook an\nelaborate imitation of Drake's great voyage. On the 21st of July 1586,\nhe sailed from Plymouth with 123 men in three vessels, only one of which\n(the \"Desire,\" of 140 tons) came home. By way of Sierra Leone, the Cape\nVerde Islands and C. Frio in Brazil, he coasted down to Patagonia (where\nhe discovered \"Port Desire,\" his only important contribution to\nknowledge), and passing through Magellan's Straits, fell upon the\nSpanish settlements and shipping on the west coast of South and Central\nAmerica and of Mexico. Among his prizes were nineteen vessels of worth,\nand especially the treasure-galleon, the \"Great St Anne,\" which he\ncaptured off Cape St Lucas, the southern extremity of California\n(November 14, 1587). After this success he struck across the Pacific for\nhome; touched at the Ladrones, Philippines, Moluccas and Java; rounded\nthe Cape of Good Hope; and arrived again at Plymouth (September 9-10,\n1588), having circumnavigated the globe in two years and fifty days. It\nis said that his sailors were clothed in silk, his sails were damask,\nand his top-mast covered with cloth of gold. Yet by 1591 he was again in\ndifficulties, and planned a fresh American and Pacific venture. John\nDavis (q.v.) accompanied him, but the voyage (undertaken with five\nvessels) was an utter failure, much of the fault lying with Cavendish\nhimself, who falsely accused Davis, with his last breath, of deserting\nhim (May 20, 1592). He died and was buried at sea, on the way home, in\nthe summer of 1592.\n\n  See Hakluyt's _Principal Navigations_, (a) edition of 1589, p. 809\n  (N.H.'s narrative of the voyage of 1586-1588); (b) edition of\n  1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 803-825 (Francis Pretty's narrative of the\n  same); (c) edition of 1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 251-253 (on the venture\n  of 1585); (d) edition of 1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 845-852 (John Lane's\n  narrative of the last voyage, of 1591-1592); also _Stationers'\n  Registers_ (Arber), vol. ii. pp. 505-509; the Molyneux Globe of 1592,\n  in the library of the Middle Temple, London, and the Ballads in _Biog.\n  Brit._, vol. i. p. 1196.\n\n\n\n\nCAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1557), founder of the English noble\nhouse of Cavendish, was the younger brother of George Cavendish (q.v.).\nHis father, Thomas, was a descendant of Sir John Cavendish, the judge,\nwho in 1381 was murdered by Jack Straw's insurgent peasants at Bury St\nEdmunds. Of William's education nothing seems known, but in 1530 he was\nappointed one of the commissioners for visiting monasteries; he worked\ndirectly under Thomas Cromwell, whom he calls \"master\" and to whom many\nof his extant letters are addressed. In 1541 he was auditor of the court\nof augmentations, in 1546 treasurer of the king's chamber, and was\nknighted and sworn of the privy council. Under Edward VI. and Mary he\ncontinued in favour at court; during the latter's reign he partially\nconformed, but on the occasion of the war with France he with other\nDerbyshire gentlemen refused the loan of L100 demanded by the queen. He\ndied in 1557. Cavendish acquired large properties from the spoils of the\nmonasteries, but in accordance with the wish of his third wife Elizabeth\nhe sold them to purchase land in Derbyshire. This wife was the\ncelebrated \"building Bess of Hardwick,\" daughter of John Hardwicke, of\nHardwicke, Derbyshire; she completed the original building of Chatsworth\nHouse,--begun in 1553 by her husband,--of which nothing now remains. Her\nfourth husband was George Talbot, 6th earl of Shrewsbury. By her\nCavendish had six children; an elder son who died without issue;\nWilliam, who in 1618 was created earl of Devonshire; Charles, whose son\nWilliam became 1st duke of Newcastle; Frances, who married Sir Henry\nPierpont, and was the ancestress of the dukes of Kingston; Elizabeth,\nwho married Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox, and was the mother of\nArabella Stuart; and Mary, who married Gilbert Talbot, 7th earl of\nShrewsbury.\n\n\n\n\nCAVETTO (Ital. diminutive of _cavo_, hollow), in architecture, the term\ngiven to a hollow concave moulding sometimes employed in the place of\nthe cymatium of a cornice, as in that of the Doric order of the theatre\nof Marcellus. It forms the crowning feature of the Egyptian temples, and\ntook the place of the cymatium in many of the Etruscan temples.\n\n\n\n\nCAVIARE, or CAVIAR, the roe of various species of _Acipenser_ or\nsturgeon (q.v.), prepared, in several qualities, as an article of food.\nThe word is common to most European languages and supposed to be of Turk\nor Tatar origin, but the Turk word _khavyah_ is probably derived from\nthe Ital. _caviale_; the word does not appear in Russian. The best\ncaviare, which can only be made in winter and is difficult to preserve,\nis the loosely granulated, almost liquid, kind, known in Russia as\n_ikra_. It is prepared by beating the ovaries and straining through a\nsieve to clear the eggs of the membranes, fibres and fatty matter; it is\nthen salted with from 4-6% of salt. The difficulty of preparation and of\ntransport has made it a table delicacy in western Europe, where it has\nbeen known since the 16th century, as is evidenced by Hamlet's \"His play\n... pleased not the million, 'twas caviare to the general.\" It is eaten\neither as an _hors d'oeuvre_, particularly in Russia and northern Europe\nwith kummel or other liqueurs, or as a savoury, or as a flavouring to\nother dishes. The coarser quality, in Russia known as _pajusnaya_ (from\n_pajus_, the adherent skin of the ovaries), is more strongly salted in\nbrine and is pressed into a more solid form than the _ikra_; it is then\npacked in small barrels or hermetically-sealed tins. This forms a staple\narticle of food in Russia and eastern Europe. Though the best forms of\ncaviare are still made in Russia, and the greater quantity of the\ncoarser kinds are exported from Astrakhan, the centre of the trade,\nlarger amounts are made each year for export in America and also in\nGermany, Norway and Sweden. The roe of tunny and mullet, pickled in\nbrine and vinegar, is used, under the name of \"Botargo,\" along the\nMediterranean littoral and in the Levant.\n\n\n\n\nCAVITE, a fortified seaport, the capital of the province of Cavite,\nLuzon, Philippine Islands, and the seat of the principal Asiatic naval\nstation of the United States, on a forked tongue of land in Manila Bay,\n8 m. S. of the city of Manila. Pop. (1903) 4494; with the barrios of San\nRoque and Caridad (on the main peninsula), which are under the municipal\ngovernment of Cavite (15,630). Cavite is the terminus of a railway which\nfollows the shore of the bay from Manila. The northern part of the town,\nSangley Point (one of the two forks of the main peninsula), is the\nprincipal coaling station of the U.S. fleet in Asiatic waters. The naval\nstation proper and the old town of Cavite are on the south fork of the\npeninsula. Cavite's buildings are mostly of stone, with upper storeys of\nwood; its streets are narrow and crooked. It has five churches (one of\nthese is an independent Filipino church), and is the seat of a\nprovincial high school. Cavite has long been the principal naval base of\nthe Philippine Islands, and one of the four Spanish penitentiaries in\nthe Islands was here. During the 19th century Cavite was the centre of\npolitical disturbances in the Philippines; in 1896 on the parade ground\nthirteen political prisoners were executed, and to their memory a\nmonument was erected in 1906 at the head of the isthmus connecting with\nthe main peninsula. The town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in\n1880. It was taken from the Spanish by an American squadron under\nCommodore George Dewey in May 1898.\n\n\n\n\nCAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO, COUNT (1810-1861), Italian statesman, was born at\nTurin on the 1st of August 1810. The Bensos, who belonged to the old\nPiedmontese feudal aristocracy, were a very ancient house, said to be\ndescended from a Saxon warrior who settled at Santena in the 12th\ncentury and married a Piedmontese heiress; Camillo's father, the marquis\nMichele, married a noble Genevese lady, and both he and his wife held\noffices in the household of Prince Borghese, the governor of Piedmont\nunder Napoleon, and husband of the latter's sister, Pauline Bonaparte.\nBeing a younger son (his brother Gustavo was the eldest) Cavour was\ndestined for the army, and when ten years old he entered the military\nacademy at Turin. On leaving the college at the age of sixteen he was\nfirst of his class, and received a commission in the engineers. He spent\nthe next five years in the army, residing at Ventimiglia, Genoa, and\nvarious Alpine fortresses to superintend defence works; but he spent his\nleisure hours in study, especially of the English language. He soon\ndeveloped strongly marked Liberal tendencies and an uncompromising\ndislike for absolutism and clericalism, which, as he had not acquired\nthe art of reticence, made him a suspect in the eyes of the police and\nof the reactionaries; at the same time he does not seem to have joined\nany secret society, for he was too loyal to conspire against the king\nwhose uniform he wore, and he did not believe that the time was yet ripe\nfor a revolution. But after the accession to the throne of Charles\nAlbert, whom he always distrusted, he felt that his position in the army\nwas intolerable, and resigned his commission (1831). From that moment we\nfind him in the ranks of the opponents of the government, although his\nwas always a loyal and straightforward opposition which held aloof from\nconspiracies. During the next few years he devoted himself to the study\nof political and social problems, to foreign travel, and to acquiring a\nthorough knowledge of practical agriculture. Cavour's political ideas\nwere greatly influenced by the July revolution of 1830 in France, which\nproved that an historic monarchy was not incompatible with Liberal\nprinciples, and he became more than ever convinced of the benefits of a\nconstitutional monarchy as opposed both to despotism and to\nrepublicanism. But he was not affected by the doctrinaire Liberalism of\nthe time, and his views were strengthened by his studies of the British\nconstitution, of which he was a great admirer; he was even nicknamed\n\"Milord Camillo.\" He frequently visited Paris and London, where he\nplunged into the political and social questions of the day, and\ncontributed among other essays two admirable and prophetic articles, one\non the Irish question, in which he strongly defended the Union, and\nanother on the Corn Laws. He applied his knowledge of agriculture to the\nmanagement of his father's estate at Leri, which he greatly improved, he\nfounded the Piedmontese Agricultural Society, and took the lead in\npromoting the introduction of steam navigation, railways and factories\ninto the country.\n\nThus his mind gradually evolved, and he began to dream dreams of a\nunited Italy free of foreign influence, but owing to the reactionary\npolicy of the Piedmontese government he was unable to take any active\npart in politics. In 1847, however, the psychological moment seemed to\nhave arrived, for the new pope, Pius IX., showed marked Liberal\ntendencies and seemed ready to lead all the forces of Italian patriotism\nagainst the Austrian domination. The hopes of the Italian Liberals rose\nhigh and the so-called neo-Guelph party, represented by such men as\nVincenzo Gioberti and Cesare Balbo, believed that an Italian\nconfederation might be formed under the presidency of the pope. Cavour,\nalthough he realized that a really Liberal pope was an impossibility,\nsaw the importance of the movement and the necessity of profiting by it.\nTogether with Balbo, P. di Santa Rosa, and M. Castelli, he founded a\nnewspaper at Turin called _Il Risorgimento_, which advocated the ideas\nof constitutional reform in Piedmont, with a view to preparing that\ncountry for an important role in the upheaval which seemed imminent. In\nJanuary 1848 the revolution first broke out in Sicily. Cavour, in a\nspeech before a delegation of journalists, declared that the king must\ntake a decided line and grant his people a constitution. Strong pressure\nwas brought to bear on Charles Albert, and after much hesitation he was\ninduced to grant a charter of liberties (February 8, 1848). Cesare Balbo\nwas called upon to form the first constitutional ministry; but Cavour\nwas not offered a seat in it, being suspected by Liberals and\nConservatives alike. He continued his journalistic activity, and his\narticles in the _Risorgimento_ came to exercise great influence both on\nthe king and on public opinion. When the news of the revolt of the\nMilanese against the Austrians, known as the Five Days, reached Turin on\nthe 19th of March, Cavour felt that the time for Piedmont to act with\nenergy had come, and advocated war against Austria. \"After deliberately\nweighing each word,\" he wrote, \"we are bound in conscience to declare\nthat only one path is open to the nation, the government, and the king:\nwar, immediate war!\" Piedmont was the only part of Italy enjoying a\ngovernment at once national and independent, and if it did not hasten to\nthe assistance of the Milanese in their desperate struggle, if possible\nbefore the Austrians were expelled, the monarchy could not survive. The\nsituation was most critical, and even the British government was not\nfriendly to Piedmont; but Cavour was prepared to face any danger rather\nthan see his country inactive. In an article in the _Risorgimento_ he\ndeclared that, while he never believed that material help was to be\nexpected from England, he was convinced that she would not actively help\nAustria to crush the revolution, but that if she did \"she would have\nagainst her a coalition not of princes, but of peoples.\" Cavour's\narticle made such an impression that it put an end to the king's\nvacillations, and a few days after its appearance war was declared\n(March 25).\n\nFor a few months patriotic and revolutionary enthusiasm carried all\nbefore it. In Hungary, in Germany, in Paris, in Vienna itself the\nrevolution was triumphant; constitutions were granted, dynasties\ntottered and fell, and provisional governments were set up. In all parts\nof Italy, too, revolts broke out against the established order. But the\nPiedmontese army, although the troops behaved with gallantry, was no\nmatch for Austria's veteran legions, and except in a few minor\nengagements, in one of which Cavour's nephew Gustavo was killed, it was\ngenerally unsuccessful, and an armistice was concluded in the summer. In\nthe meanwhile the elections were being held in Piedmont. Cavour himself\nwas not returned until the supplementary elections in June, and he took\nhis seat in parliament on the right as a Conservative. His parliamentary\ncareer was not at first very successful; he was not a ready speaker; his\nhabit of talking French made Italian difficult for him, and, although\nFrench was at that time allowed in the chamber, he preferred to speak\nItalian. But he gradually developed a strong argumentative power, his\nspeeches became models of concise reasoning, and he rose at times to the\nhighest level of an eloquence which was never rhetorical. After the\ndissolution in January 1849, Cavour was not re-elected. The new\nparliament had to discuss, in the first instance, the all-important\nquestion of whether the campaign should be continued now that the\narmistice was about to expire. The king decided on a last desperate\nthrow, and recommenced hostilities. On the 23rd of March the Piedmontese\nwere totally defeated at Novara, a disaster which was followed\nimmediately by the abdication of Charles Albert in favour of his son\nVictor Emmanuel II.\n\nAlthough the new king was obliged to conclude peace with Austria and the\nItalian revolution was crushed, Cavour nevertheless did not despair; he\nbelieved that so long as the constitution was maintained in Piedmont,\nthe Italian cause was safe. There were fresh elections in July, and this\ntime Cavour was returned. He was still in the difficult position of a\nmoderate Liberal at a time when there seemed to be room for none but\nreactionaries and conspirators, but by his consummate ability he\nconvinced men that his attitude was the right one, and he made it\ntriumph. His speech on the 7th of March 1850, in which he said that,\n\"Piedmont, gathering to itself all the living forces of Italy, would be\nsoon in a position to lead our mother-country to the high destinies to\nwhich she is called,\" made a deep impression, for it struck the first\nnote of encouragement after the dark days of the preceding year. He\nsupported the ministry of which Massimo d' Azeglio was president in its\nwork of reform and restoration, and in October of the same year, on the\ndeath of Santa Rosa, he himself was appointed minister of agriculture,\nindustry and commerce. In 1851 he also assumed the portfolio of finance,\nand devoted himself to the task of reorganizing the Piedmontese\nfinances. By far the ablest man in the cabinet, he soon came to dominate\nit, and, in his anxiety to dominate the chamber as well, he negotiated\nthe union of the Right Centre with the Left Centre (a manoeuvre known as\nthe _connubio_), and promoted the election of Urbano Rattazzi to the\npresidency of the chamber. This, which he accomplished without d'\nAzeglio's knowledge, led to a split between that statesman and Cavour,\nand to the latter's resignation. Cavour has been blamed for not\ninforming his colleagues of the compact, but for public reasons it was\nnot desirable that the _connubio_ should be discussed before it was\nconsummated. D' Azeglio indeed bore no malice, and remained Cavour's\nfriend. Cavour made use of his freedom to visit England and France\nagain, in order to sound public opinion on the Italian question. In\nLondon he found the leaders of both parties friendly, and Lord\nPalmerston told him that if the constitutional experiment in Piedmont\nsucceeded the Italian despots were doomed. At this time Sir James Hudson\nwas appointed British minister at Turin, where he became the intimate\nfriend of Cavour and gave him valuable assistance. In Paris, Cavour had\na long interview with Prince Louis Napoleon, then president of the\nrepublic, and he already foresaw the great part which that ruler was\ndestined to play in Italian affairs. He also met several Italian exiles\nin France.\n\nOn Cavour's return he found the country in the throes of a new cabinet\ncrisis, in consequence of which, on d' Azeglio's recommendation, he was\ninvited to form a ministry. By the 4th of November he was prime\nminister, a position which he held with two short interruptions until\nhis death. He devoted the first years of his premiership to developing\nthe economic resources of the country; but in preparing it for greater\ndestinies, he had to meet the heavy expenditure by increased taxation,\nand some of his measures made him the object of hostile demonstrations,\nalthough he soon outlived his unpopularity. Cavour's first international\ndifficulty was with Austria; after the abortive rising at Milan in\nFebruary 1853, the Austrian government, in addition to other measures of\nrepression, confiscated the estates of those Lombards who had become\nnaturalized Piedmontese, although they had nothing to do with the\noutbreak. Cavour took a strong line on this question, and on Austria's\nrefusal to withdraw the obnoxious decree, he recalled the Piedmontese\nminister from Vienna, thus by his very audacity winning the sympathy of\nthe Western powers.\n\nThen followed the Crimean War, in which Cavour first showed his\nextraoidinary political insight and diplomatic genius. The first\nsuggestion of Piedmontese co-operation is usually believed to have come\nfrom England, who desired the Italian contingent, not only as material\nassistance, but also in order to reduce the overwhelming French\npreponderance. From the Piedmontese point of view there were several\nreasons why Cavour should desire his country to participate in the\ncampaign. Firstly, it was advisable to use every opportunity of making\nthe Italian question an international one; secondly, by joining the\nalliance Piedmont would place the Western powers under an obligation;\nthirdly, Cavour, like Balbo, believed that the Italian question was\nbound up with the Eastern problem, and as Austria was demanding the\npermission of the powers to occupy Alessandria, as a guarantee that\nPiedmont would not profit by the war in the East to create trouble in\nItaly, Piedmontese participation would in itself prove the best\nguarantee; and finally, as he always looked to Italy and not merely to\nPiedmont, he felt that, having proved to Europe that Italians could\ncombine order with liberty, it remained to show that they were capable\nof fighting as well. But there were serious difficulties in the way. Had\nAustria joined the allies, as at one time seemed probable, Sardinia's\nposition fighting by her side would have been an impossible one. On the\nother hand, Piedmont could not demand definite promises of future aid\nfrom the Western powers as some politicians desired, because these would\nnever have been given, lest Austria should be offended and driven into\nthe arms of Russia. Then, both the extreme Conservatives and the extreme\nRadicals were opposed to expenditure on foreign adventures for which\nthey could see no use. In all these difficulties, however, Cavour was\nloyally supported by the king, who saw the advantages of Piedmontese\nparticipation, even if unattended by definite promises. General\nDabormida, the minister of foreign affairs, disapproved of this policy\nand resigned. The vacant portfolio was offered to d' Azeglio, who\nrefused it; whereupon Cavour assumed it himself. On the same day\n(January 10, 1855) the treaty with France and England was signed, and\nshortly afterwards 15,000 Piedmontese troops under General La Marmora\nwere despatched to the Crimea.\n\nEvents at first seemed to justify the fears of Cavour's opponents.\nCholera attacked the Piedmontese soldiers, who for a long time had no\noccasion to distinguish themselves in action; public opinion became\ndespondent and began to blame Cavour, and even he himself lost heart.\nThen came the news of the battle of the Tchernaya, fought and won by the\nItalians, which turned sadness and doubt into jubilation. Joy was felt\nthroughout Italy, especially at Milan, where the victory was the first\nsign of daylight amid the gloom caused by the return of the Austrians.\nEveryone realized that the Piedmontese contingent was fighting Italy's\nbattles. But to Cavour the announcement that Russia had accepted\nAustrian mediation (January 16, 1856) was a great disappointment. He had\nalways hoped that if the war continued Austria would be forced to side\nwith Russia in return for the aid given by the emperor Nicholas in\nsuppressing the Hungarian revolt in 1849, and the Western powers would\nthen have an opportunity of helping the Italian cause. He sent a\nmemorandum, at Napoleon's request, to Count Walewski, the French\nminister of foreign affairs, setting forth a kind of minimum programme\nof Piedmont's claims. On the summoning of the congress of Paris at the\nconclusion of the war, Cavour first proposed that d' Azeglio should\nrepresent Piedmont, and on the latter's refusal decided to go himself.\nAfter much discussion, and in spite of the opposition of Austria, who as\nmediator occupied a predominant position, behaving \"as though she had\ntaken Sevastopol,\" Cavour obtained that Piedmont should be treated as\none of the great powers. Although he did not expect that the congress\nwould liberate Italy, yet by his marvellous diplomatic skill, far\nsuperior to that of his colleagues, he first succeeded in isolating\nAustria, secondly in indirectly compromising Napoleon in the Italian\nquestion, and thirdly in getting the wretched conditions of Italy\ndiscussed by the representatives of the great powers, who declared that\nsome remedy to that state of things was necessary, not in the interests\nof Italy alone, but of all Europe. A scheme of reform proposed by Count\nWalewski gave Cavour the opportunity to plead the Italian cause, and\nfrom that moment it was manifest to all that the liberation of Italy was\npersonified in him, the statesman who came to hold all the strings of\nEuropean politics in his hands.\n\nCavour's chief measure of internal reform during this period was a bill\nfor suppressing all monastic orders unconnected with education,\npreaching or charity; this aroused strong opposition from the extremists\nof both parties and also from the king, and led to the minister's\nresignation. But he was soon recalled, for the country could not do\nwithout him, and the bill was passed (May 29, 1855).\n\nCavour now saw that war with Austria was merely a question of time, and\nhe began to establish connexions with the revolutionists of all parts of\nItaly, largely by means of La Farina; but it was necessary that this\npolicy should not be advertised to Europe, and he strongly\ndiscountenanced Mazzini's abortive revolutionary attempts. He continued\nto strengthen Piedmont's military resources, and the army soon grew too\nlarge for the country and was obviously destined for more than merely\ndefensive purposes. But he well knew that although Piedmont must be made\nas efficient as possible from the military point of view, it could not\ndefeat Austria single-handed. He would have preferred an alliance with\nGreat Britain, who would never demand territorial compensation; but\nalthough British sympathies were wholly Italian, the government was\ndesperately anxious to avoid war. From Napoleon more was to be hoped,\nfor the emperor still preserved some of his revolutionary instincts,\nwhile the insecurity of his situation at home made him eager to gain\npopularity by winning military glory abroad; but he still hesitated, and\nCavour devoted the whole of his ability to overcoming his doubts. In the\nmidst of these negotiations came Orsini's attempt on Napoleon's life\n(January 14, 1858), which threatened to alienate his Italian sympathies\nand cause serious embarrassments to Piedmont. But after some\nremonstrances to Piedmont for not acting with sufficient energy against\nthe revolutionists, the incident was settled: and Napoleon was, in fact,\nafraid that if he did not help the Italian cause more such attempts\nwould be made. A month after the Orsini outrage he laid before Cavour a\nproposal for a Franco-Piedmontese alliance and the marriage of Prince\nJerome Bonaparte with Princess Clothilde, the daughter of Victor\nEmmanuel.\n\nAn \"accidental\" meeting between Napoleon and Cavour was arranged and\ntook place at Plombieres in July, and although no one knew what passed,\nthe news of it fell like a bombshell on the diplomatic world. No\ndefinite treaty was signed, but the basis of an agreement was laid,\nwhereby France and Piedmont were to declare war against Austria with the\nobject of expelling her from Italy, and a north Italian state was to be\nformed; in exchange for this help France was to receive Savoy and\npossibly Nice. But the emperor still hesitated, and refused to decide on\nwar unless Austria attacked Piedmont; the British government, too, in\nits anxiety to preserve peace, was not very friendly to the Italian\ncause. Cavour saw that the only way to overcome all these obstacles was\nto force Austria's hand. Then there was the danger lest an Italy freed\nby French arms should be overwhelmed under French predominance; for this\nreason Cavour was determined to secure the co-operation of volunteers\nfrom other parts of Italy, and that the war should be accompanied by a\nseries of risings against Austria and the local despots. It was also\nnecessary that the risings should break out in the various provinces\n_before_ the Piedmontese and French troops arrived, so that the latter\nshould not appear as invaders and conquerors, but merely as liberators.\n\nThe moment war was seen to be imminent, parties of Italians of all\nclasses, especially Lombards, poured into Piedmont to enlist in the\narmy. Cavour also had a secret interview with Garibaldi, with whom he\narranged to organize volunteer corps so that the army should be not\nmerely that of Piedmont, but of all Italy. Every day the situation grew\nmore critical, and on the 10th of January 1859 the king in his speech\nfrom the throne pronounced the memorable words \"that he could not remain\ndeaf to the cry of pain (_il grido di dolore_) that reached him from all\nparts of Italy\"--words which, although actually suggested by Napoleon,\nrang like a trumpet-call throughout the land. In the meanwhile the\nmarriage negotiations were concluded, and during the emperor's visit to\nTurin a military convention was signed between the two states, and Savoy\nand Nice were promised to France as a reward for the expulsion of the\nAustrians from Italy. But the British government was still unfavourable,\nand Napoleon, ever hesitating, again sought an excuse for backing out of\nhis engagements; he jumped at the Russian proposal to settle the Italian\nquestion by means of his own favourite expedient, a congress. To this\nAustria agreed on condition that Piedmont should disarm and should be\nexcluded from the congress; England supported the scheme, but desired\nthat all the Italian states should be represented. Cavour was in despair\nat the turn events were taking, and appealed to Napoleon, actually\nthreatening to emigrate to America and publish all his correspondence\nwith the emperor if the latter did not keep his engagements. He decided\nat last most reluctantly to accept the English proposal, lest Piedmont\nshould be abandoned by all, but clung to the hope that Austria would\nreject it. On the 19th of April the Austrian emperor, on the advice of\nthe military party, did reject it; and on the 23rd, to Cavour's\ninexpressible joy, Austria sent an ultimatum demanding the disarmament\nof Piedmont. Cavour replied that his government had agreed to the\ncongress proposed by the powers and that it had nothing more to say. On\nquitting the chamber that day he said to a friend: \"I am leaving the\nlast sitting of the last Piedmontese parliament\"--the next would\nrepresent united Italy. France now allied herself definitely with\nPiedmont, and England, delighted at Cavour's acquiescence to her own\nproposal and enraged by Austria's ultimatum, became wholly friendly to\nthe Italian cause. A few days later Austria declared war.\n\nAs La Marmora now took the chief command of the army, Cavour added the\nministry of war to the others he already held. His activity at this time\nwas astounding, for he was virtually dictator and controlled\nsingle-handed nearly all the chief offices of the state. The French\ntroops entered Piedmont, where they were received with enthusiasm, and\nthe allies marched into Lombardy; the victory of Magenta, which opened\nthe gates of Milan to them, was shortly followed by that of Solferino.\nThe people rose in arms at Parma, Modena, Florence and Bologna, which\nhad been occupied by Austria for the pope since 1849; the local princes\nwere expelled and provisional governments set up. Cavour sent special\ncommissioners to take charge of the various provinces in Victor\nEmmanuel's name. But these events, together with Prussia's menacing\nattitude, began to alarm Napoleon, who, although he wished to destroy\nAustrian influence in Italy, was afraid of a large and powerful Italian\nstate. Consequently, after Solferino, he concluded an armistice with\nAustria at Villafranca on the 8th of July, without previously informing\nCavour. When Cavour heard of it he was thunderstruck; he immediately\ninterviewed the king at Monzambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful\nlanguage implored him not to make peace until Venice was free. But\nVictor Emmanuel saw that nothing was to be gained by a refusal, and much\nagainst his own inclination, signed the peace preliminaries at\nVillafranca, adding the phrase, \"pour ce qui me concerne,\" which meant\nthat he was not responsible for what the people of other parts of Italy\nmight do (July 12). Lombardy was to be ceded to Piedmont, Venetia to\nremain Austrian, the deposed princes to be reinstated, and the pope made\npresident of an Italian confederation.\n\nThe cabinet resigned the next day, but remained in office provisionally,\nand Cavour privately advised the revolutionists of central Italy to\nresist the return of the princes, by force if necessary: \"for we must\nnow become conspirators ourselves,\" he said. His policy was thus\ncontinued after he left office, and Palmerston, who had meanwhile\nsucceeded Malmesbury as foreign minister, informed France and Austria\nthat Great Britain would never tolerate their armed intervention in\nfavour of the central Italian despots. The new Piedmontese ministry, of\nwhich La Marmora was the president, but Rattazzi the leading spirit,\nhesitated between annexing central Italy and agreeing to the terms of\npeace, but on the 10th of November peace was signed at Zurich. Napoleon\nproposed a new congress, which never met, and on the fall of the\nRattazzi-La Marmora cabinet the king, in spite of the quarrel at\nMonzambano, asked Cavour to take office again. By January he was once\nmore premier, as well as minister for foreign affairs and of the\ninterior. His first act was to invite the people of Italy to declare\ntheir own wishes with regard to annexation to Piedmont; but Napoleon\nstill refused to consent to the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, for he\ncontemplated placing one of his own relatives on the throne of the\ngrand-duchy. Cavour now saw that Napoleon might be ready to deal, and,\nalthough the bargain of the preceding year had not been exactly\nfulfilled, as the Austrians were still in Venice, he again brought\nforward the question of Nice and Savoy. To Cavour no less than to the\nking the loss of these two provinces was a cruel wrench, but it was a\nchoice between them and central Italy. The plebiscites in the latter\nregion had unanimously declared in favour of union with Piedmont, and\nNapoleon became more pressing, going so far as to threaten that unless\nthe cession were made, the French troops would leave Lombardy at the\nmercy of Austria and occupy Bologna and Florence. On the 24th of March\nthe treaty was signed and the emperor's opposition to the annexation of\ncentral Italy withdrawn. On the 2nd of April the parliament representing\nPiedmont, the duchies of Parma and Modena, Tuscany and Romagna, met, and\nCavour had the difficult and ungrateful task of explaining the cession\nof Nice and Savoy. In spite of some opposition, the agreement was\nratified by a large majority.\n\nThe situation in the kingdom of Naples was now becoming critical, but\nthere seemed as yet little chance of union with upper Italy, for the\nBourbon government was a more or less regular one, and, although risings\nhad broken out, there was no general revolution. Cavour therefore had\nto follow a somewhat double-faced policy, on the one hand negotiating\nwith the Bourbon king (Francis II.), suggesting a division of Italy\nbetween him and Victor Emmanuel, and on the other secretly backing up\nthe revolutionary agitation. Having now learnt that Garibaldi was\nplanning an expedition to Sicily with his volunteers, he decided, after\nsome hesitation, not to oppose its departure; on the 5th of May it\nsailed from Quarto near Genoa, and Cavour was only deterred from\ndeclaring war on Naples by the fear of foreign complications. Garibaldi\nwith his immortal Thousand landed at Marsala, and the whole rotten\nfabric of the Bourbon government collapsed. At Palermo they were\nwelcomed by the Piedmontese admiral Persano, and soon the whole island\nwas occupied and Garibaldi proclaimed dictator. The general now proposed\nto cross over to the mainland, and this placed Cavour in a serious\ndilemma; Russia and Austria protested against the expedition, France and\nPrussia were unfriendly, Great Britain alone remained warmly\npro-Italian. He still hoped for a revolution in Naples, so that King\nVictor's authority might be established before Garibaldi's arrival, but\nthis proved impossible. When Garibaldi crossed the straits of Messina\nthe Neapolitan government fell, and he entered Naples in triumph. But\nthere was still danger that he might be subsequently defeated, for the\nNeapolitan army was still a force in being, and Cavour feared, moreover,\nthat, although Garibaldi himself had always loyally acted in the king of\nItaly's name, the red republicans around him might lead him to commit\nsome imprudence and plunge the country into anarchy. The cession of\nNice, Garibaldi's birthplace, had made an impassable gulf between the\ntwo men, and neither quite trusted the other. Cavour also feared that\nGaribaldi might invade the papal states, which would have led to further\ninternational complications. In any case, Rome must not be touched for\nthe present, since Napoleon was pledged to protect the pope; but as the\nlatter had made large armaments, and his forces, consisting largely of\nbrigands and foreigners under the French general Lamoriciere, were in a\nmenacing attitude on the frontier, Cavour decided on the momentous step\nof annexing the papal states with the exception of the Roman province.\nThe Italian army crossed the frontier from Romagna on the 11th of\nSeptember, whereupon every power, except Great Britain and Sweden,\nwithdrew its minister from Turin. But the troops advanced and were\neverywhere received with open arms by the people; Ancona was taken,\nLamoriciere was defeated and captured at the battle of Castelfidardo,\nand on the 20th King Victor marched into the Neapolitan kingdom. On the\n1st of October Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan troops on the Volturno,\nand Gaeta alone, where King Francis of Naples had retired, still held\nout.\n\nNew difficulties with Garibaldi arose, for he would not resign his\ndictatorship of the southern provinces, and wished to march on Rome.\nCavour had to use all his tact to restrain him and at the same time not\nto appear ungrateful. He refused to act despotically, but he summoned\nparliament to vote on the annexation, which it did on the 11th. Two days\nlater Garibaldi magnanimously gave in to the nation's will and handed\nhis conquests over to King Victor as a free gift. Gaeta was invested,\nand after a siege prolonged through the action of Napoleon, who for some\nreason unknown kept his fleet before the town, preventing any attack by\nsea until England induced him to withdraw it, the garrison surrendered\non the 13th of February, and King Francis retired to Rome. Parliament\nwas dissolved once more; the new chamber showed an overwhelming majority\nin favour of Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy.\n\nThe last question with which Cavour had to deal was that of Rome. For\nsome years past the pope had only been able to maintain his authority by\nthe help of foreign troops, and Cavour saw that as long as this state of\nthings lasted there could be no united Italy. In October he declared in\nparliament that Rome must be the capital of Italy, for no other city was\nrecognized as such by the whole country, and in January 1861 a\nresolution to that effect was passed. But owing to Napoleon's attitude\nhe had to proceed warily, and made no attempt for the present to carry\nout the nation's Wishes. At the same time he was anxious that the church\nshould preserve the fullest liberty, and he believed in the principle of\n\"a free church in a free state.\" His great dream, save for Rome and\nVenice, was now realized, and Italy was free and united. But the wear\nand tear of these last years had been almost unbearable, and at last\nbegan to tell; the negotiations with Garibaldi were particularly trying,\nfor while the great statesman wished to treat the hero and his\nvolunteers generously, far more so than seemed wise to the Conservatives\nand the strictly military party, he did not wish the Italian cause to be\nendangered by their imprudences, and could not permit all the\nGaribaldian officers to be received into the regular army with the same\ngrades they held in the volunteer forces. This question, together with\nthat of Nice, led to a painful scene in the chamber between the two men,\nalthough they were formally reconciled a few days later. For some time\npast Cavour had been unwell and irritable, and the scene with Garibaldi\nundoubtedly hastened his end. A fever set in, and after a short illness\nhe passed away on the 6th of June 1861. He was buried at his ancestral\ncastle of Santena.\n\nThe death of Cavour was a terrible loss to Italy; there remained many\nproblems to be solved in which his genius and personality were urgently\nneeded. But the great work had been carried to such a point that lesser\nmen might now complete the structure. He is undoubtedly the greatest\nfigure of the _Risorgimento_, and although other men and other forces\nco-operated in the movement, it was Cavour who organized it and\nskilfully conducted the negotiations which overcame all, apparently\ninsuperable, obstacles. \"That which in Alfieri and Gioberti was\nlacking,\" wrote T. Artom, his private secretary, \"a deep and lively\nsense of reality, Cavour possessed to a supreme degree. He was not a\n_litterateur_; he was never a political dreamer. His views broadened\nprogressively; at each stage he discovered a new horizon, and he\nfollowed his path without ever seeking anything save what was real and\npossible.\" He was gifted with pronounced political genius and with an\nastounding power of foresight. In his ideas he was always a moderate\nLiberal, and although he disapproved of republicanism, he was an ardent\nconstitutionalist, ever refusing to resort to arbitrary methods, for he\nfelt that, the Italian character being what it is, Italian unity could\nnot last if unsupported by popular feeling. In meeting opposition he\ncould not, like Bismarck, rely on a great military power, for the\nPiedmontese army was a small one; Austria must first be isolated and\nthen an alliance had to be obtained with some other power. Some of his\nacts, especially his policy towards the Neapolitan kingdom, have been\ncriticized as politically immoral; but apart from the fact that few\nrevolutions--and Cavour, after all, was a revolutionist--can be\nconducted without attacking vested rights, it is hard to see that any\npolicy which led to the destruction of a government, rightly described\nas the \"negation of God on earth,\" could be deemed immoral. He has been\naccused of changing his views, but what statesman has not? Moreover, in\nthe extremely complicated and difficult diplomatic situations which he\nhad to face, what was impossible or dangerous one day became possible\nand desirable the next. This was particularly the case with the\nNeapolitan question. Cavour's one absorbing passion was the liberation\nand regeneration of Italy, and to this he devoted his whole life and\ntalent.\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Buzziconi, _Bibliografia Cavouriana_ (Turin, 1898);\n  Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, _Cavour_ (London, 1898), an\n  excellent and handy little monograph which brings out the chief points\n  of Cavour's life in the right light; G. Massari, _Il Conte di Cavour_\n  (Turin, 1873); W. de la Rive, _Le Comte de Cavour_ (Paris, 1862),\n  interesting and valuable as the work of a contemporary and intimate\n  friend of Cavour; L. Chiala, _Lettere edite ed inedite del Conte di\n  Cavour_ (7 vols., Turin, 1883-1887); D. Zanichelli, _Gli Scritti del\n  Conte di Cavour_ (Bologna, 1892), and _Cavour_ (Florence, 1905); H.\n  von Treitschke, \"Cavour,\" in his _Historische und politische Aufsatze_\n  (Leipzig, 1871); E. Dicey, _A Memoir of Cavour_ (London, 1861); Conte\n  C. di Cavour, _Discorsi parlamentari_ (8 vols., Turin, 1863-1872),\n  _Opere politico-economiche_ (Cuneo, 1855); F.X. Krauss, _Cavour_\n  (Mainz, 1902); E. Artom, _L'Opere politica del Senatore T. Artom nel\n  Risorgimento Italano _ (Bologna, 1906), a biography of Cavour's\n  devoted private secretary, containing new material.     ( L. V.*)\n\n\n\n\nCAVOUR (anc. _Caburrum_ or _Forum Vibii_), a town of Piedmont, Italy, in\nthe province of Turin, 32 m. S.W. by rail and steam tram (via Pinerolo\nfrom the town of Turin). Pop. (1901) town, 2091; commune, 6843. It lies\non the north side of a huge isolated mass of granite (the Rocca di\nCavour) which rises from the plain. On the summit was the Roman village,\nwhich belonged to the province of the Alpes Cottiae. There are some\nruins of medieval fortifications. The town gave its name to the Benso\nfamily of Chieri, who were raised to the marquisate in 1771, and of\nwhich the statesman Cavour was a member.\n\n  For the ancient name see Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v.\n  (Berlin, 1877), p. 825.\n\n\n\n\nCAVY, a name commonly applied to several South American rodent animals\nincluded in the family _Caviidae_ (see RODENTIA), but perhaps properly\napplicable only to those belonging to the typical genus _Cavia_, of\nwhich the most familiar representative is the domesticated guinea-pig.\nCavies in general, the more typical representatives of the _Caviidae_,\nare rodents with hoof-like nails, four front and three hind toes,\nimperfect collar-bones, and the cheek-teeth divided by folds of enamel\ninto transverse plates. The tail is short or rudimentary, the incisors\nare short, and the outer surface of the lower jaw is marked by a\ndistinct ridge.\n\nTrue cavies, or couies (_Cavia_), are best known by the guinea-pig, a\ndomesticated and parti-<DW52> race derived from one of the wild\nspecies, all of which are uniformly . They are comparatively\nsmall and stoutly built animals, with short, rounded ears and no tail.\nIn habits they are partly diurnal; and live either in burrows among the\ncrevices of rocks, beneath the leaves of aquatic plants in marshy\ndistricts, or underneath the floors of outbuildings. Their cries are\nfaint squeaks and grunts. They feed upon nearly all vegetable\nsubstances, but drink little. Generally they associate in small\nsocieties, and seldom wander far from home. Although the guinea-pig is a\nfertile breeder, the wild species only produce one or two young at a\nbirth, and this but once in a year. The young come into the world in a\nhighly developed condition, being able to feed themselves the day\nfollowing their birth. Cavies are widely distributed in South America,\nand are represented by several species. Among them may be mentioned the\naperea or restless cavy (_C. porcellus_ or _C. aperea_) of Brazil; the\nBolivian _C. boliviensis_, found at great elevations in the Andes; the\nBrazilian rock-cavy (_C. rupestris_), characterized by its short blunt\nclaws; and the Peruvian _C. cutleri_. The latter was tamed by the Incas,\nand is the ancestor of the guinea-pig. As to the origin of that name,\nsome writers consider it a corruption of Guiana-pig, but it is more\nprobable that the word \"Guinea\" merely signifies foreign. The guinea-pig\nis a singularly inoffensive and defenceless creature, of a restless\ndisposition, and wanting in that intelligence which usually\ncharacterizes domestic pets, although said to show some discrimination.\nIt is of no particular service to man, neither its flesh nor its fur\nbeing generally put to use, while the statement that its presence is\nsufficient to drive off rats and mice appears to be without foundation.\nIt is exceedingly prolific, beginning to breed at the age of two months;\nthe number of young varying, according to the age of the parent, from\nfour to twelve. It has been calculated that a single pair of guinea-pigs\nmay prove the parent stock of a thousand individuals in a single year.\n\nA very different animal is the Patagonian cavy, or mara (_Dolichotis\npatachonica_), the typical representative of a genus characterized by\nlong limbs, comparatively large ears, and a short tail. The animal is\nabout the size of a hare, to which it approximates in form and habits.\nIt is most abundant in the open districts of Patagonia, but also ranges\non to the Argentina Pampas, where it is now scarce. Although\noccasionally seen in large flocks, the mara is more commonly found in\nsmall parties or in pairs, the parties commonly moving in single file.\nIt has a peculiar kind of hopping gait; and is mainly diurnal, in\naccordance with which habit its eyes are protected by lashes. It lives\nin a burrow, generally excavated by itself; but when pursued, seeks\nsafety in flight, rather than by a retreat to its hole. From two to five\nyoung are produced twice a year. A much smaller species, _D.\nsalinicola_, without the characteristic black band above the tail,\ninhabits the salt-plains of Argentina. Maras have been introduced into\nseveral British parks. Fossil species of _Dolichotis_ occur in the\ncaverns of Brazil, and also in the superficial deposits of Argentina.\n     (R. L.*)\n\n\n\n\nCAWDOR, a village and parish of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of parish\n(1901) 925. The village is situated 5 m. S.S.W. of Nairn and 3 m. from\nGollanfield Junction on the Highland railway. The castle was the scene,\naccording to the tradition which Shakespeare has perpetuated, of the\nmurder of King Duncan by Macbeth, thane of Cawdor (or Calder), in 1040.\nSince the oldest part of the structure dates from 1454, however, and\nseemingly had no predecessor, the tradition has no foundation in fact.\nThe building stands on the rocky bank of Cawdor Burn, a right-hand\ntributary of the Nairn. The massive keep with small turrets is the\noriginal portion of the castle, and to it were added, in the 17th\ncentury, the modern buildings forming two sides of a square.\n\nKilravock (pronounced _Kilrawk_) Castle, 1-1\/2 m. W. of Cawdor, occupies\na commanding site on the left bank of the Nairn. Its keep dates from\n1460, and the later buildings belong to the 17th century. It has been\ncontinuously tenanted by the Roses, one of the most remarkable families\nin Scotland. They came over with William the Conqueror and settled at\nKilravock in 1293, since which date son has succeeded father without the\ninterposition of a collateral heir, an instance of direct descent unique\nin Scottish history. Moreover, nearly every Rose has borne the Christian\nname of Hugh, and only one attained to a higher social rank than that of\nlaird. Queen Mary was received at the castle in 1562, and Prince Charles\nEdward was entertained four days before the battle of Culloden. The\ngardens are remarkable for their beauty.\n\n\n\n\nCAWNPORE, or KANPUR, a city and district of British India in the\nAllahabad division of the United Provinces. The city is situated on the\nsouth bank of the Ganges, 40 m. south-west of Lucknow, and formed from\nearly times a frontier outpost of the people of Oudh and Bengal against\ntheir northern neighbours. Clive selected it, on account of its\ncommanding position, as the cantonment for the brigade of troops lent\nhim by the nawab of Oudh. In 1801, when the Ceded Provinces were\nacquired by the East India Company, it became the chief British frontier\nstation. But by the time of the Mutiny the frontier had left it behind,\nand it was denuded of troops. Now it is chiefly known as the junction of\nfour railways, the East Indian, Oudh & Rohilkand, Rajputana and Indian\nMidland, and as a great emporium for harness, shoes and other\nleather-work. In 1901 the population was 197,170, showing an increase of\n4% in the decade. In 1903 the city was devastated by an epidemic of\nplague.\n\nThe name of Cawnpore is indelibly connected with the blackest episode in\nthe history of the Indian Mutiny--the massacre here in July 1857 of\nhundreds of women and children by the Nana Sahib. The full details of\nthe siege and massacre will be found under INDIAN MUTINY, and here it\nwill suffice to refer to the local memorials of that evil time. The\nentrenchment, where General Sir H.M. Wheeler with his small band of\nsoldiers and the European and Eurasian residents were exposed for 21\ndays to the fire of the mutineers, is merely a bare field, containing\nthe well where many women and children were shot while getting water.\nThis well is now surrounded by an enclosure with an inscription upon its\ncross. About three-quarters of a mile away, on the banks of the river\nGanges, is the Massacre Ghat. A grassy road between banks 10 to 12 ft.\nhigh leads down to the river, and it was among the trees on these banks\nthat the murderers concealed themselves who shot down the little\ngarrison as soon as they were embarked in the boats which were to take\nthem to safety. On the river bank is a temple to Siva, of hexagonal\nshape, old and going to ruin. Steps lead from this temple to an enclosed\nflight of stairs, which in the cold season descend to the water, but in\nthe rains are covered almost to the top. This is the ghat where some 600\nhelpless people were slain, in spite of a promise of safe-conduct from\nthe Nana. The remaining 200 victims, who had escaped the bullets of the\nsiege and survived the butchery of the river bank, were massacred\nafterwards and cast down the famous well of Cawnpore, which is now\nmarked by a memorial and surrounded by gardens. The memorial is crowned\nby the figure of an angel in white marble, and on the wall of the well\nitself is the following inscription:--\n\n  Sacred to the perpetual Memory of a great company of\n  Christian people, chiefly Women and Children, who near this\n  spot were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel\n  Nana Dhundu Pant, of Bithur, and cast, the dying with the\n  dead, into the well below, on the xvth day of July, MDCCCLVII.\n\nThe DISTRICT or CAWNPORE is situated between the Ganges and Jumna\nrivers, and is a portion of the well-watered and fertile tract known as\nthe Doab, the total area being 2384 sq. m. The general inclination of\nthe country is from north to south. Besides the two great rivers, the\nprincipal streams are the Arand or Rhind, the Kavan or Singar, the Isan\nand the Pandu. The district is watered by four branches of the Ganges\ncanal, and traversed by two lines of railway. It used to be a great\ncentre of the indigo industry, which has now declined. The population in\n1901 was 1,258,868, showing an increase of 4% during the decade.\n\n\n\n\nCAXTON, WILLIAM (c. 1422-1491), the first English printer, was born\nsomewhere in the Weald of Kent, perhaps at Tenterden. The name, which\nwas apparently pronounced Cauxton, is identical with Causton, the name\nof a manor in the parish of Hadlow, and was a fairly common surname in\nthe 15th century. The date of Caxton's birth was arbitrarily fixed in\n1748 by Oldys as 1412. Blades, however, inferred that in 1438, when he\nwas apprenticed to Robert Large, he would not have been more than\nsixteen years of age. This would place his birth in 1422-1423. Robert\nLarge was a rich silk mercer who became sheriff in 1430 and lord mayor\nof London in 1439, and the fact of Caxton's apprenticeship to him argues\nthat Caxton's own parents were in a good position. Large died in 1441,\nleaving a small bequest to Caxton, and his executors would be bound to\nplace the young man where he could finish his term. He was probably sent\ndirect to Bruges, then the central foreign market of the Anglo-Flemish\ntrade, for he presently entered business there on his own account. In\n1450 his name appears in the Bruges records as standing joint surety for\nthe sum of L100; and in 1463 he was acting governor of the company of\nMerchant Adventurers in the Low Countries. This association, sometimes\nknown as the \"English Nation,\" was dominated by the Mercers' Company, to\nthe livery of which Caxton had been formally admitted in London in 1453.\nThe first governor, appointed in terms of a charter granted by Edward\nIV. in 1462, was W. Obray, but Caxton's position is definitely asserted\nin 1464. In that year he was appointed, together with Sir Richard\nWhitehill, to negotiate with Philip, duke of Burgundy, the renewal of a\ntreaty concerning the wool trade, which was about to expire. These\nattempts failed, but he was again employed, with two other members of\nthe Mercers' Company, in a similar but successful mission in October\n1468 to the new duke, Charles the Bold, who earlier in the year had\nmarried Princess Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. The last mention\nof Caxton in the capacity of governor of the \"English Nation\" is on the\n13th of August 1469, and it was probably about that time that he entered\nthe household of the duchess Margaret, possibly in the position of\ncommercial adviser. In his diplomatic mission in 1468 he had been\nassociated with Lord Scales, afterwards Earl Rivers and one of his chief\npatrons, and at the Burgundian court he must have come in touch with\nEdward IV. during his brief exile in 1470.\n\nHe had begun his translation of the popular medieval romance of Troy,\n_The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, from the French of Raoul le\nFevre, early in 1469; and, after laying it aside for some time, he\nresumed it at the wish of the duchess Margaret, to whom the MS. was\npresented in September 1471. During his thirty-three years' residence in\nBruges Caxton would have access to the rich libraries of the duke of\nBurgundy and other nobles, and about this time he learned the art of\nprinting. His disciple, Wynkyn de Worde, says that he was taught at\nCologne, probably during a visit there in 1471, recorded in the preface\nto the _Recuyell_; Blades suggests that he learnt from Colard Mansion,\nbut there is no evidence that Mansion set up his press at Bruges before\n1474. He ceased to be a member of the gild of St John (a gild of\nilluminators) in 1473, and the first dated book he is known to have\nprinted is dated 1476. Mansion and Caxton were partners or associates at\nBruges, where Caxton printed his _Recuyell_ in 1474 or 1475. His second\nbook, _The Game and Playe of Chesse_, from the _Liber de ludo\nscacchorum_ of Jacobus de Cessolis through the French of Jehan de\nVignay, was finished in 1474, and printed soon after; the last book\nprinted by Mansion and Caxton at Bruges was the _Quatre derrenieres\nchoses_, an anonymous treatise usually known as _De quattuor\nnovissimis_. Other books in the same type were printed by Mansion at\nBruges after Caxton's departure.\n\nBy September 1476 Caxton had established himself in the almonry at\nWestminster at the sign of the Red Pale. Robert Copland the printer, who\nwas afterwards one of Caxton's assistants, states that Caxton began by\nprinting small pamphlets. The first dated book printed in England was\nLord Rivers's translation (revised by Caxton) of _The Dictes or sayengis\nof the philosophres_ (1477). From this time until his death in 1401\nCaxton was busy writing and printing. His services to English\nliterature, apart from his work as a printer (see TYPOGRAPHY), are very\nconsiderable. His most important original work is an eighth book added\nto the _Polychronicon_ (vol. viii. in the Rolls Series edition) of Ralph\nHigden. Caxton revised and printed John of Trevisa's work, and brought\ndown the narrative himself from 1358 to 1460, using as his authorities\n_Fasciculus temporum_, a popular work in the 15th century, and an\nunknown _Aureus de universo_. In the year before his death he complained\nin the preface to his _Eneydos_ of the changing state of the English\nlanguage, a condition of things which he did as much as any man to\nremedy. He printed Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_ (1478? and 1483),\n_Troilus and Creseide_ (1483?), the _House of Fame_ (1483?), and the\ntranslation of Boethius (1478?); Gower's _Confessio Amantis_ (1483), and\nmany poems of Lydgate. His press was, however, not worked for purely\nliterary ends, but was a commercial speculation. For the many\nservice-books which he printed there was no doubt a sure sale, and he\nmet the taste of the upper classes by the tales of chivalry which issued\nregularly from his press. He printed Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_, and\nhimself translated from the French the _Boke of Histories of Jason_\n(1477?), _The Historye of Reynart the Foxe_ (from the Dutch, 1481 and\n1489?), _Godfrey of Boloyne_ or _The Siege and Conqueste of Jherusalem_\n(1481), _The Lyf of Charles the Grete_ (1485), _The Knyght Parys and the\nFayr Vyenne_ (1485), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_ (1489?), _The Foure\nSonnes of Aymon_ (1489?); also the _Morale Proverbs_ (1478), and the\n_Fayttes of Armes and of Chyualrye_ (1489) of Christine de Pisan. The\nmost ambitious production of his press was perhaps his version of the\n_Golden Legend_, the translation of which he finished in November 1483.\nIt is based on the lives of the saints as given in the 13th century\n_Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de Voragine, but Caxton chiefly used existing\nFrench and English versions for his compilation. The book is illustrated\nby seventy woodcuts, and Caxton says he was only encouraged to persevere\nin his laborious and expensive task by the liberality of William, earl\nof Arundel. The idleness which he so often deprecates in his prefaces\nwas no vice of his, for in addition to his voluminous translations his\noutput as a printer was over 18,000 pages, and he published ninety-six\nseparate works or editions of works, with apparently little skilled\nassistance, though later printers, Wynkyn de Worde, Robert Copland and\npossibly Richard Pynson, were trained under him.\n\nThe different founts of type used by Caxton are illustrated by Blades\nand Duff, and there is an excellent selection of Caxtons in the British\nMuseum, in the University library at Cambridge, besides those in private\nhands. A record price for a Caxton was reached in 1902 when Mr Bernard\nQuaritch paid L2225 for _The Royal Book_ (1487?), a translation of the\npopular _Somme des vices et des vertus_. His books have no title-pages,\nand from 1487 onwards are usually adorned with a curious device,\nconsisting of the letters W.C. separated by a trade mark, with an\nelaborate border above and below. The flourishes on the trade mark have\nbeen fancifully interpreted as S.C. for Sancta Colonia, implying that\nCaxton learnt his art at Cologne, and the whole mark has been read as\n74, for 1474, the date of his first printed book. This device was first\nused in an edition of the Sarum missal, printed for Caxton by George\nMaynial in Paris, and was subsequently adopted with small alterations by\nhis successor at the Westminster press, Wynkyn de Worde. The first of\nhis books containing woodcut illustrations was his _Myrrour of the\nWorld_ (1481), translated from Vincent de Beauvais, which has diagrams\nand pictures for the assistance of young students. He had used a woodcut\ninitial letter in his broadside _Indulgence_ printed in 1480.\n\n[Illustration:]\n\nNo record of Caxton's marriage or of the birth of his children has been\nfound, but Gerard Croppe was separated from his wife Elizabeth, daughter\nof William Caxton, before 1496, when Croppe made certain claims in\nconnexion with his father-in-law's will.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--Earlier biographies of Caxton were superseded by the\n  work of William Blades, whose _Life and Typography of William Caxton_\n  (2 vols., 1861-1863) remains the standard authority. It contains a\n  bibliography of each of the works issued from Caxton's press. For\n  later discoveries see George Bullen's _Catalogue_ of the Caxton\n  celebration loan collection exhibited at South Kensington in 1877;\n  articles by E.J.L. Scott in the _Athenaeum_ (Feb. 10, 1900; May 21 and\n  June 8, 1892); articles in _Notes and Queries_ (April 21, 1900; Feb.\n  24, 1906), and the publications of the Caxton Club, Chicago, notably\n  _William Caxton_, by E. Gordon Duff (1905). See also _Census of\n  Caxtons_, by Seymour de Ricci, No. xv. of the illustrated monographs\n  of the Bibliographical Society, 1909. Many of Caxton's translations\n  are available in modern reprints; the _Golden Legend_, the _Recuyell_\n  and _Godeffroy of Boloyne_, were printed by William Morris at the\n  Kelmscott Press in 1892-1893; the _Boke of Curtesye_ (1868), the _Lyf\n  of Charles the Crete_ (1880), Alain Chartier's _Curial_ (1888), _Foure\n  Sonnes of Aymon_ (1884), _Eneydos_ (1890), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_\n  (1890), and others, by the Early English Text Society. For modern\n  editions of _Reynart_ see REYNARD THE FOX. No authentic portrait of\n  Caxton is known, but a MS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of the\n  last six books of the _Metamorphoses of Ovid_, translated by Caxton,\n  is probably in his handwriting.\n\n\n\n\nCAYENNE, a seaport and the capital of French Guiana, on the N.W.\nextremity of the island of Cayenne, and near the mouth of the river of\nthat name, in 4 deg. 56' 28\" N., and 52 deg. 20' 36\" W. Pop. about\n12,600. The town forms an almost perfect square, and has clean and\nwell-macadamized streets. The houses, mostly of two storeys, are of\nwood, strengthened on the first and ground floors by brickwork. In the\nold town, which contains the government-house and Jesuits' College, the\nstreets are not so regularly and well built as in the new. The Place\nd'Armes, a fine quadrangular space, lies between them. To the right of\nthe governor's house is Mount Ceperon, on which stand Fort St Michel,\nthe marine barracks, the signal station and the lighthouse. Here, too,\nare the capacious reservoirs for the water-supply of the town, the\nsource of which is a lake to the south of the island. The harbour is\nshallow at its entrance, and craft drawing more than 14 ft. are obliged\nto anchor 6 m. from the town. There is no dock for the repair of\nvessels; but there are two quays at the town. The principal exports of\nCayenne are gold, cocoa, phosphates, hides, woods and spices. The\nimports are French wines, spirits and liqueurs; silk and cotton stuffs,\ntobacco, hardware, glass, earthenware, clothing, preserved meat, fish,\nand vegetables, maize, flour, hay, bran, oils and cattle. There is a\nregular mail service between Cayenne and Martinique once a month.\nCayenne is the seat of the government of French Guiana, and was formerly\na penal settlement for political offenders. Food as well as clothing is\nexorbitantly dear, the only cheap articles of consumption being bread\nand French wines. The temperature of Cayenne is between 76 deg. and 88\ndeg. Fahr. throughout the year; but the heat is tempered by easterly\nwinds. Between December and March a north wind blows, unfavourable to\nweak constitutions. Yellow and other fevers often attack the\ninhabitants of the town, but the climate, though moist, is as a whole\nhealthy. (See GUIANA.)\n\n\n\n\nCAYENNE PEPPER (GUINEA PEPPER, SPANISH PEPPER, CHILLY), a preparation\nfrom the dried fruit of various species of _Capsicum_, a genus of the\nnatural order Solanaceae. The true peppers are members of a totally\ndistinct order, Piperaceae. The fruits of plants of the genus _Capsicum_\nhave all a strong, pungent flavour. The capsicums bear a greenish-white\nflower, with a star-shaped corolla and five anthers standing up in the\ncentre of the flower like a tube, through which projects the slender\nstyle. The pod-like fruit consists of an envelope at first fleshy and\nafterwards leathery, within which are the spongy pulp and several seeds.\nThe plants are herbaceous or shrubby; the leaves are entire, and\nalternate, or in pairs near one another; the flowers are solitary and do\nnot arise in the leaf-axils. There are about thirty species, natives of\nCentral and South America. They are now grown in various parts of the\nworld, both for the sake of the fruit and for ornament. In England the\nannual sorts are sown from March to the middle of April under a frame.\nThey can be planted out when 2 or 3 in. high, and in June may be\ntransferred to a light rich soil in the open garden. They flower in July\nor August, and produce pods from August till the end of September. The\nperennial and shrubby kinds may be wintered in a conservatory. Several\nspecies or varieties are used to make cayenne pepper. The annual or\ncommon capsicum (_C. annuum_), the Guinea pepper plant, was brought to\nEurope by the Spaniards, and was grown in England in 1548. It is\nindigenous to South America, but is now cultivated in India, Hungary,\nItaly, Spain and Turkey, with the other species of capsicum. It is a\nhardy herbaceous plant, which attains a height of 2 or 3 ft. There are\nnumerous cultivated forms, differing in the shape and colour of the pod,\nwhich varies from more or less roundish to narrow-conical, with a smooth\nor wrinkled coat, and white, yellow, red or black in colour. The\nprincipal source of cayenne pepper is _C. frutescens_, the spur or goat\npepper, a dwarf shrub, a native of South America, but commonly\ncultivated in the East Indies. It produces a small, narrow, bright red\npod, having very pungent properties. _C. tetragonum_, or bonnet pepper,\nis a species much esteemed in Jamaica; it bears very fleshy fruits.\nOther well-known kinds of capsicum are the cherry pepper (_C.\ncerasiforme_), with small berries; bell pepper (_C. grossum_), which has\nthick and pulpy fruit, well adapted for pickling; and berry or bird\npepper (_C. baccatum_). The last mentioned has been grown in England\nsince 1731; its fruit is globular, and about the size of a cherry. The\nWest Indian stomachic _man-dram_ is prepared by mashing a few pods of\nbird pepper and mixing them with sliced cucumber and shallots, to which\nhave been added a little lime-juice and Madeira wine. Chillies, the\ndried ripe or unripe fruit of capsicums, especially _C. annuum_ and _C.\nfrutescens_, are used to make chilly-vinegar, as well as for pickles.\nCayenne pepper is manufactured from the ripe fruits, which are dried,\nground, mixed with wheat flour, and made into cakes with yeast; the\ncakes are baked till hard like biscuit, and then ground and sifted. The\npepper is sometimes prepared by simply drying the pods and pounding them\nfine in a mortar. Cayenne pepper is occasionally adulterated with red\nlead, vermilion, ochre, salt, ground-rice and turmeric. The taste of the\npepper is impaired by exposure to damp and the heat of the sun. Chillies\nhave been in use from time immemorial; they are eaten in great quantity\nby the people of Guiana and other warm countries, and in Europe are\nlargely consumed both as a spice and as medicine.\n\nThe dried ripe fruit of _Capsicum frutescens_ from Zanzibar, known as\npod pepper and Guinea pepper, is official in the British Pharmacopoeia\nunder the name _Capsici Fructus_. The fruit has a characteristic,\npungent odour and an intensely bitter taste. The chief constituents are\na crystallizable resin, capsaicin, a volatile alkaloid, capsicine and a\nvolatile oil. The dose is 1\/2-1 grain. The British Pharmacopoeia\ncontains two preparations of capsicum, a tincture (dose 5-15 minims) and\nan ointment. Externally the drug has the usual action of a volatile oil,\nbeing a very powerful counter-irritant. It does not, however, cause\npustulation. Its internal action is also that of its class, but its\nmarked contact properties make it specially useful in gastriatony and\nflatulence, and sometimes in hysteria.\n\n\n\n\nCAYEY, an inland district and mountain town of the department of\nGuayama, Porto Rico, celebrated for its cool, invigorating climate and\nthe beauty of its scenery. Pop. (1899) of the town, 3763; of the\ndistrict, 14,442. The town is surrounded by mountain summits, the\nhighest of which, El Torito, rises to an elevation of 2362 ft. above\nsea-level. It was made a military post by the Spaniards and used as an\nacclimatizing station. The old Spanish barracks have been enlarged and\nimproved by the American military authorities and, under the name of\n\"Henry Barracks,\" are used for the same purpose. The town is a popular\nsummer resort for residents of the coast cities. The surrounding country\nis wooded and very fertile, being especially noted for its coffee and\ntobacco. The town has large cigar factories. Cayey is connected with\nGuayama by an excellent military road.\n\n\n\n\nCAYLEY, ARTHUR (1821-1895), English mathematician, was born at Richmond,\nin Surrey, on the 16th of August 1821, the second son of Henry Cayley, a\nRussian merchant, and Maria Antonia Doughty. His father, Henry Cayley,\nretired from business in 1829 and settled in Blackheath, where Arthur\nwas sent to a private school kept by the Rev. G.B.F. Potticary; at the\nage of fourteen he was transferred to King's College school, London. He\nsoon showed that he was a boy of great capacity, and in particular that\nhe was possessed of remarkable mathematical ability. On the advice of\nthe school authorities he was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, as\na pensioner. He was there coached by William Hopkins of Peterhouse, was\nadmitted a scholar of the college in May 1840, and graduated as senior\nwrangler in 1842, and obtained the first Smith's Prize at the next\nexamination. In 1842, also, he was elected a fellow of Trinity, and\nbecame a major fellow in 1845, the year in which he proceeded to the\nM.A. degree. He was assistant tutor of Trinity for three years. In 1846,\nhaving decided to adopt the law as a profession, he left Cambridge,\nentered at Lincoln's Inn, and became a pupil of the conveyancer Mr\nChristie. He was called to the bar in 1849, and remained at the bar\nfourteen years, till 1863, when he was elected to the new Sadlerian\nchair of pure mathematics in the university of Cambridge. He settled at\nCambridge in the same year, and married Susan, daughter of Robert Moline\nof Greenwich. He continued to reside in Cambridge and to hold the\nprofessorship till his death, which occurred on the 26th of January\n1895. From the time he went first to Cambridge till his death he was\nconstantly engaged in mathematical investigation. The number of his\npapers and memoirs, some of them of considerable length, exceeds 800;\nthey were published, at the time they were composed, in various\nscientific journals in Europe and America, and are now embodied, through\nthe enterprise of the syndics of the Cambridge University Press, in\nthirteen large quarto volumes. These form an enduring monument to his\nfame. He wrote upon nearly every subject of pure mathematics, and also\nupon theoretical dynamics and spherical and physical astronomy. He was\nquite as much a geometrician as he was an analyst. Among his most\nremarkable works may be mentioned his ten memoirs on quantics, commenced\nin 1854 and completed in 1878; his creation of the theory of matrices;\nhis researches on the theory of groups; his memoir on abstract geometry,\na subject which he created; his introduction into geometry of the\n\"absolute\"; his researches on the higher singularities of curves and\nsurfaces; the classification of cubic curves; additions to the theories\nof rational transformation and correspondence; the theory of the\ntwenty-seven lines that lie on a cubic surface; the theory of elliptic\nfunctions; the attraction of ellipsoids; the British Association\nReports, 1857 and 1862, on recent progress in general and special\ntheoretical dynamics, and on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean\nmotion. He is justly regarded as one of the greatest of mathematicians.\nCompetent judges have compared him to Leonhard Euler for his range,\nanalytical power and introduction of new and fertile theories. He was\nthe recipient of nearly every academic distinction that can be conferred\nupon an eminent man of science. Amongst others may be noted honorary\ndegrees by the universities of Oxford, Dublin, Edinburgh, Gottingen,\nHeidelberg, Leiden and Bologna. He was fellow or foreign corresponding\nmember of the French Institute, the academies of Berlin, Gottingen, St\nPetersburg, Milan, Rome, Leiden, Upsala and Hungary; and he was\nnominated an officer of the Legion of Honour by President Carnot. At\nvarious times he was president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,\nof the London Mathematical Society and of the Royal Astronomical\nSociety. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1852, and\nreceived from that body a Royal medal in 1859 and the Copley medal in\n1882. He also received the De Morgan medal from the London Mathematical\nSociety, and the Huygens medal from Leiden. His nature was noble and\ngenerous, and the universal appreciation of this fact gave him great\ninfluence in his university. His portrait, by Lowes Dickinson, was\nplaced in the hall of Trinity College in 1874, and his bust, by Henry\nWiles, in the library of the same college in 1888.     (P. A. M.)\n\n\n\n\nCAYLUS, ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBIERES DE GRIMOARD DE PESTELS DE\nLEVIS, COMTE DE, Marquis d'Esternay, baron de Bransac (1692-1765),\nFrench archaeologist and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 31st\nof October 1692. He was the eldest son of Lieutenant-General Count de\nCaylus. His mother, Marthe Marguerite le Valois de Vilette de Murcay,\ncomtesse de Caylus (1673-1729), was a cousin of Mme de Maintenon, who\nbrought her up like her own daughter. She wrote valuable memoirs of the\ncourt of Louis XIV. entitled _Souvenirs_; these were edited by Voltaire\n(1770), and by many later editors, notably Renouard (1806), Ch.\nAsselineau (1860), M. de Lescure (1874), M.E. Raunie (1881), J. Soury\n(1883). While a young man Caylus distinguished himself in the campaigns\nof the French army, from 1709 to 1714. After the peace of Rastadt he\nspent some time in travelling in Italy, Greece, the East, England and\nGermany, and devoted much attention to the study and collection of\nantiquities. He became an active member of the Academy of Painting and\nSculpture and of the Academy of Inscriptions. Among his antiquarian\nworks are _Recueil d'antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, grecques,\nromaines, et gauloises_ (6 vols., Paris, 1752-1755), _Numismata Aurea\nImperatorum Romanorum_, and a _Memoire_ (1755) on the method of\nencaustic painting with wax mentioned by Pliny, which he claimed to have\nrediscovered. Diderot, who was no friend to Caylus, maintained that the\nproper method had been found by J.J. Bachelier. Caylus was an admirable\nengraver, and copied many of the paintings of the great masters. He\ncaused engravings to be made, at his own expense, of Bartoli's copies\nfrom ancient pictures and published _Nouveaux sujets de peinture et de\nsculpture_ (1755) and _Tableaux tires de l'Iliade, de l'Odysse, et de\nl'Eneide_ (1757). He encouraged artists whose reputations were still in\nthe making, but his patronage was somewhat capricious. Diderot expressed\nthis fact in an epigram in his _Salon_ of 1765: \"La mort nous a delivres\ndu plus cruel des amateurs.\" Caylus had quite another side to his\ncharacter. He had a thorough acquaintance with the gayest and most\ndisreputable sides of Parisian life, and left a number of more or less\nwitty stories dealing with it. These were collected (Amsterdam, 1787) as\nhis _Oeuvres badines completes_. The best of them is the _Histoire de M.\nGuillaume, cocher_ (c. 1730).\n\n  The _Souvenirs du comte de Caylus_, published in 1805, is of very\n  doubtful authenticity. See also A. and J. de Goncourt, _Portraits\n  intimes du XVIII^e siecle_; Ch. Nisard's edition of the\n  _Correspondance du comte de Caylus avec le pere Paciaudi_ (1877); and\n  a notice by O. Uzanne prefixed to a volume of his _Faceties_ (1879).\n\n\n\n\nCAYMAN ISLANDS, a group of three low-lying islands in the West Indies.\nThey consist of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman and Cayman Brac, and are\nsituated between 79 deg. 44' and 80 deg. 26' W. and 19 deg. 44' and 19\ndeg. 46' N., forming a dependency of Jamaica, which lies 178 m. E.S.E.\nGrand Cayman, a rock-bound island protected by coral reefs, is 17 m.\nlong and varies from 4 m. to 7 m. in breadth. It has two towns,\nGeorgetown and Boddentown. Little Cayman and Cayman Brac are both about\n70 m. E.N.E. of Grand Cayman. Excepting near the rocky coast, the\nislands are fruitful, mahogany and other valuable timbers with some\ndyewood are grown, and large quantities of coco-nuts are produced by\nthe two smaller islands. Phosphate deposits of considerable value are\nworked, but the principal occupation of the inhabitants is catching\nturtles for export to Jamaica. The people are excellent shipwrights and\ndo a considerable trade in schooners built of native wood. The islands\nare governed by a commissioner, and the laws passed by the local\nlegislative assembly are subject to the assent of the governor of\nJamaica. The population of the group is about 5000. The islands were\ndiscovered by Columbus, who named them Tortugas from the turtles with\nwhich the surrounding sea abounds. They were never occupied by the\nSpaniards and were colonized from Jamaica by the British.\n\n\n\n\nCAZALES, JACQUES ANTOINE MARIE DE (1758-1805), French orator and\npolitician, was born at Grenade in Languedoc, of a family of the lower\nnobility. Before 1789 he was a cavalry officer, but in that year was\nreturned as deputy to the states general. In the Constituent Assembly he\nbelonged to the section of moderate royalists who sought to set up a\nconstitution on the English model, and his speeches in favour of\nretaining the right of war and peace in the king's hands and on the\norganization of the judiciary gained the applause even of his opponents.\nApart from his eloquence, which gave him a place among the finest\norators of the Assembly, Cazales is mainly remembered for a duel fought\nwith Barnave. After the insurrection of the 10th of August 1792, which\nled to the downfall of royalty, Cazales emigrated. He fought in the army\nof the _emigres_ against revolutionary France, lived in Switzerland and\nin England, and did not return to France until 1803. He died on the 24th\nof November 1805. His son, Edmond de Cazales, wrote philosophical and\nreligious studies.\n\n  See _Discours de Cazales_, edited by Chare (Paris, 1821), with an\n  introduction; F.A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed.,\n  Paris, 1905.)\n\n\n\n\nCAZALIS, HENRI (1840-1909), French poet and man of letters, was born at\nCormeilles-en-Parisis (Seine-et-Oise) in 1840. He wrote under the\npseudonyms of Jean Caselli and Jean Lahor. His works include: _Chants\npopulaires de l'Italie_ (1865); _Vita tristis_, _Reveries fantastiques_,\n_Romances sans musique_ (1865); _Le Livre du neant_ (1872); _Henry\nRegnault, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1872); _L'Illusion_ (1875-1893);\n_Melancholia_ (1878); _Cantique des cantiques_ (1885); _Les Quatrains\nd'Al-Gazali_ (1896); _William Morris_ (1897). The author of the _Livre\ndu neant_ has a predilection for gloomy subjects and especially for\npictures of death. His oriental habits of thought earned for him the\ntitle of the \"Hindou du Parnasse contemporain.\" He died in July 1909.\n\n  See a notice by P. Bourget in _Anthologie des poetes fr. du XIX^e\n  siecle_ (1887-1888); J. Lemaitre, _Les Contemporains_ (1889); E.\n  Faguet in the _Revue bleue_ (October 1893).\n\n\n\n\nCAZEMBE, the hereditary name of an African chief, whose territory was\nsituated south of Lake Mweru and north of Bangweulu, between 9 deg. and\n11 deg.S. In the end of the 18th century the authority of the Cazembe\nwas recognized over a very extensive district. The kingdom, known also\nas the Cazembe, continued to exist, though with gradually diminishing\npower and extent, until the last quarter of the 19th century, when the\nCazembe sank to the rank of a petty chief. The country is now divided\nbetween Great Britain and Belgian Congo. The British half, lying east of\nthe Luapula, forms part of Rhodesia, and the chief town in it is called\nKazembe. The native state, ruled by a <DW64> race who overcame the\naboriginals, had attained a certain degree of civilization. Agriculture\nwas diligently followed, and cotton cloth, earthenware and iron goods\nmanufactured. The country contains rich deposits of copper, and copper\nore was one of the principal articles of export. The Cazembe had\ndespotic power and used it in barbarous fashion. He had hundreds of\nwives, and his chiefs imitated his example according to their means. On\nhis accession every new Cazembe chose a new site for his residence. In\n1796 the Cazembe was visited by Manoel Caetano Pereira, a Portuguese\nmerchant; and in 1798 a more important journey to the same region was\nundertaken by Dr Francisco Jose Maria de Lacerda. He died in that\ncountry on the 18th of October that year, but left behind him a\nvaluable journal. In 1802 two native traders or _pombeiros_, Pedro Joao\nBaptista and Amaro Jose, were sent by the Portuguese on a visit to the\nCazembe; and in 1831 a more extensive mission was despatched by the\nPortuguese governor of Sena. It consisted of Major Jose Monteiro and\nAntonio Gamitto, with an escort of 20 soldiers and 120 <DW64> slaves as\nporters; but its reception by the Cazembe was not altogether\nsatisfactory. In 1868 David Livingstone visited the Cazembe, whose\ncapital at that time numbered no more than 1000 souls. Since 1894, when\nthe country was divided between Britain and the Congo State, it has been\nthoroughly explored. An important copper mining industry is carried on\nin the Congo division of the territory.\n\n  See _The Lands of the Cazembe_, published by the Royal Geographical\n  Society in 1873, containing translations of Lacerda and Baptista's\n  journals, and a resume of Gamitto's _O Muata Cazembe_ (Lisbon, 1854);\n  also Livingstone's _Last Journals_ (London, 1874).\n\n\n\n\nCAZIN, JEAN CHARLES (1840-1901), French landscape-painter, son of a\nwell-known doctor, F.J. Cazin (1788-1864), was born at Samer,\nPas-de-Calais. After studying in France, he went to England, where he\nwas strongly influenced by the pre-Raphaelite movement. His chief\nearlier pictures have a religious interest, shown in such examples as\n\"The Flight into Egypt\" (1877), or \"Hagar and Ishmael\" (1880,\nLuxembourg); and afterwards his combination of luminous landscape with\nfigure-subjects (\"Souvenir de fete,\" 1881; \"Journee faite,\" 1888) gave\nhim a wide repute, and made him the leader of a new school of idealistic\nsubject-painting in France. He was made an officer of the Legion of\nHonour in 1889. His charming and poetical treatment of landscape is the\nfeature in his painting which in later years has given them an\nincreasing value among connoisseurs. His wife, Marie Cazin, who was his\npupil and exhibited her first picture at the Salon in 1876, the same\nyear in which Cazin himself made his debut there, was also a well-known\nartist and sculptor.\n\n\n\n\nCAZOTTE, JACQUES (1719-1792), French author, was born at Dijon, on the\n17th of October 1719. He was educated by the Jesuits, and at\ntwenty-seven he obtained a public office at Martinique, but it was not\ntill his return to Paris in 1760 with the rank of commissioner-general\nthat he made a public appearance as an author. His first attempts, a\nmock romance, and a coarse song, gained so much popularity, both in the\nCourt and among the people, that he was encouraged to essay something\nmore ambitious. He accordingly produced his romance, _Les Prouesses\ninimitables d'Ollivier, marquis d'Edesse_. He also wrote a number of\nfantastic oriental tales, such as his _Mille et une fadaises, Contes a\ndormir debout_ (1742). His first success was with a \"poem\" in twelve\ncantos, and in prose intermixed with verse, entitled _Ollivier_ (2\nvols., 1762), followed in 1771 by another romance, the _Lord Impromptu_.\nBut the most popular of his works was the _Diable amoureux_ (1772), a\nfantastic tale in which the hero raises the devil. The value of the\nstory lies in the picturesque setting, and the skill with which its\ndetails are carried out. Cazotte possessed extreme facility and is said\nto have turned off a seventh canto of Voltaire's _Guerre civile de\nGeneve_ in a single night. About 1775 Cazotte embraced the views of the\nIlluminati, declaring himself possessed of the power of prophecy. It was\nupon this fact that La Harpe based his famous _jeu d'esprit_, in which\nhe represents Cazotte as prophesying the most minute events of the\nRevolution. On the discovery of some of his letters in August 1792,\nCazotte was arrested; and though he escaped for a time through the love\nand courage of his daughter, he was executed on the 25th of the\nfollowing month.\n\n  The only complete edition is the _OEuvres badines et morales,\n  historiques et philosophiques de Jacques Cazotte_ (4 vols.,\n  1816-1817), though more than one collection appeared during his\n  lifetime. An edition de luxe of the _Diable amoureux_ was edited\n  (1878) by A.J. Pons, and a selection of Cazotte's _Contes_, edited\n  (1880) by Octave Uzanne, is included in the series of _Petits Conteurs\n  du XVIII^e siecle_. The best notice of Cazotte is in the _Illumines_\n  (1852) of Gerard de Nerval.\n\n\n\n\nCEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rhamnaceae,\ncontaining about forty species of shrubs or small trees, natives of\nNorth America. They are very attractive from their dense panicles of\nwhite or blue flowers, and several species are known as garden plants.\nThe leaves of one of these, _C. americanus_, New Jersey tea, or\nred-root, are used instead of the true tea; the root, which contains a\nred colouring matter, has long been employed by the Indians as a\nfebrifuge.\n\n\n\n\nCEARA, a northern maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by the Atlantic,\nE. by the Atlantic and the states of Rio Grande do Norte and Parahyba,\nS. by Pernambuco, and W. by Piauhy; and having an area of 40,253 sq. m.\nIt lies partly upon the north-east <DW72> of the great Brazilian plateau,\nand partly upon the sandy coastal plain. Its surface is a succession of\ngreat terraces, facing north and north-east, formed by the denudation of\nthe ancient sandstone plateau which once covered this part of the\ncontinent; the terraces are seamed by watercourses, and their valleys\nare broken by hills and ranges of highlands. The latter are usually\ndescribed as mountain ranges, but they are, in fact, only the remains of\nthe ancient plateau, capped with horizontal strata of sandstone, and\nhaving a remarkably uniform altitude of 2000 to 2400 ft. The flat top of\nsuch a range is called a _chapada_ or _taboleira_, and its width in\nplaces is from 32 to 56 m. The boundary line with Piauhy follows one of\nthese ranges, the Serra de Ibiapaba, which unites with another range on\nthe southern boundary of the state, known as the Serra do Araripe.\nAnother range, or escarpment, crosses the state from east to west, but\nis broken into two principal divisions, each having several local names.\nThese ranges are not continuous, the breaking down of the ancient\nplateau having been irregular and uneven. The higher ranges intercept\nconsiderable moisture from the prevailing trade winds, and their flanks\nand valleys are covered with forest, but the plateaus are either thinly\nwooded or open campo. These upland forests are of a scrubby character\nand are called _catingas_.\n\nThe sandy, coastal plain, with a width of 12 to 18 m., is nearly bare of\nvegetation. The rivers of the state are small and, with one or two\nexceptions, become completely dry in the dry season. The largest is the\nJaguaribe, which flows entirely across the state in a north-east\ndirection with an estimated length of 210 to 465 m. The year is divided\ninto a rainy and dry season, the rains beginning in January to March and\nlasting until June. The dry season, July to December, is sometimes\nbroken by slight showers in September and October, but these are of very\nslight importance. The soil is thin and porous and does not retain\nmoisture, consequently the long, dry season turns the country into a\nbarren desert, relieved only by vegetation along the river courses and\nmountain ranges, and by the hardy, widely-distributed carnahuba palm\n(_Copernicia cerifera_), which in places forms groves of considerable\nextent. Sometimes the rains fail altogether, and then a drought\n(_secca_) ensues, causing famine and pestilence throughout the entire\nregion. The most destructive droughts recorded are those of 1711, 1723,\n1777-1778, 1790, 1825, 1844-1845, and 1877-1878, the last-mentioned\ndestroying nearly all the live-stock in the state, and causing the death\nthrough starvation and pestilence of nearly half-a-million people, or\nover half the population. The climate, which is generally described as\nhealthful, is hot and humid on the coast, tempered by the cool trade\nwinds; but in the more elevated regions it is very hot and dry, although\nthe nights are cool. The sandy zone along the coast is nearly barren,\nbut behind this is a more elevated region with broken surfaces and sandy\nsoil which is amenable to cultivation and produces fruit and most\ntropical products when conditions are favourable.\n\nThe higher plateau is devoted almost exclusively to cattle-raising, once\nthe principal industry of the state, though recurring seccas have been\nan insuperable obstacle to its profitable development. There is still a\nconsiderable export of cattle, hides and skins, but no effort is made to\ndevelop the production of jerked beef on a large scale. Horses are\nraised to a limited extent; also goats, sheep and swine. The principal\nagricultural products are cotton, coffee, sugar, mandioca and tropical\nfruits. The production of cotton has increased largely since the\ndevelopment of cotton manufactures in Brazil. The natural vegetable\nproductions are important, and include _manicoba_ or Ceara rubber,\ncarnahuba wax and fibre, caju wine and ipecacuanha.\n\nThere are two lines of railway running inland from the coast: the\nBaturite line from Fortaleza to Senador Pompeu, 179 m., and the Sobral\nline from Camocim (a small port) to Ipu, 134 m. These railways were\nbuilt by the national government after the drought of 1877-1878 to give\nwork to the starving refugees, and are now operated under leases. Great\ndams were also begun for irrigation purposes.\n\nThe misfortunes and poverty of the people have hindered their material\ndevelopment to a large extent, but another obstacle is to be found in\ntheir racial and social composition. Only a very small percentage of the\npopulation which numbered 805,687 in 1890, and 849,127 in 1900, is of\npure European origin, the great majority being of the <DW52> races and\ntheir mixtures with the whites. The number of landed proprietors,\nprofessional men, merchants, &c., is comparatively small (about\none-sixth), and a part of these are of mixed blood; the remaining\nfive-sixths own no property, pay no taxes, and derive no benefits from\nthe social and political institutions about them beyond the protection\nof the proprietors upon whose estates they live, the nominal protection\nof the state, and an occasional day's wage. Education has made no\nimpression upon such people, and is confined almost exclusively to the\nupper classes, from which some of the most prominent men in Brazilian\npolitics and literature have come. The state of Ceara has formed a\nbishopric of the Roman Catholic Church since 1853, the bishop having his\nresidence at Fortaleza. The state is represented in the national\ncongress by three senators and ten deputies. Its local government is\nvested in a president and legislative assembly of one chamber elected\nfor a period of four years. Three vice-presidents are elected at the\nsame time who succeed to the presidency in case of a vacancy according\nto the number of votes received. The judicial organization consists of\nthe tribunal da Relacao at the state capital and subordinate courts in\nthe _comarcas_ and _termos_. The judges of the higher courts are\nappointed for life. The capital of the state is Fortaleza, sometimes\ncalled Ceara, which is also the principal commercial centre and shipping\nport. The principal towns are Aracaty, Baturite, Acarahu, Crato,\nMaranguape and Sobral.\n\nThe territory of Ceara includes three of the _capitanias_ originally\ngranted by the Portuguese crown in 1534. The first attempts to settle\nthe territory failed, and the earliest Portuguese settlement was made\nnear the mouth of the Rio Camocim in 1604. The French were already\nestablished on the coast, with their headquarters at Saint Louis, now\nMaranhao. Ceara was occupied by the Dutch from 1637 to 1654, and became\na dependency of Pernambuco in 1680; this relationship lasted until 1799,\nwhen the _capitania_ of Ceara was made independent. The _capitania_\nbecame a province in 1822 under Dom Pedro I. A revolution followed in\n1824, the president of the province was deposed fifteen days after his\narrival, and a republic was proclaimed. Internal dissensions immediately\nbroke out, the new president was assassinated, and after a brief reign\nof terror the province resumed its allegiance to the empire. Ceara was\none of the first provinces of Brazil to abolish slavery.\n\n  See Rodolpho Theophilo, _Historia da Secca do Ceara, 1877 a 1880_\n  (Fortaleza, 1883); Professor and Mrs Louis Agassiz, _A Journey in\n  Brazil_ (Boston, 1869); George Gardiner, _Travels in the Interior of\n  Brazil_ (London, 1846); C.F. Hartt, _Geology and Physical Geography of\n  Brazil_ (Boston, 1870); and H.H. Smith, _Brazil: the Amazon and the\n  Coast_ (New York, 1879).\n\n\n\n\nCEAWLIN (d. 593), king of the West Saxons, first mentioned in the\n_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 556 as fighting with his father\nCynric against the Britons at the battle of Beranbyrig or Barbury Hill.\nBecoming king in 560, he began a career of conquest. Silchester was\ntaken, and moving eastwards Ceawlin and his brother Cutha defeated the\nforces of AEthelberht, king of Kent, at the battle of Wibbandun in 568.\nIn 577 he led the West Saxons from Winchester towards the Severn valley;\ngained an important victory over some British kings at Deorham, and\nadded the district round Gloucester, Bath and Cirencester to his\nkingdom. A further advance was begun in 583. Uriconium, a town near the\nWrekin, and Pengwyrn, the modern Shrewsbury, were destroyed; but soon\nCeawlin was defeated by the Britons at Fethanleag or Faddiley, near\nNantwich, and his progress was effectually checked. Intestine strife\namong the West Saxons followed. In 591 Ceawlin lost the western part of\nhis kingdom, and in 592 Was defeated by his nephew, Ceolric, at\nWanborough, and driven from Wessex. He was killed in 593, possibly in an\nattempt to regain his kingdom. Ceawlin is included in the _Chronicle_\namong the Bretwaldas.\n\n  See _Two of the Saxon Chronicles_, ed. by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892);\n  _Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. ix (London, 1887); E. Guest,\n  _Origines Celticae_, vol. ii. (London, 1883).\n\n\n\n\nCEBES, the name of two Greek philosophers, (1) CEBES OF CYZICUS,\nmentioned in Athenaeus (iv. 156 D), seems to have been a Stoic, who\nlived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Some would attribute to him\nthe _Tabula Cebetis_ (see below), but as that work was well known in the\ntime of Lucian, it is probably to be placed earlier. (2) CEBES OF\nTHEBES, a disciple of Socrates and Philolaus. He is one of the speakers\nin the _Phaedo_ of Plato, in which he is represented as an earnest\nseeker after virtue and truth, keen in argument and cautious in\ndecision. Three dialogues, the [Greek: Hebdome], the [Greek: Phrynichos]\nand the [Greek: Pinax] or _Tabula_, are attributed to him by Suidas and\nDiogenes Laertius. The two former are lost, and most scholars deny the\nauthenticity of the _Tabula_ on the ground of material and verbal\nanachronisms. They attribute it either to Cebes of Cyzicus (above) or to\nan anonymous author, of the 1st century A.D., who assumed the character\nof Cebes of Thebes. The work professes to be an interpretation of an\nallegorical picture in the temple of Cronus at Athens or Thebes. The\nauthor develops the Platonic theory of pre-existence, and shows that\ntrue education consists not in mere erudition, but rather in the\nformation of character.\n\n  The _Tabula_ has been widely translated both into European languages\n  and into Arabic (the latter version published with the Greek text and\n  Latin translation by Salmasius in 1640). It is usually printed\n  together with Epictetus. Separate editions by C.S. Jerram (with\n  introduction and notes, 1878), C. Prachter (1893), and many others.\n  See Zeller's _History of Greek Philosophy_; F. Klopfer, _De Cebetis\n  Tabula_ (1818-1822); C. Prachter, _Cebetis Tabula quanam aetate\n  conscripta esse videatur_ (1885).\n\n\n\n\nCEBU, a city and municipality, port of entry, and the capital of the\nprovince of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, a\nlittle N. of the centre. Pop. (1903) of the city proper, 18,330; of the\nmunicipality, 31,079; in the same year, after the census enumeration,\nthe neighbouring municipalities of Mabolo (pop. 1903, 8454) and El Pardo\n(pop. 6461) were added to the municipality of Cebu. The surrounding\ncountry, which is level and fertile, is traversed by several good\ncarriage roads. The port, formed by the north-west shore of the island\nof Mactan, is well protected from violent winds, and in front of it\nstands a picturesque Spanish fort. The streets are wide and regularly\nlaid out. The government buildings are fairly good, and the church\nbuildings very fine. Cebu is an episcopal see, and the palace of the\nbishop, although small, is widely known for its interior decorations.\nThe Augustinian church is famous for its so-called miraculous image of\nSanto Nino. The Recoleto monastery and the seminary of San Carlos are\nworthy of mention. The cathedral was finished toward the end of the\neighteenth century. The San Jose hospital here was founded by one of the\nreligious orders. There was a leper hospital in the outskirts of the\ncity until 1906, when a leper colony was established on the island of\nCulion. Commercially, Cebu is the second city of the Philippines. Hemp,\ntobacco, sugar and copra are the most important exports. In addition to\nthe trade with foreign ports, an important domestic commerce is carried\non with Manila, Bohol, <DW64>s and northern Mindanao. Salt, pottery and\nfabrics of silk, sinamay, hemp and cotton are manufactured, and sugar\nsacks are woven in considerable quantity. The island of Cebu is known\nfor its excellent mangoes and for the rare cornucopia-shaped sponges,\ncalled Venus's flower basket (_Euplectella aspergillum_), found here.\nHistorically Cebu is famous as the scene of Magellan's landing in 1521.\nA cross, said to be the one first erected by him, is still preserved in\nthe cathedral. The great explorer lost his life in the neighbouring\nisland of Mactan; a monument marks the place where he was killed. The\nfirst Spanish settlement in the Philippines was established at Cebu in\n1565, and from that year to 1571 it was the capital of the colony. The\ncity is unincorporated. The language is Cebu-Visayan.\n\n\n\n\nCECCO D'ASCOLI (1257-1327), the popular name of FRANCESCO DEGLI STABILI,\na famous Italian encyclopaedist and poet--Cecco being the diminutive of\nFrancesco, and Ascoli, in the marshes of Ancona, the place of the\nphilosopher's birth. He devoted himself to the study of mathematics and\nastrology, and in 1322 was made professor of the latter science at the\nuniversity of Bologna. It is alleged that he entered the service of Pope\nJohn XXII. at Avignon, and that he cultivated the acquaintance of Dante\nonly to quarrel with the great poet afterwards; but of this there is no\nevidence. It is certain, however, that, having published a commentary on\nthe sphere of John de Sacrobosco, in which he propounded audacious\ntheories concerning the employment and agency of demons, he got into\ndifficulties with the clerical party, and was condemned in 1324 to\ncertain fasts and prayers, and to the payment of a fine of seventy\ncrowns. To elude this sentence he betook himself to Florence, where he\nwas attached to the household of Carlo di Calabria. But his\nfree-thinking and plain speaking had got him many enemies; he had\nattacked the _Commedia_ of Dante, and the _Canzone d'Amore_ of Guido\nCavalcanti; and his fate was sealed. Dino di Garbo, the physician, was\nindefatigable in pursuit of him; and the old accusation of impiety being\nrenewed, Cecco was again tried and sentenced, this time to the stake. He\nwas burned at Florence the day after sentence, in the seventieth year of\nhis age.\n\nCecco d'Ascoli left many works in manuscript, most of which have never\nbeen given to the world. The book by which he achieved his renown and\nwhich led to his death was the _Acerba_ (from _acervus_), an\nencyclopaedic poem, of which in 1546, the date of the last reprint, more\nthan twenty editions had been issued. It is unfinished, and consists of\nfour books in _sesta rima_. The first book treats of astronomy and\nmeteorology; the second of stellar influences, of physiognomy, and of\nthe vices and virtues; the third of minerals and of the love of animals;\nwhile the fourth propounds and solves a number of moral and physical\nproblems. Of a fifth book, on theology, the initial chapter alone was\ncompleted. A man of immense erudition and of great and varied abilities,\nCecco, whose knowledge was based on experiment and observation (a fact\nthat of itself is enough to distinguish him from the crowd of savants of\nthat age), had outstripped his contemporaries in many things. He knew of\nmetallic aerolites and shooting stars; the mystery of the dew was plain\nto him; fossil plants were accounted for by him through terrene\nrevolutions which had resulted in the formation of mountains; he is even\nsaid to have divined the circulation of the blood. Altogether a\nremarkable man, he may be described as one of the many Cassandras of the\nmiddle ages--one of the many prophets who spoke of coming light, and\nwere listened to but to have their words cast back at them in\naccusations of impiety and sentences of death.\n\n  The least faulty of the many editions of the _Acerba_ is that of\n  Venice, dated 1510. The earliest known, which has become excessively\n  rare, is that of Brescia, which has no date, but is ascribed to 1473\n  or thereabouts.\n\n\n\n\nCECIL, the name of a famous English family. This house, whose two\nbranches hold each a marquessate, had a great statesman and\nadministrator to establish and enrich it. The first Lord Burghley's many\ninquiries concerning the origin of his family created for it more than\none splendid and improbable genealogy, although his grandfather is the\nfirst ascertained ancestor. In the latter half of the 15th century a\nfamily of yeomen or small gentry with the surname of Seyceld, whose\ndescendants were accepted by Lord Burghley as his kinsmen, lived on\ntheir lands at Allt yr Ynys in Walterstone, a Herefordshire parish on\nthe Welsh marches. Of the will of Richard ap Philip Seyceld of Allt yr\nYnys, made in 1508, one David ap Richard Seyceld, apparently his younger\nson, was overseer. This David seems identical with David Cyssell,\nScisseld or Cecill, a yeoman admitted in 1494 to the freedom of Stamford\nin Lincolnshire. He may well have been one of those men from the Welsh\nborder who fought at Bosworth, for at the funeral of Henry VII. he\nappears as a yeoman of the guard and is given a livery of black cloth.\nAt Stamford he prospered, being three times mayor and three times member\nof parliament for the borough, and he served as sheriff of\nNorthamptonshire in 1532-1533. Remaining in the service of Henry VIII.\nhe was advanced to be yeoman of the chamber and sergeant-at-arms, being\nrewarded with several profitable leases and offices. His first wife was\nthe daughter of a Stamford alderman, and his second the already twice\nwidowed heir of a Lincolnshire squire. By the first marriage David Cecil\nleft at his death in 1536 a son and heir, Richard Cecil, who enjoyed a\nplace at court as yeoman of the king's wardrobe under Henry VIII. and\nEdward VI. A gentleman of the privy chamber and sometime sheriff of\nRutland, Richard Cecil had his share at the distribution of abbey lands,\nSt Michael's priory in Stamford being among the grants made to him.\nWilliam Cecil, only son of Richard, was born, by his own account, in\n1520, at Bourne in Lincolnshire. He advanced himself first in the\nservice of the protector Somerset, after whose fall, his great abilities\nbeing necessary to the council, he was made a secretary of state and\nsworn of the privy council. In 1571 he was created Lord Burghley, and\nfrom 1572, when he was given the Garter, he was lord high treasurer and\nprincipal minister to Queen Elizabeth. By his first wife, Mary Cheke,\nsister of the scholar Sir John Cheke, tutor to Edward VI., he was father\nto Thomas, first earl of Exeter. By a second wife, Mildred Cooke, the\nmost learned lady of her time, he had an only surviving son, Robert\nCecil, ancestor of the house of Salisbury.\n\nCreated earl of Exeter by James I., the second Lord Burghley was more\nsoldier than statesman, and from his death to the present day the elder\nline of the Cecils has taken small part in public affairs. William\nCecil, 2nd earl of Exeter, took as his first wife the Lady Roos,\ndaughter and heir of the 3rd earl of Rutland of the Manners family. The\nson of this marriage inherited the barony of Roos as heir general, and\ndied as a Roman Catholic at Naples in 1618 leaving no issue. A third son\nof the 1st earl was Edward Cecil, a somewhat incompetent military\ncommander, created in 1625 Lord Cecil of Putney and Viscount Wimbledon,\ntitles that died with him in 1638, although he was thrice married. In\n1801 a marquessate was given to the 10th earl of Exeter, the story of\nwhose marriage with Sarah Hoggins, daughter of a Shropshire husbandman,\nhas been refined by Tennyson into the romance of \"The Lord of Burleigh.\"\nThis elder line is still seated at Burghley, the great mansion built by\ntheir ancestor, the first lord.\n\nThe younger or Hatfield line was founded by Robert Cecil, the only\nsurviving son of the great Burghley's second marriage. As a secretary of\nstate he followed in his father's steps, and on the death of Elizabeth\nhe may be said to have secured the accession of King James, who created\nhim Lord Cecil of Essendine (1603), Viscount Cranborne (1604), and earl\nof Salisbury (1605). Forced by the king to exchange his house of\nTheobalds for Hatfield, he died in 1612, worn out with incessant labour,\nbefore he could inhabit the house which he built upon his new\nHertfordshire estate. Of Burghley and his son Salisbury, \"great\nministers of state in the eyes of Christendom,\" Clarendon writes that\n\"their wisdom and virtues died with them.\" The 2nd earl of Salisbury, \"a\nman of no words, except in hunting and hawking,\" was at first remarked\nfor his obsequiousness to the court party, but taking no part in the\nCivil War came at last to sit in the Protector's parliament. After the\nRestoration, Pepys saw him, old and discredited, at Hatfield, and notes\nhim as \"my simple Lord Salisbury.\" The 7th earl was created marquess of\nSalisbury in 1789.\n\nHatfield House, a great Jacobean mansion which has suffered much from\nrestoration and rebuilding, contains in its library the famous series of\nstate papers which passed through the hands of Burghley and his son\nSalisbury, invaluable sources for the history of their period. (O. Ba.)\n\n\n\n\nCECILIA, SAINT, in the Catholic Church the patron saint of music and of\nthe blind. Her festival falls on the 22nd of November. It was long\nsupposed that she was a noble lady of Rome who, with her husband and\nother friends whom she had converted, suffered martyrdom, c. 230, under\nthe emperor Alexander Severus. The researches of de Rossi, however\n(_Rom. sott._ ii. 147), go to confirm the statement of Fortunatus,\nbishop of Poitiers (d. 600), that she perished in Sicily under Marcus\nAurelius between 176 and 180. A church in her honour existed in Rome\nfrom about the 4th century, and was rebuilt with much splendour by Pope\nPaschal I. about the year 820, and again by Cardinal Sfondrati in 1599.\nIt is situated in the Trastevere near the Ripa Grande quay, where in\nearlier days the Ghetto was located, and gives a \"title\" to a cardinal\npriest. Cecilia, whose musical fame rests on a passing notice in her\nlegend that she praised God by instrumental as well as vocal music, has\ninspired many a masterpiece in art, including the Raphael at Bologna,\nthe Rubens in Berlin, the Domenichino in Paris, and in literature, where\nshe is commemorated especially by Chaucer's \"Seconde Nonnes Tale,\" and\nby Dryden's famous ode, set to music by Handel in 1736, and later by Sir\nHubert Parry (1889).\n\nAnother St Cecilia, who suffered in Africa in the persecution of\nDiocletian (303-304), is commemorated on the 11th of February.\n\n  See U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques_ (1905), i. 826\n  f.\n\n\n\n\nCECROPIA, in botany, a genus of trees (natural order Moraceae), native\nof tropical America. They are of very rapid growth, affording a light\nwood used for making floats. _C. peltata_ is the trumpet tree, so-called\nfrom the use made of its hollow stems by the Uaupe Indians as a musical\ninstrument. It is a tree reaching about 50 ft. in height with a large\nspreading head, and deeply lobed leaves 12 in. or more in diameter. The\nhollows of the stem and branches are inhabited by ants, which in return\nfor the shelter thus afforded, and food in the form of succulent growths\non the base of the leaf-stalks, repel the attacks of leaf-cutting ants\nwhich would otherwise strip the tree of its leaves. This is an instance\nof \"myrmecophily,\" i.e. a living together for mutual benefit of the ants\nand the plant.\n\n\n\n\nCECROPS ([Greek: Kekrops]), traditionally the first king of Attica, and\nthe founder of its political life (Pausanias ix. 33). He was said to\nhave divided the inhabitants into twelve communities, to have instituted\nthe laws of marriage and property, and a new form of worship. The\nintroduction of bloodless sacrifice, the burial of the dead, and the\ninvention of writing were also attributed to him. He is said to have\nacted as umpire during the dispute of Poseidon and Athena for the\npossession of Attica. He decided in favour of the goddess, who planted\nthe first olive tree, which he adjudged to be more useful than the horse\n(or water) which Poseidon caused to spring forth from the Acropolis rock\nwith a blow of his trident (Herodotus viii. 55; Apollodorus iii. 14). As\none of the autochthones of Attica, Cecrops is represented as human in\nthe upper part of his body, while the lower part is shaped like a dragon\n(hence he is sometimes called [Greek: diphues] or _geminus_, Diod. Sic.\ni. 28; Ovid, _Metam_. ii. 555). Miss J. E. Harrison (in _Classical\nReview_, January 1895) endeavours to show that Cecrops is the husband of\nAthene, identical with the snake-like Zeus Soter or Sosipolis, and the\nfather of Erechtheus-Erichthonius.\n\n\n\n\nCEDAR (Lat. _cedrus_, Gr. [Greek: kedros]), a name applied to several\nmembers of the natural order Coniferae. The word has been derived from\nthe Arabic _Kedr_, worth or value, or from _Kedrat_, strong, and has\nbeen supposed by some to have taken its origin from the brook Kedron, in\nJudaea.\n\n_Cedrus Libani_, the far-famed Cedar of Lebanon, is a tree which, on\naccount of its beauty, stateliness and strength, has always been a\nfavourite with poets and painters, and which, in the figurative language\nof prophecy, is frequently employed in the Scriptures as a symbol of\npower, prosperity and longevity. It grows to a vertical height of from\n50 to 80 ft.--\"exalted above all trees of the field\"--and at an\nelevation of about 6000 ft. above sea-level. In the young tree, the bole\nis straight and upright, and one or two leading branches rise above the\nrest. As the tree increases in size, however, the upper branches become\nmingled together, and the tree is then clump-headed. Numerous lateral\nramifying branches spread out from the main trunk in a horizontal\ndirection, tier upon tier, covering a compass of ground the diameter of\nwhich is often greater than the height of the tree. William Gilpin, in\nhis _Forest Scenery_, describes a cedar which, at an age of about 118\nyears, had attained to a height of 53 ft. and had a horizontal expanse\nof 96 ft. The branchlets of the cedar take the same direction as the\nbranches, and the foliage is very dense. The tree, as with the rest of\nthe fir-tribe, except the larch, is evergreen; new leaves are developed\nevery spring, but their fall is gradual. In shape the leaves are\nstraight, tapering, cylindrical and pointed; they are about 1 in. long\nand of a dark green colour, and grow in alternate tufts of about thirty\nin number. The male and female flowers grow on the same tree, but are\nseparate. The cones, which are on the upper side of the branches, are\nflattened at the ends and are 4 to 5 in. in length and 2 in. wide; they\ntake two years to come to perfection and while growing exude much resin.\nThe scales are close pressed to one another and are reddish in colour.\nThe seeds are provided with a long membranous wing. The root of the tree\nis very strong and ramifying. The cedar flourishes best on sandy, loamy\nsoils. It still grows on Lebanon, though for several centuries it was\nbelieved to be restricted to a small grove in the Kadisha valley at 6000\nft. elevation, about 15 m. from Beyrout. The number of trees in this\ngrove has been gradually diminishing, and as no young trees or seedlings\noccur, the grove will probably become extinct in course of time. Cedars\nare now known to occur in great numbers on Mt. Lebanon, chiefly on the\nwestern <DW72>s, not forming a continuous forest, but in groves, some of\nwhich contain several thousands of trees. There are also large forests\non the higher <DW72>s of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains. Lamartine\ntells us that the Arabs regard the trees as endowed with the principles\nof continual existence, and with reasoning and prescient powers, which\nenable them to prepare for the changes of the seasons.\n\nThe wood of the cedar of Lebanon is fragrant, though not so strongly\nscented as that of the juniper or red-cedar of America. The wood is\ngenerally reddish-brown, light and of a coarse grain and spongy texture,\neasy to work, but liable to shrink and warp. Mountain-grown wood is\nharder, stronger, less liable to warp and more durable.\n\nThe cedar of Lebanon is cultivated in Europe for ornament only. It can\nbe grown in parks and gardens, and thrives well; but the young plants\nare unable to bear great variations of temperature. The cedar is not\nmentioned in Evelyn's _Silva_ (1664), but it must have been introduced\nshortly afterwards. The famous Enfield cedar was planted by Dr Robert\nUvedale, (1642-1722), a noted schoolmaster and horticulturist, between\n1662-1670, and an old cedar at Bretby Park in Derbyshire is known to\nhave been planted in 1676. Some very old cedars exist also at Syon\nHouse, Woburn Abbey, Warwick Castle and elsewhere, which presumably date\nfrom the 17th century. The first cedars in Scotland were planted at\nHopetoun House in 1740; and the first one said to have been introduced\ninto France was brought from England by Bernard de Jussieu in 1734, and\nplaced in the Jardin des Plantes. Cedar-wood is earliest noticed in\nLeviticus xiv. 4, 6, where it is prescribed among the materials to be\nused for the cleansing of leprosy; but the wood there spoken of was\nprobably that of the juniper. The term _Eres_ (cedar) of Scripture does\nnot apply strictly to one kind of plant, but was used indefinitely in\nancient times, as is the word cedar at present. The term _arz_ is\napplied by the Arabs to the cedar of Lebanon, to the common pine-tree,\nand to the juniper; and certainly the \"cedars\" for masts, mentioned in\nEzek. xxvii. 5, must have been pine-trees. It seems very probable that\nthe fourscore thousand hewers employed by Solomon for cutting timber did\nnot confine their operations simply to what would now be termed cedars\nand fir-trees. Dr John Lindley considered that some of the cedar-trees\nsent by Hiram, king of Tyre, to Jerusalem might have been procured from\nMount Atlas, and have been identical with _Callitris quadrivalvis_, or\narar-tree, the wood of which is hard and durable, and was much in\nrequest in former times for the building of temples. The timber-work of\nthe roof of Cordova cathedral, built eleven centuries ago, is composed\nof it. In the time of Vitruvius \"cedars\" were growing in Crete, Africa\nand Syria. Pliny says that their wood was everlasting, and therefore\nimages of the gods were made of it; he makes mention also of the oil of\ncedar, or _cedrium_, distilled from the wood, and used by the ancients\nfor preserving their books from moths and damp; papyri anointed or\nrubbed with cedrium were on this account called _ced ati libri_. Drawers\nof cedar or chips of the wood are now employed to protect furs and\nwoollen stuffs from injury by moths. Cedar-wood, however, is said to be\ninjurious to natural history objects, and to instruments placed in\ncabinets made of it, as the resinous matter of the wood becomes\ndeposited upon them. _Cedria_, or cedar resin, is a substance similar to\nmastic, that flows from incisions in the tree; and cedar manna is a\nsweet exudation from its branches.\n\nThe genus _Cedrus_ contains two other species closely allied to _C.\nLibani_--_Cedrus Deodara_, the deodar, or \"god tree\" of the Himalayas,\nand _Cedrus atlantica_, of the Atlas range, North Africa. The deodar\nforms forests on the mountains of Afghanistan, North Beluchistan and the\nnorth-west Himalayas, flourishing in all the higher mountains from Nepal\nup to Kashmir, at an elevation of from 5500 to 12,000 ft.; on the peaks\nto the northern side of the Boorung Pass it grows to a height of 60 to\n70 ft. before branching. The wood is close-grained, long-fibred,\nperfumed and highly resinous, and resists the action of water. The\nfoliage is of a paler green, the leaves are slender and longer, and the\ntwigs are thinner than those of _C. Libani_. The tree is employed for a\nvariety of useful purposes, especially in building. It is now much\ncultivated in England as an ornamental plant. _C. atlantica_, the Atlas\ncedar, has shorter and denser leaves than _C. Libani_; the leaves are\nglaucous, sometimes of a silvery whiteness, and the cones smaller than\nin the other two forms; its wood also is hard, and more rapid in growth\nthan is that of the ordinary cedar. It is found at an altitude above the\nsea of from 4000 to 6000 ft.\n\nThe name cedar is applied to a variety of trees, including species of\nseveral genera of Conifers, _Juniperus_, _Thuja_, _Libocedrus_ and\n_Cupressus_. _Thuja gigantea_ of western North America is known in the\nUnited States as White (or Yellow) cedar, and the same name is applied\nto _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, the Port Orford or Oregon cedar, a native of\nthe north-west States, and one of the most valuable juniper trees of\nNorth America. The Bermuda cedar (_Juniperus bermudiana_) and the red or\nAmerican cedar (_J. virginiana_) are both much used in joinery and in\nthe manufacture of pencils; though other woods are now superseding them\nfor pencil-making. The Japanese cedar (_Cryptomeria japonica_) is a kind\nof cypress, the wood of which is very durable. Another species of\ncypress (_Cupressus thyoides_, also known as _Chamaecyparis thyoides_ or\n_sphaeroidea_), found in swamps in the south of Ohio and Massachusetts,\nis known as the American white cedar. It has small leaves and fibrous\nbark, the wood is light, soft and easily-worked, and very durable in\ncontact with the soil, and is much used for boat-building and for making\nfences and coopers' staves. The Spanish cedar is a name applied to\n_Juniperus thurifera_, a native of the western Mediterranean region, and\nalso to another species, _J. Oxycedrus_, a common plant in the\nMediterranean region, forming a shrub or low tree with spreading\nbranches and short, stiff, prickly leaves. The latter was much used by\nthe Greeks for making images; and its empyreumatic oil, Huile de Cade,\nis used medicinally for skin-diseases. A species of cypress, _Cupressus\nlusitanica_, which has been naturalized in the neighbourhood of Cintra\nis known as the cedar of Goa. The genus _Widdringtonia_ of tropical and\nSouth Africa is also known locally as cedar. _W. juniperoides_ is the\ncharacteristic tree of the Cederberg range in Cape Colony, while _W.\nWhytei_, recently discovered in Nyasaland and Rhodesia (the Mlanje\ncedar) is a fine tree reaching 150 ft. in height, and yielding an\nornamental light yellow-brown wood, suitable for building. The order\nCedrelaceae (which is entirely distinct from the Conifers) includes,\nalong with the mahoganies and other valuable timber-trees, the Jamaica\nand the Australian red cedars, _Cedrela odorata_, and _C. Toona_\nrespectively. The cedar-wood of Guiana, used for making canoes, is a\nspecies of the natural order Burseraceae, _Icica altissima_. It is a\nlarge tree, reaching 100 ft. in height, the wood is easily worked,\nfragrant and durable.\n\n  See Gordon's _Pinetum_; Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, _Histoire du cedre du\n  Liban_ (Paris, 1838); Loudon, _Arboretum Britannicum_, vol. iv. pp.\n  2404-2432 (London, 1839); Marquis de Chambray, _Traite pratique des\n  arbres resineux coniferes_ (Paris, 1845); J.D. Hooker, _Nat. Hist.\n  Review_ (January, 1862), pp. 11-18; Brandis, _Forest Flora of\n  North-west and Central India_, pp. 516-525 (London, 1874); Veitch,\n  _Manual of Coniferae_ (2nd ed., London, 1900).\n\n\n\n\nCEDAR CREEK, a small branch of the North Fork of the Shenandoah river,\nVirginia, U.S.A. It is known in American history as the scene of a\nmemorable battle, which took place on the 19th of October 1864, between\nthe Union army under Major-General P.H. Sheridan and the Confederates\nunder Lieut.-General J.A. Early. (See SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS.)\n\n\n\n\nCEDAR FALLS, a city of Black Hawk county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar\nriver, about 100 m. W. of Dubuque. Pop. (1890) 3459; (1900) 5319; (1905,\nstate census) 5329 (872 being foreign-born); (1910) 5012. It is served\nby the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Illinois Central, the Chicago\nGreat Western, and the Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern railways. Its\nmanufactures include flour, ground feed, other cereal preparations,\nhardware specialties, canned vegetables (especially Indian corn), and\nplaning-mill products. It is the seat of the state normal school (1876),\nand has a public library. The settlement of the place, the oldest in the\ncounty, was begun in 1847; it was laid out as a town in 1851,\nincorporated as a village in 1857, chartered as a city in 1865, and for\na short time in 1853 was the county-seat.\n\n\n\n\nCEDAR RAPIDS, a city of Linn county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar river,\nin the east central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 18,020; (1900)\n25,656, of whom 4478 were foreign-born, an unusually large and\ninfluential part being Bohemians; (1910 census) 32,811. It is served by\nthe Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, the\nChicago, Rock Island & Pacific (which has repair shops here), and the\nIllinois Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city\nhas an air of substantial prosperity; its principal streets are from 80\nft. to 120 ft. wide, paved with brick and asphalt, and well shaded.\nProminent among its buildings are the federal building, the auditorium,\nthe public library and the Masonic library, which contains one of the\nbest collections of Masonic literature in the world. The city has two\nwell-equipped hospitals, a home for aged women, a home for the\nfriendless, and four parks. The grounds of the Cedar Rapids country club\ncomprise 180 acres. Cedar Rapids is in a rich agricultural country. The\nname of the city was suggested from the rapids in the river, which\nafford abundant water power and have enabled the city to take first rank\nin Iowa (1905) as a manufacturing centre. From 1900 to 1905 there was an\nincrease in the value of its manufactured products from $11,135,435 to\n$16,279,706, or 46.2%. More than one-fourth of the value of its\nmanufactures is in Quaker Oats and other food preparations; among those\nof less importance are lumber and planing-mill products, foundry and\nmachine-shop products, furniture, patent medicines, pumps, carriages and\nwaggons, packed meats and agricultural implements. Cedar Rapids has also\na large grain trade and a large jobbing business, especially in dry\ngoods, millinery, groceries, paper and drugs. At Cedar Rapids are Coe\nCollege (co-educational; Presbyterian), which grew out of the Cedar\nRapids Collegiate Institute (1851), was named in honour of Daniel Coe, a\nbenefactor, and was chartered under its present name and opened in 1881;\nthe Interstate Correspondence schools, and the Cedar Rapids business\ncollege. The first settlers came in 1838; but the city's early growth\nwas slow, and it was not incorporated until 1856. It has been governed\nby commission since 1908.\n\n\n\n\nCEFALU (anc. _Cephaloedium_), a seaport and episcopal see of the\nprovince of Palermo, Sicily, 42 m. E. of Palermo by rail. Pop. (1901)\n13,273. The ancient town (of Sicel origin, probably, despite its Greek\nname) takes its name from the headland ([Greek: kephale], head) upon\nwhich it stood (1233 ft.); its fortifications extended to the shore, on\nthe side where the modern town now is, in the form of two long walls\nprotecting the port. There are remains of a wall of massive rectangular\nblocks of stone at the modern Porta Garibaldi on the south. It does not\nappear in history before 396 B.C., and seems to have owed its importance\nmainly to its naturally strong position. The only ancient remains on the\nmountain are those of a small building in good polygonal work (a style\nof construction very rare in Sicily), consisting of a passage on each\nside of which a chamber opens. The doorways are of finely-cut stone, and\nof Greek type, and the date, though uncertain, cannot, from the careful\njointing of the blocks, be very early. On the summit of the promontory\nare extensive remains of a Saracenic castle. The new town was founded at\nthe foot of the mountain, by the shore, by Roger II. in 1131, and the\ncathedral was begun in the same year. The exterior is well preserved,\nand is largely decorated with interlacing pointed arches; the windows\nalso are pointed. On each side of the facade is a massive tower of four\nstoreys. The round-headed Norman portal is worthy of note. The interior\nwas restored in 1559, though the pointed arches of the nave, borne by\nancient granite columns, are still visible: and the only mosaics\npreserved are those of the apse and the last bay of the choir: they are\nremarkably fine specimens of the art of the period (1148) and, though\nrestored in 1859-1862, have suffered much less than those at Palermo and\nMonreale from the process. The figure of the Saviour is especially fine.\nThe groined vaulting of the roof is visible in the choir and the right\ntransept, while the rest of the church has a wooden roof. Fine\ncloisters, coeval with the cathedral, adjoin it. (See G. Hubbard in\n_Journal of the R.I.B.A._ xv. 333 sqq., 1908.) The harbour is\ncomparatively small.     (T. As.)\n\n\n\n\nCEHEGIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on\nthe right bank of the river Caravaca, a small tributary of the Segura.\nPop. (1900) 11,601. Cehegin has a thriving trade in farm produce,\nespecially wine, olive oil and hemp; and various kinds of marble are\nobtained from quarries near the town. Some of the older houses, however,\nas well as the parish church and the convent of San Francisco, which\nstill has well-defined Roman inscriptions on its walls, are built of\nstone from the ruins of _Begastri_, a Roman colony which stood on a\nsmall adjacent hill known as the Cabecico de Roenas. The name _Cehegin_\nis sometimes connected by Spanish antiquaries with that of the _Zenaga_,\n_Senhaja_ or _Senajeh_, a North African tribe, which invaded Spain in\nthe 11th century.\n\n\n\n\nCEILING (from a verb \"to ceil,\" i.e. to line or cover; of disputed\netymology, but apparently connected with Fr. _ciel_, Lat. _caelum_,\nsky), in architecture, the upper covering of a church, hall or room.\nCeilings are now usually formed of plaster, but in former times they\nwere commonly either boarded (of which St Albans cathedral is perhaps\nthe earliest example), or showed the beams and joists, which in England\nwere moulded and carved, and in France and Italy were richly painted and\ngilded. Sometimes the ceilings were horizontal, sometimes canted on two\nsides, and sometimes they take the form of a barrel-vault. Ribs are\nsometimes planted on the boarding to divide up the surface, and their\nintersections are enriched with bosses. About the middle of the 16th\ncentury the ceilings were formed in plaster with projecting ribs,\ninterlaced ornament and pendants, and the characteristics of the\nElizabethan style. At Bramall Hall, Broughton Castle, Hatfield, Knowle,\nSizergh and Levens in Westmorland, and Dorfold in Cheshire, are numerous\nexamples, some with pendants. In Italy, at the same period, the plaster\nceilings were based on the forms taken by vaulting; they were of\ninfinite variety and were richly decorated with sunk panels containing\nthe Roman conventional foliage. Raphael, about 1520, reproduced in the\nVatican some of the stucco-duro ornament which he had studied in the\nGolden House of Nero, excavated under his directions. Later, about the\nmiddle of the 16th century, great coves were formed round the room,\nwhich were decorated with cartouches and figures in relief, garlands and\nswags. The great halls of the Ducal Palace at Venice and the galleries\nof the Pitti Palace at Florence were ceiled in this way. These coved\nceilings were introduced into England in the middle of the 17th century.\nIn Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh there is a fine ceiling of 1671, with\nfigures (probably executed by Italian craftsmen) and floral wreaths.\n\nAt Coleshill, Berkshire, a ceiling by Inigo Jones (1650) shows a type\nwhich became more or less universal for a century, viz. deeply sunk\npanels with modillions round, and bands enriched with foliage, fruit,\n&c., in bold relief. Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, James Gibbs, John Webb\nand other architects continued on the same lines, and in 1760 Robert\nAdam introduced his type of ceiling, sometimes horizontal, and sometimes\nsegmental, in which panels are suggested only, with slight projecting\nlines and rings of leaves, swags and arabesque work, which, like\nRaphael's, was found on the ceilings of the Roman tombs and baths in\nRome and Pompeii. George Richardson followed with similar work, and Sir\nW. Chambers, in the rooms originally occupied by the Royal Academy and\nthe learned societies in Somerset House, designed many admirable\nceilings. The moulds of all the ornamental devices of Robert Adam are\npreserved and are still utilized for many modern ceilings.\n     (R. P. S.)\n\n\n\n\nCEILLIER, REMY (1688-1761), Benedictine monk of the Lorraine\ncongregation of St Vannes. He was the compiler of an immense Patrology,\n_Histoire generale des auteurs sacres et ecclesiastiques_ (23 vols.,\nParis, 1720-1763), being a history and analysis of the writings of all\nthe ecclesiastical writers of the first thirteen centuries. He put\ninfinite trouble and time into the work, and many portions of it are\nexceedingly well done. A later and improved edition was produced in\nParis, 1858, in 14 vols. Ceillier's other work, _Apologie de la morale\ndes peres de l'eglise_ (Paris, 1718), also won some celebrity.\n\n\n\n\nCELAENAE, an ancient city of Phrygia, situated on the great trade route\nto the East. Its acropolis long held out against Alexander in 333 and\nsurrendered to him at last by arrangement. His successor, Eumenes, made\nit for some time his headquarters, as did Antigonus until 301. From\nLysimachus it passed to Seleucus, whose son Antiochus, seeing its\ngeographical importance, refounded it on a more open site as Apamea\n(q.v.). West of the acropolis were the palace of Xerxes and the Agora,\nin or near which is the cavern whence the Marsyas, one of the sources of\nthe Maeander, issues. According to Xenophon, Cyrus had a palace and\nlarge park full of wild animals at Celaenae.\n\n  See G. Weber, _Dineir-Celenes_ (1892).\n\n\n\n\nCELANDINE, _Chelidonium majus_, a member of the poppy family, an erect\nbranched herb from 1 to 2 ft. high with a yellow juice, much divided\nleaves, and yellow flowers nearly an inch across, succeeded by a narrow\nthin pod opening by a pair of thin valves, separating upwards. The plant\ngrows in waste places and hedgerows, and is probably an escape from\ncultivation. The lesser celandine is a species of _Ranunculus_ (_R.\nFicaria_), a small low-growing herb with smooth heart-shaped leaves and\nbright yellow flowers about an inch across, borne each on a stout stalk\nspringing from a leaf-axil. It flowers in early spring, in pastures and\nwaste-places.\n\n\n\n\nCELANO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 73 m.\nE. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901) 9725. It is finely situated on a hill\nabove the Lago Fucino, and is dominated by a square castle, with round\ntowers at the angles, erected in its present form in 1450. It contains\nthree churches with 13th century facades in the style of those of\nAquila. The origin of the town goes back to Lombard times. A count of\nCelano is first mentioned in 1178. It was the birthplace of Thomas of\nCelano, the author of the _Dies Irae_.\n\n\n\n\nCELEBES,[1] one of the four Great Sunda Islands in the Dutch East\nIndies. Its general outline is extremely irregular, and has been\ncompared to that of a starfish with the rays torn off from one side,\ncorresponding to the west side of the island. It consists of four great\npeninsulas, extending from a comparatively small nucleus towards the\nnorth-east, east, south-east and south, and separated by the three large\ngulfs of Tomini or Gorontalo, Tolo or Tomaiki, and Boni. Of these gulfs\nthe first is by far the largest, the other two having much wider\nentrances and not extending so far inwards. Most important among the\nsmaller inlets are the bays of Amurang, Kwandang and Tontoli on the\nnorth coast, Palos and Pare-Pare on the west, and Kendari or Vosmaer on\nthe east. Of the numerous considerable islands which lie north-east,\neast and south of Celebes (those off the west coast are few and small),\nthe chief are prolongations of the four great peninsulas--the Sangir and\nTalaut islands off the north-east, the Banggai and Sula off the east,\nWuna and Buton off the south-east, and Saleyer off the south. Including\nthe adjacent islands, the area of Celebes is estimated at 77,855 sq. m.,\nand the population at 2,000,000; without them the area is 69,255 sq. m.\nand the population 1,250,000.\n\nThe scenery in Celebes is most varied and picturesque. \"Nowhere in the\narchipelago,\" wrote A. R. Wallace, \"have I seen such gorges, chasms and\nprecipices as abound in the district of Maros\" (in the southern\npeninsula); \"in many parts there are vertical or even overhanging\nprecipices five or six hundred feet high, yet completely clothed with a\ntapestry of vegetation.\" Much of the country, especially round the Gulf\nof Tolo, is covered with primeval forests and thickets, traversed by\nscarcely perceptible paths, or broken with a few clearings and villages.\nA considerable part of the island has been little explored, but the\ngeneral character seems to be mountainous. Well-defined ranges prolong\nthemselves through each of the peninsulas, rising in many places to a\nconsiderable elevation. Naturally there are no great river-basins or\nextensive plains, but one of the features of the island is the frequent\noccurrence, not only along the coasts, but at various heights inland, of\nbeautiful stretches of level ground often covered with the richest\npastures. Minahassa, the north-eastern extremity, consists of a plateau\ndivided into sections by volcanoes (Klabat, 6620 ft., being the\nhighest). Sulphur springs occur here. In the west of the northern\npeninsula the interior consists in part of plateaus of considerable\nextent enclosed by the coast ranges. Near Lake Posso, in the centre of\nthe island, the mountains are higher; the Tampiko massif has a height of\nnearly 5000 ft., the chains south and west of the lake have a general\naltitude of about 5450 ft., with peaks still loftier. In the southern\npeninsula two chains stretch parallel with the west and east coasts; the\nformer is the higher, with a general altitude of 3200 ft. In the south\nit joins the Peak of Bonthain, or Lompo-battang, a great volcanic mass\n10,088 ft. high. In the east central part of the island the mountain\nKoruve exceeds 10,000 ft., and is supposed to be the highest in the\nisland. An alluvial coast plain, 7 to 9 m. wide, stretches along the\nfoot of the western chain, and between the two chains is the basin of\nthe Walannae river, draining northward into Lake Tempe. Little is known\nof the orography of the eastern peninsula. At the base of the\nsouth-eastern there is another large lake, Tovieti. In this peninsula\nthere are parallel ranges on the east and west flanks. The trench\nbetween them is partly occupied by the vast swamp of Lake Opa.\n\nThe rivers of the narrow mountainous peninsulas form many rapids and\ncataracts; as the Tondano, draining the lake of the same name to the\nnorth-west coast of Minahassa at Menado; the Rano-i-Apo, flowing over\nthe plateau of Mongondo to the Gulf of Amurang; the Poigar, issuing from\na little-known lake of that plateau; the Lombagin, traversing narrow\ncanons; and the river of Boni, which has its outfall in the plain of\nGorontalo, near the mouth of the Bolango or Tapa, the latter connected\nby a canal with the Lake of Limbotto. All these rivers are navigable by\npraus or rafts for only a few miles above the mouth. In central Celebes,\nthe Kodina flows into Lake Posso, and the Kalaena discharges to the Gulf\nof Boni; the Posso, navigable by _blottos_ (canoes formed of hollowed\ntree-trunks), is the only river flowing from the lake to the Gulf of\nTomini. The rivers of the southern peninsula, owing to the relief of the\nsurface, are navigable to a somewhat greater extent. The Walannae flows\ninto Lake Tempe, and, continued by the Jenrana (Tienrana), which\ndischarges into the Gulf of Boni, is navigable for small boats; the\nSadang, with many affluents, flows to the west coast, and is navigable\nby _sanpans_. The Jenemaja is a broad river, navigable far from the\nmouth. The coasts of Celebes are often fertile and well populated; but,\nas shown by the marine charts, many sand, mud and stone banks lie near\nthe shore, and consequently there are few accessible or natural ports\nor good roadsteads.\n\n  _Geology._--The geological observations on Celebes are too scattered\n  to reveal its structure. The greater part of the island seems to be\n  formed of gneiss and other crystalline rocks. These are overlaid by\n  conglomerates, limestones and clay slates of very doubtful age, the\n  most interesting being a radiolarian clay which occurs on the south\n  side of the Matinang Mountains, at the north end of Lake Posso, &c.;\n  it may correspond with the radiolarian cherts of Borneo. Tertiary beds\n  are found, especially near the coast. The Eocene includes a series of\n  sandstones and marls with lignite, and these are overlaid by nummulite\n  limestones. The Miocene contains an _Orbitoides_ limestone. Intrusive\n  and volcanic rocks of great variety and of various ages occur.\n  Peridotite and gabbro form much of the eastern peninsula (Banggai).\n  Leucite and nepheline rocks have been found in various parts of the\n  island, especially in the south-west. In Minahassa, at the northern\n  extremity, there is a large area of tuffs and agglomerates consisting\n  chiefly of augite andesite, and in this area there are many recent\n  volcanic cones. Eruptions still take place at intervals, but the\n  volcanoes for the most part seem to have reached the solfataric stage.\n\n_Climate._--The climate of the island, everywhere accessible to the\ninfluence of the sea, is maritime-tropical, the temperature ranging\ngenerally between 77 deg. and 80 deg. F., the extremes being about 90\ndeg. and 70 deg. F., only on the higher mountains falling during the\nnight to 54 deg. or 55 deg. F. The rainfall in the northern peninsula\n(north of the equator) differs from that of the southern; the former has\nrains (not caused by the monsoon), and of smaller amount, 102 in.\nannually; the latter has a greater rainfall, 157 in., brought by the\nnorth-western monsoon, and of which the west coast receives a much\nlarger share than the east.\n\n_Fauna and Flora._--In spite of its situation in the centre of the\narchipelago, Celebes possesses a fauna of a very distinctive kind. The\nnumber of species is small, but in many cases they are peculiar to the\nisland. Of land birds, for example, about 160 species are known, and of\nthese not less than about 90 are peculiar, the majority of the remainder\nbeing Asiatic in distinction from Australian. Mammals are few in\nspecies, but remarkable, especially _Macacus niger_, an ape found\nnowhere else but in Bachian; _Anoa depressicornis_, a small ox-like\nquadruped which inhabits the mountainous districts; and the babirusa or\npig-deer of the Malays. Some of the animals are probably descendants of\nspecimens introduced by man; others are allied in species, but not\nidentical, with mammals of Java and Borneo; others again, including the\nthree just mentioned, are wholly or practically confined to Celebes.\nThere are no large beasts of prey, and neither the elephant, the\nrhinoceros nor the tapir is represented. Wild-buffaloes, swine and goats\nare pretty common; and most of the usual domestic animals are kept. The\nhorses are in high repute in the archipelago; formerly about 700 were\nyearly exported to Java, but the supply has considerably diminished.\n\nThe same peculiarity of species holds in regard to the insects of the\nCelebes (so far as they are known) as to the mammals and birds. Out of\n118 species of butterflies, belonging to four important classes, no\nfewer than 86 are peculiar; while among the rose-chafers or _Cetoniinae_\nthe same is the case in 19 out of 30. Equally remarkable with this\npresence of peculiar species is the absence of many kinds that are\ncommon in the rest of the archipelago; and these facts have been\nconsidered to indicate connexion with a larger land-mass at a very\ndistant geological epoch, and the subsequent continuous isolation of\nCelebes. This view, however, has been controverted. It is held that in\nthe Miocene and Pliocene periods there were land connexions with the\nPhilippines, Java and the Moluccas, and through the last with\nAustralasian lands to the east and south-east. Migration of species took\nplace along these lines in both directions. Those immigrants which\nremained in what is now Celebes may have developed new species.\nMoreover, while Celebes has species which are peculiar to itself and one\nother of the islands just mentioned, it has none which it shares\nexclusively with Borneo, and thus the importance of the Macassar Strait\nas a biological division is indicated.\n\nVegetation is extremely rich; but there are fewer large trees than in\nthe other islands of the archipelago. Of plants that furnish food for\nman the most important are rice, maize and millet, coffee, the coco-nut\ntree, sago-palm, the obi or native potato, the bread-fruit and the\ntamarind; with lemons, oranges, mangosteens, wild-plums, Spanish pepper,\nbeans, melons and sugar-cane. The shaddock is to be found only in the\nlower plains. Indigo, cotton and tobacco are grown; the bamboo and the\nratan-palm are common in the woods; and among the larger trees are\nsandal-wood, ebony, sapan and teak. The palm, _Arenga saccharifera_,\nfurnishes _gemuti_ fibres for ropes; its juice is manufactured into\nsugar and a beverage called sagueir; and intoxicating drinks are\nprepared from several other palms.\n\n_Products._--As in natural vegetation and fauna, so in cultivated\nproducts, Celebes, apart from its peculiarities, presents the\ntransitional link between the Asiatic and the Australian regions of the\nMalayan province. For example, rice is produced here in smaller quantity\nand of inferior quality to that in the western part of the archipelago,\nbut superior to that in the eastern section, where sago and sorghum form\nthe staple articles of food. The products of the forests supply about\nhalf the total exports. The fisheries include trepang, turtle and pearl\noysters. Gold is worked under European direction in the district of\nGorontalo, but with only partial success; the search for coal in the\nsouthern peninsula has yielded no satisfactory results; tin, iron and\ncopper, found in the eastern peninsula and elsewhere, are utilized only\nfor native industries.\n\n_Natives._--The native population of the island is all of Malayan stock.\nThe three most important peoples are the Bugis (q.v.) the Macassars and\nthe Mandars. The medley of other Malayan tribes, of a more or less\nsavage type, living in the island, are known under the collective name\nof Alfuros (q.v.). The Macassars are well-built and muscular, and have\nin general a dark-brown complexion, a broad and expressive face, black\nand sparkling eyes, a high forehead, a flattish nose, a large mouth and\nlong black soft hair. The women are sprightly, clever and amiable. The\nmen are brave and not treacherous, but ambitious, jealous and extremely\nrevengeful. Drunkenness is rare, but they are passionate, and running\namuck is frequent among them. In all sorts of bodily exercises, as\nswinging, wrestling, dancing, riding and hunting, they take great\npleasure. Though they call themselves Mahommedans, their religion is\nlargely mingled with pagan superstitions; they worship animals, and a\ncertain divinity called Karaeng Love, who has power over their fortune\nand health. Except where Dutch influence has made itself felt, little\nattention has been paid by the native races to agriculture; and their\nmanufacturing industries are few and limited. The weaving of cotton\ncloth is principally carried on by women; and the process, at least for\nthe finer description, is tedious in the extreme. The houses are built\nof wood and bamboo; and as the use of diagonal struts is not practised,\nthe walls soon lean over from the force of the winds. The Macassar\nlanguage, which belongs to the Malayo-Javanese group, is spoken in many\nparts of the southern peninsula; but it has a much smaller area than the\nBuginese, which is the language of Boni. It is deficient in\ngeneralizations; thus, for example, it has words for the idea of\ncarrying in the hand, carrying on the head, carrying on the shoulder,\nand so on, but has no word for carrying simply. It has adopted a certain\nnumber of vocables from Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese and Portuguese, but on\nthe whole is remarkably pure, and has undergone comparatively few recent\nchanges. It is written in a peculiar character, which has displaced, and\nprobably been corrupted from, an old form employed as late as the 17th\ncentury. Neither bears any trace of derivation from the Sanskrit\nalphabet. The priests affect the use of the Arabic letters. The\nliterature is poor, and consists largely of romantic stories from the\nMalay, and religious treatises from the Arabic. Of the few original\npieces the most important are the early histories of Goa, Tello and some\nother states of Celebes, and the _Rapang_, or collection of the decrees\nand maxims of the old princes and sages. The more modern productions are\nletters, laws and poems, many of the last of considerable beauty.\n\n_Divisions, Towns, Population._--Celebes is divided by the Dutch, for\nadministrative purposes, into the government of Celebes with\ndependencies (south-eastern and southern peninsulas and all west coast),\nand the residency of Menado (north-eastern peninsula and coast of Gulf\nof Tomini). The eastern peninsula and coast of the Gulf of Tolo belong\npolitically to the residency of Ternate (q.v.). The following table\nshows approximately the distribution and composition of the\npopulation:--\n\n  +-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+\n  |                       |          |        |      |  Other    |         |         |\n  |                       |Europeans.|Chinese.|Arabs.| Oriental  | Natives.|  Total. |\n  |                       |          |        |      |Foreigners.|         |         |\n  +-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+\n  | Government of Celebes |          |        |      |           |         |         |\n  |   and Dependencies    |  1414    |  3738  |  554 |     54    | 409,739 | 415,499 |\n  | Residency of Menado-- |          |        |      |           |         |         |\n  |   Minahassa           |   836    |  3574  |  286 |     16    |\\430,941 | 436,406 |\n  |   Gorontalo           |   115    |   505  |  133 |    . .    |\/        |         |\n  +-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+\n\n  The _Government of Celebes and Dependencies_ is subdivided into the\n  government territory, the vassal states (Boni, q.v., and Ternate), and\n  the federal countries. The density of population for the whole\n  government is estimated as 3.7 or 4 per sq. m., varying from 2.2 in\n  the vassal and federated states to 14.7 to 18.4 for Macassar and the\n  districts directly governed by the Dutch. The density of population in\n  districts outside the influence of European government sinks to 1 and\n  less per sq. m. As in the case of Minahassa, the difference must be\n  explained by physical and moral conditions. Two-thirds of the natives\n  live by agriculture, and one-third by trade, navigation, shipbuilding\n  and other industries. In agreement with these principal occupations,\n  the centres of population are found in southern Celebes, on the coast\n  (not in the interior plains or on the lake, as in Menado). Palos\n  (3000), with good port; Pare-Pare, connected by road with Lake Tempe;\n  and Macassar (17,925), the seat of the governor and the centre of\n  trade for the eastern part of the archipelago. On the south coast must\n  also be named Bonthain (4000); on the east coast, Balong-Nipa; and\n  Buton and Saleyer, seats of administration and ports of call on the\n  island groups of the same names.\n\n  The _Residency of Menado_ comprises three districts: Minahassa, the\n  little states along the north coast west of Minahassa, and Gorontalo,\n  including the other states of the northern peninsula lying along the\n  Gulf of Tomini. The density of population being calculated at about\n  2.7 to 3 per sq. m. for Celebes, is 16.2 for Minahassa, but only 1.5\n  to 2 for the Residency of Menado. Centres of population in Menado are\n  Amurang (3000), the seat of a Dutch controller, and a calling place\n  for the steamers of the Indian Packet Company; Menado (10,000), the\n  chief town of the residency, the principal station of the Dutch\n  missionaries, with a fair amount of trade, but an unsafe roadstead;\n  Tondano (12,000), near the lake and river of the same name, at an\n  altitude of nearly 2000 ft., and one of the chief centres; Gorontalo,\n  one of the most important towns of Celebes, carrying on direct trade\n  with Singapore and Europe. All the other coast places have some\n  importance as chief villages of the little states and as ports of call\n  for the vessels of the steam packet company, but have only from 500 to\n  1000 inhabitants.\n\n_History._--Celebes was first discovered by the Portuguese in the early\npart of the 16th century, the exact date assigned by some authorities\nbeing 1512. The name is not used by the natives, and is apparently of\nforeign origin, but has been variously derived, e.g. from the mountain\nof Klabat or Kalabat, or from _Seli Besi_, an iron kris carried by the\nnatives, of whom those who were first asked for the name of the island\nwere conceived, according to this theory, to have misunderstood their\nquestioners. At the time of the Portuguese discovery, the Macassars were\nthe most powerful people in the island, having successfully defended\nthemselves against the king of the Moluccas and the sultan of Ternate.\nIn 1609 the British attempted to gain a footing. At what time the Dutch\nfirst arrived is not certainly known, but it was probably in the end of\nthe 16th or beginning of the 17th century, since in 1607 they formed a\nconnexion with Macassar. In 1611 the Dutch East Indian Company obtained\nthe monopoly of trade on the island of Buton; and in 1618 an\ninsurrection in Macassar gave them an opportunity of obtaining a\ndefinite establishment there. In 1660 the kingdom was subjugated, but in\n1666 the war broke out anew. It was brought to an end in the following\nyear, and the treaty of Bonga or Banga was signed, by which the Dutch\nwere recognized as protectors. In 1683 the north-eastern part of the\nisland was conquered by Robert Paddenburg and placed under the command\nof the governor of the Moluccas. In 1703 a fort was erected at Menado.\nThe kingdom of Boni was successfully attacked in 1824, and in August of\nthat year the Bonga treaty was renewed in a greatly modified form. Since\nthen the principal military event is the Boni insurrection which was\nquelled in 1859, but this was far from pacifying the country\npermanently. A series of revolts of various chiefs in 1905-6 was not\narrested without considerable fighting, but after this the whole island\nwas brought under Dutch authority, even where native rule survived.\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In P. J. Veth's _Woordenboek van Nederlandsch Indie_\n  there will be found an extensive bibliography of Celebes drawn up by\n  H. C. Millies. For additional bibliography and data for the island and\n  its population, see C. M. Kan, \"Celebes,\" in the _Encyclopaedie van\n  Nederlandsch Indie_, ed. by P.A. van der Lith and A. H. Spaan (The\n  Hague, 1895), &c., vol. i. p. 314. See P. and F. Sarasin (who have\n  carried out extensive explorations in the island), \"Berichte aus\n  Celebes,\" _Zeitschr. der Ges. f. Erdk._ xxix. 351; _Entwurf einer\n  geographisch-geologischen Beschreibung der Insel Celebes_ (Wiesbaden,\n  1901); _Reisen in Celebes, 1893-1896, 1902-1903_ (Wiesbaden, 1905);\n  _Versuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes_ (Wiesbaden, 1906); C.\n  van der Hart, _Reize rondon het Eiland Celebes_ (The Hague, 1853);\n  Capt. R. Mundy, _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes_ (London,\n  1848); P. J. Veth, _Een Nederlandsch reiziger op Zuid Celebes_\n  (Amsterdam, 1875); J. G. F. Riedel, _Het landschap Boeool, Noord\n  Selebes_ (1872); and \"Die Landschaften Holontalo, Limoeto,\" &c., in\n  _Zeitschr. fur Ethnologie_ (1871); H. Bucking, \"Beitrage zur Geologie\n  von Celebes,\" _Samml. geol. Reichsmus. Leiden_, vol. vii. pp. 29-205\n  (1902), pp. 221-224 (1904); and various articles in _Tijdschrift v. h.\n  Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ and _Tijdsch. v. h. Batavian. Gen._\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] The second syllable is accented.\n\n\n\n\nCELERY (_Apium graveolens_), a biennial plant belonging to the natural\norder Umbelliferae, which, in its wild state, occurs in England by the\nsides of ditches and in marshy places, especially near the sea,\nproducing a furrowed stalk and compound leaves with wedge-shaped\nleaflets, the whole plant having a coarse, rank taste and a peculiar\nsmell. It is also widely distributed in the north temperate region of\nthe Old World. By cultivation and blanching the stalks lose their acrid\nqualities and assume the mild sweetish aromatic taste peculiar to celery\nas a salad plant. The plants are raised from seed, sown either in a hot\nbed or in the open garden, according to the season of the year, and\nafter one or two thinnings out and transplantings, they are, on\nattaining a height of 6 or 8 in., planted out in deep trenches for\nconvenience of blanching, which is effected by earthing up and so\nexcluding the stems from the influence of light. A large number of\nvarieties are cultivated by gardeners, which are ranged under two\nclasses, white and red,--the white varieties being generally the best\nflavoured and most crisp and tender. As a salad plant, celery,\nespecially if at all \"stringy,\" is difficult of digestion. Both blanched\nand green it is stewed and used in soups, the seeds also being used as a\nflavouring ingredient. In the south of Europe celery is seldom blanched,\nbut is much used in its natural condition.\n\n_Celeriac_, or turnip-rooted celery (_Apium graveolens_ var.\n_rapaceum_), is a variety cultivated more on account of its roots than\nfor the stalks, although both are edible and are used for salads and in\nsoups. It is chiefly grown in the north of Europe. As the tops are not\nrequired, trenching is unnecessary, otherwise the cultivation is the\nsame as for celery.\n\n\n\n\nCELESTE, MADAME (1815-1882), French dancer and actress, was born in\nParis on the 16th of August 1815. As a little girl she was a pupil in\nthe ballet class at the Opera. When fifteen, she had an offer from the\nUnited States, and made her debut at the Bowery theatre, New York.\nReturning to England, she appeared at Liverpool as Fenella in\n_Masaniello_, and also in London (1831). In 1834 she aroused such\nenthusiasm in America that her admirers carried her on their shoulders\nand took the horses out of her carriage in order to pull it themselves.\nIt is even said that President Jackson introduced her to his cabinet as\nan adopted citizen of the Union. Having made a large fortune, she\nreturned to England in 1837. She now gave up dancing, and appeared as an\nactress, first at Drury Lane and then at the Haymarket. In 1844 she\njoined Benjamin Webster in the management of the Adelphi, and afterwards\ntook the sole management of the Lyceum till 1861. She made a third\nvisit to the United States from 1865 to 1868, and retired in 1870. Her\nfavourite part was Miami in Buckstone's _Green Bushes_. She died in\nParis on the 12th of February 1882.\n\n\n\n\nCELESTINA, LA, the popular alternative title attached from 1519 (or\nearlier) to the anonymous _Comedia de Caliste y Melibea_, a Spanish\nnovel in dialogue which was celebrated throughout Europe during the 16th\ncentury. In the two earliest known editions (Burgos, 1499, and Seville,\n1501) the _Comedia_ consists of sixteen acts; the reprints issued after\n1501 are entitled _Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea_, and contain\ntwenty-one acts. Three of these reprints include a twenty-second act\nwhich is admittedly spurious, and the authenticity of Acts XVII.-XXI. is\ndisputed. The authorship of the _Celestina_ and the date of its\ncomposition are doubtful. An anonymous prefatory letter in the editions\nsubsequent to 1501 attributes the book to Juan de Mena or Rodrigo Cota,\nbut this ascription is universally rejected. The prevailing opinion is\nthat the author of the twenty-one acts was Fernando de Rojas, apparently\na Spanish Jew resident at the Puebla de Montalban in the province of\nToledo; R. Foulche-Delbose, however, maintains that the original sixteen\nacts are by an unknown writer who had no part in the five supplementary\nacts. Some scholars give 1483 as the date of composition; others hold\nthat the book was written in 1497. These questions are still unsettled.\nThough profoundly original in treatment, the _Celestina_ has points of\nanalogy with the work of earlier writers, such as Juan Ruiz (q.v.), the\narchpriest of Hita; his rapid sketches of Trota-conventas, Melon and\nEndrina no doubt suggested the finished portraits of Celestina, Calisto\nand Melibea, and the closing scene in the _Celestina_ recalls the\nsuicide in Diego Fernandez de San Pedro's _Carcel de Amor_. Allowing for\nthese and other debts of the same kind, it cannot be denied that the\n_Celestina_ excels all earlier Spanish works in tragic force, in\nimpressive conception, and in the realistic rendering of characters\ndrawn from all classes of society. It passed through innumerable\neditions in Spain, and was the first Spanish book to find acceptance\nthroughout western Europe. At least twenty works by well-known Spanish\nauthors are derived from it; it was adapted for the English stage as\nearly as 1525-1530, and was translated into Italian (1505), French\n(1527) and other European languages. A Latin version by Caspar Barth was\nissued under the title of _Pornoboscodidascalus latinus_ (1624) with all\nthe critical apparatus of a recognized classic. James Mabbe's English\nrendering (1631) is one of the best translations ever published. The\noriginal edition of 1499 has been reprinted by R. Foulche-Delbose in the\n_Bibliotheca Hispanica_ (1902), vol. xii.\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--R. Foulche-Delbose, \"Observations sur la Celestine\" in\n  the _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1900), vol. vii. pp. 28-80 and (Paris.\n  1902) vol. ix. pp. 171-199; K. Haebler, \"Bemerkungen zur Celestina\" in\n  the _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1902), vol. ix. pp. 139-170; and M.\n  Menendez y Pelayo's introduction to the _Celestina_ (Vigo, 1899-1900)\n       (J. F.-K.)\n\n\n\n\nCELESTINE (CAELESTINUS), the name of five popes.\n\nCELESTINE I., pope from 422 to 432. At his accession the dissensions\ncaused by the faction of Eulalius (see BONIFACE I.) had not yet abated.\nHe, however, triumphed over them, and his episcopate was peaceful. When\nthe doctrines of Nestorius were denounced to him, he instructed Cyril,\nbishop of Alexandria, to follow up the matter. The emperor Theodosius\nII. convoked an ecumenical council at Ephesus, to which Celestine sent\nhis legates. He had some difficulties with the bishops in Africa on the\nquestion of appeals to Rome, and with the bishops of Provence with\nregard to the doctrines of St Augustine. To expedite the extirpation of\nPelagianism, he sent to Britain a deacon called Palladius, at whose\ninstigation St Germanus of Auxerre crossed the English Channel, as\ndelegate of the pope and bishops of Gaul, to inculcate orthodox\nprinciples upon the clergy of Britain. He also commissioned Palladius to\npreach the gospel in Ireland which was beginning to rally to\nChristianity. Celestine was the first pope who is known to have taken a\ndirect interest in the churches of Britain and Ireland.     (L. D.*)\n\nCELESTINE II., pope in 1143-1144. Guido of Citta di Castello (Tiferno),\nborn of noble Tuscan family, able and learned, studied under Abelard\nand became a cardinal priest. Elected the successor of Innocent II. on\nthe 26th of September 1143, he died on the 8th of March following. He\nremoved the interdict which Innocent had employed against Louis VII. of\nFrance. At the time of his death he was on the verge of a controversy\nwith Roger of Sicily.\n\n  See A. Certini, _Vita_ (Foligno, 1716); M. Bouquet, _Recueil des\n  historiens des Gaules_ (Paris, 1738 ff.), tome 15, 408-411; Migne,\n  _Patrologiae cursus completus_, 179, 765-820; P. Jaffe, _Regesta\n  Pontificum Romanorum_, 2nd ed. vol. ii. (Lipsiae, 1888), 1 ff.; Wetzer\n  und Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd ed. vol. iii. (Freiburg, 1884), 578\n  ff.; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed. vol. iv. (Leipzig,\n  1898), 201.\n\nCELESTINE III. (Giacinto Bobo), pope from 1191 to 1198, was cardinal\ndeacon of Santa Maria in Cosmedin as early as 1144, and had reached the\nage of eighty-five when chosen on the 30th of March 1191 to succeed\nClement III. The first pope of the house of the Orsini, his policy was\nmarked by mildness and indecision. Henry VI. of Germany at once forced\nthe pontiff to crown him emperor, and three or four years later took\npossession of the Norman kingdom of Sicily; he refused tribute and the\noath of allegiance, and even appointed bishops subject to his own\njurisdiction; moreover, he gave his brother in fief the estates which\nhad belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany. Celestine did not dare\nso much as to threaten him with excommunication. It was Celestine's\npurpose to lay England under the interdict; but Prince John and the\nbarons still refused to recognize the papal legate, the bishop of Ely.\nRichard I. had been set free before the dilatory pope put Leopold of\nAustria under the ban. In his last sickness Celestine wished to resign\nhis office, but the cardinals protested. Death released him from his\nperplexities on the 8th of January 1198.\n\n  See \"Epistolae Coelestini III. Papae,\" in M. Bouquet, _Receuil des\n  historiens des Gaules et de la France_, tome 19 (Paris, 1738 ff.);\n  J.P. Migne, _Patrologiae cursus completus_, tome 206 (Paris, 1855),\n  867 ff.; further sources in _Neues Archiv fur die altere deutsche\n  Geschichtskunde_, 2. 218; 11. 398 f.; 12.411-414; P. Jaffe, _Regesta\n  Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. ii. (2nd ed.. Leipzig, 1888), 577 ff.\n       (W. W. R.*)\n\nCELESTINE IV. (Godfrey Castiglione), pope in 1241, son of a sister of\nUrban III. (1185-1187), was archpriest and chancellor at Milan. After\nUrban's death he entered the Cistercian monastery at Hautecombe in\nSavoy. In 1227 Gregory IX. created him cardinal priest of St Mark's, and\nin 1233 made him cardinal bishop of Sabina. Elected to succeed Gregory\non the 25th of October 1241, he died on the 10th of November, before\nconsecration, and was buried in St Peter's.\n\n  See A. Potthast, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. i. (Berlin,\n  1874), 940 f.\n\nCELESTINE V. (St Peter Celestine), pope in 1294, was born of poor\nparents at Isernia about 1215, and early entered the Benedictine order.\nLiving as a hermit on Monte Morrone near Sulmone in the Abruzzi, he\nattracted other ascetics about him and organized them into a\ncongregation of the Benedictines which was later called the Celestines\n(q.v.). The assistance of a vicar enabled him to escape from the growing\nadministrative cares and devote himself solely to asceticism, apparently\nthe only field of human activity in which he excelled. His _Opuscula_,\npublished by Telera at Naples in 1640, are probably not genuine; he was\n_indoctus libris_. A fight between the Colonna and the Orsini, as well\nas hopeless dissensions among the cardinals, prevented a papal election\nfor two years and three months after the death of Nicholas IV. Charles\nII. of Naples, needing a pope in order that he might regain Sicily,\nbrought about a conclave. As the election of any cardinal seemed\nimpossible, on the 5th of July 1294 the Sacred College united on Pietro\ndi Morrone; the cardinals expected to rule in the name of the celebrated\nbut incapable ascetic. Apocalyptic notions then current doubtless aided\nhis election, for Joachim of Floris and his school looked to monasticism\nto furnish deliverance to the church and to the world. Multitudes came\nto Celestine's coronation at Aquila, and he began his reign the idol of\nvisionaries, of extremists and of the populace. But the pope was in the\npower of Charles II. of Naples, and became his tool against Aragon. The\nking's son Louis, a layman of twenty-one, was made archbishop of Lyons.\nThe cardinals, scarcely consulted at all, were discontented. The pope,\nwho wanted more time for his devotions, offered to leave three cardinals\nin charge of affairs; but his proposition was rejected. He then wished\nto abdicate, and at length Benedetto Gaetano, destined to succeed him as\nBoniface VIII., removed all scruples against this unheard-of procedure\nby finding a precedent in the case of Clement I. Celestine abdicated on\nthe 13th of December 1294. There is no sufficient ground for finding an\nallusion to this act in the noted line of Dante, \"Che fece per viltate\nil gran rifiuto\" (\"who made from cowardice the great refusal,\"\n_Inferno_, 3, 60). Boniface at length put him in prison for safe\nkeeping; he died in a monastic cell in the castle of Fumone near Anagni\non the 19th of May 1296. He was canonized by Clement V. in 1313.\n\n  See Wetzer und Welte and Herzog-Hauck (with excellent bibliography) as\n  above; Jean Aurelien, Superieur de la Congregation des Celestins, _La\n  Vie admirable de ... Saint Pierre Celestin_ (Bar-le-Duc, 1873); H.\n  Finke, _Aus den Tagen Bonifaz VIII._ (Munster, 1902), pp. 24-43.\n       (W. W. R.*)\n\n\n\n\nCELESTINE, or CELESTITE, a name applied to native strontium sulphate\n(SrSO4), having been suggested by the celestial blue colour which it\noccasionally presents. This colour has been referred to a trace of iron\nphosphate, but in some cases such an explanation appears doubtful. The\nmineral is usually colourless, or has only a delicate shade of blue.\nCelestine crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, being isomorphous\nwith barytes (q.v.). The angle between the prism faces is 76 deg. 17'.\nThe cleavage is perfect parallel to the basal pinacoid, and less marked\nparallel to the prism. Although celestine much resembles barytes in its\nphysical properties, having for example the same degree of hardness (3),\nit is less dense, its specific gravity being 3.9. Celestine is a less\nabundant mineral than barytes. It is, however, much more soluble, and\noccurs frequently in mineral waters. W.W. Stoddart showed that many\nplants growing on Keuper marls containing celestine near Bristol\nappropriated the strontium salt, and the metal could be detected\nspectroscopically in their ashes.\n\nCelestine occurs in the Triassic rocks of Britain, especially in veins\nand geodes in the Keuper marl in the neighbourhood of Bristol. At\nWickwar and Yate in Gloucestershire it is worked for industrial\npurposes. Colourless crystals, of great beauty, occur in association\nwith calcite and native sulphur in the sulphur deposits of Sicily, as at\nGirgenti. Fine blue crystals are yielded by the copper mines of\nHerrengrund, in Hungary; a dark blue fibrous form is known from Jena;\nand small crystals occur in flint at Meudon near Paris. Very large\ntabular crystals are found in limestone on Strontian Island in Lake\nErie; and a blue fibrous variety from near Frankstown, Blair Co., Penn.,\nis notable as having been the original celestine on which the species\nwas founded by A.G. Werner in 1798.\n\nCelestine is much used for the preparation of strontium hydrate, which\nis employed in refining beetroot sugar in Germany. The mineral is used\nalso as a source of various salts of strontium such as the nitrate,\nwhich finds application in pyrotechny for the production of red fire.\n     (F. W. R.*)\n\n\n\n\nCELESTINES, a religious order founded about 1260 by Peter of Morrone,\nafterwards Pope Celestine V. (1294). It was an attempt to unite the\neremitical and cenobitical modes of life. Peter's first disciples lived\nas hermits on Mount Majella in the Abruzzi. The Benedictine rule was\ntaken as the basis of the life, but was supplemented by regulations\nnotably increasing the austerities practised. The form of government was\nborrowed largely from those prevailing in the mendicant orders. Indeed,\nthough the Celestines are reckoned as a branch of the Benedictines,\nthere is little in common between them. For all that, St Celestine,\nduring his brief tenure of the papacy, tried to spread his ideas among\nthe Benedictines, and induced the monks of Monte Cassino to adopt his\nidea of the monastic life instead of St Benedict's; for this purpose\nfifty Celestine monks were introduced into Monte Cassino, but on\nCelestine's abdication of the papacy the project fortunately was at once\nabandoned. During the founder's lifetime the order spread rapidly, and\neventually there were about 150 monasteries in Italy, and others in\nFrance, Bohemia and the Netherlands. The French houses, twenty-one in\nnumber, formed a separate congregation, the head-house being in Paris.\nThe French Revolution and those of the 19th century destroyed their\nhouses, and the Celestine order seems no longer to exist.\n\nPeter of Morrone was in close contact with the Franciscan Spirituals of\nthe extreme type (see FRANCISCANS), and he endeavoured to form an\namalgamation between them and his hermits, under the title \"Poor Hermits\nof Celestine.\" On his abdication the amalgamation was dissolved, and the\nFranciscan element fled to the East and was finally suppressed by\nBoniface VIII. and compelled to re-enter the Franciscan order. The habit\nof the Celestines was black.\n\n  See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1792), vi. c. 23; Max\n  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S 22, p. 134; the\n  art. \"Colestiner\" in Wetzer und Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and\n  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3).     (E. C. B.)\n\n\n\n\nCELIBACY (Lat. _caelibatus_, from _caelebs_, unmarried), the state of\nbeing unmarried, a term now commonly used in the sense of complete\nabstinence from marriage; it originally included the state of widowhood\nalso, and any one was strictly a _caelebs_ who had no existing spouse.\nPhysicians and physiologists have frequently discussed celibacy from\ntheir professional point of view; but it will be sufficient to note here\nthe results of statistical inquiries. It has been established by the\ncalculations of actuaries that married persons--women in a considerable,\nbut men in a much greater degree---have at all periods of life a greater\nprobability of living than the single. From the point of view of public\nutility, the state has sometimes attempted to discourage celibacy. The\nbest-known enactment of this kind is that of the emperor Augustus, best\nknown as _Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea_. This disabled _caelibes_ from\nreceiving an inheritance unless the testator were related to them within\nthe sixth degree; it limited the amount which a wife could take by a\nhusband's will, or the husband by the wife's, unless they had children;\nand preference was given to candidates for office in proportion to the\nnumber of their children.[1] Ecclesiastical legislators, on the other\nhand, have frequently favoured the unmarried state; and celibacy,\npartial or complete, has been more or less stringently enforced upon the\nministers of different religions; many instances are quoted by H.C. Lea.\nThe best known, of course, are the Roman Vestals; though here even the\ngreat honours and privileges accorded to these maidens were often\ninsufficient to keep the ranks filled. In the East, however, this and\nother forms of asceticism have always flourished more freely; and the\nBuddhist monastic system is not only far older than that of Christendom,\nbut also proportionately more extensive.[2] In early Judaism, chastity\nwas indeed enjoined upon the priests at certain solemn seasons; but\nthere was no attempt to enforce celibacy upon the sacerdotal caste. On\nthe contrary, all priests were the sons of priests, and the case of\nElizabeth shows that here, as throughout the Jewish people, barrenness\nwas considered a disgrace. But Alexander's conquests brought the Jews\ninto contact with Hindu and Greek mysticism; and this probably explains\nthe growth of the ascetic Essenes some two centuries before the\nChristian era. The adherents of this sect, unlike the Pharisees and\nSadducees, were never denounced by Christ, who seems on the contrary to\nhave had real sympathy with the voluntary celibacy of an exceptional few\n(Matt. xix. 12). St Paul's utterances on this subject, though they go\nsomewhat further, amount only to the assertion that a struggling\nmissionary body will find more freedom in its work in the absence of\nwives and children. At the same time, St Paul claimed emphatically for\nhimself and the other apostles the right of leading about a wife; and he\nnames among the qualifications for a bishop, an elder and a deacon,\nthat he should be \"the husband of one wife.\" Indeed it was freely\nadmitted by the most learned men of the middle ages and Renaissance that\ncelibacy had been no rule of the apostolic church; and, though writers\nof ability have attempted to maintain the contrary even in modern times,\ntheir contentions are unhesitatingly rejected by the latest Roman\nCatholic authority.[3]\n\nThe gradual growth of clerical celibacy, first as a custom and then as a\nrule of discipline, can be traced clearly enough even through the scanty\nrecords of the first few centuries. The most ascetic Christians began to\nquestion the legality of second marriages on the part of either sex, as\neven paganism had often reprobated second marriages of women. Though\nthese extremists were presently branded as heretics for their eccentric\nultra-ascetic tenets (Montanists, Cathari), yet as early as Tertullian's\ntime (c. A.D. 220) the right of second marriages was theoretically\ndenied to the priesthood. This was logically followed by a revival of\nthe old Levitical rule which required that priests should marry none but\nvirgins (Lev. xxi. 7, 13). Both these rules, however, proved difficult\nof enforcement and seem to have rested only on a vague basis of public\nopinion; twice-married men (_digami_) were admitted to the priesthood by\nPope Calixtus I. (219-222), and even as late as the beginning of the 5th\ncentury we find husbands of widows consecrated to the episcopate. The\nso-called Apostolical Constitutions and Canons, the latter of which were\ncompiled in the 4th century, give us the first clear and fairly general\nrules on the subject. Here we find \"bishops and priests allowed to\nretain the wives whom they may have had before ordination, but not to\nmarry in orders; the lower grades, deacons, subdeacons, &c., allowed to\nmarry after entering the church; but all were to be husbands of but one\nwife, who must be neither a widow, a divorced woman nor a concubine\"\n(Lea i. 28). Many causes, however, were already at work to carry public\nfeeling beyond this stage. Quite apart from the few enthusiasts who\nwould have given a literal interpretation to the text in Matt, xix. 12,\nvows of virginity became more and more frequent as the virtue itself was\nlauded by ecclesiastical writers in language of increasing fervour.\nThese vows were at first purely voluntary and temporary; but public\nopinion naturally grew less and less tolerant of those who, having once\nformed and published so solemn a resolution, broke it afterwards. Again\nnot only was the church doctrine itself more or less consciously\ninfluenced by the Manichaean tenet of the diabolical origin of all\nmatter, including the human body, but churchmen were also naturally\ntempted to compete in asceticism with the many heretics who held this\ntenet, and whose abstinence brought them so much popular consideration.\nMoreover, in proportion as the clergy, no longer mere ringleaders of a\ndespised and persecuted sect, became beneficiaries and administrators of\nrich endowments--and this at a time when the external safeguards against\nembezzlement were comparatively weak--a strong feeling grew up among the\nlaity that church revenues should not go to support the priest's\nfamily.[4] Lastly, such partial attempts as we have already described to\nenforce upon the clergy a special rule of continence, by their very\nfailure, suggested more heroic measures. Therefore, side by side with\nthe evidence for difficult enforcement of the old rules, we find an\nequally constant series of new and more stringent enactments.\n\nThe first church council which definitely forbade marriage to the higher\nclergy was the local Spanish synod of Elvira (A.D. 305). A similar\ninterpretation has sometimes been claimed for the third canon of that\ngeneral council of Nicaea to which we owe the Nicene creed (325), but\nthis is now abandoned by the best authorities on all sides. There can be\nno doubt, however, that the 4th century opened a wide breach in this\nrespect between the Eastern and Western churches. The modern Greek\ncustom is \"(a) that most candidates for Holy Orders are dismissed from\nthe episcopal seminaries shortly before being ordained deacons, in order\nthat they may marry (their partners being in fact mostly daughters of\nclergymen), and after their marriage, return to the seminaries in order\nto take the higher orders; (b) that, as priests, they still continue the\nmarriages thus contracted, but may not remarry on the death of their\nwife; and (c) that the Greek bishops, who may not continue their married\nlife, are commonly not chosen out of the ranks of the married secular\nclergy, but from among the monks.\"[5] The Eastern Church, therefore,\nstill adheres fairly closely to the rules laid down by the Apostolical\nCanons in the 4th century. In the West, however, a decisive forward step\nwas taken by Popes Damasus and Siricius during the last quarter of that\ncentury. The famous decretal of Siricius (385) not only enjoined strict\ncelibacy on bishops, priests and deacons, but insisted on the instant\nseparation of those who had already married, and prescribed the\npunishment of expulsion for disobedience (Siric. _Ep._ i. c. 7; Migne,\n_P.L._ xiii. col. 1138). Although we find Siricius a year later writing\nto the African Church on this same subject in tones rather of persuasion\nthan of command, yet the beginning of compulsory sacerdotal celibacy in\nthe Western Church may be conveniently dated from his decretal of A.D.\n385. Leo the Great (d. 461) and Gregory the Great (d. 604) further\nextended the rule of celibacy to subdeacons.\n\nFor the next three or four centuries there is little to note but the\ncontinual evidence of open or secret resistance to these decrees, and\nthe parallel frequency and stringency of ecclesiastical legislation,\nwhich by its very monotony bears witness to its own want of success. At\nleast seven episcopal constitutions of the 8th and 9th centuries forbade\nthe priest to have even his mother or his sister in the house.[6] Nor\ndid the only difficulty lie in such secret breaches of the law; in many\ndistricts the priesthood tended to become a mere hereditary caste, to\nthe disadvantage of church and state alike. In northern and southern\nItaly public clerical marriages were extremely frequent, whether with or\nwithout regular forms.[7] The see of Rouen was held for more than a\ncentury (942-1054) by three successive bishops who were family men and\ntwo of whom were openly married.[8] In England St Swithun (d. 862) was\nmarried, though very likely by special papal dispensation; and the\nmarried clergy were apparently predominant in Alfred's time. In spite of\nDunstan's reforms at the end of the 10th century, the Norman Lanfranc\nfound so many wedded priests that he dared not decree their separation;\nand when his successor St Anselm attempted to go further, this seemed a\nperilous novelty even to so distinguished an ecclesiastic as Henry of\nHuntingdon, who wrote: \"About Michaelmas of this same year (1102)\nArchbishop Anselm held a council in London, wherein he forbade wives to\nthe English priesthood, heretofore not forbidden; which seemed to some a\nmatter of great purity, but to others a perilous thing, lest the clergy,\nin striving after a purity too great for human strength, should fall\ninto horrible impurity, to the extreme dishonour of the Christian name\"\n(lib. vii.; Migne, _P.L._ cxcv. col. 944). Yet this was at a time when\nthe decisive and continued action of two great popes ought to have left\nno possible doubt as to the law of the church.\n\nThe growing tendency of the clergy to look upon their endowments as\nhereditary fiefs, their consequent worldliness and (it must be added)\ntheir vices, aroused the indignation of two very remarkable men in the\nlatter half of the 11th century. St Pietro Damiani (988-1072) was a\nscholar, hermit and reformer, who did more perhaps than any one else to\ncombat the open marriages of the clergy. He complained that exhortation\nwas wasted even on the bishops, \"because they despair of attaining to\nthe pinnacle of chastity, and have no fear of condemnation in open synod\nfor the vice of lechery.... If this evil were secret [he adds], it might\nperhaps be borne.\"[9] His _Liber Gomorrhianus_, addressed to and\napproved by St Leo IX., is sufficient in itself to explain the vehemence\nof his crusade, though it emphasizes even more strongly the impolicy of\nproceeding more severely against the open marriages of the clergy than\nagainst concubinage and other less public vices.[10] Damiani found a\npowerful ally in the equally ascetic but far more imperious and\nstatesmanlike Hildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII. Under the\ninfluence of these two men, five successive popes between 1045 and 1073\nattempted a radical reform; and when, in this latter year, Hildebrand\nhimself became pope, he took measures so stringent that he has sometimes\nbeen erroneously represented not merely as the most uncompromising\nchampion, but actually as the author of the strict rule of celibacy for\nall clerics in sacred orders. His mind, strongly imbued with the\ntheocratic ideal, saw more clearly than any other the enormous increase\nof influence which would accrue to a strictly celibate body of clergy,\nseparated by their very ordination from the strongest earthly ties; and\nno statesman has ever pursued with greater energy and resolution a plan\nonce formulated. In order to break down the desperate, and in many\nplaces organized, resistance of the clergy, he did not shrink from the\nperilous course, so contrary to his general policy, of subjecting them\nto the judgment of the laity. Not only were concubinary priests--a term\nwhich was now made to include also those who had openly\nmarried--forbidden to serve at the altar and threatened with actual\ndeposition in cases of contumacy, but the laity were warned against\nattending mass said by \"any priest certainly known to keep a concubine\nor _subintroducta_.\"[11]\n\nBut these heroic measures soon caused serious embarrassment. If the\nlaity were to stand aloof from all incontinent priests, while (as the\nmost orthodox churchmen constantly complained) many priests were still\nincontinent, then this could only result in estranging large bodies of\nthe laity from the sacraments of the church. It became necessary,\ntherefore, to soften a policy which to the lay mind might imply that the\nvirtue of a sacrament was weakened by the vices of its ministers; and,\nwhereas Peter Lombard (d. 1160) concludes that no excommunicated priest\ncan effect transubstantiation, St Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) agrees with\nall the later Schoolmen in granting him that power, though to the peril\nof his own soul.[12] For, by the last quarter of the 13th century, the\nstruggle had entered upon a new phase. The severest measures had been\ntried, especially against the priests' unhappy partners. As early as the\ncouncil of Augsburg (952) these were condemned to be scourged, while Leo\nII. and Urban II., at the councils of Rome and Amalfi (1051, 1089),\nadjudged them to actual slavery.[13] Such enactments naturally defeated\ntheir own purpose. More was done by the gentler missionary zeal of the\nFranciscans and Dominicans in the early 13th century; but St Thomas\nAquinas had seen half a century of that reform and had recognized its\nlimitations; he therefore attenuated as much as possible the decree of\nNicholas II. His contemporary St Bonaventura complained publicly that he\nhimself and his fellow-friars were often compelled to hold their tongues\nabout the evil clergy; partly because, even if one were expelled,\nanother equally worthless would probably take his place, but \"perhaps\nprincipally lest, if the people altogether lost faith in the clergy,\nheretics should arise and draw the people to themselves as sheep that\nhave no shepherd, and make heretics of them, boasting that, as it were\nby our own testimony, the clergy were so vile that none need obey them\nor care for their teaching.\"[14] In other passages of his works St\nBonaventura tells us plainly how little had as yet been gained by\nsuppressing clerical marriages; and the evidence of orthodox and\ndistinguished churchmen for the next three centuries is equally\ndecisive. Alvarez Pelayo, a Spanish bishop and papal penitentiary, wrote\nin 1322 \"The clergy sin commonly in these following ways ... fourthly,\nin that they live very incontinently, and would that they had never\npromised continence! especially in Spain and southern Italy, in which\nprovinces the sons of the laity are scarcely more numerous than those of\nthe clergy.\" Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly pleaded before the council of\nConstance in 1415 for the reform of \"that most scandalous custom, or\nrather abuse, whereby many [clergy] fear not to keep concubines in\npublic.\"[15]\n\nMeanwhile, as has been said above, the custom of open marriage among\nclergy in holy orders (priests, deacons and subdeacons) was gradually\nstamped out. A series of synods, from the early 12th century onwards,\ndeclared such marriages to be not only unlawful, but null and void in\nthemselves. Yet the custom lingered sporadically in Germany and England\nuntil the last few years of the 13th century, though it seems to have\ndied out earlier in France and Italy. There was also a short-lived\nattempt to declare that even a clerk in lower orders should lose his\nclerical privileges on his marriage; but Boniface VIII. in 1300\ndefinitely permitted such marriages under the already-quoted conditions\nof the Apostolic Canons; in these cases, however, a bishop's licence was\nrequired to enable the cleric to officiate in church, and the episcopal\nregisters show that the diocesans frequently insisted on the celibacy of\nparish-clerks. As the middle ages drew to a close, earnest churchmen\nwere compelled to ask themselves whether it would not be better to let\nthe priests marry than to continue a system under which concubinage was\neven licensed in some districts.[16] Serious proposals were made to\nreintroduce clerical marriage at the great reforming councils of\nConstance (1415) and Basel (1432); but the overwhelming majority of\northodox churchmen were unwilling to abandon a rule for which the saints\nhad fought during so many centuries, and to which many of them probably\nattributed an apostolic origin.[17] This conservative attitude was\ninevitably strengthened by the attacks first of Lollard and then, of\nLutheran heretics; and Sir Thomas More was driven to declare, in answer\nto Tyndale, that the marriage of priests, being essentially null and\nvoid, \"defileth the priest more than double or treble whoredom.\" It is\nwell known that this became one of the most violently disputed questions\nat the Reformation, and that for eight years it was felony in England to\ndefend sacerdotal marriage as permissible by the law of God (Statute of\nthe Six Articles, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14). The diversity of practice on\nthis point drew one of the sharpest lines between reformers and\northodox, until the disorders introduced by these religious wars tempted\nthe latter to imitate in considerable numbers the licence of their\nrivals.[18] This moved the emperor Charles V. to obtain from Paul III.\ndispensations for married priests in his dominions; and his successor\nFerdinand, with the equally Catholic sovereigns of France, Bavaria and\nPoland, pleaded strongly at the council of Trent (1545) for permissive\nmarriage. The council, after some hesitation, took the contrary course,\nand in the 9th canon of its 24th session it erected sacerdotal celibacy\npractically, if not formally, into an article of faith. In spite of\nthis, the emperor Joseph II. reopened the question in 1783. In France\nthe revolutionary constitution of 1791 abolished all restrictions on\nmarriage, and during the Terror celibacy often exposed a priest to\nsuspicion as an enemy to the Republic; but the better part of the clergy\nsteadily resisted this innovation, and it is estimated that only about\n2% were married. The Old Catholics adopted the principle of sacerdotal\nmarriage in 1875.\n\nThe working of the system in modern times is perhaps too controversial a\nquestion to be discussed here; but one or two points may be noted on\nwhich all fairly well informed writers would probably agree. It can\nscarcely be denied that the Roman Catholic clergy have always owed much\nof their influence to their celibacy, and that in many cases this\ninfluence has been most justly earned by the celibate's devotion to an\nunworldly ideal. Again, the most adverse critics would admit that much\nwas done by the counter-Reformation, and that modern ecclesiastical\ndiscipline on this point is considerably superior to that of the middle\nages; while, on the other hand, many authorities of undoubted orthodoxy\nare ready to confess that it is not free from serious risks even in\nthese days of easy publicity and stringent civil discipline.[19] Lastly,\nstatistical research has shown that the children of the married British\nclergy have been distinguished far beyond their mere numerical\nproportion.[20]\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--Henry Charles Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_ (3rd\n  ed., 1907, 2 vols), is by far the fullest and best work on this\n  subject, though a good deal of important matter omitted by Dr Lea may\n  be found in _Die Einfuhrung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit_ by the\n  brothers Johann Anton and Augustin Theiner, which was put on the Roman\n  _Index_, though Augustin afterwards became archivist at the Vatican\n  (Altenburg, 1828, 2 vols.). The history of monastic celibacy has not\n  yet been fully treated anywhere; the most important evidence of the\n  episcopal registers is either still in MS. or has been published only\n  in comparatively recent years. The most learned work on clerical\n  celibacy from the strictly conservative point of view is that of\n  Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, _Storia Polemica del celibato sacro_\n  (Rome, 1774); but many of his most important conclusions are set\n  aside by the abbe E. Vacandard in his contribution to the\n  _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_ (vol. ii. art. \"Celibat\n  ecclesiastique\").     (G. G. Co.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] W. Smith, _Dict. of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed.), vol.\n    ii. p. 44.\n\n  [2] \"In the 14th century, the city of Ilchi, in Chinese Tartary,\n    possessed 14 monasteries, averaging 3000 devotees in each; while in\n    Tibet, at the present time, there are in the vicinity of Lhassa 12\n    great monasteries, containing a population of 18,500 lamas. In Ladak\n    the proportion of lamas to the laity is as 1 to 13, in Spiti 1 to 7,\n    and in Burmah 1 to 30\" (Lea i. 103).\n\n  [3] 1 Cor. vii. 25 sq., ix. 5; 1 Tim. iii. 2, 11, 12; Titus i. 6; E.\n    Vacandard in _Dict. de Theol. Cath._, s.v. \"Celibat.\"\n\n  [4] This was a natural argument for the defenders of clerical\n    celibacy even in far later times. St Bonaventura (d. 1274) puts this\n    very strongly: \"For if archbishops and bishops now had children, they\n    would rob and plunder all the goods of the Church so that little or\n    nothing would be left for the poor. For since they now heap up wealth\n    and enrich nephews removed from them by almost incalculable degrees\n    of affinity, what would they do if they had legitimate children?...\n    Therefore the Holy Ghost in His providence hath removed this\n    stumbling-block,\" &c. &c. (_In Sent._ lib. iv. dist. xxxvii art. i.\n    quaest. 3).\n\n  [5] Hefele, _Beitrage zur Kirchengesch. u.s.w._ i. 139.\n\n  [6] See the quotations in Lea i. 156. These prohibitions were renewed\n    in the 13th and 14th centuries (ibid. i. 410).\n\n  [7] Ratherius, _Itinerarium_, c. 5 (Migne, _P.L._ cxxxvi. col. 585).\n    Gulielmus Apulus writes of southern Italy in 1059: \"In these parts\n    priests, deacons and the whole clergy were publicly married\" (_De\n    Normann._ lib. ii.).\n\n  [8] Dom Pommeraye, _S. Rotomag. Eccl. Concilia_, pp. 56, 65; cf.\n    similar instances on p. 315 of Dr A. Dresdner's _Kultur-und\n    Sittengeschichte d. italienischen Geistlichkeit im 10. und 11. Jhdt._\n    (Breslau, 1890).\n\n  [9] _Opusc._ xvii. praef. The saint's evidence is carefully weighed\n    by Dresdner (l.c.), especially on pp. 309 ff. and 321 ff.\n\n  [10] Even Pope Innocent III. was compelled to decide that priests who\n    had kept two or more concubines, successively or simultaneously, did\n    not thereby incur the disabilities which attended digamists; or, in\n    other words, that a layman who had contracted two lawful marriages\n    and then proceeded to ordination on the death of his second wife,\n    could be absolved only by the pope; whereas the concubinary priest,\n    \"as a man branded with simple fornication,\" might receive a valid\n    dispensation from his own bishop (Letter to archbishop of Lund in\n    1212. _Regest._ lib. xvi. ep. 118; Migne, _P.L._ ccxvi. col. 914). As\n    the great canonist Gratian remarked on a similar decretal of Pope\n    Pelagius, \"Here is a case where lechery has more rights at law than\n    has chastity\" (_Decret._ p. i. dist. xxxiv. c. vii. note a).\n\n  [11] The actual originator of this policy was Nicholas II., probably\n    at Hildebrand's suggestion; but the decree remained practically a\n    dead letter until Gregory's accession.\n\n  [12] Peter Lombard, _Sentent._ lib. iv. dist. 13; Aquinas, _Summa\n    Theol._ pars iii. Q. lxxxiii. art. 7, 9.\n\n  [13] Labbe-Mansi, _Concilia_, vol. xix. col. 796 and xx. col. 724. Dr\n    Lea is probably right in suggesting that it was a confused\n    recollection of these decrees which prompted one of Cranmer's judges\n    to assure him that \"his children were bondmen to the see of\n    Canterbury.\" Strype, _Memorials of Cranmer_, bk iii. c. 28 (ed. 1812,\n    vol. i. p. 601).\n\n  [14] Bonaventura, _Libell. Apologet._ quaest. i.; cf. his parallel\n    treatise _Quare Fratres Minores praedicent_. The first visitation of\n    his friend Odo Rigaldi, archbishop of Rouen, shows that about 15% of\n    the parish clergy in that diocese were notoriously incontinent\n    (_Regestrum Visitationum_, ed. Bonnin, Rouen, 1852, pp. 17 ff.).\n    Vacandard (loc. cit. p. 2087) appeals rather misleadingly to this\n    record as proving the progress made during the half-century before\n    Odo's time. It is probable that there were many more offenders than\n    these 15% known to the archbishop.\n\n  [15] Alvarus Pelagius, _De Planctu Ecclesiae_, ed. 1517, f. 131a,\n    col. 2; cf. f. 102b, col. 2; Hermann von der Hardt, _Constantiensis\n    Concilii_, &c. vol. i. pars. viii. col. 428.\n\n  [16] This more or less regular sale of licences by bishops and\n    archdeacons flourished from the days of Gregory VII. to the 16th\n    century; see index to Lea, s.v. \"Licences.\" Dr Lea has, however,\n    omitted the most striking authority of all. Gascoigne, the most\n    distinguished Oxford chancellor of his day, writing about 1450 of\n    John de la Bere, then bishop of St David's, says that he had refused\n    to separate the clergy of his diocese from their concubines, giving\n    publicly as his reason, \"for then I your bishop should lose the 400\n    marks which I receive yearly in my diocese for the priests' lemans\"\n    (Gascoigne, _Lib. Ver._ ed. Rogers, p. 36). Even Sir Thomas More, in\n    his polemic against the Reformers, admitted that this concubinage was\n    too often tolerated in Wales (_English Works_, ed. 1557, p. 231, cf.\n    619).\n\n  [17] One of Dr Lea's few serious mistakes is his acceptance of the\n    spurious pamphlet in favour of priestly marriage which was attributed\n    in the 11th century to St Ulrich of Augsburg (i. 171).\n\n  [18] Janssen, _Gesch. d. deutschen Volkes_, 13th ed., vol. viii. pp.\n    423, 4, 9; 434; Lea ii. 195, 204. ff.\n\n  [19] Lea (ii. 339. ff.) gives a long series of quotations to this\n    effect from church synods and orthodox disciplinary writers of modern\n    times.\n\n  [20] Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_ (London, 1904, p.\n    80), \"Even if we compare the church with the other professions with\n    which it is most usually classed, we find that the eminent children\n    of the clergy considerably outnumber those of lawyers, doctors and\n    army officers put together.\" Mr Ellis points put, however, that \"the\n    clerical profession ... also produces more idiots than any other\n    class.\"\n\n\n\n\nCELL (from Lat. _cella_, probably from an Indo-European _kal_--seen in\nLat. _celare_, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat.\n_cera_, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb), in\nits earliest application a small detached room in a building,\nparticularly a small monastic house (see ABBEY), generally in the\ncountry, belonging to large conventual buildings, and intended for\nchange of air for the monks, as well as places to reside in to look\nafter the lands, vassals, &c. Thus Tynemouth was a cell to St Albans;\nAshwell, Herts, to Westminster Abbey. The term was also used of the\nsmall sleeping apartments of the monks, or a small apartment used by the\nanchorite or hermit. This use still survives in the application to the\nsmall separate chambers in a prison (q.v.) in which prisoners are\nconfined. The word is applied to various small compartments which build\nup a compound structure such as a honeycomb, to the minute compartments\nin a tissue, &c. More particularly the word is used, in electrical\nscience, of the single constituent compartments of a voltaic battery\n(q.v.), and in biology of the living units of protoplasm of which plants\nand animals are composed (see CYTOLOGY).\n\n\n\n\nCELLA, in architecture, the Latin name for the sanctuary of a Roman\ntemple, corresponding with the naos of the Greek temple. In the Etruscan\ntemples, according to Vitruvius, there were three cellas, side by side;\nand in the temple of Venus built by Hadrian at Rome there were two\ncellas, both enclosed, however, in a single peristyle.\n\n\n\n\nCELLARET (i.e. little cellar), strictly that portion of a sideboard\nwhich is used for holding bottles and decanters, so called from a cellar\n(which in general may be any underground unlighted apartment) being\ncommonly used for keeping wine. Sometimes it is a drawer, divided into\ncompartments lined with zinc, and sometimes a cupboard, but still an\nintegral part of the sideboard. In the latter part of the 18th century,\nwhen the sideboard was in process of evolution from a side-table with\ndrawers into the large and important piece of furniture which it\neventually became, the cellaret was a detached receptacle. It was most\ncommonly of mahogany or rosewood, many-sided or even octagonal, and\noccasionally oval, bound with broad bands of brass and lined with zinc\npartitions to hold the ice for cooling wine. Sometimes a tap was fixed\nin the lower part for drawing off the water from the melted ice.\nCellarets were usually placed under the sideboard, and were, as a rule,\nhandsome and well-proportioned; but as the artistic impulse which\ncreated the great 18th-century English school of furniture died away,\ntheir form grew debased, and under the influence of the English Empire\nfashion, which drew its inspiration from a bastard classicism, they\nassumed the shape of sarcophagi incongruously mounted with lions' heads\nand claw-feet. Hepplewhite called them \"gardes du vin\"; they are now\nnearly always known as \"wine-coolers.\"\n\n\n\n\nCELLE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the\nleft bank of the navigable Aller, near its junction with the Fuse and\nthe Lachte, 23 m. N.E. of Hanover, on the main Lehrte-Hamburg railway.\nPop. (1905) 21,400. The town has a Roman Catholic and five Protestant\nchurches, among the latter the town-church with the burial vault of the\ndukes of Luneburg-Celle. Here rest the remains of Sophia Dorothea, wife\nof the elector George of Hanover, afterwards George I. of England, and\nthose of Caroline Matilda, the divorced wife of Christian VII. of\nDenmark and sister of George III. of England, who resided here from 1772\nuntil her death in 1775. The most interesting building in Celle is the\nformer ducal palace, begun in 1485 in Late Gothic style, but with\nextensive Renaissance additions of the close of the 17th century. The\nbuilding of the court of appeal (_Oberlandesgericht_), with a valuable\nlibrary of 60,000 volumes and many MSS., including a priceless copy of\nthe _Sachsenspiegel_, the museum and the hall of the estates\n(_Landschaftshaus_) are also worthy of notice. There are manufactures of\nwoollen yarn, tobacco, biscuits, umbrellas and printers' ink, and a\nlively trade is carried on in wax, honey, wool and timber. Celle is the\nseat of the court of appeal from the superior courts of Aurich, Detmold,\nGottingen, Hanover, Hildesheim, Luneburg, Osnabruck, Stade and Verden.\nFounded in 1292, the town was the residence of the dukes of\nLuneburg-Celle, a cadet branch of the ducal house of Brunswick, from the\n14th century until 1705.\n\n  See Dehning, _Geschichte der Stadt Celle_ (Celle, 1891).\n\n\n\n\nCELLIER, ALFRED (1844-1891), English musical composer, was born at\nHackney on the 1st of December 1844. From 1855 to 1860 he was a\nchorister at the Chapel Royal, St James's, under the Rev. Thomas\nHelmore, where Arthur Sullivan was one of his youthful colleagues. His\nfirst appointment was that of organist at All Saints' church, Blackheath\n(1862). In 1866 he succeeded Dr Chipp as director of the Ulster Hall\nconcerts, Belfast, at the same time acting as conductor of the Belfast\nPhilharmonic Society. In 1868 he returned to London as organist of St\nAlban's, Holborn. From 1871 to 1875 he was conductor at the Prince's\ntheatre, Manchester; and from 1877 to 1879 at various London theatres.\nDuring this period he composed many comic operas and operettas, of which\nthe most successful was _The Sultan of Mocha_, which was produced at\nManchester in 1874, in London at the St James's theatre in 1876, and\nrevived at the Strand theatre in 1887. In 1880 Cellier visited America,\nproducing a musical version of Longfellow's _Masque of Pandora_ at\nBoston (1881). In 1883 his setting of Gray's _Elegy_ in the form of a\ncantata was produced at the Leeds Festival. In 1886 he won the great\nsuccess of his life in _Dorothy_, a comic opera written to a libretto by\nB.C. Stephenson, which was produced at the Gaiety theatre on the 25th of\nSeptember 1886, and, transferred first to the Prince of Wales theatre\nand subsequently to the Lyric theatre, ran until April 1889. _Doris_\n(1889), and _The Mountebanks_, which was produced in January 1892, a few\ndays after the composer's death, were less successful. Cellier owed much\nto the influence of Sir Arthur Sullivan. He had little of the latter's\nhumour and vivacity, but he was a fertile melodist, and his writing is\ninvariably distinguished by elegance and refinement. He died in London\non the 28th of December 1891.\n\n\n\n\nCELLINI, BENVENUTO (1500-1571), Italian artist, metal worker and\nsculptor, was born in Florence, where his family, originally landowners\nin the Val d'Ambra, had for three generations been settled. His father,\nGiovanni Cellini, was a musician and artificer of musical instruments;\nhe married Maria Lisabetta Granacci, and eighteen years elapsed before\nthey had any progeny. Benvenuto (meaning \"Welcome\") was the third child.\nThe father destined him for the same profession as himself, and\nendeavoured to thwart his inclination for design and metal work. When he\nhad reached the age of fifteen his youthful predilection had become too\nstrong to be resisted, and his father reluctantly gave consent to his\nbeing apprenticed to a goldsmith, Antonio di Sandro, named Marcone. He\nhad already attracted some notice in his native place, when, being\nimplicated in a fray with some of his companions, he was banished for\nsix months to Siena, where he worked for Francesco Castoro, a goldsmith;\nfrom thence he removed to Bologna, where he became a more accomplished\nflute-player and made progress in the goldsmith's art. After visiting\nPisa, and after twice resettling for a while in Florence (where he was\nvisited by the sculptor Torrigiano, who unsuccessfully suggested his\naccompanying him to England), he decamped to Rome, aged nineteen. His\nfirst attempt at his craft here was a silver casket, followed by some\nsilver candlesticks, and later by a vase for the bishop of Salamanca,\nwhich introduced him to the favourable notice of Pope Clement VII.;\nlikewise at a later date one of his celebrated works, the gold medallion\nof \"Leda and the Swan,\"--the head and torso of Leda cut in hard\nstone--executed for Gonfaloniere Gabbriello Cesarino, which is now in\nthe Vienna museum; he also reverted to music, practised flute-playing,\nand was appointed one of the pope's court-musicians. In the attack upon\nRome by the constable de Bourbon, which occurred immediately after, in\n1527, the bravery and address of Cellini proved of signal service to\nthe pontiff; if we may believe his own accounts, his was the very hand\nwhich shot the Bourbon dead, and he afterwards killed Philibert, prince\nof Orange. His exploits paved the way for a reconciliation with the\nFlorentine magistrates, and his return shortly after to his native\nplace. Here he assiduously devoted himself to the execution of medals,\nthe most famous of which (executed a short while later) are \"Hercules\nand the Nemean Lion,\" in gold repousse work, and \"Atlas supporting the\nSphere,\" in chased gold, the latter eventually falling into the\npossession of Francis I. From Florence he went to the court of the duke\nof Mantua, and thence again to Florence and to Rome, where he was\nemployed not only in the working of jewelry, but also in the execution\nof dies for private medals and for the papal mint. Here in 1529 he\navenged a brother's death by slaying the slayer; and shortly afterwards\nhad to flee to Naples to shelter himself from the consequences of an\naffray with a notary, Ser Benedetto, whom he wounded. Through the\ninfluence of several of the cardinals he obtained a pardon; and on the\nelevation of Paul III. to the pontifical throne he was reinstated in his\nformer position of favour, notwithstanding a fresh homicide of a\ngoldsmith which he had committed more by accident than of malice\nprepense in the interregnum. Once more the plots of Pierluigi Farnese, a\nnatural son of Paul III., led to his retreat from Rome to Florence and\nVenice, and once more he was restored with greater honour than before.\nOn returning from a visit to the court of Francis I., being now aged\nthirty-seven, he was imprisoned on a charge (apparently false) of having\nembezzled during the war the gems of the pontifical tiara; he remained\nsome while confined in the castle of Sant' Angelo, escaped, was\nrecaptured, and treated with great severity, and was in daily\nexpectation of death on the scaffold. At last, however, he was released\nat the intercession of Pierluigi's wife, and more especially of the\nCardinal d' Este of Ferrara, to whom he presented a splendid cup. For a\nwhile after this he worked at the court of Francis I. at Fontainebleau\nand in Paris; but he considered the duchesse d'Etampes to be set against\nhim, and the intrigues of the king's favourites, whom he would not stoop\nto conciliate and could not venture to silence by the sword, as he had\nsilenced his enemies in Rome, led him, after about five years of\nlaborious and sumptuous work, and of continually-recurring jealousies\nand violences, to retire in 1545 in disgust to Florence, where he\nemployed his time in works of art, and exasperated his temper in\nrivalries with the uneasy-natured sculptor Baccio Bandinelli. The first\ncollision between the two had occurred several years before when Pope\nClement VII. commissioned Cellini to mint his coinage. Now, in an\naltercation before Duke Cosimo, Bandinelli insultingly stigmatized\nBenvenuto as guilty of gross immorality; in his autobiography Cellini\nrather repels than denies the charge, but he certainly repels it with\ndemonstrative and grotesque vivacity. Two somewhat similar charges had\nbeen made ere this: one in Paris, which he braved out in court--the\nother, in Florence, was a mere private quarrel, and perhaps undeserving\nof attention. During the war with Siena Cellini was appointed to\nstrengthen the defences of his native city, and, though rather shabbily\ntreated by his ducal patrons, he continued to gain the admiration of his\nfellow-citizens by the magnificent works which he produced. He died in\nFlorence in 1571, unmarried, and leaving no posterity, and was buried\nwith great pomp in the church of the Annunziata. He had supported in\nFlorence a widowed sister and her six daughters.\n\nBesides the works in gold and silver which have been adverted to,\nCellini executed several pieces of sculpture on a grander scale. The\nmost distinguished of these is the bronze group of \"Perseus holding the\nhead of Medusa,\" a work (first suggested by Duke Cosimo de' Medici) now\nin the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, full of the fire of genius and the\ngrandeur of a terrible beauty, one of the most typical and unforgettable\nmonuments of the Italian Renaissance. The casting of this great work\ngave Cellini the utmost trouble and anxiety; and its completion was\nhailed with rapturous homage from all parts of Italy. The original\nrelief from the foot of the pedestal--Perseus and Andromeda--is in the\nBargello, and replaced by a cast.\n\nNot less characteristic of its splendidly gifted and barbarically\nuntameable author are the autobiographical memoirs which he composed,\nbeginning them in Florence in 1558,--a production of the utmost energy,\ndirectness and racy animation, setting forth one of the most singular\ncareers in all the annals of fine art. His amours and hatreds, his\npassions and delights, his love of the sumptuous and the exquisite in\nart, his self-applause and self-assertion, running now and again into\nextravagances which it is impossible to credit, and difficult to set\ndown as strictly conscious falsehoods, make this one of the most\nsingular and fascinating books in existence. Here we read, not only of\nthe strange and varied adventures of which we have presented a hasty\nsketch, but of the devout complacency with which Cellini could\ncontemplate a satisfactorily achieved homicide; of the legion of devils\nwhich he and a conjuror evoked in the Colosseum, after one of his not\ninnumerous mistresses had been spirited away from him by her mother; of\nthe marvellous halo of light which he found surrounding his head at dawn\nand twilight after his Roman imprisonment, and his supernatural visions\nand angelic protection during that adversity; and of his being poisoned\non two several occasions. If he is unmeasured in abusing some people, he\nis also unlimited in praising others. The autobiography has been\ntranslated into English by Thomas Roscoe, by J.A. Symonds, and by A.\nMacdonald. Cellini also wrote treatises on the goldsmith's art, on\nsculpture, and on design (translated by C.R. Ashbee, 1899).\n\nAmong his works of art not already mentioned, many of which have\nperished, were a colossal Mars for a fountain at Fontainebleau and the\nbronzes of the doorway, coins for the Papal and Florentine states, a\nJupiter in silver of life size, and a bronze bust of Bindo Altoviti. The\nworks of decorative art are, speaking broadly, rather florid than\nchastened in style.\n\nIn addition to the bronze statue of Perseus and the medallions already\nreferred to, the works of art in existence to-day executed by him are\nthe celebrated salt-cellar made for Francis I. at Vienna; a medallion of\nClement VII. in commemoration of the peace between the Christian\nprinces, 1530, with a bust of the pope on the reverse and a figure of\nPeace setting fire to a heap of arms in front of the temple of Janus,\nsigned with the artist's name; a medal of Francis I. with his portrait,\nalso signed; and a medal of Cardinal Pietro Bembo. Cellini, while\nemployed at the papal mint at Rome during the papacy of Clement VII. and\nlater of Paul III., executed the dies of several coins and medals, some\nof which still survive at this now defunct mint. He was also in the\nservice of Alessandro de' Medici, first duke of Florence, for whom he\nexecuted in 1535 a forty-soldi piece with a bust of the duke on one side\nand standing figures of the saints Cosmo and Damian on the other. Some\nconnoisseurs attribute to his hand several plaques, \"Jupiter crushing\nthe Giants,\" \"Fight between Perseus and Phinaeus,\" a Dog, &c.\n\nThe important works which have perished include the uncompleted chalice\nintended for Clement VII.; a gold cover for a prayer-book as a gift from\nPope Paul III. to Charles V.,--both described at length in his\nautobiography; large silver statues of Jupiter, Vulcan and Mars, wrought\nfor Francis I. during his sojourn in Paris; a bust of Julius Caesar; and\na silver cup for the cardinal of Ferrara. The magnificent gold \"button,\"\nor morse, made by Cellini for the cope of Clement VII., the competition\nfor which is so graphically described in his autobiography, appears to\nhave been sacrificed by Pius VI., with many other priceless specimens of\nthe goldsmith's art, in furnishing the indemnity of 30,000,000 francs\ndemanded by Napoleon at the conclusion of the campaign against the\nStates of the Church in 1797. According to the terms of the treaty, the\npope was permitted to pay a third of that sum in plate and jewels.\nFortunately there are in the print room of the British Museum three\nwater-colour drawings of this splendid morse by F. Bertoli, done at the\ninstance of an Englishman named Talman in the first half of the 18th\ncentury. The obverse and reverse, as well as the rim, are drawn full\nsize, and moreover the morse with the precious stones set therein,\nincluding a diamond then considered the second largest in the world, is\nfully described.\n\n  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The autobiography already named is the foundation of\n  most of the works written concerning Cellini's life. See also\n  _Cellini, His Times and Contemporaries_, by \"the Author of the Life of\n  Sir Kenelm Digby\" (1899); L. Dimier, _Cellini a la cour de France_\n  (1898); Eugene Plon, _Cellini, orfevre, medailleur, &c._ (1883);\n  Bolzenthal, _Skizzen zur Kunstgeschichte der modernen Medaillen-Arbeit\n  1429-1840_ (Berlin, 1840); A. Armand, _Les Medailleurs italiens des\n  XVe et XVIe siecles_ (3 vols., Paris, 1883-1887); Dr Francesco Tassi,\n  _Vita di Benvenuto Cellini_ (Firenze, 1829), _Vita di Benvenuto\n  Cellini scritta da lui medisimo_ (1832); E. Babelon, _La Gravure en\n  pierres fines_ (Paris, 1894); A. Heiss, _Les Medailleurs florentins_\n  (Paris, 1887); J. Friedlander, _Die italienischen Schaumunzen des\n  funfzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1880-1882); N. Rondot, _Les\n  Medailleurs lyonnais_ (Macon, 1897); Dr Julius Cahn, _Medaillen und\n  Plaketten der Sammlung W.P. Metzler_ (Frankfort-on-Main, 1898);\n  Molinier, _Les Plaquettes_; I.B. Supino, _Il Medagliere Mediceo nel R.\n  Museo Nazionale di Firenze_ (Florence, 1899); _L'Arte di Benvenuto\n  Cellini_ (Florence, 1901); C. von Fabriczy, _Medaillen der\n  italienischen Renaissance_ (Leipzig); L. Forrer, _Biographical\n  Dictionary of Medallists, &c._ (London, 1904), &c.\n       (W. M. R.; E. A. J.)\n\n\n\n\nCELLULOSE, the name given to both an individual--cellulose proper, in\nthe restricted sense of a chemical individual--and to a group of\nsubstances, the celluloses or cellulose group, which constitute in\ninfinitely varied forms the containing envelope of the plant cell. They\nare complex carbohydrates, or \"saccharo-colloids\" (Tollens), and are\nresolved by ultimate hydrolysis into monoses. The typical cellulose is\nrepresented by the empirical formula C6H10O5, identical with that of\nstarch, with which it has many chemical analogies as well as\nphysiological correlations. The representative \"cellulose\" is the main\nconstituent of the cotton fibre substance, and is obtainable by treating\nthe raw fibre with boiling dilute alkalis, followed by chlorine gas or\nbromine water, or simply by alkaline oxidants. The cellulose thus\npurified is further treated with dilute acids, and then exhaustively\nwith alcohol and ether. Chemical filter-paper (Swedish) is practically\npure cellulose, the final purification consisting in exhaustive\ntreatment with hydrofluoric acid to remove silicious inorganic residues.\nThe \"cellulose\" group, however, comprises a series of substances which,\nwhile presenting the characters generally similar to those of cotton\ncellulose, also exhibit marked divergences. The resemblances are\nmaintained in their synthetical reactions; but reactions involving the\ndecomposition of the complex show many variations. For example, cotton\ncellulose is difficultly hydrolysed; other celluloses are more or less\nreadily split up by dilute acids, the extreme members readily yielding\nsugars: the hexoses--dextrose, mannose and galactose; and the\npentoses--xylose and arabinose; these less resistant cell-wall\nconstituents are termed hemi-celluloses.\n\nThe celluloses proper are essentially non-nitrogenous, though originating\nin the cell protoplasm. The cell-walls of the lower cryptogams, similarly\npurified, retain a notable proportion--2.0-4.0%--of constitutional\nnitrogen. When hydrolysed these fungoid celluloses yield, in addition to\nmonoses, glucosamine and acetic acid. The celluloses of the phanerogams\nare generally associated, in a degree ranging from physical mixture to\nchemical union, with other complicated substances, constituting the\n\"compound celluloses.\" The nature of the associated groups affords a\nconvenient classification into pecto-celluloses, ligno-celluloses and\ncuto-celluloses. _Pecto-celluloses_ are so named because the associated\nsubstances--carbohydrates, together with their oxidation products, i.e.\ncontaining either two carbonyls (CO) in the unit group or carboxyl (CO.OH)\ngroups in a complex--are readily hydrolysed by weak acids to the\ngelatinous \"pectic acids\" or their salts. _Ligno-celluloses_ are the\nsubstances of lignified tissue, the non-cellulose constituents of which\nare characterized by the presence of benzenoid and furfuroid groups; and\nalthough essentially complex, they may be regarded as homogeneous, and are\nconveniently grouped under the name _lignone_. The lignone complex reacts,\nby its unsaturated groups, with the halogens. It is a complex containing\nbut little hydroxyl; and is of relatively high carbon percentage\n(55.0-57.0%). _Cuto-celluloses_ predominate in the protective coatings of\nplant organs, and are characterized by constituent groups, the\ndecomposition products of which are compounds of the fatty series, and\nalso wax alcohols, acids, cholesterols, &c.\n\nThe typical pecto-cellulose is the flax fibre, i.e. the bast fibre of\nthe flax plant (_Linum usitatissimum_), as it occurs in the plant, or as\nthe commercial textile fibre in its raw state. Rhea, or ramie, is\nanother leading textile fibre in which the cellulose occurs associated\nwith alkali-soluble colloidal carbohydrates. Pecto-celluloses are found\nin the stems of the Gramineae (cereal straws, esparto), and in the\nfibro-vascular bundles of monocotyledons used as textile and rope-making\nfibres. They are the chief constituents of the fleshy parenchyma of\nfruits, tubers, rhizomes. Ligno-celluloses find their chemical\nrepresentative in the jute fibre. They constitute the woods, and are\ntherefore of the widest distribution and the highest industrial utility.\nIt is important to note that a complex having all the chemical\ncharacteristics of a ligno-cellulose occurs in a soluble colloidal form\nin the juice of the white currant. The formation of ligno-cellulose is\nthe chemical equivalent of the morphological change of the plant cell\nknown as \"lignification.\" The topical cuto-celluloses are the epidermal\ntissues of all growing plants or organs, which are easily detached from\nthe underlying tissues which it is their function to protect. To\nsubserve this function, they are extremely resistant to the attack of\nreagents. The associated groups are mostly of the normal saturated\nseries, and of very high molecular weight.\n\n_Cellulose and Botanical Science._--The elaboration of cellulose, i.e.\nof the cell walls, and its morphological and physiological aspects are\ndiscussed in the articles PLANTS: _Physiology, Anatomy_: and CYTOLOGY;\nwhile in the article COAL the part played by cellulose in the formation\nof these deposits receives treatment: here we may deal with its general\nrelation to agriculture. In the analysis of fodder plants and other\nvegetable produce, the residue obtained after successive acid and\nalkaline hydrolysis is the \"crude fibre\" of the agricultural chemist,\nand is generally taken as a measure of the actual cellulose contents of\nthe raw material. We give in tabular form the average percentage of\ncrude fibre in typical food-stuffs and agricultural produce:--\n\n  SEEDS\n\n  +----------+-----------+--------------+-----------+\n  | Seeds of |Per cent of|Leguminous and|Per cent of|\n  | Cereals. |   Fibre.  |  Oil Seeds.  |   Fibre.  |\n  +----------+-----------+--------------+-----------+\n  | Wheat    |    2.8    | Rape         |    6.4    |\n  | Barley   |    6.3    | Cotton       |    7.5    |\n  | Oats     |    9.0    | Beans        |   10.0    |\n  | Maize    |    5.2    | Peas         |   10.0    |\n  | Rye      |    8.0    | Lentils      |   10.0    |\n  | Rice     |    2.5    | Vetches      |    7.2    |\n  +----------+-----------+--------------+-----------+\n\n\n  FODDER CROPS\n\n  +-----------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------+---------+\n  |Stems and Foliage|Per cent |  Fodder Crops.  |Per cent of| Cereal  |Per cent |\n  | of Root Crops.  |of Fibre.|                 |  Fibre.*  | Straws. |of Fibre.|\n  +-----------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------+---------+\n  | White Turnip    |   3.9   | Grasses         |   32.0    | Oats    |  60.68  |\n  | Swedish Turnip  |   4.2   | Meadow Hay      |   25.8    | Wheat   |  75.77  |\n  | Carrot          |   3.1   | Clover & Trefoil|   23.5    | Barley  |  71.74  |\n  | Mangel          |   2.6   | Vetches         |   25.9    |         |         |\n  | Parsnip         |   2.6   | Lucerne         |   26.7    |         |         |\n  |                 |         | Sainfoin        |   28.7    |         |         |\n  +-----------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------+---------+\n\n  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+\n  |                  |           |           | Stems and |  Fodder   |  Cereal  |\n  |                  |Leguminous.| Oil Seeds.|Foliage of |  Crops.   |  Straws. |\n  |                  |           |           |Root Crops.|           |          |\n  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+\n  |Average % of water|    14     |     7     |    87     |   70-80   |    15    |\n  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+\n\n    * This percentage is calculated on airdry-produce containing 15% of\n    water.\n\nThe above figures have a purely empirical value, since they represent a\ncomplicated mixture of various residues derived from the celluloses and\ncompound celluloses. This mixture may be further resolved, and by\nspecial quantitative methods the proportions of actual cellulose,\nligno-cellulose and cuto-celluloses estimated (J. Konig, _Ber._, 1906,\n39, p. 3564). The figures are taken as an inverse measure of\ndigestibility; at the same time it has been established that this group\nof relatively indigestible food constituents are more or less digestible\nand assimilable as flesh and fat producers. The percentage or\ncoefficient of digestibility of the celluloses of the more important\nfood-stuffs--green fodder, hay, straw and grains--varies from 20 to 75%.\nIt has also been established that their physiological efficiency is,\nunder certain conditions, quite equal to that of starch.\n\nIt must also be borne in mind that the indigestible food residues, as\nfinally voided by the animal, have played an important mechanical part\nas an aid to digestion of those constituents more readily attacked in\nthe digestive tract of animals. They are further an important factor of\nthe agricultural cycle. Returned to the soil as \"farm-yard manure,\"\nmixed with other cellulosic matter which has served as litter, they add\n\"fibre\" to the soil and, as a mechanical diluent of the mineral soil\ncomponents, maintain this in a more open condition, penetrable by the\natmospheric gases, and promoting distribution of moisture. Further by\nbreaking down, with production of \"humus,\" a complex of colloidal\n\"unsaturated\" bodies of acid function, they fulfil important chemical\nfunctions by interaction with the mineral soil constituents.\n\n_Chemistry of Cellulose._--Purified cotton cellulose, which is the\ndefinitive prototype of the cellulose group or series, is a complex of\nmonoses or their \"residues.\" It is resolved by solution in sulphuric\nacid and subsequent hydrolysis of the esters thus produced into\ndextrose. This fundamental fact with its elementary composition, most\nsimply expressed by the formula C6H10O5, has caused it to be regarded as\na polyanhydride of dextrose. Forming, as it does, simple esters in the\nratio of the reacting hydroxyls 3OH: C6H10O5, and taking into account\nits direct converson into [omega]-brom-methyl furfural (Fenton) a\nconstitutional formula has been proposed by A.G. Green (_Zeit. Farb.\nTextil Chem._ 3, pp. 97 and 309 (1904)), which is a useful\ngeneralization of its reactions, and its ultimate relations to the\nsimpler carbohydrates, viz.,\n\n  CH(OH).CH.CH(OH)\n  |      >O  >O\n  CH(OH).CH.CH2 .\n\nGreen considers, moreover, that a group thus formulated may consistently\nrepresent the actual dimensions of the reacting unit, but that unit of\nlarger dimensions, if postulated, is easily derived from the above by\noxygen linkings.\n\nFrom another point of view the unit group has been formulated as\n\n    \/CH(OH).CH(OH)\n  CO        >CH2\n    \\CH(OH).CH(OH) ,\n\nthe main linking of such units in the complex taking place as between\ntheir respective CO and CH2 groups in the alternative enolic form\nCH-C(OH). This view gives expression to the genetic relations of the\ncelluloses to the ligno-celluloses, to the tendency to carbon\ncondensation as in the formation of coals, and pseudo-carbons, to the\nrelative resistance of cellulose to hydrolysis, and its other points of\ndifferentiation from starch, and more particularly to the ketonic\ncharacter of its carbonyl (CO) groups, which is also more in harmony\nwith the experimental facts established by Fenton as to the production\nof methyl furfural.\n\nThe probability, however, is that no simple molecular formula adequately\nrepresents the constitution of cellulose as it actually exists or indeed\nreacts. On the other hand, it has been suggested that cellulose is to be\nregarded as representing a condition of matter analogous to that of a\nsaline electrolyte in solution, i.e. as a complex of molecular\naggregates, and of residues (of monose groups) having distinct and\nopposite polarities; such a complex is essentially labile and its\nconfiguration will change progressively under reaction. The exposition\nof this view is the subject of a publication by Cross and Bevan\n(_Researches on Cellulose_, ii. 1906). The main purpose is to give full\neffect to the colloidal characteristics of cellulose and its\nderivatives, with reference to the modern theory of the colloidal state\nas involving a particular internal equilibrium of amphoteric\nelectrolytes.\n\nThe typical cellulose is a white fibrous substance familiar to us in the\nvarious forms of bleached cotton. Other fibrous celluloses are equally\ncharacteristic as to form and appearance, e.g. bleached flax, hemp,\nramie. It is hygroscopic, absorbing 6 to 7% its weight of moisture from\nthe air. When dry, it is an electrical insulator, and has a specific\ninductive capacity of about 7: when wetted it is a conductor, and\nmanifests electrolytic phenomena.[1] It is insoluble in water and in the\nordinary solvents; it dissolves, however, in a 40-50% solution of zinc\nchloride, and in ammoniacal solutions of copper oxide (3% CuO, 15% NH3):\nfrom these solutions it is obtained as a highly hydrated, gelatinous\nprecipitate, from the former by dilution or addition of alcohol, from\nthe latter by acidification; these solutions have important industrial\napplication. Projected or drawn into a precipitating solution they may\nbe solidified continuously to threads of various, but controlled\ndimensions: the regenerated cellulose, now amorphous, in its finer\ndimensions is known as artificial silk or lustra-cellulose. These forms\nof cellulose retain the general characters of the original fibrous and\n\"natural\" celluloses. In composition they differ somewhat by combination\nwith water (of hydration), which they retain in the air-dry condition.\nThey also further combine with an increased proportion of atmospheric\nmoisture, viz. up to 10-11% of their weight.\n\n_Derivatives._--Important derivatives are the esters or ethereal salts\nof both inorganic and organic acids, cellulose behaving as an alcohol,\nthe highest esters indicating that it reacts as a trihydric alcohol of\nthe formula n[C6H7O2(OH)3]. The nitrates result by the action of\nconcentrated nitric acid, either alone or in the presence of sulphuric\nacid: the normal dinitrate represents a definite stage in the series of\nnitrates, and the ester at this point manifests the important property\nof solubility in various alcoholic solvents, notably ether-alcohol. Such\nnitrates are the basis of collodion, of artificial silk by the processes\nof Chardonnet and Lehner, and of celluloid or xylonite. Higher nitrates\nare also obtainable up to the limit of the trinitrate, which is\ninsoluble in ether or alcohol, but is soluble in nitroglycerin,\nnitrobenzene and other solvents. These higher nitrates are the basis of\nthe most important modern explosives.\n\nCellulose reacts directly with acetic anhydride to form low esters; in\nthe presence of sulphuric acid the reaction proceeds to higher limits;\nthe triacetate is soluble in chloroform. The acid sulphuric ester,\nC6H8O3(SO4H)2, is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid, but its\nrelation to the original cellulose is doubtful. The monobenzoate and\ndibenzoate are formed by benzoyl chloride reacting on alkali-cellulose\n(see below). Cellulose xanthates are obtained from carbon bisulphide and\nalkali-cellulose; these are water soluble derivatives and the basis of\n\"viscose,\" and of important industries. Mixed esters---aceto-sulphate,\naceto-benzoate, nitrobenzoyl nitrates, aceto-nitro-sulphates--have also\nbeen investigated.\n\nCellulose (cotton), when treated with a 15-20% caustic soda solution,\ngives the compound C6H10O5.H2O.2NaOH, alkali-cellulose, the original\nriband-like form with reticulated walls of the cellulose being\ntransformed into a smooth-walled cylinder. The structural changes in the\nultimate fibre determine very considerable changes in the dimensions of\nfabrics so treated. The reactions and structural changes were\ninvestigated by J. Mercer, and are known generally as \"mercerization.\"\nIn recent years a very large industry in \"mercerized\" fabrics (cotton)\nhas resulted from the observation that if the shrinkages of the yarns\nand fabrics be antagonized by mechanical means, a very high lustre is\ndeveloped.\n\nSimilar, but less definite compounds, are formed with the oxides of\nlead, manganese, barium, iron, aluminium and chromium. These\nderivatives, which also find industrial applications in the dyeing and\nprinting of fabrics, differ but little in appearance from the original\ncellulose, and are without influence on its essential characteristics.\n\n_Decompositions._--Hydrolysis:--By solution in sulphuric acid followed\nby dilution and boiling the diluted solution cellulose hydrolyses to\nfermentable sugars; this reaction is utilized industrially in the\nmanufacture of glucose from rags. Hydrochloric acid produces a friable\nmass of \"hydrocellulose,\" probably C12H22O11, insoluble in water, but\nreadily attacked by alkalis, with the production of soluble derivatives;\nsome dextrose is formed in the original reaction. Hydrobromic acid in\nethereal solution gives furfurane derivatives. Cold dilute acids have no\nperceptible action on cellulose. The actions of such acids are an\nimportant auxiliary to bleaching, dyeing and printing processes, but\nthey require careful limitation in respect of concentration and\ntemperature. Cellulose is extremely resistant to the action of dilute\nalkalis: a 1-2% solution of sodium hydrate having little action at\ntemperatures up to 150 deg. hence the use of caustic soda, soda ash and\nsodium silicate in bleaching processes, i.e. for the elimination of the\nnon-cellulose components of the raw fibres. Oxidation in acid solutions\ngives compounds classed as \"oxycelluloses,\" insoluble in water, but more\nor less soluble in alkalis; continued oxidation gives formic, acetic and\ncarbonic acids. Oxidation in alkaline solution is more easily controlled\nand limited; solutions of bleaching powder, or more generally of\nalkaline hydrochlorites, receive industrial application in oxidizing the\n impurities of the fibre, or residues left after more or less\nsevere alkali treatments, leaving the cellulose practically unaffected.\nThis, however, is obviously a question of conditions: this group of\noxidants also oxidize to oxycellulose, and under more severe conditions\nto acid products, e.g. oxalic and carbonic acids. Certain bacteria also\ninduce decompositions which are resolutions into ultimate products of\nthe lowest molecular dimensions, as hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane,\nacetic acid and butyric acid (Omeliansky) (_Handb. Techn. Mykologie_ [F.\nLafar] pp. 245-268), but generally the cellulose complex is extremely\nresistant to the organic ferments. Cellulose burns with a luminous flame\nto carbon dioxide and water; dry distillation gives a complicated\nmixture of gaseous and liquid products and a residue of charcoal or\npseudo-carbon. Chromic acid in sulphuric acid solutions effects a\ncomplete oxidation, i.e. combustion to water and carbonic acid.\n\n_Ligno-celluloses._--These compounds have many of the characteristics of\nthe cellulose esters; they are in effect ethereal compounds of cellulose\nand the quinonoid lignone complex, and the combination resists\nhydrolysis by weak alkalis or acids. The cellulose varies in amount from\n80 to 50%, and the lignone varies inversely as the degree of\nlignification, that is, from the lignified bast fibre of annuals, of\nwhich jute is a type, to the dense tissues of the perennial\ndicotyledonous woods, typified by the beech. The empirical formula of\nthe lignone complex varies from C19H22O9 (jute) to C26H30O10 (pine\nwood). In certain reactions the non-cellulose or lignone constituents\nare selectively converted into soluble derivatives, and may be separated\nas such from the cellulose which is left; for example, chlorination\ngives products soluble in sodium sulphite solution, by the combination\nof unsaturated groups of the lignone with the halogen, while digestion\nwith bisulphite solutions at elevated temperatures (140 deg.-160 deg.)\ngives soluble sulphonated derivatives. This last reaction is employed\nindustrially in the preparation of cellulose for paper-making from\nconiferous woods. These reactions are \"quantitative\" since they depend\nupon well-defined constitutional features of the lignone complex, and\nthe resolution of the ligno-cellulose takes place with no further change\nin the lignone than the synthetical combination with the substituting\ngroups. The constituent groups of the lignone specifically reacting are\nof benzenoid type of the probable form\n\n        HC\n       \/\/\\\n   HC \/\/  \\CO\n      |   |\n  H2C \\   \/CO\n       \\ \/\n        CO ,\n\ndeduced from the similarity of the chlorinated derivatives to\nmairogallol, the product of the action of chlorine on pyrogallol in\nacetic acid solution (A. Hantzsch, _Ber._ 20, p. 2033). The complex\ncontains methoxy (OCH3) groups. There is also present a residue which is\nreadily broken down by oxidizing agents, and indeed by simple\nhydrolysis, to acetic acid. Another important group of actual\nconstituents are pentosanes--partially isolated as \"wood gum\" by\nsolution in alkalis--and furfural derivatives (hydroxy furfurals)\nderived from these. The actual constitutional relationships of these\nmain groups, as well as the localization of the methoxy groups, are\nstill problematical.\n\nCertain colour reactions are characteristic, though they are in some\ncases reactions of certain constituents invariably present in the\nnatural forms of the ligno-cellulose; which may be removed without\naffecting the essential character of the lignone complex. Aniline salts\ngenerally give a yellow coloration, dimethyl-para-phenylenediamine gives\na deep red coloration, phloroglucin in hydrochloric acid gives a crimson\ncoloration. Reactions more definitely characteristic of the lignone\nare:--ferric ferrocyanide, which is taken up and transformed into\nPrussian blue throughout the fibre, without affecting its structure,\nalthough there may be as much as a 50% gain in weight; iodine in\npotassium iodide solution gives a deep brown colour due to absorption of\nthe halogen, a reaction which admits of quantitative application, i.e.\nas a measure of the proportion of ligno-cellulose in a fibrous mixture;\nnitric acid gives a deep orange yellow coloration; digested with the\ndilute acid (5-10% HNO3) at 50 deg. the ligno-celluloses are entirely\nresolved, the lignone complex being attacked and dissolved in the form\nof nitroso-ketonic acids, which, on continued heating, are finally\nresolved to oxalic, acetic, formic and carbonic acids.\n\n_Derivatives of Ligno-cellulose._--By reaction with chlorine jute yields\nthe derivative C19H18Cl4O9, soluble in alcohol, and in acetic acid; this\nderivative has the reactions of a quinone chloride. By reaction with\nsodium sulphite it is converted into a hydroquinone sulphonate of deep\npurple colour. The reaction of the ligno-celluloses (pine wood) with the\nbisulphites yields the soluble derivatives of the general formula\nC26H29O9.SO3H (containing two O.CH3 groups). Jute reacts with nitric\nacid in presence of sulphuric acid to form nitrates; and with acetic\nanhydride to form low acetates. It reacts with alkaline hydrates with\nstructural changes similar to those obtained with cotton; and by the\nfurther action of benzoyl chloride and of carbon bisulphide upon the\nresulting compounds there result the corresponding benzoates and\nxanthates respectively. But these synthetical derivatives are mixtures\nof cellulose and lignone derivatives, and so far of merely theoretical\ninterest.\n\n_Decompositions of Ligno-cellulose._--In addition to the specific\nresolutions above described which depend upon the distinctive chemical\ncharacters of the cellulose and lignone respectively, the following may\nbe noted: to simple hydrolytic agents the two groups are equally\nresistant, therefore by boiling with dilute acids or alkalis the groups\nare attacked _pari passu_. Weak oxidants may also be used as bleaching\nagents to remove  by-products without seriously attacking the\nligno-cellulose, which is obtained in its bleached form. Nitric acid of\nall strengths effects complete resolution. Chromic acid in dilute\nsolutions combines with the lignone complex, but in presence of\nhydrolysing acids total oxidation of the lignone is determined. The\nprincipal products are oxalic, carbonic, formic and acetic acids. This\nreaction is an index of constitution. Generally, the lignone is attacked\nunder many conditions and by many reagents which are without action upon\ncellulose, by virtue of its unsaturated constitution, and its acid and\naldehydic residues.\n\n_Cuto-cellulose._--A typical cuto-cellulose is the cuticle (peel) of the\napple which, when purified by repeated hydrolytic treatment and finally\nby alcohol and ether, gives a product of the composition C = 75.66%, H =\n11.37%, O = 14.97%. Hydrolysis by strong alkalis gives stearo-cutic\nacid, C28H48O4, and oleo-cutic acid, C14H20O4 (Fremy). Cork is a complex\nmixture containing various compound celluloses: extraction with alcohol\nremoves certain fatty alcohols and acids, and aromatic derivatives\nrelated to tannic acid; the residue is probably a mixture of cellulose,\nligno-cellulose, cerin, C20H32O and suberin; the latter yields stearic\nacid, C18H36O2 and the acid C22H42O3. The cuto-celluloses have been only\nsuperficially investigated, and, with the exception of cork, are of but\nlittle direct industrial importance.\n\n_Industrial Uses of Cellulose_.--The applications of cellulose to the\nnecessities of human life, infinitely varied in kind as they are\ncolossal in magnitude, depend upon two groups of qualities or\nproperties, (1) structural, (2) chemical. The manufactures of vegetable\ntextiles and of paper are based upon the fibrous forms of the naturally\noccurring celluloses, together with such structural qualities as are\nexpressed in the terms strength, elasticity, specific gravity. As\nregards chemical properties, those which come into play are chiefly the\nnegative quality of resistance to chemical change; this is obviously a\nprimary factor of value in enabling fabrics to withstand wear and tear,\ncontact with atmospheric oxygen and water, and such chemical treatments\nas laundrying; positive chemical properties are brought into play in the\nauxiliary processes of dyeing, printing, and the treatment and\npreparation in connexion with these. Staple textiles of this group are\ncotton, flax, hemp and jute; other fibres are used in rope-making and\nbrush-making industries. These subjects are treated in special articles\nunder their own headings and in the article FIBRES. The course of\nindustrial development in the 19th century has been one of enormous\nexpansion in use and considerable refinement in methods of preparation\nand manufacture. Efforts to introduce new forms of cellulose have had\nlittle result. Rhea or ramie has been a favourite subject of\ninvestigation; the industry has been introduced into England, and\ndoubtless its development is only a question of time, as on the\ncontinent of Europe the production of rhea yarns is well established,\nthough it is still only a relatively small trade--probably two or three\ntons a day total production. The paper trade has required to seek new\nsources of cellulose, in consequence of the enormous expansion of the\nuses of paper. Important phases of development were: (1) in the period\nof 1860 to 1870, the introduction of esparto, which has risen to a\nconsumption of 250,000 tons a year in the United Kingdom, at which\nfigure it remains fairly steady; (2) the decade 1870 to 1880, which saw\nthe development of the manufacture of cellulose from coniferous woods,\nand this industry now furnishes a staple of world-wide consumption,\nthough the industry is necessarily localized in countries where the\nconiferous woods are available in large quantities. As a development of\nthe paper industry we must mention the manufacture of paper textiles,\nbased upon the production of pulp yarns. Paper pulps are worked into\nflat strips, which are then rolled into cylindrical form, and by a final\ntwisting process a yarn is produced sufficiently strong to be employed\nin weaving.\n\nWhat we may call the special cellulose industries depend upon specific\nchemical properties of cellulose, partly intrinsic, partly belonging to\nthe derivatives such as the esters. Thus the cellulose nitrates are the\nbases of our modern high explosives, as well as those now used for\nmilitary purposes. Their use has been steadily developed and perfected\nsince the middle of the 19th century. The industries in celluloid,\nxylonite, &c., also depend upon the nitric esters of cellulose, and the\nplastic state which they assume when treated with solvent liquids, such\nas alcohol, amyl acetate, camphor and other auxiliaries, in which state\nthey can be readily moulded and fashioned at will. They have taken an\nimportant place as structural materials both in useful and artistic\napplications. The acetates of cellulose have recently been perfected,\nand are used in coating fine wires for electrical purposes, especially\nin instrument-making; this use depends upon their electrical properties\nof high insulation and low inductive capacity. Hydrated forms of\ncellulose, which result from treatment with various reagents, are the\nbases of the following industries: vegetable parchment results from the\naction of sulphuric acid upon cellulose (cotton) in the form of paper,\nfollowed by that of water, which precipitates the partially\ncolloidalized cellulose. This industry is carried out on \"continuous\"\nmachinery, the cellulose, in the form of paper, being treated in rolls.\nVulcanized fibre is produced by similar processes, as for instance by\ntreating paper with zinc chloride solvents and cementing together a\nnumber of sheets when in the colloidal hydrated state; the goods are\nexhaustively washed to remove, last traces of soluble electrolytes; this\nis necessary, as the product is used for electrical insulation. The\nsolvent action of cupro-ammonium is used in treating cellulose goods,\ncotton and paper, the action being allowed to proceed sufficiently to\nattack the constituent fibres and convert them into colloidal\ncupro-ammonium compounds, which are then dried, producing a\ncharacteristic green- finish of colloidal cellulose and\nrendering the goods impervious to water. The important industry of\nmercerization has been mentioned above; this is carried out on both\nyarns and cloth of cotton goods chiefly composed of Egyptian cottons. A\nhigh lustrous finish is produced, giving the goods very much the\nappearance of silk.\n\nOf special importance are the more recent developments in the production\nof artificial fibres of all dimensions, by spinning or drawing the\nsolutions of cellulose or derivatives. Three such processes are in\ncourse of evolution, (1) The first is based on the nitrates of cellulose\nwhich are dissolved in ether-alcohol, and spun through fine glass jets\ninto air or water, the unit threads being afterwards twisted together to\nconstitute the thread used for weaving (process of Chardonnet and\nLehner). These processes were developed in the period 1883 to 1897, at\nwhich later date they had assumed serious industrial proportions. (2)\nThe cupro-ammonium solution of cellulose is similarly employed, the\nsolution being spun or drawn into a strong acid bath which instantly\nregenerates cellulose hydrate in continuous length. (3) Still more\nrecently the \"viscose\" solution of cellulose, i.e. of the cellulose\nxanthogenic acid, has been perfected for the production of artificial\nsilk or lustra-cellulose; the alkaline solution of the cellulose\nderivative being drawn either into concentrated ammonium salt solutions\nor into acid baths. This product, known as artificial silk, prepared by\nthe three competing processes, was in 1908 an established textile with a\ntotal production in Europe of about 5000 tons a year, a quantity which\nbids fair to be very largely increased by the advent of the viscose\nprocess, which will effect a very considerable lowering in the cost of\nproduction. The viscose solution of cellulose is also used for a number\nof industrial effects in connexion with paper-sizing, paper-coating,\ntextile finishes, and the production of book cloth and leather cloth,\nand, solidified in solid masses, is used in preparing structural solids\nwhich can be moulded, turned and fashioned.\n\n  For the special literature of cellulose treated from the general point\n  of view of this article, the reader may consult the following works by\n  C.F. Cross and E.J. Bevan: _Cellulose_ (1895, 2nd ed. 1903),\n  _Researches on Cellulose_, i. (1901), _Researches on Cellulose_, ii.\n  (1906).     (C. F. C.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n  [1] C.F. Cross and E.J. Bevan, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1895, 67, p. 449;\n    C.R. Darling, _Jour. Faraday Soc._ 1904; A. Campbell, _Trans. Roy.\n    Soc._ 1906.\n\n\n\n\nCELSIUS, ANDERS (1701-1744), Swedish astronomer, was born at Upsala on\nthe 27th of November 1701. He occupied the chair of astronomy in the\nuniversity of his native town from 1730 to 1744, but travelled during\n1732 and some subsequent years in Germany, Italy and France. At\nNuremberg he published in 1733 a collection of 316 observations of the\naurora borealis made by himself and others 1716-1732. In Paris he\nadvocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland, and took\npart, in 1736, in the expedition organized for the purpose by the French\nAcademy. Six years later he described the centigrade thermometer in a\npaper read before the Swedish Academy of Sciences (see THERMOMETRY). His\ndeath occurred at Upsala on the 25th of April 1744. He wrote: _Nova\nMethodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi_ (1730); _De\nobservationibus pro figura telluris determinanda_ (1738); besides many\nless important works.\n\n  See W. Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No. 57\n  (Leipzig, 1904), where Celsius's memoir on the thermometric scale is\n  given in German with critical and biographical notes (p. 132); Marie,\n  _Histoire des sciences_, viii. 30; Poggendorff s _Biog.-literarisches\n  Handworterbuch_.\n\n\n\n\nCELSUS (c. A.D. 178), a 2nd-century opponent of Christianity, known to\nus mainly through the reputation of his literary work, _The True Word_\n(or _Account_; [Greek: alethes logos]), published by Origen in 248,\nseventy years after its composition. In that year, though the Church was\nunder no direct threat of attack, owing to the inertia of the emperor\nPhilip the Arabian, the atmosphere was full of conflict. The empire was\ncelebrating the l000th anniversary of its birth, and imperial\naspirations and ideas were naturally prominent. Over against the state\nand the worship of the Caesar stood as usual the Christian ideal of a\nrule and a citizenship not of this world, to which a thousand years were\nbut as a day. A supernatural pride was blended with a natural anxiety,\nand it was at this juncture that Origen brought to light again a book\nwritten in the days of Marcus Aurelius, which but for the great\nAlexandrian might have been lost for ever. Sometimes quoting, sometimes\nparaphrasing, sometimes merely referring, he reproduces and replies to\nall Celsus's arguments. His work shows many signs of haste, but he more\nthan compensates for this by the way in which he thus preserves a\nsingularly interesting memorial of the 2nd century. When we remember\nthat only about one-tenth of the _True Word_ is really lost and that\nabout three-quarters of what we have is verbatim text, it would be\nungracious to carp at the method.\n\n\n    The argument\n\n  Celsus opens the way for his own attack by rehearsing the taunts\n  levelled at the Christians by the Jews. Jesus was born in adultery and\n  nurtured on the wisdom of Egypt. His assertion of divine dignity is\n  disproved by his poverty and his miserable end. Christians have no\n  standing in the Old Testament prophecies, and their talk of a\n  resurrection that was only revealed to some of their own adherents is\n  foolishness. Celsus indeed says that the Jews are almost as ridiculous\n  as the foes they attack; the latter said the saviour from Heaven had\n  come, the former still looked for his coming. However, the Jews have\n  the advantage of being an ancient nation with an ancient faith. The\n  idea of an Incarnation of God is absurd; why should the human race\n  think itself so superior to bees, ants and elephants as to be put in\n  this unique relation to its maker? And why should God choose to come\n  to men as a Jew? The Christian idea of a special providence is\n  nonsense, an insult to the deity. Christians are like a council of\n  frogs in a marsh or a synod of worms on a dunghill, croaking and\n  squeaking, \"For our sakes was the world created.\" It is much more\n  reasonable to believe that each part of the world has its own special\n  deity; prophets and supernatural messengers had forsooth appeared in\n  more places than one. Besides being bad philosophy based on fictitious\n  history, Christianity is not respectable. Celsus does not indeed\n  repeat the Thyestean charges so frequently brought against Christians\n  by their calumniators, but he says the Christian teachers who are\n  mainly weavers and cobblers have no power over men of education. The\n  qualifications for conversion are ignorance and childish timidity.\n  Like all quacks they gather a crowd of slaves, children, women and\n  idlers. \"I speak bitterly about this,\" says Celsus, \"because I feel\n  bitterly. When we are invited to the Mysteries the masters use another\n  tone. They say, 'Come to us ye who are of clean hands and pure speech,\n  ye who are unstained by crime, who have a good conscience towards God,\n  who have done justly and lived uprightly.' The Jews say, 'Come to us\n  ye who are sinners, ye who are fools or children, ye who are\n  miserable, and ye shall enter into the kingdom of Heaven.' The rogue,\n  the thief, the burglar, the poisoner, the spoiler of temples and\n  tombs, these are their proselytes. Jesus, they say, was sent to save\n  sinners; was he not sent to help those who have kept themselves free\n  from sin? They pretend that God will save the unjust man if he repents\n  and humbles himself. The just man who has held steady from the cradle\n  in the ways of virtue He will not look upon.\" He pours scorn upon the\n  exorcists--who were clearly in league with the demons themselves--and\n  upon the excesses of the itinerant and undisciplined \"prophets\" who\n  roam through cities and camps and commit to everlasting fire cities\n  and lands and their inhabitants. Above all Christians are disloyal,\n  and every church is an illicit collegium, an insinuation deadly at any\n  time, but especially so under Marcus Aurelius. Why cannot Christians\n  attach themselves to the great philosophic and political authorities\n  of the world? A properly understood worship of gods and demons is\n  quite compatible with a purified monotheism, and they might as well\n  give up the mad idea of winning the authorities over to their faith,\n  or of hoping to attain anything like universal agreement on divine\n  things.\n\n\n  The philosophy of Celsus\n\nCelsus and Porphyry (q.v.) are the two early literary opponents of\nChristianity who have most claim to consideration, and it is worth\nnoticing that, while they agree alike in high aims, in skilful address\nand in devoted toil, their religious standpoints are widely dissimilar.\nPorphyry is above all a pure philosopher, but also a man of deep\nreligious feeling, whose quest and goal are the knowledge of God;\nCelsus, the friend of Lucian, though sometimes called Epicurean and\nsometimes Platonist, is not a professed philosopher at all, but a man of\nthe world, really at heart an agnostic, like Caecilius in Minucius Felix\n(q.v.), whose religion is nothing more or less than the Empire. He is\nkeen, positive, logical, combining with curious dashes of scepticism\nmany genuine moral convictions and a good knowledge of the various\nnational religions and mythologies whose relative value he is able to\nappreciate. \"His manner of thought is under the overpowering influence\nof the eclectic Platonism of the time, and not of the doctrine of the\nEpicurean school. He is a man of the world, of philosophic culture, who\naccepts much of the influential Platonism of the time but has absorbed\nlittle of its positive religious sentiment. In his antipathy to\nChristianity, which appears to him barbaric and superstitious, he gives\nhimself up to the scepticism and satire of a man of the world through\nwhich he comes in contact with Epicurean tendencies.\" He quotes\napprovingly from the _Timaeus_ of Plato: \"It is a hard thing to find out\nthe Maker and Father of this universe, and after having found him it is\nimpossible to make him known to all.\" Philosophy can at best impart to\nthe fit some notion of him which the elect soul must itself develop. The\nChristian on the contrary maintained that God is known to us as far as\nneed be in Christ, and He is accessible to all. Another sharp antithesis\nwas the problem of evil. Celsus made evil constant in amount as being\nthe correlative of matter. Hence his scorn of the doctrine of the\nresurrection of the body held then in a very crude form, and his\nridicule of any attempt to raise the vulgar masses from their\ndegradation. The real root of the difficulty to Platonist as to Gnostic\nwas his sharp antithesis of form as good and matter as evil.\n\n\n  Place and date.\n\nOpinion at one time inclined to the view that the _True Word_ was\nwritten in Rome, but the evidence (wholly internal) points much more\ndecisively to an Egyptian, and in particular an Alexandrian origin. Not\nonly do the many intimate references to Egyptian history and customs\nsupport this position, but it is clear that the Jews of Celsus are not\nWestern or Roman Jews, but belong to the Orient, and especially to that\ncircle of Judaism which had received and assimilated the idea of the\nLogos.\n\nThe date also is clearly defined. Besides the general indication that\nthe Empire was passing through a military crisis, which points to the\nlong struggle waged by Marcus Aurelius against the Marcomanni and other\nGermanic tribes, there is a reference (_Contra Celsum_, viii. 69) to the\nrescript of that emperor impressing on governors and magistrates the\nduty of keeping a strict watch on extravagances in religion. This edict\ndates from 176-177, and inaugurated the persecution which lasted from\nthat time till the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180. During these years\nCommodus was associated with Marcus in the imperium, and Celsus has a\nreference to this joint rule (viii. 71).\n\n\n  Value in the history of Christianity.\n\nCelsus shows himself familiar with the story of Jewish origins. Any\npagan who wished to understand and criticize Christianity intimately had\nto begin by learning from the Jews, and this accounts for the opening\nchapters of his argument. He has a good knowledge of Genesis and Exodus,\nrefers to the stories of Jonah, Daniel (vii. 53) and Enoch (v. 52), but\ndoes not make much use of the Prophets or the Psalter. As regards the\nNew Testament his position is closely in agreement with that reflected\nin the contemporary _Acts of the Martyrs of Scili_. He speaks of a\nChristian collection of writings, and knew and used the gospels, but was\ninfluenced less by the fourth than by the Synoptics. There is more\nevidence of Pauline ideas than of Pauline letters.\n\nThe gnostic sects and their writings were well known to him (viii. 15\nand vi. 25), and so was the work of Marcion. There are indications, too,\nof an acquaintance with Justin Martyr and the Sibylline literature (vii.\n53, op. v. 61). \"He is perfectly aware of the internal differences\nbetween Christians, and he is familiar with the various stages of\ndevelopment in the history of their religion. These are cleverly\nemployed in order to heighten the impression of its instability. He\nplays off the sects against the Catholic Church, the primitive age\nagainst the present, Christ against the apostles, the various revisions\nof the Bible against the trustworthiness of the text and so forth,\nthough he admits that everything was not really so bad at first as it is\nat present.\"\n\nThe _True Word_ had very little influence either on the mutual\nrelations of Church and State, or on classical literature. Echoes of it\nare found in Tertullian and in Minucius Felix, and then it lay forgotten\nuntil Origen gave it new life. A good deal of the neo-Platonic polemic\nnaturally went back to Celsus, and both the ideas and phrases of the\n_True Word_ are found in Porphyry and Julian, though the closing of the\nNew Testament canon in the meantime somewhat changed the method of\nattack for these writers.\n\nOf more importance than these matters is the light which the book sheds\non the strength of the Church about the year 180. It is of course easy\nto see that Celsus had no apprehension of the spiritual needs even of\nhis own day which it was the Christian purpose to satisfy, that he could\nnot grasp anything of the new life enjoyed by the poor in spirit, and\nthat he underrated the significance of the Church, regarding it simply\nas one of a number of warring sections (mostly Gnostic), and so seeing\nonly a mark of weakness. And yet, there is all through an undercurrent\nwhich runs hard against his surface verdicts, and here and there comes\nto expression. He is bound to admit that Christianity has been stated\nreasonably; against the moral teaching of Jesus he can only bring the\nlame charge of plagiarism, and with the Christian assertion that the\nLogos is the Son of God he completely accords. Most suggestive, however,\nis his closing appeal to the Christians. \"Come,\" he says, \"don't hold\naloof from the common regime. Take your place by the emperor's side.\nDon't claim for yourselves another empire, or any special position.\" It\nis an overture for peace. \"If all were to follow your example and\nabstain from politics, the affairs of the world would fall into the\nhands of wild and lawless barbarians\" (viii. 68). Forced to admit that\nChristians are not _infructuosi in negotiis_, he wants them to be good\ncitizens, to retain their own belief but conform to the state religion.\nIt is an earnest and striking appeal on behalf of the Empire, which was\nclearly in great danger, and it shows the terms offered to the Church,\nas well as the strength of the Church at the time. Numerically,\nChristians may have formed perhaps a tenth of the population, i.e. in\nAlexandria there would be fifty or sixty thousand, but their power in a\ncommunity was out of all proportion to their mere numbers.\n\n  LITERATURE.--Th. Keim, _Celsus' Wahres Wort_ (1873); Pelagaud, _Etude\n  sur Celse_ (1878); K.J. Neumann's edition in _Scriptores Graeci qui\n  Christianam impugnaverunt religionem_, and article in Hauck-Herzog's\n  _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._, where a very full bibliography is\n  given. See also W. Moeller, _Hist, of the Chr. Church_, i. 169 ff.; A.\n  Harnack, _Expansion of Christianity_, ii. 129 ff.; J.A. Froude, _Short\n  Studies_, iv.\n\n\n\n\nCELT, or KELT, the generic name of an ancient people, the bulk of whom\ninhabited the central and western parts of Europe. (For the sense of a\nprimitive stone tool, see the separate article, later.) Much confusion\nhas arisen from the inaccurate use of the terms \"Celt\" and \"Celtic.\" It\nis the practice to speak of the dark-complexioned people of France,\nGreat Britain and Ireland as \"black Celts,\" although the ancient writers\nnever applied the term \"Celt\" to any dark-complexioned person. To them\ngreat stature, fair hair, and blue or grey eyes were the characteristics\nof the Celt. The philologists have added to the confusion by classing as\n\"Celtic\" the speeches of the dark-complexioned races of the west of\nScotland and the west of Ireland. But, though usage has made it\nconvenient in this work to employ the term, \"Celtic\" cannot be properly\napplied to what is really \"Gaelic.\"\n\nThe ancient writers regarded as homogeneous all the fair-haired peoples\ndwelling north of the Alps, the Greeks terming them all _Keltoi_.\nPhysically they fall into two loosely-divided groups, which shade off\ninto each other. The first of these is restricted to north-western\nEurope, having its chief seat in Scandinavia. It is distinguished by a\nlong head, a long face, a narrow aquiline nose, blue eyes, very light\nhair and great stature. Those are the peoples usually termed Teutonic by\nmodern writers. The other group is marked by a round head, a broad face,\na nose often rather broad and heavy, hazel-grey eyes, light chestnut\nhair; they are thick-set and of medium height. This race is often termed\n\"Celtic\" or \"Alpine\" from the fact of its occurrence all along the great\nmountain chain from south-west France, in Savoy, in Switzerland, the Po\nvalley and Tirol, as well as in Auvergne, Brittany, Normandy, Burgundy,\nthe Ardennes and the Vosges. It thus stands midway not only\ngeographically but also in physical features between the \"Teutonic\" type\nof Scandinavian and the so-called \"Mediterranean race\" with its long\nhead, long face, its rather broad nose, dark brown or black hair, dark\neyes, and slender form of medium height. The \"Alpine race\" is commonly\nsupposed to be Mongoloid in origin and to have come from Asia, the home\nof round-skulled races. But it is far more probable that they are the\nsame in origin as the dark race south of them and the tall fair race\nnorth of them, and that the broadness of their skulls is simply due to\ntheir having been long domiciled in mountainous regions. Thus the\n\"Celtic\" ox (_Bos longifrons_), from remote ages the common type in the\nAlpine regions, is characterized by the height of its forehead above the\norbits, by its highly-developed occipital region, and its small horns.\nNot only do animals change their physical characteristics in new\nenvironment, but modern peoples when settled in new surroundings for\neven one or two centuries, e.g. the American of New England and the Boer\nof South Africa, prove that man is no less readily affected by his\nsurroundings.\n\nThe northern race has ever kept pressing down on the broad-skulled,\nbrown-complexioned men of the Alps, and intermixing with them, and at\ntimes has swept right over the great mountain chain into the tempting\nregions of the south, producing such races as the Celto-Ligyes,\nCeltiberians, Celtillyrians, Celto-Thracians and Celto-Scythians. In its\nturn the Alpine race has pressed down upon their darker and less warlike\nkindred of the south, either driven down before the tall sons of the\nnorth or swelling the hosts of the latter as they swept down south.\n\nAs the natives of the southern peninsula came into contact with these\nmixed people, who though differing in the shape of the skull\nnevertheless varied little from each other in speech and colour of their\nhair and eyes, the ancient writers termed them all \"Keltoi.\" But as the\nmost dreaded of these Celtic tribes came down from the shores of the\nBaltic and Northern Ocean, the ancients applied the name Celt to those\npeoples who are spoken of as Teutonic in modern parlance. The Teutons,\nwhose name is generic for Germans, appear in history along with the\nCimbri, universally held to be Celts, but coming from the same region as\nthe Guttones (Goths) by the shores of the Baltic and North Sea. Again,\nthe Germani themselves first appear in the Celtic host destroyed by\nMarcellus at Clastidium in 225 B.C. All the true Celtae or Galatae in\nFrance had come across the Rhine; the Belgic tribes in northern France\nwere Cimbri, who also had crossed the Rhine: in Caesar's day the Germans\nwere still constantly crossing that river, and so-called Gauls who lived\nnear the Germans, e.g. the Treveri, closely resembled the latter in\ntheir habits, while in later times were to come Goths and Franks from\nbeyond the great river. It is then not strange that the Gallic name for\na henchman (_ambactus_) is the same as the Gothic (_ambahts_).\n\nThe earliest invaders, under the name of Celtae, had occupied all\ncentral Gaul, doubtless mixing with the aboriginal Ligurians and\nIberians, who, however, maintained themselves respectively in the later\nProvence and in Aquitania. The Celts had firmly established themselves\nby the 7th century B.C. and we know not how long before, the Bituriges\n(whose name survives in Berri) being the dominant tribe. In the Alps and\nthe Danube valley some of the Celts had dwelt from the Stone Age; there\nthey had developed the working of copper, discovered bronze (an alloy of\ncopper and tin), and the art of smelting iron (see HALLSTATT). The\nUmbrians, who were part of the Alpine Celts, had been pressing down into\nItaly from the Bronze Age, though checked completely by the rise of the\nEtruscan power in the 10th century B.C. The invention of iron weapons\nmade the Celts henceforth irresistible. One of the earliest movements\nafter this discovery was probably that of the Achaeans of Homer, who\nabout 1450 B.C. invaded Greece (see ACHAEANS), bringing with them the\nuse of iron and brooches, the practice of cremating the dead, and the\nstyle of ornament known as Geometric. Later the Cimmerians (see SCYTHIA\nand CIMMERII) passed down from the Cimbric Chersonese, doubtless\nfollowing the amber routes, and then turned east along the Danube, some\nof their tribes, e.g. the Treres, settling in Thrace, and crossing into\nAsia; others settled in southern Russia, leaving their name in the\nCrimea; then when hard pressed by the Scythians most of them passed\nround the east end of the Euxine into Asia Minor, probably being the\npeople known as Gimirri on Assyrian monuments, and ravaged that region,\nthe relics of the race finally settling at Sinope.\n\nAt the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Celts of France had grown\nvery powerful under the Biturigian king Ambigatus. They appear to have\nspread southwards into Spain, occupying most of that country as far\nsouth as Gades (Cadiz), some tribes, e.g. Turdentani and Turduli,\nforming permanent settlements and being still powerful there in Roman\ntimes; and in northern central Spain, from the mixture of Celts with the\nnative Iberians, the population henceforward was called Celtiberian.\nAbout this time also took place a great invasion of Italy; Segovisus and\nBellovisus, the nephews of Ambigatus, led armies through Switzerland,\nand over the Brenner, and by the Maritime Alps, respectively (Livy V.\n34). The tribes who sent some of their numbers to invade Italy and\nsettle there were the Bituriges, Arverni, Senones, Aedui, Ambarri,\nCarnuti and Aulerci.\n\nCertain material remains found in north Italy, e.g. at Sesto Calende,\nmay belong to this invasion. The next great wave of Celts recorded was\nthat which swept down on north Italy shortly before 400 B.C. These\ninvaders broke up in a few years the Etruscan power, and even occupied\nRome herself after the disaster on the Allia (390 B.C.). Bought off by\ngold they withdrew from Rome, but they continued to hold a great part of\nnorthern Italy, extending as far south as Sena Gallica (_Sinigaglia_),\nand henceforward they were a standing source of danger to Rome,\nespecially in the Samnite Wars, until at last they were either subdued\nor expelled, e.g. the Boii from the plains of the Po. At the same time\nas the invasion of Italy they had made fresh descents into the Danube\nvalley and the upper Balkan, and perhaps may have pushed into southern\nRussia, but at this time they never made their way into Greece, though\nthe Athenian ladies copied the style of hair and dress of the Cimbrian\nwomen. About 280 B.C. the Celts gathered a great host at the head of the\nAdriatic, and accompanied by the Illyrian tribe of Autariatae, they\noverthrew the Macedonians, overran Thessaly, and invaded Phocis in order\nto sack Delphi, but they were finally repulsed, chiefly by the efforts\nof the Aetolians (279 B.C.). The remnant of those who returned from\nGreece joined that part of their army which had remained in Thrace, and\nmarched for the Hellespont. Here some of their number settled near\nByzantium, having conquered the native Thracians, and made Tyle their\ncapital. The Byzantines had to pay them a yearly tribute of 80 talents,\nuntil on the death of the Gallic king Cavarus (some time after 220 B.C.)\nthey were annihilated by the Thracians. The main body of the Gauls who\nhad marched to the Hellespont crossed it under the leadership of\nLeonnorius and Lutarius. Straightway they overran the greater part of\nAsia Minor, and laid under tribute all west of Taurus, even the Seleucid\nkings. At last Attila, king of Pergamum, defeated them in a series of\nbattles commemorated on the Pergamene sculptures, and henceforth they\nwere confined to a strip of land in the interior of Asia Minor, the\nGalatia of history. Their three tribes--Trocmi, Tolistobogians and\nTectosages--submitted to Rome (189 B.C.), but they remained autonomous\ntill the death of their king Amyntas, when Augustus erected Galatia into\na province. Their descendants were probably the \"foolish Galatians\" to\nwhom St Paul wrote (see GALATIA).\n\nAncient writers spoke of all these Gauls as Cimbri, and identified them\nwith the Cimmerians of earlier date, who in Homeric times dwelt on the\nocean next to the Laestrygones, in a region of wintry gloom, but where\nthe sun set not in summer. Nor was it only towards the south and the\nHellespont that the Celtic tide ever set. They passed eastward to the\nDanube mouth and into southern Russia, as far as the Sea of Azov,\nmingling with the Scythians, as is proved by the name Celto-scyths.\nMithradates VI. of Pontus seems to have negotiated with them to gain\ntheir aid against Rome, and Bituitus, a Gallic mercenary, was with him\nat his death.\n\nThe Celts had continually moved westwards also. The Belgae, who were\nCimbric in origin, had spread across the Rhine and given their name to\nall northern France and Belgium (_Gallia Belgica_). Many of these tribes\nsent colonies over into south-eastern Britain, where they had been\nmasters for some two centuries when Caesar invaded the island (see\nBRITAIN). But there is evidence that from the Bronze Age there had been\nsettlers in northern Britain who were broad-skulled and cremated their\ndead, a practice which had arisen in south Germany in the early Bronze\nAge or still earlier. It is not unlikely that, as tradition states,\nthere were incursions of Celts from central Gaul into Ireland during the\ngeneral Celtic unrest in the 6th century B.C. It is certain that at a\nlater period invaders from the continent, bringing with them the later\nIron Age culture, commonly called La Tene, which had succeeded that of\nHallstatt, had settled in Ireland. Not only are relics of La Tene\nculture found in Ireland, but the oldest Irish epics celebrate tall,\nfair-haired, grey-eyed heroes, armed and clad in Gallic fashion, who had\ncome from the continent. The Celts in Italy, in the Balkan, in France\nand in Britain, overspread the Indo-European peoples, who differed from\nthemselves but slightly in speech. The Celts represented Indo-European q\nby p, whilst the Greeks, Illyrians, Thracians, Ligurians, and aborigines\nof France, Britain and Ireland represented it by k, c or qu. The\nUmbrian-Sabellian tribes had the same phonetic peculiarity as the Celts.\nThus Gallic _petor_ (_petor-ritum_, \"four-wheeler\"), Umbrian _petur_,\nHomeric [Greek: pisures], Boeotian (Achaean) [Greek: pettares], Welsh\n_pedwar_; but Gaelic _cethir_, Lat. _quatuor_. The Celts are thus\nclearly distinguished from the Gaelic-speaking dark race of Britain and\nIreland, and in spite of usage it must be understood that it is strictly\nmisleading to apply the term Celtic to the latter language.\n\n  See also Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, vol. i., and _Oldest Irish\n  Epic_; Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_.\n       (W. Ri.)\n\n\nCELTIC LANGUAGES\n\n_Introduction_.--The Celtic languages form one group of the\nIndo-European family of languages. As might be expected from their\ngeographical distribution, they hold a position between the Italic and\nTeutonic groups. They are distinguished from these and other branches of\nthe family by certain well-marked characteristics, the most notable of\nwhich are the loss of initial and inter-vocalic p, cf. Ir. _athair_ with\nLat. _pater_; Ir. _lan_, \"full,\" Welsh _llawn_, Breton _leun_, with Lat.\n_plenus_; Gaulish _are-_, \"beside,\" Ir. ar. Welsh, Breton ar, with Gr.\n[Greek: peri], [Greek: para]; and the change of I. E. e to i, cf. Ir.\n_fir_, \"true,\" Welsh _gwir_, Breton _gwir_, Lat. _verus_. We may further\nmention that the I. E. labialized velar gv is represented by b, e.g. Ir.\nbo, \"cow,\" Welsh _buwch_, Gr. [Greek: bous], Sanskr. _gaus_; Ir. _ben_,\n\"woman,\" Gr. [Greek: gyne], whilst the medial aspirates bh, dh, gh\nresult in simple voiced stops. I. E. sonant r and l become ri, li. Other\ndistinctive features of the modern dialects are not found in Gaulish,\npartly owing to the character of the monuments. Such are the\n-ss-preterite and the fusion of simple prepositions with pronominal\nelements, e.g. Ir. _fri-umm_, \"against me,\" Welsh _wrth-yf_, Breton\n_ouz-inn_. The initial mutations which are so characteristic of the\nliving languages did not arise until after the Romans had left Britain.\nThe Celtic languages betray a surprising affinity with the Italic\ndialects. Indeed, these two groups seem to stand in a much closer\nrelationship to one another than any other pair. As features common to\nboth Celtic and Italic we may mention: (i) the gen. sing, ending -i of\nmasc. and neut. stems in o; (2) verbal nouns in _-tion_; (3) the b-\nfuture; (4) the passive formation in -r.\n\nThe various Celtic dialects may be divided as follows:--(1) Gaulish; (2)\nGoidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx; (3) Brythonic,\nincluding Welsh, Breton and Cornish. Gaulish and Brythonic, like Oscan\nand Umbrian among the Italic dialects, change the I. E. labialized velar\nguttural qv to p, whilst the Goidelic dialects retain the qv which later\ngives up the labial element and becomes k, e.g. Gaulish _petor-_,\n\"four,\" Ir. _cethir_, Welsh _petguar_, Breton _pevar_, Lat. _quattuor_;\nIr. _cia_, \"who,\" Welsh _pwy_, Lat. _quis_; Gaulish _epo-_, \"horse,\"\nWelsh _eb-ol_, Breton _eb-eul_, Ir. _ech_, Lat. _equus_. Several\nattempts have been made to prove the existence of Celtic dialects with\nqv on the continent. Forms containing p occur in the Coligny calendar,\ndiscovered in 1897, by the side of others with qv, a state of affairs\nnot yet satisfactorily accounted for. The Rom tablets, discovered in\n1898, have not been interpreted as yet, but p forms are found on them\nexclusively. In an excursus we shall deal with the language of the\nPicts.\n\n  No comprehensive handbook of the Celtic languages on the lines of\n  Grober's _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_ or Paul's _Grundriss\n  der germanischen Philologie_ was available in 1909. The reader may\n  refer to Windisch's article \"Keltische Sprachen\" in Ersch und Gruber's\n  _Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste_, and V.\n  Tourneur, _Esquisse d'une histoire des etudes celtiques_ (Liege, 1905;\n  vol. ii. with full bibliography). Also H. Zimmer, \"Die kelt.\n  Litteraturen\" in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, T. i. Abh. xi. I, Berlin\n  and Leipzig, 1909. The materials for the study of the older forms of\n  the languages are to be found in Zeuss's _Grammatica Celtica_ as\n  revised by Ebel. A comparative grammar of the Celtic dialects has been\n  prepared by H. Pedersen (Gottingen, 1908). See also Whitley Stokes and\n  A. Bezzenberger, _Wortschatz der keltischen Spracheinheit_ (Gottingen,\n  1894).\n\nI. GAULISH.--Celtic place-names are found as far east as the Dniester\nand Dobrudja, and as far north as Westphalia. The language of the\nGalatians in Asia Minor must have stood in a very close relation to\nGaulish. Indeed few traces of dialectical differences are to be observed\nin continental Celtic. Unfortunately no literary monuments written in\nthe ancient speech of Gaul have come down to us, though Caesar makes\nmention of religious poems orally transmitted by the Druids, and we also\nhear of _bardi_ and _vates_. But a large number of personal and\nplace-names have been preserved. The classical writers have, moreover,\nrecorded a certain number of Gaulish words which can generally be\nidentified without difficulty by comparing them with words still living\nin the modern dialects, e.g. _pempedula_, \"cinquefoil,\" cf. Welsh\n_pump_, \"five,\" and _deilen_, \"leaf\"; _ambactus_, Welsh _amaeth_;\n_petorritum_, \"four-wheeled chariot,\" cf. Welsh _pedwar_, \"four,\" and\nIr. _roth_, \"wheel,\" or _rith_, \"course.\" We have further between thirty\nand forty inscriptions (three in north Italy) which we may without\nhesitation ascribe to the Gauls. These inscriptions are written in\neither N. Etruscan or Greek or Latin characters. We are thus in a\nposition to reconstruct much of the old system of declension, which\nresembles Latin very closely on the one hand, and on the other\nrepresents the forms which are postulated by the O. Ir. paradigms. Hence\nGaulish is particularly valuable as preserving the final vowels which\nhave disappeared in early Irish and Welsh. The few verb-forms which\noccur in the remains of Gaulish are quite obscure and have not hitherto\nadmitted of a satisfactory explanation. The statements of ancient\nauthors with regard to the Belgae are conflicting, but there cannot be\nmuch doubt that the language of the latter was substantially the same as\nGaulish. Caesar observes that there was little difference between the\nspeech of the Gauls and the Britons in his day, and we may regard\nGaulish as closely akin to the ancestor of the Brythonic dialects. It is\ndifficult to say when Gaulish finally became extinct. It disappeared\nvery rapidly in the south of France, but lingered on, possibly till the\n6th century, in the northern districts, and it seems unnecessary to\ndiscredit Jerome's statement that the speech of the Galatians in Asia\nMinor bore a strong resemblance to the language he had heard spoken in\nthe neighbourhood of Trier. There is no evidence that Breton has been\ninfluenced by continental Celtic. The number of Gaulish words which have\ncome down in the Romance languages is remarkably small, and though at\nfirst sight the sound-changes of French and Welsh seem to bear a strong\nlikeness to one another, any influence of Gaulish pronunciation on\nFrench is largely discounted when we find the same changes occurring in\nother dialects where there is little or no question of Celtic influence.\n\n  The proper names occurring in classical writers, on inscriptions and\n  coins, have been collected by A. Holder in his monumental\n  _Altceltischer Sprachschatz_ (Leipzig, 1896-1908). The inscriptions\n  have been most recently treated by J. Rhys in the _Proceedings of the\n  British Academy_, vol. ii. See also a paper in this volume entitled\n  \"Celtae and Galli\" by the same author for the text of the Coligny and\n  Rom inscriptions. The value of Gaulish for grammatical purposes is set\n  forth by Whitley Stokes in a paper on \"Celtic Declension\" in the\n  _Proceedings of the London Philological Society_ (1885-1886). For the\n  extent over which Gaulish was spoken, its relation to Latin and its\n  influence on Romance, see E. Windisch's article on \"Keltische Sprache\"\n  in the section \"Die vorromanischen Volkssprachen\" in Grober's\n  _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie^2_, vol. i. pp. 373 ff. Cf.\n  further the introduction to J. Loth's _Chrestomathie bretonne_ (Paris,\n  1890); G. Dottin, _Manuel pour servir a I'etude des antiquites\n  celtiques_ (Paris, 1906); R. Thurneysen, _Keltoromanisches_ (Halle,\n  1884).\n\nII. GOIDELIC AND BRYTHONIC.--When the monuments of the Celtic dialects\nof the British Islands begin to appear, we find a wide divergence\nbetween the two groups. We can only mention some of the more important\ncases here. The Brythonic dialects have gone very much farther in giving\nup inflectional endings than Goidelic. In Irish all final syllables in\ngeneral disappear except long vowels followed by s or r and u < o\npreceded by i. But these reservations do not hold good for Brythonic.\nThus, whilst O. Irish possesses five cases the Brythonic dialects have\nonly one, and they have further lost the neuter gender and the dual\nnumber in substantives. In phonology there are also very striking\ndifferences, apart from the treatment of the labialized velar qv already\nmentioned. The sonant n appears in Brythonic as an, whereas in Goidelic\nthe nasal disappears before k, t with compensatory lengthening of the\nvowel, e.g. I. E. _*kmtom_, Ir. _cet_, \"hundred,\" W. _cant_, Bret.\n_kant_; Prim. Celt. _*jovnko-_, O. Ir. _oac_, Mod. Ir. og, \"young,\" W.\n_ieuanc_, Bret, _iaouank_. t, k standing after a vowel and preceding l,\nn (and also r if k precede) disappear in Goidelic with compensatory\nlengthening of the vowel, e.g. Prim. Celt. _*statla-_, Ir. _sal_,\n\"heel,\" W. _sawdl_; Prim. Celt. _*petno-_, Ir. _en_, \"bird,\" O. W.\n_etn_, Mod. W. _edn._ Similarly b, d, g disappear in Goidelic when\nstanding after a vowel and preceding l, r, n with compensatory\nlengthening of the vowel, but in Welsh they produce a vowel forming a\ndiphthong with the preceding vowel, e.g. Prim. Celt. _*neblo-_, Ir.\n_nel_, \"cloud,\" W. _niwl_; Prim. Celt. _*ogno-_, cf. Lat. _agnus_, Ir.\n_uan_, \"lamb,\" from _*on_, W. _oen_; Prim. Celt. _*vegno-_, cf. Ger.\n_Wagen_, Ir. _fen_, \"wagon,\" O. W. _guein_, Mod. W. _gwain_. The\nGoidelic dialects have preserved the vowels of accented syllables on the\nwhole better than Brythonic. Thus Brythonic has changed Prim. Celt, a (=\nI. E. a, o) to o (W. aw, Bret. eu); and Prim. Celt. u to i, e.g. Ir.\n_brathir_, \"brother,\" W. _brawd_, Bret. _breur_; Gaulish _dunum_, Ir.\n_dun_, \"fort,\" W. _din_. Already in Gaulish the I. E. diphthongs show a\ntendency to become simple long vowels and the latter are treated\ndifferently by Goidelic and Brythonic. In early times I. E. _eu, ou_\nboth became o and I. E. ei gave e. In Goidelic o, e, in accented\nsyllables were diphthongized in the early part of the 8th century to ua,\nia if the next syllable did not contain the vowels e or i, whereas in\nBrythonic o gave =u (written u) and e became in W. ui (wy), and in Bret.\noe (_oue_), e.g. Gaulish _Teuto-_, _Toutius_, Ir. _tuath_, \"people,\" W.,\nBret. _tud_; Brythonic _Leto-cetum_, Ir. _tuath_, \"grey,\" W. _llwyd_,\nBret, _loued_. Similarly in loan-words, Ir. _ceir_, _fial_, W. _cwyr_,\nO. Corn. _guil_, from Lat. _cera_, _velum_. Further I. E. ai, oi are\npreserved in Irish as ai (ae), oi (oe), Mod. Ir. ao, but in Welsh I. E.\nai gave either ai or oe, whilst oi changed to _u_ (written u), Ir.\n_toeb_, \"side,\" W., Bret. tu; I. E. _*oinos_, Ir. _oen_, \"one,\" W.,\nBret. un; Prim. Celt. _*saitlo-_, cf. Lat. _saeculum_, W. _hoedl_,\n\"age,\" Bret. _hoal_. In Goidelic accented e changes to i before _i, u_\nin the following syllable, cf. Ir. _fid_, \"wood,\" gen. sing, _fedo_, O.\nH. G. _witu_, and i changes to e before a or o under similar conditions.\nIn like manner u becomes o before a or o, whilst o changes to u before\ni, u, cf. Ir. _muir_, \"sea,\" Prim. Celt. _*mori_, gen. sing. _mora_. Of\nBrythonic finals which disappear, a, i, (o), j alone influence preceding\nvowels, whilst an i (y) which received the stress in O. W. was also able\nto modify vowels which went before it. In Goidelic the combinations\n_sqv_, sv appear respectively as sc, s (medially, f), but in Brythonic\nthey both give _chw_; Prim. Celt. _*sqvetlon_, Ir. _scel_, \"story,\" W.\n_chwedl_; Prim. Celt. _*svesor_, Ir. _siur_, \"sister,\" but _mo fiur_,\n\"my sister\" (whence Scottish _piuthar_ by false de-aspiration), W.\n_chwaer_, Bret. _c'hoar_. In Brythonic initial s becomes h in the 7th\ncentury, but this is unknown in Goidelic, e.g. Ir. _salann_, \"salt,\" W.\n_halen_, Cornish _haloin_, Bret, _holenn_; Lat. _se-men_, Ir. _sil_,\n\"seed,\" W. _hil_. Initial v gives f in Goidelic in the course of the 7th\ncentury, whereas in Brythonic it appears as _gu, gw_, cf. Lat. _verus_,\nIr. _fir_, W., Bret. _gwir_. We may also mention that in Goidelic\ninitial j and medial v disappear, e.g. Gaulish _Jovincillus_, W.\n_ieuanc_, \"young,\" Bret, _iouank_, Ir. _oac, oc_; W. _bywyd_, \"food,\"\nIr. _biad_. Post-consonantic j in Brythonic sometimes gives -id (Mod. W.\n_-ydd_, Mod. Bret, -ez), e.g. Gaulish _nevio-, novio-_, O. Bret,\n_nowid_, W. _newydd_, Bret, _nevez_, Ir. _nue._ I.E. -kt and -pt both\nappear in Goidelic as _-cht_ but in Brythonic as _-ith_, cf. Lat.\n_septem_, O. Ir. _secht_, W. _seith_, Bret. _seiz_.\n\nWe unfortunately know very little about the position of the stress in\nancient Gaulish. According to Meyer-Lubke in place-names the penult was\naccented if the vowel was long, otherwise the stress lay on the\npreceding syllable, e.g. _Augustodunum_, O. Fr. _Ostedun_, now _Autun;\nCatalaunos_ (Chalons), _Tricasses_ (Fr. Troyes), _Bituriges_ (Fr.\nBourges). In Goidelic the stress, which is strongly expiratory, is\nalways placed on the first syllable except in certain cases in verbs\ncompounded with prepositional prefixes. In Old Welsh and Old Breton, on\nthe other hand, the final syllable, i.e. the primitive penult, received\nthe stress, but in both languages the stress was shifted in the middle\nperiod to the penultimate. The Goidelic dialects, like the Slavonic,\ndistinguish between palatalized and nonpalatalized consonants, according\nas the consonant was originally followed by a front (e, i) or back vowel\n(a, o, u), a phenomenon which is entirely unknown to Brythonic.\n\nFinally, the two groups differ radically in the matter of initial\nmutation or, as it is often called, aspiration. These mutations are by\nno means confined to initial consonants, as precisely the same changes\nhave taken place under similar conditions in the interior of words. The\nGoidelic changes included under this head probably took place for the\nmost part between the 5th and 7th centuries, whilst in Brythonic the\nprocess seems to have begun and continued later. It is easier to fix the\ndate of the changes in Brythonic than in Goidelic, as a number of\nBritish names are preserved in lives of saints, and it is possible to\ndraw conclusions from the shape that British place-names assumed in the\nmouths of the Anglo-Saxons. In Goidelic, we find two mutations, the\nvocalic and the nasal. Initial mutation only takes place between words\nwhich belong together syntactically, and which form one single\nstress-group, thus between article, numeral, possessive pronoun or\npreposition, and a following substantive; between a verbal prefix and\nthe verb itself.\n\n  1. When the word causing mutation ended in a vowel we get the vocalic\n  mutation, called by Irish grammarians aspiration. The sounds affected\n  are the tenues k (c), t, p; the mediae g, d, b; the liquids and nasals\n  m, n, r, l, s, and Prim. Celt. v (Ir. f, W. gw). At the present day\n  the results of this mutation in Irish and Welsh may be tabulated as\n  follows. Where the sound is at variance with the traditional\n  orthography, the latter is given in brackets. In the case of n, r, l\n  in Goidelic we get a different variety of n, r, l sound. In Welsh in\n  the case of r, l, the absolute initial is a voiceless r, l written rh,\n  ll, which on mutation become voiced and are written r, l. In Irish s\n  becomes h written sh and the mutation of f is written fh, which,\n  however, is now silent. Examples:--Irish, cu, \"hound,\" _do chu_, \"thy\n  hound\"; Welsh ci, dy gi (do, dy represent a Prim. Celt. _*tovo_);\n  Irish _mathair_, \"mother,\" _an mhathair_, \"the mother,\" Welsh _mam, y\n  fam_ (the feminine of the article was originally _*senta, senda)._\n\n    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+\n    |Original|         |       |       |       |       |         |         |\n    | sound  |    k    |   t   |   p   |   g   |   d   |    b    |    m    |\n    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+\n    | Irish  |[chi](ch)| h(th) | f(ph) | Z(gh) | Z(dh) | v,w(bh) | v,w(mh) |\n    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+\n    | Welsh  |    g    |  d    |  b    |  nil  | d(dd) |   v(f)  |   v(f)  |\n    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+\n\n  2. When the word causing mutation originally ended in a nasal, we get\n  the nasal mutation called by Irish grammarians eclipse. The sounds\n  affected are k (c), t, p; g, d, b; Prim. Celt. v (Ir. f, W. gw). In\n  mod. Irish and mod. Welsh the results are tabulated below. Irish f\n  becomes w written bh, whilst W. gw gives _ngw_. Examples:--Irish\n  _bliadhna_, \"year,\" _seacht m-bliadhna_, \"seven years,\" cf. Latin\n  _septem_, Welsh _blynedd, saith mlynedd_; Irish _tir_, \"country,\" _i\n  d-tir_, \"in a country,\" Welsh _tref_, \"town,\" _yn nhref_, \"in a\n  town,\" cf. Latin _in._\n\n    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+\n    | Original Sound |  k  |  t  |  p  |  g  |  d  |  b  |\n    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+\n    | Irish          |  g  |  d  |  b  |  ng |  n  |  m  |\n    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+\n    | Welsh          | ngh |  nh |  mh |  ng |  n  |  m  |\n    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+\n\n  3. In Welsh k (c), t, p undergo a further change when the word causing\n  mutation originally ended in s. There is nothing corresponding to this\n  consonantal mutation in Goidelic. In this case k (c), t, p become the\n  spirants [chi] (ch), th, f (ph), e.g. _lad_, \"father,\" _ei thad_, \"her\n  father,\" ei represents a primitive _*esias._ In the interior of words\n  in Brythonic, cc, pp, tt give the same result as initial k, t, p by\n  this mutation.\n\nThe relation in which the other Celtic dialects stand to this system\nwill be mentioned below in dealing with the various languages. It will\nbe noted from what has been said above that, with the exception of the\ndifferent treatment of the labialized velar qv, and the nasal sonant n,\nthe features which differentiate the Brythonic from the Goidelic\ndialects first appear for the most part after the Romans had left\nBritain. At the beginning of the Christian era the difference between\nthe two groups can only have been very slight. And Strachan has shown\nrecently that Old Irish and Old Welsh agree in a very striking manner in\nthe use of the verbal particle ro and in other syntactical peculiarities\nconnected with the verb.\n\n(i.) _Goidelic_.--The term Goidelic is used to embrace the Celtic\ndialects of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. In each case the\nnational name for the speech is _Gaelic_ (Ir. _Gaedhlig_, Scottish\n_Gaidhlig_, Manx _Gailck_), from Ir. Scottish _Gaodhal, Gaedheal_, Mid.\nIr. _Goedel_, W. _Gwyddel_, \"a Gael, inhabitant of Ireland or Scotland.\"\nOld Irish may be regarded as the ancestor of Scottish and Manx Gaelic,\nas the forms of these dialects can be traced back to Old Irish, and\nthere are practically no monuments of Scottish and Manx in the oldest\nperiod. Scottish and Irish may be regarded as standing to one another in\nmuch the same relation as broad Scottish and southern English. The\ndivergences of Scottish and Manx from Irish will be mentioned below. The\nlanguage of the Ogam inscriptions is the oldest form of Goidelic with\nwhich we are acquainted. Some 300 inscriptions have up to the present\nbeen discovered in this alphabet, the majority of them hailing from the\nsouth-west of Ireland (Kerry and Cork). In Scotland 22 are known, whilst\nin England and Wales about 30 have turned up. Most of the latter are in\nSouth Wales, but odd ones have been found in North Wales, Devon and\nCornwall, and one has occurred as far east as Hampshire. The Isle of Man\nalso possesses two. The letters in the oldest inscriptions are formed by\nstrokes or notches scored on either side of the edge of an upright\nstone. Thus we obtain the following alphabet:--\n\n  --'----''----'''----''''----'''''--   --,----,,----,,,----,,,,----,,,,,--\n    h    d      t      c        q         b    l      v      s        n\n\n  --\/----\/\/----\/\/\/----\/\/\/\/----\/\/\/\/\/--   --.----..----...----....----.....--\n    m    g      ng     z        r         a    o      u      e        i\n\nThis system, which was eked out with other signs, would seem to have\nbeen framed in the south-west of Ireland by a person or persons who were\nfamiliar with the Latin alphabet. Some of the inscriptions probably go\nback to the 5th century and may even be earlier. As illustrations of the\nsimplest forms of Ogam inscriptions we may mention the following:\n_Doveti maqqi Cattini_, i.e. \"(the stone) of Dovetos son of Cattinos\";\n_Trenagusu Maqi Maqi-Treni_ is rendered in Latin _Trenegussi Fili\nMacutreni hic jacit; Sagramni Maqi Cunatami_, \"(the stone) of Sagramnos\nson of Cunotamos\"; _Ovanos avi Ivacattos_, \"(the stone) of Ovanus\ndescendant of Ivacattus.\" It will be seen that in the oldest of these\ninscriptions q is still kept apart from k (c), and that the final\nsyllables have not disappeared (cf. _maqqi_, O. Ir. _maicc_), but it\nappears certain that in Ogamic writing stereotyped forms were used long\nafter they had disappeared in ordinary speech. Several stones contain\nbilingual inscriptions, but the key to the Ogam alphabet is supplied by\na treatise on Ogamic writing contained in the Book of Ballymote, a\nmanuscript of the late 14th century. It should be mentioned that the\nWelsh stones are early whilst the Scottish ones are almost without\nexception late, and several of the latter have so far defied\ninterpretation. In addition to the Irish Ogams there are a number of\nChristian inscriptions in Latin character, but, with one exception, they\nare not older than the 8th century.\n\n  See R.R. Brash, _The Ogam Inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil_ (London,\n  1879); R.A. Stewart Macalister, _Studies in Irish Epigraphy_ (London),\n  vol. i. (1897), vol. ii. 1902, vol. iii. 1907. The Welsh inscriptions\n  are contained in J. Rhys, _Lectures on Welsh Philology_[2] (London,\n  1879). The Scottish stones have also been treated by Rhys in the\n  _Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries_ (Edinburgh,\n  1892). See also G.M. Atkinson for the tract in the Book of Ballymote,\n  _Kilkenny Journal of Archaeology_ (1874). The Irish Christian\n  inscriptions were published by Margaret Stokes as the annual volumes\n  of the Roy. Hist, and Archaeol. Association of Ireland (1870-1877),\n  and have been republished by R.A. Stewart Macalister.\n\n(a) _Irish._--We are able to trace the history of the Irish language\ncontinuously for a period of 1200 years, and from the time that the\nliterary documents begin we are better supplied with linguistic material\nfor the study of the language than is the case with any other Celtic\ndialect. At the same time that form of Irish which is to be found in the\noldest documents has preserved a number of features which have entirely,\nor almost entirely, disappeared from the Brythonic languages. For this\nreason scholars have largely occupied themselves with Irish, which for\npurposes of comparative philology may be regarded as the classic Celtic\nlanguage.\n\n  The history of Irish is divided into three periods:--Old Irish\n  (700-1100), the documents mainly representing the language of the 8th\n  and 9th centuries; Middle Irish, extending roughly from 1100 to 1550;\n  Modern Irish from 1550 to the present day. These periods merge into\n  one another to such an extent that no firm division can be made. The\n  language of some manuscripts of the 14th century contains forms which\n  are really Old Irish, and Middle Irish orthography was partly employed\n  by historians and antiquarians in the middle of the 17th century. Old\n  Irish, as compared with Brythonic, preserves a wealth of inflectional\n  forms in declension and conjugation, but many of these tend to\n  disappear very early. In the modern dialects of Ireland and Scotland\n  there is a rigid rule of orthography that a palatalized, or, as it is\n  termed, slender consonant in medial or final position, must be\n  preceded by a palatal vowel (i), and a non-palatalized consonant by a\n  non-palatal or broad vowel (a, o, u). This is the famous rule of the\n  grammarians known as _caol le caol agus leathan le leathan_ (\"slender\n  to slender and broad to broad\"), but it is not so strictly adhered to\n  in the spoken language as is commonly stated. In the older language\n  the quality of medial and final consonants is only denoted very\n  imperfectly, thus non-palatalized final consonants are regularly not\n  denoted as such, e.g. O. and Mid. Ir. _fir_, Mod. Ir. _fior_. In Old\n  and Mid. Irish the initial mutations are only regularly denoted in the\n  case of the vocalic mutation of c, p, t, s, f, and the nasal mutation\n  of b, d, g. The vocalic mutation of c, p, t, s, f was denoted by\n  writing ch, ph, th, sh, fh, the first three symbols of which were\n  derived from the Latin alphabet. Another method of denoting the\n  mutation was to write a dot over the letter, originally the punctum\n  delens, which was justified in the case of mutated f as the latter\n  early became silent. But no such devices were ready at hand in the\n  case of the medial b, d, g, and the mutated forms of these consonants\n  were consequently not represented at all in the orthography. The same\n  remark holds good in the case of the nasal mutation (eclipse) of the\n  tenues. But it is easy to demonstrate that the same condition of\n  affairs as we find in the modern language must have obtained in Old\n  Irish. This insufficiency of symbols renders the orthography of the\n  early stages of the language very complicated. We find that b, d, g\n  were used initially to denote the voiced stops, but medially and\n  finally they represent spirants, the voiced stops in this case being\n  denoted by c, p, t. It is not until much later times that the h in the\n  mutated forms of the tenues, or the use of the dot, was extended to\n  the mediae. Thus in Mid. Irish we find _do bochtaib in choimded_ (Mod.\n  Ir. _dobhochtaibh_), Mid. Ir. _ro-gab_ = Mod. Ir. _do ghabh_. The\n  nasal mutation of c, p, t was first denoted by writing these sounds\n  double and finally in the 18th century by writing gc, bp, dt. The\n  spirants arising out of Prim. Celt. g, d, b came in Old Irish to be\n  confused with those which developed out of Prim. Celt, p, t, k, in\n  other than initial positions. In final positions in polysyllables we\n  commonly find d and b written but medially th and ph, e.g. _didnad_,\n  \"consolation,\" gen. sing, _dithnatha_. For the ending -ad cp. Lat.\n  _-atu-_. On the other hand we find g written medially and ch finally.\n  These rules, however, are not yet applied in the oldest documents.\n\n  When we turn to the inflections we find that most of the old\n  terminations have disappeared, but that their influence on preceding\n  consonants is still felt and serves to distinguish one form from\n  another; thus in the declension of _fer_, \"man,\" nom. sing. _fer_,\n  gen. sing. _fir_, dat. sing, _fiur_, acc. sing, _fer n-_, nom. pl.\n  _fir_, gen. pl. _fer n-_, corresponding to Prim. Celt. (Gaulish)\n  _viros, viri, viro, viron, viri, viron_, the influence of the\n  following sound still differentiates the cases from one another. In\n  the later language the initial mutations come more and more to be\n  used for this purpose. In Middle Irish the declensions and\n  conjugations are much simplified and the neuter gender is given up in\n  substantives. In the verb the athematic conjugation has disappeared\n  and the distinction of primary and secondary endings is not observed.\n  On the other hand Irish has developed a peculiar system of absolute\n  and conjoint inflection with different sets of endings. The conjoint\n  endings are always used in the case of compound verbs, and in simple\n  verbs they are employed after certain proclitics, e.g. the negative\n  particles. Thus _berid_, \"he bears,\" is an absolute form; _do-beir_,\n  \"he gives,\" _ni beir_, \"he does not bear,\" are conjoint forms.\n  Further, the verb system is partly dominated by the various devices\n  employed to express relatival function. There are three main types of\n  conjugation in Old Irish corresponding to the Latin first, third and\n  fourth conjugations, the Latin types _moneo_ and _audio_ being\n  difficult to distinguish in Irish. In the modern language there is in\n  reality but one conjugation. The old Irish verb system comprises\n  present and imperfect indicative, imperative, pres. subjunctive in\n  -a-or -s- with corresponding past subjunctive, future in -f- or -s- or\n  -e- or with reduplication along with corresponding secondary future,\n  -s- preterite, -t- preterite, reduplicated preterite, a preterite\n  containing a long stem-vowel, together with deponential and passive\n  forms in -rd. This system is eked out with the verbal prefix ro, which\n  among other functions changes a preterite into a perfect or a present\n  into a perfect. Such a cumbrous system was bound to fall to pieces. A\n  number of isolated forms have come down, but the only tenses which\n  have survived into the modern period are the present and imperfect\n  indicative, the imperative, the present subjunctive, the -s-\n  preterite, the -b- and -e- future with corresponding secondary forms,\n  and some of the passive forms in -r. At the same time in the modern\n  language there is an increasing tendency to use analytical forms. Two\n  noteworthy features of the Irish verb remain to be mentioned. The one\n  is the use of pronouns as objects infixed between particle and verb,\n  or in a verb compounded with a preposition between preposition and\n  verb. There are two sets of forms according as to whether the verb\n  occurs in a relative clause or not. Thus -m- is the ordinary infixed\n  pronoun of the 1st pers. sing., whilst -dom- is the corresponding\n  relative form. In the 3rd pers. sing. aspiration may be employed, e.g.\n  _ni ceil_, \"he does not hide,\" _ni cheil_, \"he does not hide it.\" This\n  has been given up in the modern language. Secondly in verbs compounded\n  with prepositions the accent of the verb varies according as to\n  whether the verb is used enclitically or not--thus after the negative\n  ni or in the infinitive and imperative. Hence we have _do-beir_, \"he\n  gives,\" by the side of _ni tabair_, \"he does not give,\" infin.\n  _tabairt_; _do-gniu_, \"I do,\" _ni denim_, \"I do not do,\" infin.\n  _denum_. The changes caused by this alternation in addition to others\n  due to the working of the Irish accent and to the initial and internal\n  mutations have played havoc with the verb system and render it\n  exceedingly difficult to reconstruct the paradigms. In the later\n  periods of the language analogy naturally plays a great part, and many\n  of the complicated forms are done away with, but even in the modern\n  dialects the alternation between enclitic and orthotonic forms still\n  survives in the commonest verbs, e.g. Irish _bheir se_ \"he gives,\" _ni\n  thabhair se_, \"he does not give,\" infin. _tabhairt_; Scottish _bheir\n  e, cha toir, toirt_; Manx _ver eh, cha der, coyrt_; Irish _ni se_, \"he\n  does,\" _ni dheanann se_, \"he does not do,\" infin. _deanamh_; Scottish\n  _ni e_, \"he does,\" _cha dean e_, \"he will not do,\" infin. _deanamh_;\n  Manx _nee eh, cha jean eh, jannoo_.\n\n  In the early period Irish borrowed a number of words from Latin. These\n  are mainly connected with the church or with articles of civilization\n  which would be imported from Roman Britain. Some of these show traces\n  of British pronunciation, e.g. O. Ir. _trindoit_, from Latin\n  _trinitatem_ with o for a. In others again Lat. p is represented in\n  Ir. by c, which may be due to the substitution of q as being the\n  nearest Irish sound to the foreign p. Thus we find Ir. _corcur_,\n  \"purple,\" _casc_, \"Easter\"; _cenciges_, \"Whitsuntide\"; _cruimther_,\n  \"presbyter.\" In addition to these several loans were received from\n  Norse. In the Mid. Irish period many French words came in, and during\n  the middle and modern periods the number of English words introduced\n  is legion. Pedersen has tried to show in his _Vergl. Gramm._ that a\n  considerable number of words were borrowed from Brythonic (Welsh) at\n  an early date.\n\n  [For the Latin loan-words, see J. Vendryes, _De hibernicis vocabulis\n  quae a latina lingua originem duxerunt_ (Paris, 1902); Kuno Meyer has\n  collected a number of loan-words from Norse, Anglo-Saxon, Early\n  English, Latin and Early French in _Revue celtique_, xii. 460 and\n  xiii. 505. See also Whitley Stokes, _Bezzenberger's Beitrage_, xviii.\n  56 ff. For Celtic names in Norse see W. Stokes, _Revue celtique_, iii.\n  186 ff., and W.A. Craigie, _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ i. 439 ff.]\n\n  With regard to the dialects of Irish, there is a well-known rhyme\n  which states the peculiarities of the speech of the four provinces,\n  and dialectical differences must have existed at an early period,\n  though they do not make their appearance in the literary language\n  until the 18th century. At the present day the Irish of Leinster has\n  vanished entirely, and we have unfortunately no records of it. But in\n  the other three provinces the vernacular still lives, and we find the\n  Irish of Munster, Connaught and Ulster marked off from one another by\n  well-defined peculiarities. In general it may be stated that the south\n  of Ireland is more conservative than the north. In Munster there is a\n  tendency to shift the word-stress from the initial syllable to a heavy\n  derivative syllable, e.g. -an. This does not take place in Connaught,\n  whilst in Ulster the tendency is to shorten the vowel. Again in\n  monosyllables ending in ll, nn, m, and under certain other conditions\n  a short vowel becomes a diphthong in the south, in Connaught it is\n  merely lengthened, but in Ulster the original length is retained, e.g.\n  Ulster _ball_, \"member, limb,\" Connaught _ball_, Munster _baull_.\n  Final dh, gh in Munster are sounded as g. In certain cases the north\n  prefers the vocalic mutation where the west and south have the nasal,\n  thus notably in the dative singular after preposition and article,\n  e.g. Munster-Connaught _do'n bhfear_, \"to the man,\" Ulster _do'n\n  fhear_. In the south synthetic verb-forms are employed to a much\n  larger extent than in the north.\n\n  In the early part of the 19th century Irish was still the speech of\n  more than half the inhabitants of Ireland. A German traveller reckoned\n  that out of a total population of seven millions in 1835 four millions\n  spoke Irish as their mother-tongue. The famine of 1846-1847 was felt\n  most in those districts that were purely Irish, and these were the\n  parts that were and still are chiefly affected by the tide of\n  emigration. Add to this the fact that the influence of O'Connell and\n  his satellites, and above all that of the Roman Catholic clergy, was\n  against the language. In spite of the efforts of the Gaelic League\n  (founded 1893), which have met with considerable success, the language\n  is rapidly dying of internal decay. The speakers of Irish are chiefly\n  confined to the following counties, where over 20% of the population\n  speak Gaelic:--Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo,\n  Donegal. The following figures will illustrate the decay of the\n  language since the famine:--\n\n    Year.     Monoglots.   Bilinguists.\n\n    1851       319,602      1,204,684\n    1861       163,275        942,261\n    1871       103,562        714,313\n    1881        64,167        885,765\n    1891        38,192        642,053\n    1901        20,953        620,189\n\n\n  According to the 1901 census report the speakers of Irish were\n  distributed as follows:--Leinster, 26,436; Munster, 276,268;\n  Connaught, 245,580; Ulster, 92,858. The Gaelic movement, which has\n  thriven largely on account of its anti-English character, would have a\n  much better chance of galvanizing the ancient language of Ireland if\n  it were not for the supreme difficulties of Irish spelling and\n  phonetics. Of the hundreds of thousands of persons who attend the\n  classes of the League not more than one or two per cent. at the\n  outside arrive at any state of proficiency. Presbyterian Gaels in\n  Scotland are taught to read the Bible but Irish Catholics are not\n  encouraged to do so. The result of this is seen in the fact that,\n  whilst many, if not all, of the local Nationalist newspapers under the\n  pressure of the League publish badly-printed and little-read columns\n  in Irish, there are only two regularly appearing periodicals which\n  contain any large amount of Irish. Half the contents--and those the\n  most important--of the weekly organ of the league, _An Claidheamh\n  Soluis_ (\"the flaming sword\"), are in English. The latter was started\n  in 1898 under the title of _Fainne an Lae_ (\"the ring of day,\" i.e.\n  the dawn). The other periodical is the monthly _Gaelic Journal_\n  (_Irisleabhar na Gaedhilge_), a would-be literary magazine of very\n  inferior quality which has led a precarious existence since 1882. In\n  1898 it was decided to hold a festival called the _Oireachtas_\n  (\"hosting, gathering\") on the lines of the Welsh _Eisteddfod_. The\n  venture was a great success and similar meetings have been held every\n  year since, whilst each province and many of the counties have their\n  annual local Gaelic _feis_ (festival). The literary output of the\n  movement has been prodigious, consisting in the main of a number of\n  short stories and dramas (mostly propagandist), but nothing of any\n  particular merit has as yet been forthcoming. The best-known writers\n  are Dr Douglas Hyde (collector of folk-stories--_Beside the Fire_,\n  1890, _An Sgeulaidhe Gaedhealach_, 1895 (reprinted from vol. x. of the\n  _Annales de Bretagne_), _Love Songs of Connaught_, 1893, _Religious\n  Songs of Connaught_, 1905); P. O'Leary (author of two lengthy stories,\n  _Seadna_, 1904, _Niamh_, 1907); P. Dinneen (author of an historical\n  tale, _Cormac Ua Connaill_, 1901); P. O'Shea, better known as \"Conan\n  Maol,\" author of a collection of short stories entitled _An Buaiceas_,\n  1903.\n\n  AUTHORITIES ON IRISH LANGUAGE.--For the study of Old Irish--Zeuss,\n  _Grammatica Celtica^2_ (Berlin, 1871); B. Guterbock and R. Thurneysen,\n  Indices to the Irish words treated in Zeuss (Leipzig, 1881); E.\n  Windisch published the first grammar of Old Irish in 1879 (trans. by\n  N. Moore, Pitt Press, 1882), but Windisch's treatment of the verb was\n  rendered obsolete by the discovery of the laws of the Irish accent by\n  H. Zimmer, _Keltische Studien_ (Berlin, 1884), and R. Thurneysen,\n  _Revue celtique_, vi. 309, J. Vendreys, _Grammaire du Vieil-Irlandais_\n  (Paris, 1908); R. Thurneysen, _Handbuch des Alt-Irischen_ (Heidelberg,\n  1909). Mention should also be made of J. Strachan, _Selections from\n  the Old Irish Glosses_ (Dublin, 1904); and the same writer's _Old\n  Irish Paradigms_ (Dublin, 1905), _Stories from the Tain_ (Dublin,\n  1908). See also various papers on the Irish verb in the _Transactions\n  of the London Philological Society_ by Strachan (1895-1902); H.\n  Pedersen, _Aspirationen i Irsk_ (Copenhagen, 1898); C. Sarauw, _Irske\n  Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1901); G.J. Ascoli, _Archivio glottologico\n  italiano_, vols. v. and vi. For the study of Middle Irish--E.\n  Windisch, _Irische Texte mit Worterbuch_ (Leipzig, 1880). (Other\n  volumes in conjunction with W. Stokes.)\n\n  Editions of texts by W. Stokes, Kuno Meyer and others in the _Revue\n  celtique, Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie, Eriu_. K. Meyer has\n  issued an exhaustive Mid. Irish glossary (A-D) as a supplement to the\n  _Archiv fur celtische Lexikographie_. The remainder is being published\n  under the auspices of the Royal Irish Academy. The first grammar of\n  Modern Irish was published by Francis Molloy in 1677 at Rome under the\n  title of _Grammatica Latino-Hibernica_. Molloy was followed by\n  Jeremiah Curtin in 1728 with a book called _Elements of the Irish\n  Language_. Numerous other grammars were published towards the end of\n  the 18th and at the beginning of the 19th century, but few of them\n  have any value. The more important of them are enumerated in the\n  introduction to O'Donovan's _Grammar_ and to Windisch's _Kurzgefasste\n  irische Grammatik_, and in Pedersen's _Aspirationen i Irsk_, pp.\n  29-47. We may mention W. Neilson's _Grammar_ (1808) as it is important\n  for the Irish of E. Ulster. But the greatest native grammarian was\n  John O'Donovan, who traversed Ireland in connexion with the Ordnance\n  Survey, and published in 1854 a comprehensive grammar noting the\n  differences between the various dialects. A little grammar published\n  by Molloy in 1867 is instructive on account of the author's peculiar\n  point of view. The most useful books for the study of the living\n  language are the series of booklets (five) published by Father\n  O'Growney, one of the chief promoters of the present movement. Mention\n  should also be made of J.P. Henry's _Handbook of Modern Irish_, pts.\n  i.-iv., and of the grammars by P.W. Joyce (Dublin, 1896) and the\n  Christian Brothers (Dublin, 1901). For the northern form of Irish J.P.\n  Craig's _Grammar of Modern Irish_ is useful (^2 Dublin, 1904). The\n  phonetics of a Munster dialect have been investigated by R. Henebry,\n  _A Contribution to the Phonology of Desi Irish_ (Greifswald, 1901).\n  The dialect of the Aran Islands off the coast of Galway has been\n  described by F.N. Finck, _Die Araner Mundart_, i. _Lautlehre und\n  Grammatik_, ii. _Worterbuch_ (Marburg, 1899). G. Dottin has given an\n  account of a dialect of North Connaught (Mayo) in the _Revue\n  celtique_, xiv. pp. 97-137. A study of the speech of the north was\n  published by E.C. Quiggin under the title of _A Dialect of Donegal,\n  Phonology and Texts_ (Cambridge, 1906). For an account of the decay of\n  Irish see H. Zimmer, \"Die keltische Bewegung in Irland,\" _Preussische\n  Jahrbucher_ for 1898, vol. 93, p. 59 ff., and the last chapter of\n  Douglas Hyde's _Literary History of Ireland_ (London, 1901).\n\n  The work of the earlier compilers of glosses will be mentioned in the\n  literature section below. The first dictionary of the modern language\n  of any importance was that published by J. O'Brien in 1768. Next came\n  E. O'Reilly with his _Irish-English Dictionary_ (Dublin, 1817). This\n  book contains a vast store of words gathered on no principle whatever\n  from all manner of sources, and has therefore to be used with caution,\n  but even at the present day it renders considerable service. A second\n  edition with a supplement by O'Donovan was published after the\n  latter's death in 1864. The first trustworthy dictionary of the modern\n  language was published under the auspices of the Irish Texts Society\n  by P.J. Dinneen (London, 1904). English-Irish dictionaries have been\n  compiled by D. Foley (Dublin, 1855); E.E. Fournier (Dublin, 1903); T.\n  O'Neill Lane (Dublin, 1904).\n\n(b) _Scottish Gaelic._--Scottish Gaelic is the form of Goidelic speech\nwhich was introduced into Scotland by the Dalriadic Scots who came over\nfrom Ireland in the early centuries of our era. We possess practically\nno early monuments of the language. We have one or two inscriptions in\nLatin characters, such as that at St Vigeans and the Ogams mentioned\nabove, which have not yet been solved. In the _Book of Deir_ there is a\ncolophon of a few lines probably written by an Irish scribe in the 9th\ncentury, and as the language of these lines differs in no wise from the\nIrish of the period, we do not know if they accurately represent the\nGaelic of Scotland or if they may not be pure Irish. In the same MS.\nthere are further Gaelic scraps belonging to the 11th and 12th\ncenturies. The word-forms in these entries are identical with those\ncurrent at the time in Ireland, but the historical orthography seems to\nshow more signs of decay than is the case in Irish. The medieval\nScottish MSS. in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh are only just being\npublished, but they seem either to hail from Ireland or to be written in\npure Irish. The end of the 15th century brought a change. The Lordship\nof the Isles, the great bond between Ireland and Scotland, was broken\nup. The Gaels of Scotland, thrown on their own resources, advanced their\nown dialect to the position of a literary language and tried to discard\nthe Irish orthography. The _Book of the Dean of Lismore_, compiled about\n1500, is written in a kind of phonetic orthography which has not as yet\nbeen sufficiently investigated. The language of those poems which are\nnot directly ascribed to Irish poets, and which may therefore be\nregarded as representing the literary language of the Highlands at the\ntime, seems to occupy a position midway between Irish and Scottish\nGaelic. But until the beginning of the 18th century the Highlands were\nunder the literary dominion of Ireland, so much so that Bedell's Irish\nversion of the Scriptures was circulated in Scotland with a glossary\nfrom 1690 to 1767, and Bishop Carsewell's version of Knox's Prayer-book\n(1567) is pure Irish. The language of the people is poorly represented\nin the 16th and 17th centuries, and the orthography is not fixed until\nwe reach the 18th century.\n\n  Irish and Scottish Gaelic differ considerably in point of vocabulary,\n  but there are also important divergences in phonetics and inflections.\n  In the first place, Scottish Gaelic as written has entirely given up\n  the nasal mutation (eclipse), e.g. Scottish _ar bo_, \"our cow,\" Irish\n  _ar m-bo_; Scottish _nan tir_, \"of the countries,\" Irish _na d-tir_.\n  It should, however, be observed that in Skye and the Outer Isles the\n  nasal mutation has been partly restored and in some places there are\n  even parallels to the Welsh nasal mutation of c, p, t to _ngh, mh,\n  nh._ Secondly, post-vocalic c, p, t are commonly preceded by a\n  breathed sound not represented in writing, thus _mac_ \"son,\" is\n  pronounced _mahk_; _slat_, \"rod,\" as _slaht_. Again there is a\n  tendency to insert a sibilant in the group rt, thus _ceart_, \"right,\"\n  is sounded _kearst_, and the distinction between palatalized and\n  non-palatalized sounds is not so rigidly observed as in Irish. The\n  group _cht_ is in Scotland pronounced as if _chk_. We may also mention\n  that Scottish Gaelic preserves an old e in a number of words where\n  Irish now has a, thus, Old Ir. _fer_, Scottish G. _fer_, Irish _far_,\n  but in both cases the spelling is _fear_ (in this respect Scottish\n  Gaelic goes hand in hand with Manx and the almost extinct Irish of\n  Down). Similarly, we find that in Scottish Gaelic and Manx stressed\n  vowels preceding a palatalized consonant have not undergone\n  palatalization to the same extent as in Irish, e.g. in Ireland\n  _duine_, \"man,\" < _*dunjo-_, is pronounced _din'd_, but in Scotland\n  _dun'd_ (in Manx written _dooinney_). A further peculiarity of\n  Scottish Gaelic is that it substitutes lenes or voiceless mediae for\n  the voiced stops, and even l, r, n sounds show a great tendency to\n  give up the voice. Scottish Gaelic goes farther even than Irish in the\n  confusion of vowel-sounds, e.g. Lat. _coxa_, Ir. _cos_, \"foot,\" Sc.\n  _cas_; Ir. _codal_, Sc. _cadal_. When we turn to the inflections we\n  find that analogy has here played a much greater part than in Irish.\n  There is a tendency to make the plural of all substantives except\n  masculine monosyllables end in -an. In the conjugation the synthetic\n  forms have with one or two exceptions entirely disappeared and the\n  present forms have become momentary in force. Hence in ordinary\n  grammars it is stated that the present has become a future, thus _ni\n  mi_ means \"I shall do.\" The past participle chiefly ends in -te as\n  against Irish -the, -te, or -tha, -ta, according to the quality of the\n  preceding sound. The present (future) and past subjunctive\n  (conditional, representing both the imperfect indic. and secondary\n  future of Irish) supply the place of the Irish consuetudinal forms. In\n  idiom also Scottish has diverged very considerably from Irish, e.g. in\n  the use of _tha_ (Ir. ta) for is.\n\n  It seems now to be agreed that the various dialects of Scottish Gaelic\n  fall into two main divisions--northern and southern. Mackinnon states\n  that the boundary between the two passes roughly up the Firth of Lorne\n  to Loch Leven, then across country from Ballachulish to the Grampians.\n  The country covered by the northern dialect was of old the country of\n  the Northern Picts, whilst the portion of Argyllshire south of the\n  boundary line, together with Bute and Arran, made up the kingdom of\n  Dalriada. The Gaelic district south of the Grampians belonged to the\n  Southern Picts. The southern dialect is commonly regarded as the\n  literary language. It approaches more nearly to Irish and preserves\n  the inflections much better than the speech of the north.\n\n  The following characteristics of the northern dialects may be\n  mentioned:--(1) The diphthongization of open e to ia is carried much\n  farther in the north than in the south. (2) The vowel ao in the north\n  is more regularly the high-back-narrow-unrounded vowel-sound, whereas\n  the south in many cases has a low-front-wide-round sound. (3) The\n  north has _str_ in initial position where the south prefers sr.\n  Further, the northern dialects go very far in dropping unaccented\n  final vowels. It may be remarked that in the reduction of derivative\n  endings containing long vowels Scotland goes hand-in-hand with Ulster\n  Irish, thus Connaught _aran_, \"bread,\" is in Ulster and Scotland\n  _aran_. Again, Scottish agrees with North Irish in the loss of\n  synthetic verb-forms and in using as negative _cha_, Mid. Ir. _nico,\n  nocha_. But, on the other hand, Scotland, with the exception of South\n  Argyll and some of the Isles, diphthongizes accented a, o, e, in\n  monosyllables, before ll, nn, m, thus resembling the speech of\n  Munster. In South Argyll the original short vowel is half lengthened.\n\n  As to the southern limits of Gaelic speech in Scotland, the boundary\n  between Gaelic and English in medieval times was the so-called\n  Highland line, and at the War of Independence it is probable that it\n  extended to Stirling, Perth and the Ochil and Sidlaw Hills, the Inglis\n  being limited to a very narrow strip along the coast. Dr J.A.H. Murray\n  traced the linguistic frontier in 1869-1870 with the following\n  results. The line started about 3 m. west of the town of Nairn on the\n  Moray Firth and ran in a south-east direction to the Dee, 4 m. above\n  Ballater. On the other side of the Dee it began 4 m. above Balmoral\n  and followed the boundary of Perth and Forfar as far as Glen Shee,\n  where it went off to the south-west as far as Dunkeld. After passing\n  Birnam Hill it turned due west until the upper part of Glen Almond was\n  reached, where it bent to the southward, passing through Comrie and\n  along the braes of Doune to the Teith, 3 or 4 m. below Callander.\n  Thence it ran along the north shore of Lake Monteith to Gartmore, and\n  from there to Rowardennan on the east side of Loch Lomond. On the west\n  side it passed through Glen Douglas down Loch Long and the Firth of\n  Clyde, leaving Bute and Arran to the west. At the present day this\n  boundary has probably receded to the extent of several miles, and even\n  in 1870 there were districts such as Bute and the region round Dunoon\n  where Gaelic was only spoken by the oldest natives and the immigrant\n  population. The language is not found in the north-east of Caithness,\n  the boundary running, according to Murray, roughly from a little\n  north-east of Lybster to the mouth of the Forss. Celtic was driven out\n  of Shetland and Orkney by Scandinavian some time during the middle\n  ages. (See further J.A.H. Murray, _The Dialect of the Southern\n  Counties of Scotland_, London, 1875; _Revue celtique_, vol. ii. pp.\n  180-187.)\n\n  Until the 18th century Gaelic was spoken in Galloway and on the\n  uplands of Ayr and Lanark. The following figures from the census\n  returns illustrate the decrease in the number of persons who speak\n  Gaelic:--\n\n            Monolinguists.       Bilinguists.\n\n    1881       No return           231,594\n                               (this includes\n                             Gaelic monolinguists)\n    1891       43,738              210,677\n    1901       28,106              202,700\n\n  In the last-mentioned year it appears that nearly one-half of the\n  speakers of Gaelic are reported from the counties of Inverness and\n  Ross (23,893 monolinguists and 82,573 bilinguists). From about 1300 we\n  find Scottish emigrants filtering into the glens of Antrim, where the\n  Gaelic that is spoken is still unmistakably Scottish. There have long\n  been local societies of Highlanders for the cultivation of their\n  native tongue, the most important one being _An Comunn Gaidhealach_\n  (founded 1891). This society holds an annual gathering called the\n  _Mod_ (=Eng. \"moot\") on the lines of the Welsh Eisteddfod, and\n  recently the Scottish Education Department has countenanced the\n  teaching of Gaelic in Highland schools. But the political element\n  plays little or no part in the language movement in Scotland, and the\n  latter is not likely to assume the proportions of the Gaelic League in\n  Ireland. As a rule, however, Highlanders are better able to read their\n  own language than Irish Gaels, for, the majority being Protestants,\n  they are encouraged to read their Bibles. There are only two\n  periodicals which devote half their space to Gaelic. The one is _An\n  Deo-Greine_ (\"the sunbeam\"), founded October 1905; and the other is\n  the Catholic propagandist quarterly _Guth na Bliadhna_ (\"the voice of\n  the year\"), started in 1904. Up to 1905 a fortnightly newspaper\n  printed wholly in Gaelic appeared in Prince Edward Island, under the\n  title of _An Mac-talla_ (\"the echo\"), and efforts have been made to\n  revive it. A weekly newspaper wholly in Gaelic was started in 1908 by\n  R. Stuart Erskine under the title of _Alba_.\n\n  AUTHORITIES ON SCOTTISH GAELIC.--The first grammar of Scottish Gaelic\n  was compiled by W. Shaw (_An Analysis of the Galic Language_, 1778).\n  The most useful one was that published by Alexander Stewart, _Elements\n  of Gaelic Grammar_ (Edinburgh, 1801). A revised edition of this work\n  with many additions and corrections was published by H.C. Gillies,\n  London, 1902. This book is rather spoilt by the author's attitude, and\n  requires to be supplemented and corrected. G. Henderson and C.W.\n  Robertson have published important papers on the modern dialects in\n  the _Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, the _Celtic Review_ and\n  the _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_. The most useful\n  work on Gaelic philology is Alexander Macbain's _Etymological Gaelic\n  Dictionary_ (Inverness, 1896) (a later edition by W.J. Watson). The\n  chief dictionaries are _Dictionarium Scoto-Celticum_, published by the\n  Highland Society of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1828); R.A. Armstrong,\n  _Gaelic Dictionary_ in two parts (London, 1825); N. McAlpine,\n  _Pronouncing Gaelic Dictionary_ (Edinburgh, 1847) (this book gives the\n  pronunciation of Islay); Macleod and Dewar, _Gaelic and English\n  Dictionary_ (latest edition, Edinburgh, 1901); _Faclair Gaidhlig_,\n  published by E. Macdonald, Herne Bay, appearing in parts since 1902.\n\n(c) _Manx._--Our sources of information with regard to the language of\nthe Isle of Man are even more scanty in the early period than they are\nin the case of Scotland. There are a number of references to the island\nin Irish literature, but the earliest monument of the vernacular we\npossess is the version of the Book of Common Prayer made by Bishop\nPhillips in 1610. In this translation the traditional Irish orthography\nis not followed. The spelling resembles the orthography which was\nemployed in Scotland by the compiler of the _Book of the Dean of\nLismore_. How far this system was used is a question which it is\ndifficult to decide. In Scotland the Irish orthography has prevailed in\na slightly modified form, but Manx writers adhered to a mode of spelling\nwhich was as phonetic as any system based on English, or, probably more\ncorrectly Anglo-Scottish, orthography could be. This fact, combined with\nthe rapid phonetic decay of the language, makes it extremely difficult\nto discover what sound-values are to be attached to the various symbols.\nAt the beginning of the 18th century English was not understood by\ntwo-thirds of the natives, and in 1764 the S.P.C.K. issued a paper\ncontaining this statement: \"The population of the Isle is 20,000, of\nwhom the far greater number are ignorant of English.\" But from this time\nEnglish gradually crept in. The last edition of the Manx Bible was\nissued in 1819, and of the New Testament in 1840. The present writer's\ngreat-grandmother refused to speak English, his grandfather (b. 1815)\npreached in Manx and English, and his father (b. 1844) only spoke\nEnglish. The following figures illustrate the rapid decline of the\nlanguage:--\n\n           Monolinguists.      Bilinguists.\n  1875          190               12,340\n                           (out of a population\n                            of 41,084 exclusive\n                            of Douglas)\n  1901         None                4,419\n\n  Manx stands in a much closer relation to Scottish Gaelic than Irish,\n  and fishermen state that they could understand a good deal of what is\n  said in South Argyll, though they are quite at a loss at Kinsale. Manx\n  exhibits the same tendency as Scottish to use analytical and\n  periphrastic forms in the verb, thus _jannoo_, \"to do,\" is used like\n  Scottish _deanamh_ with an infinitive to express the past and future.\n  The present has acquired a momentary (future) signification, and the\n  past participle ends in -it (Scottish -te). The negative is _cha_ as\n  in Scotland and Ulster. Manx goes as far as northern Scottish in\n  dropping unstressed final vowels, e.g. _chiarn_, \"lord,\" Irish,\n  _tighearna_; -yn is the favourite plural ending in substantives. The\n  nasal mutation has been partly given up. Old Irish stressed e is\n  frequently retained, e.g. _fer_, \"man,\" Irish _far_ (spelt _fear_),\n  and the vowels o and a are confused as in Scottish, e.g. Manx _cass_,\n  \"foot,\" Scottish _cas_, Irish _cos_. Manx is divided in itself about\n  the treatment of short accented vowels before _ll, nn, m_. According\n  to Rhys the south side lengthens, whilst the north side diphthongizes;\n  e.g. Irish _crann_, \"tree,\" _clann_, \"offspring,\" S. Manx _kron_,\n  _klon_, N. Manx, _kroun_, _kloun_ (written _croan_, _cloan_). In the\n  matter of stress Manx is quite original, going farther even than the\n  dialects of the south of Ireland. Not only does it shift the stress in\n  the case of heavy derivative suffixes like -an and reduce the\n  preceding vowel, e.g. Ir. _fuaran_, Sc. _fuaran_, Manx _fran_,\n  \"spring,\" but even in cases like _caghlaa_, \"variety,\" Sc. Ir.\n  _caochladh_, O. Ir. _coimmchloud_; _coraa_, \"voice,\" Ir. _comhradh_.\n  The Mid. English stress on the final is further retained in words from\n  the French such as _ashoon_, \"nation,\" _livrey_, \"deliver.\"\n\n  As other features peculiar to Manx we may mention the following. An\n  intervocalic s or sh shows a tendency to become lisped and voiced to\n  d. In monosyllables post-vocalic final m, n, are often preceded by an\n  intrusive b, d respectively, thus _ben_ \"woman,\" may be heard as\n  _bedn_. Ir. a becomes more palatal and is often ae. Ir. sc becomes st,\n  _sht_, e.g. Ir. _fescor_, \"evening,\" Manx _fastyr_; Ir. _uisce_,\n  \"water,\" Manx _ushtey_.\n\n  AUTHORITIES ON MANX.--The place and personal names of the Isle of Man\n  have been collected by A.W. Moore in _Manx Names_[2] (London, 1903)\n  (33% of the proper names are Scandinavian). The chief source of\n  information about the spoken language is J. Rhys, _The Outlines of the\n  Phonology of Manx Gaelic_ (London, 1895) (the book has unfortunately\n  no index and no texts). The only serious attempt to represent spoken\n  Manx graphically is the transcription of a song by J. Strachan in the\n  _Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie_, vol. i. p. 54. The native\n  grammarian is J. Kelly, who in 1803 published _A Practical Grammar of\n  the Ancient Gaelic or Language of the Isle of Man, usually called\n  Manks_. This book was republished by W. Gill for the Manx Society in\n  1859, and a facsimile reprint of this latter was made for Quaritch,\n  London, 1870. A useful little book entitled, _First Lessons in Manx_\n  was published by Edwin Goodwin (Dublin, 1901). There are two\n  dictionaries, one by A. Cregeen, Douglas 1835, which is now being\n  reprinted for _An Cheshaght Gailckagh_, a Douglas society which is\n  endeavouring to encourage the use of Manx and to get it introduced\n  into the schools. The other dictionary is by J. Kelly in two\n  parts--(i) Manx and English, (2) English and Manx, published by the\n  Manx Society in 1866. Kelly also prepared a Triglot of Manx, Irish and\n  Gaelic, based upon English, which has never been published. A useful\n  paper on the language appeared in the _Transactions of the London\n  Philological Society_ for 1875 by H. Jenner, \"The Manx Language: Its\n  Grammar, Literature and Present State.\"     (E. C. Q.)\n\n(ii). _Brythonic._ The term Brythonic is used to denote the Celtic\ndialects of Wales, Brittany and Cornwall. Unlike the Goidels the\nBrythonic peoples have no common name for their language. Forms of\nBrythonic speech were doubtless current throughout England and Wales and\nthe Lowlands of Scotland at the time of the Saxon invasion. The S.E. of\nBritain may have been extensively Romanized, and it is not impossible\nthat remnants of Goidelic speech may have lingered on in out-of-the-way\ncorners. No literary documents dating from this period have been\npreserved, but some idea of the character of Brythonic may be gathered\nfrom the numerous inscriptions which have come to light. In the middle\nof the 6th century Brythonic was confined to the western half of Britain\nsouth of the Clyde and Forth. The colonization of Britannia minor or\nArmorican Brittany during the 5th and 6th centuries will be described\nlater. In the latter part of the 6th century the W. Saxons pushed their\nconquests as far as the estuary of the Severn, and from that time the\nBrythons of S.W. Britain were cut off from their kinsmen in Wales. Early\nin the 7th century the Brythons of Strathclyde were similarly isolated\nby the battle of Chester (613). The kingdom of Strathclyde maintained a\nseparate existence until the 10th century, and it is generally stated\nthat Brythonic speech did not die out there until the 12th century. The\nquestion as to how far Brythonic names and words have survived in these\ndistricts has never been properly investigated. Certain it is that\nBrythonic numerals survived amongst shepherds in Cumberland, Westmorland\nand N.W. Yorkshire down to the second half of the 19th century, just as\nherrings are still counted in Manx by Manx fishermen otherwise quite\ninnocent of the language. Accordingly, from the 7th century onwards\nBrythonic became gradually limited in Great Britain to three\ndistricts--Strathclyde, Wales, and Cornwall and Devon. During the 7th\ncentury the Brythons of Wales and Strathclyde often fought side by side\nagainst the Angles, and it is from this period that the name by which\nthe Welsh call themselves is supposed to date, _Cymro_ < _*Combrox_, pl.\n_Cymry_ < _*Combroges_, i.e. \"fellow-countrymen\" as opposed to W.\n_allfro_, Gaul. _Allobroges_, \"foreigners.\" We have no means of\ndetermining when Celtic speech became extinct in the petty states of the\nnorth which retained their independence longest.\n\nThe chief features which distinguish the Brythonic from the Goidelic\ndialects have already been enumerated. In the course of the 6th and 7th\ncenturies final short vowels disappeared. In compound names the final\nvowel remains in the first component until the 7th century. Short vowels\nin other than initial syllables when immediately preceding the stress\n(on the historical penultimate) disappear, whilst long ones are\nshortened, e.g. Welsh _cardawt_ from Lat. _caritatem_. Other vowels in\nunstressed position are apt to be reduced, thus o, u, give i in O.W.\n(Mid. W. y). A marked characteristic of Welsh as distinguished from\nCornish and Breton is the treatment of a under the influence of a\nfollowing i. In Welsh the result is ei, in Corn. and Bret. e, e.g. Welsh\n_seint_, \"saints,\" Bret. _sent_, sing. _sant_. The mutations seem to\nhave started in the second half of the 6th century in the case of the\ntenues.\n\n  See J. Loth, _Les Mots latins dans les langues Brittoniques_ (Paris,\n  1892); J. Loth, _Chrestomathie bretonne_ (Paris, 1890).\n\n(a) _Welsh (Cymraeg)._--It is usual to divide the history of the Welsh\nlanguage into three periods--Old, Middle and Modern. To the oldest\nperiod belong the collections of glosses, the earliest of which go back\nto about 800. The middle period extends from 1100 to 1500.\n\n  As a rule the medial mutation of the tenues and mediae is not denoted\n  in O. Welsh. Intervocalic g is sometimes retained but generally it has\n  disappeared, whilst after r and l it is still written. In the course\n  of the 9th century initial w (v) becomes gu (later gw). As the O.\n  Welsh documents consist almost entirely of isolated words, we know\n  scarcely anything about the morphology of the language during this\n  period. To the middle period belong the ancient poems from the Black\n  Book of Carmarthen, but the language of these compositions is\n  evidently much older than the date of the manuscript (12th century),\n  as it preserves a number of very archaic features. Other important\n  sources of information for this period are the O. Welsh Laws contained\n  in a MS. of the 12th century. To a somewhat later date belong the\n  Mabinogion (14th century MS.), and the prose versions of French\n  romances published by R. Williams (15th century). In Middle Welsh the\n  consonant mutations are in general denoted in writing, though not\n  consistently, and from this period dates the introduction of w and y\n  (O.W. u, i) to denote vowel sounds. The symbol ll to denote a\n  voiceless l was already employed in Mid. W. but rh (= voiceless r), dd\n  (= Eng. th in \"thou\") and f (= v) either do not appear or only become\n  regular during the modern period In Mod. W. the orthography is\n  regularized and does not differ materially from that of the late\n  medieval documents. In O.W. the old stress on the final syllable (the\n  historical penult) appears to have been preserved, but during the\n  middle period the accent was shifted to the penult. In consequence of\n  this change aw (a) in final syllables is reduced to o in Mod. W., e.g.\n  Mid. W. _pechawt_ < Lat. _peccatum_, Mod. W. _pechod_.\n\n  The comparative wealth of inflection preserved by O. Ir. has almost\n  entirely disappeared in Welsh. There are only the faintest traces of\n  the case forms, the dual and the neuter gender. Compared with the\n  Irish nominal declension according to -o- (-jo-), -a-, -i-, -u-, -s-,\n  guttural, dental and nasal stems, Welsh only distinguishes the nom.\n  sing. and plur., the latter sometimes retaining an old formation. Thus\n  masc. -o- stems show palatal modification, e.g. _corn_, \"horn,\" plur.\n  _cyrn_ < _*korni_; the plural ending of -u- stems, O. Gaulish _-oves_,\n  gives O.W. -ou, Mid. W. -eu, Mod. W. -au, e.g. _penneu_, \"heads.\" The\n  termination _-ones_ of the -n- stems appears as -on. The infixation of\n  pronominal objects between a verbal particle and the verb itself\n  continues in use down to the present day as in Breton. In the third\n  person sing. of the pres. ind. there are instances in the oldest Welsh\n  of the peculiar alternation between orthotonic and absolute forms\n  which characterize the Irish paradigms, e.g. _pereid_, \"it endures,\"\n  but _ny phara_. The several types of conjugation represented in Irish\n  have become obscured, traces remaining only in the endings of the\n  third sing. of the pres. ind., the pret. ind. (Mid. W. -as, -es, -is)\n  and the pret. passive (Mid. W. -at, -et, -it). The verb system of\n  Welsh comprises the following tenses: indic. present (also used as\n  future), imperative, imperfect, preterite (in Mid. W. forms with s\n  have become prevalent as in Irish, but forms corresponding to the\n  Irish preterites in t or with reduplication or unreduplicated with\n  long vowel are not infrequent in the early poetry), pluperfect (a new\n  formation), pres. and pret. passive. In the subj. early W.\n  distinguishes pres. and past, but the latter comes to be replaced by\n  the pluperfect indicative. The sign of the subj. is -h- < s, which\n  reminds one of the Irish s-subj., though the formation is somewhat\n  different. There are also traces of a future formation containing h\n  < s. (See also under WALES.)\n\n\n    History and extent.\n\n  We have seen already that Wales began to exist as a separate entity\n  roughly at the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th centuries. In\n  the second half of the 8th century the Welsh were confined in pretty\n  much their present limits by Offa, king of Mercia, who constructed the\n  <DW18> going by his name, which has approximately remained the political\n  boundary between England and Wales ever since. From this time onwards\n  the bitter feeling against England which we find expressed in the\n  fervid compositions of Iolo Goch and other political bards served to\n  prevent any serious inroads of English on Welsh-speaking territory.\n  With the advent of the Tudors, however, there came a great change.\n  Henry VII. owed his throne in large measure to the support he had\n  received from Wales and he prided himself on his Welsh ancestry. A\n  consequence of this was that throughout the 16th century Wales\n  received exceptionally favourable treatment at the hands of the\n  English sovereign and parliament. In 1562 a decree was issued ordering\n  a translation of the Bible to be made into Welsh. All this could\n  naturally not be without effect on the attitude of the leaders of the\n  people towards England. The change is already apparent in the poems of\n  Lewis Glyn Cothi and others. And the striking difference in the manner\n  in which the Reformation was regarded in Ireland and Wales is worthy\n  of remark. During the Stuart wars the Welsh nobles fought invariably\n  on the Royalist side, and there is plenty of other evidence that the\n  aristocracy of Wales was becoming thoroughly anglicized both in\n  sentiment and language. At the same time the practice of the Tudors\n  was reversed in many particulars. Thus it became the custom to appoint\n  Englishmen ignorant of the national language to the Welsh bishoprics.\n  In this manner it is not a matter for surprise that a feeling of\n  estrangement should grow up between the bulk of the population, who\n  only knew Welsh, and the clergy and nobles, their intellectual\n  leaders. The neglect of the national language is evident from the\n  large number of English words which have even crept into such\n  classical works as Prichard's _Canwyll y Cymry_ and Ellis Wynn's\n  _Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsg_. It is stated that, of the 269 works\n  published by Welshmen between 1546 and 1644, 44 were in Latin, 184 in\n  English and only 41 in Welsh, and of these 37 consist of works of\n  piety. Thus at the beginning of the 18th century there seemed a fair\n  chance that Welsh would soon become extinct like Cornish.\n\n  An extraordinary change was brought about by the Methodist movement in\n  Wales. The preachers, in order to get hold of the masses, addressed\n  them in the vernacular, and their efforts were crowned with enormous\n  success. At the same time a minister of the Established Church,\n  Griffith Jones, went about Wales establishing lay schools to which\n  young and old might come to learn to read the Welsh Bible. Between\n  1737 and 1761 3395 such schools sprang up, at which no fewer than\n  158,238 persons of all ages learned to read their native language.\n  After Griffith Jones's death this work was carried on by others,\n  notably by Charles of Bala (1755-1814), who passed over to Calvinistic\n  Methodism and whose schools were transformed after the model of the\n  Sunday schools instituted in 1782 by Robert Raikes. Charles of Bala\n  was largely instrumental in the founding of the British and Foreign\n  Bible Society, and Wales was provided with 100,000 copies of the Bible\n  and Testament at very moderate prices. Bishop's Morgan's version of\n  the Scriptures made in 1588 (final revision 1620) represents the\n  speech of North Wales which had remained more or less free from\n  English influence, so that the language of the Welsh Bible is rightly\n  regarded as the literary model. Three-fourths of the inhabitants of\n  Wales belong to the various Nonconformist sects, and therefore pass\n  almost without exception through the Sunday school, where they are\n  drilled in its sole object of study, the Welsh Bible.\n\n  With the increasing employment of Welsh owing to the Nonconformist\n  movement there was also awakened a new interest in the past history of\n  the principality. A society calling itself the _Cymdeithas y\n  Cymmrodorion_ was founded in London in 1751, and during the succeeding\n  half-century two periodicals exclusively in Welsh were started, the\n  one, _Trysorfa y Gwybodaeth_, in 1770, the other, _Cylchgrawn\n  Cymraeg_, in 1793. The year 1792 witnessed the creation of an\n  important society, the _Cymdeithas y Cymreigyddion_, in London, in\n  which the moving spirits were William Owen (Pughe), Owen Jones and\n  Edward Williams. The results of their indefatigable search for ancient\n  Welsh manuscripts were published in three volumes under the title\n  _Myvyrian Archaiology_ (London, 1801-1807). Owen further published an\n  edition of the greatest medieval Welsh poet Dafydd ap Gwilym, and also\n  the first copious dictionary. But this was not all. In Goronwy Owen\n  (1722-1769) a poet had arisen whose works could stand comparison with\n  the compositions of the medieval writers, and it was owing to the\n  efforts of the three men above mentioned that the national Eisteddfod\n  (=session, from _eistedd_, \"to sit\") was revived. The origin of these\n  literary festivals is shrouded in obscurity. It is recorded that a S.\n  Welsh prince, Gruffydd ap Rhys, held a festival lasting forty days in\n  1135 to commemorate a victorious campaign at which poets and minstrels\n  competed for gifts and other rewards. Gruffydd's son Rhys ap Gruffydd\n  is reported to have instituted a similar contest in 1176, at which the\n  successful competitors received a chair whilst the others were given\n  presents. It would seem that after the loss of Welsh independence a\n  carefully graded order and a system of jealously guarded rules came\n  into existence. Similar national festivals were held under royal\n  patronage under Henry VIII. in 1523 and again under Elizabeth in 1568.\n  From 1568 until 1819 no general eisteddfod for all Wales was held.\n  Since 1819 the national festival has been held annually and every\n  little town has its own local celebration. Hence the Nonconformist\n  Sunday school, the pulpit and the eisteddfod may be regarded as the\n  most potent factors in resisting the inroads of English. The whole\n  question of the vitality of Welsh and what may be called the political\n  and social history of the language is treated in great detail by H.\n  Zimmer, \"Der Pan-Keltismus in Gross-britannien und Irland,\" i., in\n  _Preussische Jahrbucher_, vol. xcii. (1898). In elementary schools in\n  Wales the use of Welsh has been permitted since 1893.\n\n  With regard to the extent over which Welsh is spoken a detailed map is\n  given in J.E. Southall's _Welsh Language Census of 1891_ (Newport,\n  1895). A line drawn from the southern end of the estuary of the Dee\n  about 2 m. W. of Connah's Quay to Aberthaw in Glamorgan would\n  practically include all those districts where Welsh is spoken by 60%\n  of the population, and considerable deductions would have to be made\n  for parts of Flint, Montgomery, most of Radnor and the N. part of\n  Brecon. Little is spoken in the southern half of the Gower peninsula\n  or in S. Pembrokeshire. Over much of Anglesey 97-1\/2% of the population\n  spoke Welsh and in parts of Cardiganshire 98.3%. Of a total population\n  in 1901 of 2,012,876, 929,824 were returned as speakers of Welsh, of\n  whom 280,905 were monoglots. That Welsh is a very living language may\n  be gathered from the following statistics. Between 1801 and 1898 no\n  fewer than 8425 volumes were published in the vernacular, whilst in\n  1895 there were appearing regularly 2 quarterlies, 2 bi-monthlies, 28\n  religious and literary monthlies and 25 weekly papers. In 1909 the\n  number was probably greater. The danger for Welsh lies rather in the\n  direction of internal decay. The speech of the people is saturated\n  with English words and idiom, and modern writers like Daniel Owen\n  submit to the same influence instead of returning to the classical\n  models of the 17th century.\n\n  Much remains to be done as regards the classification of the modern\n  Welsh dialects. It is usual to divide them into four groups--(1) Powys\n  (N.E.); (2) Gwynedd (N.W.); (3) Dyfed (S.W.); (4) Gwent (S.E.). One of\n  the chief points on which N. and S. diverge is the pronunciation of\n  the vowels i, u, y, which in the S. all tend to become i. The\n  difference between N. and S. was noticeable as early as the time of\n  Giraldus Cambrensis. See M. Nettlau, _Beitrage zur cymrischen\n  Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1887), also _Rev. celt._ ix. pp. 64 ff., 113 ff.;\n  T. Darlington, \"Some Dialectal Boundaries in Mid-Wales,\" _Trans, of\n  the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion_, 1900-1901. The only scientific\n  description of a living dialect is \"Spoken N. Welsh,\" by H. Sweet,\n  _Trans, of the London Phil. Soc._, 1882-1884.\n\n  AUTHORITIES ON WELSH LANGUAGE.--For the study of older Welsh:--J.C.\n  Zeuss, _Grammatica Celtica_ (Berlin[2], 1871)--an index to the O.\n  Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V. Tourneur, _Archiv\n  f. celt. Lexikographie_, iii. 109-137; J. Strachan, _An Introduction\n  to Early Welsh_, with a Reader (Manchester, 1909); J. Rhys, _Lectures\n  on Welsh Philology_ (London[2], 1879). Editions of texts--_The Black\n  Book of Carmarthen_, facsimile edition by J. Gwenogvryn Evans\n  (Pwllheli, 1906); J. Rhys and J. Gwenogvryn Evans, _The Text of the\n  Mabinogion_ (Oxford, 1887); _The Myvyrian_ _Archaiology of Wales_\n  (1801-1807; reprinted Denbigh, 1870); W.F. Skene, _The Four Ancient\n  Books of Wales_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868); Aneurin Owen, _Ancient\n  Laws and Institutes of Wales_ (London, 1841); facsimile edition by\n  A.W. Wade-Evans, _Welsh Medieval Law_ (Oxford, 1909); K. Meyer,\n  _Peredur ap Efrawc_ with glossary (Leipzig, 1887); R. Williams,\n  _Selections from the Hengwrt Manuscripts_ (London, 1876-1892); J.E.\n  Southall, _Wales and Her Language_ (Newport, 1892). The earliest Welsh\n  grammar was published as long ago as 1567 in Milan by Griffiths\n  Roberts, reprinted in facsimile as supplement to the _Revue celtique_\n  (Paris, 1883). An account of the language was prefixed to Owen Pughe's\n  Dictionary (1803). During the 19th century many manuals of indifferent\n  value saw the light of day. The most authoritative works are:--T.\n  Rowland, _A Grammar of the Welsh Language_ (Wrexham, 1853^1, 1876^4),\n  (still the most complete work), the same author also published a\n  companion volume of _Welsh Exercises_ (Wrexham, n.d.); W. Spurrell, _A\n  Grammar of the Welsh Language_ (Carmarthen^3, 1870); E. Anwyl, _A\n  Welsh Grammar for Schools, (i.) Accidence, (ii.) Syntax_ (London^2,\n  1898). Other useful manuals for the beginner:--T. Jones, _A Guide to\n  Welsh_, pts. i. ii. new ed. (Wrexham, n.d.); S.J. Evans, _The Elements\n  of Welsh Grammar_ (Newport^3, 1903). Dictionaries:--The first Welsh\n  dictionary was compiled by William Salesbury (London, 1547; facsimile\n  reprint, London, 1877); W. Owen Pughe, _A Dictionary of the Welsh\n  Language_ (2 vols., London, 1803; reprinted Denbigh, 1870); W.\n  Spurrell, _Welsh-English and English-Welsh Dictionary_ (Carmarthen^6,\n  1904); a smaller one by W. Richards in 2 vols. (Wrexham, n.d.), and\n  many others. A dictionary on a large scale was planned by D. Silvan\n  Evans and subsidized by the government. Only A-Dd has, however,\n  appeared (Carmarthen, 1893-1906), cp. J. Loth in _Archiv. f. celt.\n  Lex._ vol. i. for additions and corrections. A survey of Welsh\n  periodical literature is contained in T.M. Jones's _Llenyddiaeth fy\n  Ngwlad_ (Treffynnon, 1893). For Welsh folklore see J. Rhys, _Celtic\n  Folklore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901). H.H. Vaughan, _Welsh\n  Proverbs_ (London, 1889), also _Rev. celt._ iii. 419 ff. See also G.\n  Dottin, _Revue de synthese historique_, vi. 317 ff.; H. Zimmer and\n  L.C. Stern in _Kultur der Gegenwart_, Teil 1, Abt. xi. 1.\n       (E. C. Q.)\n\n(b) _Breton_.--Breton (_Brezonek_) is the name given to the language\nspoken by those Britons who fled from the south-west of England to\nArmorica (see BRITTANY) in the 5th and 6th centuries of our era to avoid\nbeing harassed by the Saxons. The first migration probably took place\nabout 450. The Dumnonii and Cornovii founded small states in Brittany,\nor Britannia Minor, as it was termed, and were followed in the second\nhalf of the 6th and into the 7th century by a long stream of refugees\n(cf. J. Loth, _L'Emigration bretonne_, Paris, 1883; A. de la Borderie,\n_Histoire de la Bretagne^2_, vol. i., 1905).\n\n  In the earliest stages it is difficult to distinguish Breton from\n  Welsh. The history of the language may be divided into Old Breton from\n  the 7th to the 11th centuries, Middle Breton from the 11th to the 17th\n  centuries, and Modern Breton. In Old Breton the only material we\n  possess consists of glosses and names occurring in lives of saints,\n  Frankish authors, and charters. However, we find a few characteristics\n  which serve to show that the old glosses are really Breton and not\n  Welsh. Thus, an original a never becomes a diphthong (au, aw) in Old\n  Breton, but remains o. In Bret, gn becomes gr. Further, in O.W.\n  pretonic u is weakened to an indeterminate sound written i and later\n  y, a phenomenon which does not occur in Breton, e.g. Lat. _culcita_\n  appears in O.W. as _cilcet_, but in O. Br. as _colcet_. A marked\n  characteristic of Breton is the confusion of i and e, e.g. Ir. _lis_,\n  \"court,\" W. _llys_, Br. _les_. In Old Breton as in Old Welsh neither\n  the initial nor the medial mutations are expressed in writing, whilst\n  in Middle Breton only the latter are regularly denoted. In this period\n  the language diverges very rapidly from Welsh. As prominent features\n  we may mention the following. Stressed o (=Prim. Celt. and Ir. a)\n  becomes eu, in unstressed syllables e; thus the suffix _-aco_ becomes\n  _-euc_ and later -ec, but in Welsh _-auc_ and later -oc, -og.\n  Postvocalic -tr, -tl become -dr, -dl as in Welsh, but in Middle Breton\n  they pass into -zr, -zl, which in the modern language appear as _-er,\n  -el; e.g._ Mid. Br. _lazr_, Mod. Br. _laer_, \"robber,\" W. _lleidr_,\n  Lat. _latro_. Further, -lt becomes -ot, -ut, e.g. Br. _aot_, _aout_,\n  \"cliff,\" W. _allt_; Br. _autrou_, \"lord,\" Ir. _altram_, W. _alltraw_,\n  _athraw_, Corn. _altrou_; and, more important still, th, [+a] (W. dd)\n  become s, z, e.g. Mid. Br. _clezeff_, \"sword,\" Mod. Br. _kleze_, W.\n  _cleddyf_. The orthography only followed the pronunciation very\n  slowly, and it is not until 1659 that we find any attempt made to\n  reform the spelling. In this year a Jesuit priest, Julien Maunoir (Br.\n  Maner), published a manual in which a new spelling is employed, and it\n  is usual to date Modern Breton from the appearance of this book,\n  although in reality it marks no new epoch in the history of the\n  language. It is only now that the initial mutations are consistently\n  denoted in writing (medially they are already written in the 11th\n  century), and the differences between the dialects first come into\n  view at this time. As in Welsh the accent is withdrawn during the\n  middle period from the final to the penultimate (except in the Vannes\n  dialect), which causes the modern unstressed vowel to be reduced in\n  many cases. Again, in Old Welsh and Old Breton a short stressed vowel\n  in words of one syllable was lengthened, e.g. _tad_, \"father,\" pl.\n  _tadau_, but in Modern Breton the accent tends to lengthen all\n  stressed vowels. Breton has gone its own way in the matter of initial\n  mutation. The nasal mutation has been entirely given up in the initial\n  position, whilst a new mutation, called medial provection, has arisen\n  in the case of b, d, g, which become p, k, t after a few words which\n  originally ended for the most part in z or ch. The vocalic mutation of\n  initial g in Breton is _c'h_. We may also make mention of one or two\n  other points on which Breton differs widely from Welsh. Breton has\n  given up the combination ng, e.g. Mid. Br. _moe_, Mod. Br. _moue_,\n  \"mane,\" W. _mwng_, Ir. _mong_. The language betrays a fondness for\n  nasalized vowels, and in this connexion it may be noted that v\n  representing an original m (W. f, Ir. mh), though generally written ff\n  in Middle Breton, now frequently appears as nv; Mid. Br. _claff_, Mod.\n  Br. _klanv_, \"sick, ill,\" W. _claf_, M. Ir. _clam_. Final g after r\n  and l and sometimes in monosyllables after a vowel is represented in\n  Breton by _c'h_, whilst in Welsh in the one case we find a vowel and\n  in the other nil, e.g. Br. _erc'h_, \"snow,\" W. _eiry_, _eira_; Br.\n  _lec'h_, \"place,\" W. _lle_. In Welsh mb, nd immediately preceding the\n  stress appear in the modern language as mm, nn but in Breton we find\n  mp, nl, e.g. Br. _kantol_, \"candle,\" W. _cannwyll_, Lat. _candela_;\n  Br. _kemper_, \"confluence\" (in place names), W. _cymmer_, Ir.\n  _combor_.\n\n  With regard to the extent of country over which Breton is spoken we\n  shall do well to note the seats of the old Breton bishoprics. These\n  were Quimper, St Pol de Leon, Treguier, St Brieuc, St Malo, Dol and\n  Vannes. Under Count Nominoe the Bretons succeeded in throwing off the\n  Frankish yoke (841-845) and founded an independent state. At this time\n  of greatest political expansion the language boundary was formed by a\n  line which started roughly a little to the west of Mont St Michel at\n  the mouth of the Couesnon, and stretched to the mouth of the Loire.\n  During the next three centuries, however, in consequence of political\n  events which cannot be enumerated here, we find French encroaching\n  rapidly on Breton, and the old dioceses of Dol, St Malo, St Brieuc,\n  and in part Vannes became Romance-speaking (cp. J. Loth, _Revue\n  celtique_, xxviii. 374-403). So that since the 13th and 14th centuries\n  the boundary between French and Breton begins in the north about\n  Plouha (west of St Brieuc Bay), and stretches to the mouth of the\n  Vilaine in the south. That is to say, the Breton speakers are confined\n  to the department of Finistere and the west of the departments\n  Cotes-du-Nord and Morbihan. Lower Brittany contains a population of\n  1,360,000, of whom roughly 1,250,000 speak Breton. The number of\n  monoglot Bretons is stated to have been 768,000 in 1878, 679,000 in\n  1885, and over 500,000 in 1898. There is an infinity of dialects and\n  subdialects in Brittany, but it is usual to divide them into four\n  groups. These are the dialects of (1) Leon in Finistere; (2)\n  Cornouailles in Finistere, the Cotes-du-Nord and a part of Morbihan;\n  (3) Treguier in the Cotes-du-Nord and Finistere; (4) Vannes in\n  Morbihan and a portion of the Cotes-du-Nord. The first three resemble\n  one another fairly closely, but the speech of Vannes has gone its own\n  way entirely. The dialect of Leon is regarded as the literary dialect,\n  thanks to Legonidec.\n\n  The modern language is unfortunately saturated with words borrowed\n  from French which form at least a quarter of the whole vocabulary. The\n  living speech is further characterized by innumerable cases of\n  consonantal metathesis and by parasitic nasalization. Loth gives\n  specimens of the most important varieties of Breton in his\n  _Chrestomathie bretonne_, pp. 363-380, but here we must confine\n  ourselves to pointing out the two most salient differences between the\n  speech of Vannes and the rest of Brittany. In Vannes the stress has\n  not been shifted from the final syllable. In Haute-Cornouailles and\n  Goelo there is a tendency to withdraw the stress on to the\n  antepenultimate, whilst in Treguier certain enclitics attract the\n  accent to the final. s, z of the other dialects representing Welsh th\n  become h in Vannes, e.g. W. _caeth_, Br. _keaz, kez_, \"poor,\n  miserable,\" Vannes _keah, keh_. This phenomenon occurs sporadically in\n  other dialects. It may also be mentioned that Prim. Celt, non-initial\n  d, W. dd, is retained as z in Leon but disappears when final or\n  standing between vowels in the other dialects, e.g. O. Br. _fid_, W.\n  _ffydd_, \"faith,\" Leon _feiz_, in Cornouailles, Treguier and Vannes,\n  _fe_. It is doubtful if the most serious differences between the\n  dialects are older than the 16th century.\n\n  In the middle ages the language of the Breton aristocracy was French.\n  Upper Brittany was politically more important than the western\n  portion. The consequence was that no patronage was extended to the\n  vernacular, and Breton sank to the level of a patois with no unity for\n  literary purposes. But a new era dawned with the beginning of the 19th\n  century. The national consciousness was awakened at the time of the\n  Revolution, when the Bretons became aware of the difference between\n  themselves and their French neighbours. It may be mentioned by the way\n  that the Breton language was regarded with suspicion by the leaders of\n  the First Republic and attempts were made to suppress it. A Breton\n  named Legonidec had to flee to England for fighting against the\n  Republic. He came under the influence of the movement in Wales, and on\n  his return sought to create a Breton literary language. He published\n  an excellent grammar (_Grammaire celto-bretonne_, Paris, 1807) and a\n  dictionary (_Dictionnaire breton-francais_, Paris, 1821), from which\n  he omitted the numerous French words which had crept into the language\n  and for which native terms already existed. Legonidec's example fired\n  a number of writers with zeal for their native tongue and the clergy\n  became interested. Under their auspices manuals of Breton were\n  published and the language was utilized in a number of schools. A\n  society called the _Association Bretonne_ was founded in the year\n  1844. But under the Second Empire, for reasons which are not easy to\n  discover, this Breton awakening was declared to be contrary to the\n  interests of the state, and all the means at the disposal of a highly\n  centralized government like that of France were employed to throttle\n  the movement. Down to the present day the use of Breton is strictly\n  forbidden in all the state schools, and the influence of the Roman\n  Catholic clergy has for the most part been hostile to the language.\n  However, the attitude of the government aroused considerable\n  dissatisfaction in the early 'nineties, and in 1896 the _Association\n  Bretonne_ (disbanded in 1859 and reconstructed in 1873) appointed a\n  permanent committee with the object of preserving and propagating the\n  national language. At the same time some of the clergy headed by Abbe\n  Buleon began to move, and Breton was introduced into many of the\n  schools not under state control. In 1898 was founded the _Union\n  Regionaliste Bretonne_, the most important section of which endeavours\n  to foster the native speech in conjunction with the _Comite de\n  preservation du breton_ (founded 1896). In 1899 the annual meeting of\n  the U.R.B. was modelled on the lines of the Irish Oireachtas, the\n  Welsh Eisteddfod and the Scottish Mod, and festivals of this kind have\n  been held ever since. Many Breton newspapers publish columns in\n  Breton, thus _Ar Bobl_ (a weekly newspaper founded in 1904 and\n  published at Carhaix) frequently devotes half its columns to the\n  language. But there is also a weekly four-page newspaper which is\n  wholly in Breton. This is _Kroaz ar Vretoned_, edited by F. Vallee and\n  published at St Brieuc. In addition to this there are three monthly\n  magazines wholly in Breton. The first is _Ar Vro_, edited by the poet\n  Jaffrennou, and in 1908 in its fifth year. The second is _Dihunamb_,\n  written in the dialect of Vannes and started in 1905. The third is\n  _Feiz ha Breiz_, started 1899.\n\n  AUTHORITIES FOR BRETON.--For the external history of Breton see H.\n  Zimmer, \"Die keltische Bewegung in der Bretagne,\" _Preussische\n  Jahrbucher_ for 1899, xcix. 454-497. For Old and Middle Breton, J.\n  Loth, _Chrestomathie bretonne_ (Paris, 1890), and the same writer's\n  _Vocabulaire vieux-breton_ (Paris, 1884). Loth and E. Ernault have\n  been indefatigable in investigating the history of the language. Their\n  numerous contributions are mainly to be found scattered through the\n  _Revue celtique, Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_ and the\n  _Annales de Bretagne_. Ernault has also published _Glossaire\n  moyen-breton_ in 2 vols. (Paris, 1895-1896); _Dictionnaire\n  etymologique du moyen-breton_ (Paris, 1888). Another etymological\n  dictionary was published by V. Henry (Paris, 1900). Grammars,\n  &c.:--Dialect of Leon: Legonidec, _Grammaire celto-bretonne_ (Paris,\n  1807, 1838[2], also contained in H. de la Villemarque's edition of\n  Legonidec's Dictionary); F. Vallee, _Lecons elementaires de grammaire\n  bretonne_ (St Brieuc, 1902); E. Ernault, _Petite Grammaire bretonne_\n  (St Brieuc, 1897, the latter also takes account of the dialects of\n  Treguier and Cornouailles). Dialect of Treguier: L. le Clerc,\n  _Grammaire bretonne_ (St Brieuc, 1908); J. Hingant, _Elements de la\n  grammaire bretonne_ (Treguier, 1868); P. le Roux, \"Mutations et\n  assimilations de consonnes dans le dialecte armoricain de Pleubian,\"\n  _Annales de Bretagne_, xii. 3-31. Dialect of Vannes: A. Guillevic and\n  P. le Goff, _Grammaire bretonne du dialecte de Vannes_ (Vannes, 1902);\n  _Exercises sur la grammaire bretonne_ (Vannes, 1903); H. d'Arbois de\n  Jubainville, \"Etude phonetique sur le dialecte breton de Vannes,\"\n  _Revue celtique_, i. 85 ff. 211 ff.; E. Ernault, \"Le Dialecte\n  vannetais de Sarzeau,\" _Rev. celt._ iii. 47 ff., 232 ff.; J. Guillome,\n  _Grammaire francaise-bretonne_ (Vannes, 1836). As a curiosity we\n  mention P. Treasure, _An Introduction to Breton Grammar_ (Carmarthen,\n  1903). Dictionaries: Legonidec, _Dictionnaire francais-breton_ (St\n  Brieuc, 1847), _Breton-Francais_ (St Brieuc, 1850), both republished\n  by de la Villemarque and representing the Leon dialect; A. Troude,\n  _Nouveau Dictionnaire pratique francais et breton du dialecte de Leon\n  avec les acceptations diverses dans les dialectes de Vannes, de\n  Treguier, et de Cornouailles_ (Brest, 1869), and _Nouveau Dictionnaire\n  pratique breton-francais_ (Brest, 1876); E. Ernault, \"Supplement aux\n  dictionnaires bretons-francais,\" _Revue celtique_, iv. 145-170. The\n  Breton words in Gallo, the French patois of Upper Brittany, were\n  collected by E. Ernault, _Revue celtique_, v. 218 ff.\n\n(c) _Cornish._--The ancient language of Cornwall (_Kernuak, Carnoack_)\nstood in a much closer relation to Breton than to Welsh,[1] though in\nsome respects it sides with the latter against the former.\n\n  It agrees with Breton on the following points:--It has given up the\n  nasal mutation of initials but provects the mediae. Prim. Celt. a is\n  not diphthongized, but becomes e, e.g. Corn, _ler_, \"floor,\" Br.\n  _leur_, W. _llawr_, Ir. _lar_. _Ng_ is lost as in Breton, e.g. _toy_,\n  \"to swear,\" Br. _toui_, W. _tyngu_, Ir. _tongu_; nd becomes nt before\n  the stress and not nn as in Welsh, e.g. Corn. Br. _hanter_, \"half,\" W.\n  _hanner_. Cornish like Breton does not prefix a vowel to words\n  beginning with s + consonant, e.g. Corn. _spirit_, later _spyrys_, Br.\n  _spered_, W. _yspryd_. On the other hand, O. Cornish does not confuse\n  i and e to the same extent as Bret., e.g. W. _helyg_, \"willow,\" O.\n  Cornish _heligen_, Br. _halek_. Further, Cornish does not change th, d\n  to s, z as in Breton, _e.g. beth_, \"grave,\" Br. _bez_, W. _bedd_, and\n  initial g disappears in the vocalic mutation as in Welsh. Peculiar to\n  Cornish is the change of non-initial t, d to s, z. This occurs in the\n  oldest Cornish after n, l, e.g. O. Corn, _nans_, \"valley,\" W. _nant_;\n  Corn. _tas_, \"father,\" W. _tad_. A feature of later Cornish is the\n  introduction of a d before post-vocalic m, n, e.g. _pedn_, \"head,\" W.\n  _pen_. In later Cornish the accent seems to have fallen on the\n  penultimate as in Modern Welsh and Breton.\n\n  In 936 the \"Welsh\" were driven out of Exeter by AEthelstan, and from\n  that time the Tamar appears to have formed a general boundary between\n  English and Cornish, though there seems to be evidence that even as\n  late as the reign of Elizabeth Cornish was spoken in a few places to\n  the east of that river. The decay of Cornish has been largely\n  attributed to the Reformation. Neither the Prayer-book nor the\n  Scriptures were translated into the vernacular, and we find the same\n  apathy on the part of the Church of England in Cornwall as in Wales\n  and Ireland. Unfortunately the Methodist movement came at a time when\n  it was too late to save the language. By 1600 Cornish had been driven\n  into the western parts of the duchy and in 1662 we are informed by\n  John Ray that few of the children could speak it. Lhuyd gives a list\n  of the parishes in which Cornish was spoken, but goes on to state that\n  every one speaks English. In 1735 there were only a few people along\n  the coast between Penzance and Land's End who understood Cornish, and\n  Dolly Pentreath of Mousehole, who died in 1777, is commonly stated to\n  have been the last person who spoke it, though Jenner seems to show\n  that there were others who lived until well into the 19th century who\n  were able to converse in the dialect. However, the modern English\n  speech of West Cornwall is full of Celtic words, and nine-tenths of\n  the places and people from the Tamar to Land's End bear Cornish names.\n  Celtic words still in use are to be found in Jago's _Dialect of\n  Cornwall_ (Truro, 1882); thus the name for the dog-fish is _morgy_,\n  \"sea-dog.\"\n\n  AUTHORITIES FOR CORNISH.--A mass of details about Cornish is collected\n  in H. Jenner's _Handbook of the Cornish Language_ (London, 1904). (Cf.\n  J. Loth's review in the _Revue celtique_, xxvii. 93.) Lhuyd's\n  _Archaeologica Britannica_ (1707) contains a grammar of the language\n  as spoken in his day, and a _Sketch of Cornish Grammar_ is to be found\n  as an appendix to Norris's _Ancient Cornish Drama_. A dictionary was\n  published by R. Williams entitled _Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum_\n  (Landovery, 1865), to which W. Stokes published a supplement of about\n  2000 words in the _Transactions of the London Philological Society_\n  for 1868-1869. We may also mention the _English-Cornish Dictionary_,\n  by F.W.P. Jago (Plymouth, 1887), and a _Glossary of Cornish Names_, by\n  J. Bannister (Truro, 1871). W. Stokes published a Glossary to _Beunans\n  Meriasek_ in the _Archiv fur celtische Lexikographie_, i. 101, and\n  important articles by J. Loth have appeared in the _Revue celtique_,\n  vols. xviii. to xxiv. W.S. Lach-Szyrma, \"Les Derniers Echos de la\n  langue cornique,\" _Revue celtique_, iii. 239 ff. H. Jenner, \"Some\n  Rough Notes on the Present Pronunciation of Cornish Names,\" _Rev.\n  celt._ xxiv. 300-305.\n\nIII. THE LANGUAGE OF THE ANCIENT PICTS.--The evidence from which we can\ndraw any conclusions as to the affinities of the language of the Picts\nis so extremely scanty that the question has been the subject of great\ncontroversy. The Picts are first mentioned by Eumenius (A.D. 297), who\nregarded them as having inhabited Britain in the time of Caesar. In the\nyear 368 they are described by Ammianus Marcellinus as invading the\nRoman province of Britain in conjunction with the Irish Scots. In\nColumba's time we find the whole of Scotland east of Drumalban and north\nof the Forth divided into two kingdoms--north and south Pictland--and it\nis reasonable to identify the Picts, at any rate in part, with the\nCaledonians of the classical authors. Galloway and Co. Down were also\ninhabited by Picts. Bede in enumerating the languages of Britain\nmentions those of the Britons, Picts, Scots and the English. The names\nby which the Picts are known in history have aroused considerable\ndiscussion. It seems natural to connect Lat. _Picti_ with the _Pictones_\nand _Pictavi_ of Gaul, but in Irish they are known as _Cruithne_, which\nappears in Welsh as _Prydyn_, \"Pict\"; cp. _Prydein_, \"Britain,\" forms\ncorresponding to the earliest Greek name for these islands, [Greek:\nnesoi Pretanikai].\n\nThree conflicting theories have been held as to the character of the\nPictish language. Rhys, relying on the strange character of the Scottish\nOgam inscriptions, pronounces it to be non-Celtic and non-Indo-European.\nIn this he has been followed by Zimmer, who bases his argument on the\nPictish rule of succession. Skene maintained that the Picts spoke a\nlanguage nearly allied to Goidelic, whilst Stokes, Loth, Macbain,\nD'Arbois and Meyer are of opinion that Pictish was more closely related\nto Brythonic. Of personal names mentioned by classical writers we have\nCalgacus and Argentocoxus, both of which are certainly Celtic. The names\noccurring in Ptolemy's description of Scotland have a decidedly Celtic\ncharacter, and they seem, moreover, to bear a greater resemblance to\nBrythonic than to Goidelic, witness such tribal designations as Epidii,\nCornavii, Damnonii, Decantae, Novantae. In the case of all these names,\nhowever, it should be borne in mind that they probably reached the\nwriters of antiquity through Brythonic channels. Bede mentions that the\neast end of the Antonine Wall terminated at a place called in Pictish\n_Pean-fahel_, and in Saxon _Penneltun_. _Pean_ resembles Old Welsh\n_penn_, \"head,\" Old Irish _cenn_, and the second element may possibly be\nconnected with Gaelic _fal_, Welsh _gwawl_, \"rampart.\" The names of the\nkings in the Pictish chronicles are not an absolutely trustworthy guide,\nas owing to the Pictish rule of succession the bearers of the names may\nin many cases have been Brythons. The names of some of them occur in one\nsource in a Goidelic, in another in a Brythonic form. It is of course\npossible that the southern part of Pictish territory was divided between\nGoidels and Brythons, the population being very much mixed. On the other\nhand there are a number of elements in place-names on Pictish ground\nwhich do not occur in Wales or Ireland. Such are _pet_, _pit_, \"farm\"\n(?), _for_, _fother_, _fetter_, _foder_, \"lower\" (?). _Aber_,\n\"confluence,\" on the contrary, is pure Brythonic (Gaelic _inver_).\nThough the majority of scholars are of opinion that Pictish was nearly\nakin to the Brythonic dialects, we are entirely in the dark as to the\nmanner in which that language was ousted by the Goidelic speech of the\nDalriadic Scots. In view of the comparatively unimportant part played\nfor a considerable period in Scottish affairs by the colony from\nIreland, it is well-nigh incredible that Pictish should have been\nsupplanted by Gaelic.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (London[2], 1905), _The Welsh\n  People_ (London[3], 1902), \"The Language and Inscriptions of the\n  Northern Picts,\" in _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of\n  Scotland_ (1892); H. Zimmer, \"Das Mutterrecht der Pikten,\" in\n  _Savignys Zeitschrift_ (1895); also trans. by G. Henderson in _Leabhar\n  nan Gleann_ (Inverness, 1898); W.F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_\n  (Edinburgh, 1876); A. Macbain in appendix to reprint of Skene's\n  _Highlanders of Scotland_ (Stirling, 1902); A. Macbain, \"Ptolemy's\n  Geography of Scotland,\" in _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of\n  Inverness_, xviii. 267-288; W. Stokes, _Bezzenbergers Beitrage_,\n  xviii. 267 ff.; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux\n  celtiques a forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906). The various theories have\n  been recently reviewed and criticized by T. Rice Holmes in an appendix\n  to his _Caesar's Invasion of Britain_ (London, 1907).\n\nIV. HISTORY OF CELTIC PHILOLOGY.--For many centuries the affinities of\nthe Celtic languages were the subject of great dispute. The languages\nwere in turn regarded as descended from Hebrew, Teutonic and Scythian.\nThe first attempt to treat the dialects comparatively was made by Edward\nLhuyd in his _Archaeologia Britannica_ (Oxford, 1707), but the work of\nthis scholar seems to have remained unnoticed. A century later Adelung\nin Germany divided the dialects into true Celtic (= Goidelic) and Celtic\ninfluenced by Teutonic (= Brythonic). But it took scholars a long time\nto recognize that these languages belonged to the Indo-European family.\nThus they were excluded by Bopp in his comparative grammar, though he\ndid not fail to notice certain resemblances between Celtic and Sanskrit.\nJames Pritchard was the first to demonstrate the true relationship of\nthe group in his _Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations_ (London, 1831),\nbut his conclusions were not accepted. As late as 1836 Pott denied the\nIndo-European connexion. A year later Pictet resumed Pritchard's\narguments, and Bopp himself in 1838 admitted the languages into the\ncharmed circle, showing in an able paper entitled _Uber die keltischen\nSprachen_ that the initial mutations were due to the influence of\nterminations now lost. But it was reserved to a Bavarian historian, J.C.\nZeuss (1806-1856), to demonstrate conclusively the Indo-European origin\nof the Celtic dialects. Zeuss, who may worthily rank with Grimm and Diez\namong the greatest German philologists, rediscovered the Old Irish\nglosses on the continent, and on them he reared the magnificent\nstructure which goes by his name. The _Grammatica Celtica_ was first\npublished in 1853. The material contained in this monumental work was\ngreatly extended by a series of important publications by Whitley Stokes\nand Hermann Ebel, so much so that the latter was commissioned to prepare\na second edition, which appeared in 1871. Stokes has rendered the\ngreatest service to the cause of Celtic studies by the publication of\ncountless texts in Irish, Cornish and Breton. In 1870 the _Revue\nceltique_ (vol. xxviii. in 1908) was founded by Henri Gaidoz, whose\nmantle later fell upon H. d'Arbois de Jubainville. In 1879 E. Windisch\nfacilitated the study of Irish by publishing a grammar of Old Irish, and\na year later a volume of important Middle Irish texts with an exhaustive\nglossary, the first of its kind. Since then Windisch and Stokes have\ncollaborated to bring out some of the greatest monuments of Irish\nliterature in the series of _Irische Texte_. The text of the Wurzburg\nglosses was published by Zimmer (1881) and by Stokes (1887), and that of\nthe Milan glosses by Ascoli. An important step forward was the discovery\nof the laws of the Irish accent made simultaneously by Zimmer and\nThurneysen. This discovery led to a thorough investigation of the\ndifficult verb system of Old Irish--a task which has largely occupied\nthe attention of Strachan in England, Thurneysen and Zimmer in Germany,\nand Pedersen and Sarauw in Denmark. In a sense the publication of the\n_Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus_ (Cambridge, 1901-1903) may be regarded as\nmarking the close of this epoch. The older stages of Irish have hitherto\nso monopolized the energies of scholars that other departments of Celtic\nphilology save Breton have been left in large measure unworked. J.\nStrachan had begun to tap the mine of the Old Welsh poems when his\ncareer was cut short by death. J. Loth and E. Ernault have concentrated\ntheir attention on Breton, and can claim that the development of the\nspeech of Brittany has been more thoroughly investigated than that of\nany other Celtic language. The number of periodicals devoted entirely to\nCeltic studies has increased considerably of recent years. In 1896 K.\nMeyer and L. C. Stern founded the _Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_\n(now in its 7th volume), and in 1897 the _Archiv fur celtische\nLexikographie_ began to appear under the direction of K. Meyer and W.\nStokes. As a supplement to the latter Meyer has been publishing his\ninvaluable contributions to Middle Irish lexicography. In Ireland a new\nperiodical styled _Eriu_ was started by the Irish School of Learning in\n1904. The Scottish _Celtic Review_, dealing more particularly with\nScottish and Irish Gaelic, began to appear in 1903, and the\n_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_ are in the 26th\nvolume. For Wales we have _Y Cymmrodor_ since 1877, and the\n_Transactions of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion_ since 1892, and for\nBrittany the _Annales de Bretagne_, published by the Faculty of Letters\nat Rennes (founded 1886).\n\n  See V. Tourneur, _Esquisse d'une histoire des etudes celtiques_\n  (Liege, 1905).     (E. C. Q.)\n\n\nCELTIC LITERATURE\n\n  Ogam inscriptions.\n\nI. IRISH LITERATURE.--In the absence of a native coinage it is extremely\ndifficult to say when the use of letters was introduced into Ireland. It\nis probable that the Latin alphabet first came in with Christianity.\nWith the exception of the one bilingual Ogam inscription as yet\ndiscovered in Ireland (that at Killeen Cormac) all the inscriptions in\nRoman letters are certainly later than 500. Indeed, apart from the stone\nreading \"LIE LUGUAEDON MACCI MENUEH,\" they are all contemporary with or\nlater than the Old Irish glosses. With regard to the Ogam inscriptions\nwe cannot make any confident assertions. Owing to the lack of criteria\nfor dating certain Irish sound-changes accurately it is impossible to\nassign chronological limits for the earlier stones. The latter cannot be\nlater than the 5th century, but there is nothing to show whether they\nare Christian or not, and if pagan they may be a century or two earlier.\nIt is true that the heroes and druids of the older epics are represented\nin the stories as making constant use of Ogam letters on wood and stone,\nand as the state of civilization described in the oldest versions of the\nUlster sagas seems largely to go back to the beginning of the Christian\nera, it is not impossible that this peculiar system of writing had been\nframed by them. The Ogam system is certainly based on the Latin and not\nthe Greek alphabet, and was probably invented by some person from the\nsouth of Ireland who received his knowledge of the Roman letters from\ntraders from the mouth of the Loire. It may, however, be regarded as\ncertain that the Ogam script was never employed in early times for\nliterary purposes. We are told that the Gaulish druids disdained to\ncommit their lore to writing, although they were familiar with the use\nof Greek letters, and their Irish confreres probably resembled them in\nthis respect. Tradition connects the codification of the Brehon Laws\nwith the name of Patrick, and there is reason for believing, as we shall\nsee later, that the greatest Irish epic was first committed to writing\nin the 7th century.\n\n\n  Old Irish MSS.\n\n  Hymns.\n\nThe great bulk of Irish literature is contained in MSS. belonging to the\nMiddle Irish period (1100-1550), and in order to be able to treat this\nliterature as a whole it will be convenient for us to deal first with\nthose documents which are termed Old Irish, especially as the\ncontemporary remains of the literature of the earlier period are almost\nexclusively of a religious nature. Most of the Old Irish documents have\nbeen printed by Stokes and Strachan in the _Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus_,\nand where no reference is given the reader is referred to that\nmonumental work. The extraordinary outburst of intellectual activity in\nIreland from the 6th to the 9th centuries and the compositions of\nIrishmen in the Latin language, belong to the history of medieval\nEuropean literature and fall outside the scope of this article. For the\n_Confession of St Patrick_ and his \"Letter to the Subjects of Coroticus\"\nsee PATRICK. The only Irish document ascribed to the saint is the\nstrange so-called \"Hymn,\" the _faeth fiada_, more properly _foid fiada_,\n\"the cry of the deer.\" This is a rhythmical incantation which is said to\nhave rendered the saint and his companions invisible to King Loigaire\nand his druids. The Trinity and powers of nature are invoked to help him\nto resist spells of women and smiths and wizards. The hymn, which\ncontains a number of strange grammatical forms, is undoubtedly referred\nto in the Book of Armagh, and may very well go back to the 5th century.\nThe Latin hymns contained in two MSS. dating from the end of the 11th or\nbeginning of the 12th century, a Trinity College, Dublin, MS., and a MS.\nbelonging to the Franciscan monastery in Dublin, are of interest to us\nas exhibiting the influence of the native metrical system. Quantity and\nelision are ignored, and rhymes, assonances, alliterations and harmonies\nabound in true Irish fashion. The line consists of two units which\ncommonly contain either seven or eight syllables apiece. The earliest\nand best-known of these religious poems are the Hymn of Secundinus\n(Sechnall d. 447) on St Patrick, and the two hymns attributed to St\nColumba (d. 597) beginning \"_Noli pater_\" and \"_Altus prosator_,\" the\nlatter of which exhibits some of the peculiarities of the so-called\nHibernian Latin of the _Hisperica Famina_ and the _Lorica_ of Gildas.\nThe date of the Irish hymns in the _Liber Hymnorum_ ranges, according to\nStokes and Strachan, from the 7th to the 11th centuries. Ultan's hymn on\nSt Brigit beginning \"_Brigit be bithmaith_,\" which is by far the most\nartistic of the collection, was perhaps composed in the 7th century.\nDefinite metrical laws had evidently been elaborated when this poem was\nwritten. The beat is iambic, but the natural accent of the words is\nrigidly observed. The long line consists of two units of five syllables\neach. The rhymes are dissyllabic and perfect. Alliteration is always\nobserved in the latter half of each line and assonances are found\nknitting up the half-lines. The short prayer ascribed to Ninine or to\nFiacc is a highly alliterative piece without rhyme, the date of which\ncannot be fixed. The well-known hymn on St Patrick traditionally\nascribed to Fiacc, bishop of Sletty, and the piece beginning \"_Sen De_,\"\ntraditionally ascribed to Colman, are assigned on linguistic grounds to\nthe beginning of the 9th century. The lines going by the name of\n\"Sanctan's Hymn\" probably belong to the same century, whilst the\nmetrical catalogue of marvels performed by St Brigit contains such a\nmedley of older and later forms, probably due to interpolation, that it\nis impossible to determine its age. The few lines entitled \"Mael-Isu's\nHymn\" are the most recent of all and probably belong to the 11th century\n(Mael-Isu d. 1086). The Patrician documents by Muirchu Maccu Machtheni,\nwho professed to write at the command of Bishop Aed of Sletty (d. 698),\nand by Tirechan, who is said to have received his information from\nBishop Ultan (d. 656), are contained in the Book of Armagh, a MS.\ncompiled by Ferdomnach in 807. These documents, like the _Life of St\nColumba_ by Adamnan, the MS. of which was written by Dorbbene, abbot of\nHi (d. 713), contain a number of names and forms of great importance for\nthe study of the language.\n\n\n  Earliest prose.\n\nThe earliest pieces of connected prose in Irish are three:--(1) the\nCambray Homily, contained in an 8th-century codex at Cambray copied by a\ncontinental hand from a MS. in the Irish character; the language is very\narchaic and dates from the second half of the 7th or the beginning of\nthe 8th century; (2) the additions to the notes of Tirechan on the life\nof St Patrick in the Book of Armagh; these seem to go back to the early\n8th century; (3) the tract on the Mass in the Stowe Missal, which is in\nall probability nearly as old as the Cambray Homily, though contained in\na 10th or 11th century MS. Of especial interest are the spells and poems\nfound in the Stowe Missal and two continental MSS. The Stowe MS. (now\ndeposited in the Royal Irish Academy) contains three rather badly\npreserved spells for a sore eye, a thorn and disease of the urine. A St\nGall codex has preserved four Irish incantations of the 8th and 9th\ncenturies. These are respectively against a thorn, urinary disease,\nheadache and various ailments. Another charm, which is partly obscure,\noccurs in the 9th-century codex preserved at the monastery of St Paul in\nCarinthia. The same MS. also contains (1) a humorous poem treating of\nthe doings of a bookish writer and his favourite cat Pangur Ban; (2) a\nriddling poem ascribed to Suibne Geilt, a king who is said to have lost\nhis reason at the battle of Moira (A.D. 637); (3) verses extracted from\na poem ascribed to St Moling (d. 697), who may very well have been the\nactual author; (4) a poem in praise of some Leinster princeling called\nAed.\n\n\n  Old glosses.\n\nFor our knowledge of the older language, however, we have to rely mainly\non the numerous glosses scattered about in a large number of MSS., which\nit is impossible to enumerate here. Indeed, such an enumeration is now\nrendered superfluous owing to the publication of the _Thesaurus\nPalaeohibernicus_, in which all the various glosses have been collected.\nFor our purpose it will be sufficient to mention the three most\nimportant codices containing Old Irish glosses. These are as\nfollows:--(1) The Codex Paulinus at Wurzburg, which contains the\nthirteen epistles of St Paul, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, with a\ngreat mass of explanatory glosses, partly in Latin, partly in Irish,\npartly mixed. The chief source of the commentary is the commentary of\nPelagius, who is often cited by name. The date of this highly important\nMS. is much disputed; part of the Irish glosses seem to date from about\n700, whilst the rest may be placed a little before 800. (2) The Codex\nAmbrosianus, formerly at Bobbio, now at Milan, which contains a\ncommentary on the psalter with a large number of Irish glosses. In their\npresent state these glosses were copied in the first half of the 9th\ncentury. (3) Glosses on Priscian contained in four MSS., of which the\nmost important is the Codex Sangallensis, dating from the middle of the\n9th century. Apart from the biblical glosses and scholia the other chief\ntexts or authors provided with Irish glosses are Augustine, Bede, the\nCanons, the Computus, Eutychius, Juvencus, Philargyrius, Prudentius and\nServius.\n\nThe Milan and the St Gall codices just mentioned both contain several\nshort poems in Irish. In two stanzas in the Swiss MS. we find expressed\nfor the first time that keen sympathy with nature in all her moods which\nis so marked a feature of Irish and Welsh verse.\n\nTwo ponderous religious poems have now to be noticed. To Oengus the\nCuldee is attributed the lengthy _Felire_ or Calendar of Church\nFestivals, consisting of 365 quatrains in _rinnard_ metre, one for each\nday in the year. The language of this dry compilation, which is heavily\nglossed and annotated, points to 800 as the date of composition, and\nOengus, who is stated to have lived about that time, may well have been\nthe author. This calendar has been twice edited by W. Stokes with an\nEnglish translation, the first time for the Royal Irish Academy (Dublin,\n1880), and again for the Bradshaw Society (London, 1905).\n\nIt may perhaps be as well to enumerate here the later Irish\nmartyrologies. (1) The _Martyrology of Tallaght_ (Tamlacht), founded on\nan 8th-century calendar, but containing additions down to 900 (ed. D.H.\nKelly, Dublin, 1857). (2) The metrical _Martyrology of O'Gorman_, c.\n1166-1174, edited by Stokes for the Bradshaw Society (London, 1895). (3)\nThe _Martyrology of Donegal_, an important compilation in prose made by\nMichael O'Clery in 1630, edited by J.H. Todd (Dublin, 1864). A\ncomposition which is wrongly assigned to Oengus the Culdee is the\n_Saltair na Rann_ or Psalter in Quatrains, contained in an Oxford MS.\n(Rawlinson B 502) and published without a translation by Stokes (Oxford,\n1883). The work proper consists of 150 poems corresponding to the number\nof Psalms in the psalter, but 12 poems have been added, and in all it\ncontains 2098 quatrains, chiefly in _deibide_ metre of seven syllables.\nThe poems are mainly based on biblical (Old Testament) history, but they\npreserve a large measure of medieval sacred lore and cosmogony. The\npsalter received additions as late as 998, and the Oxford MS. belongs to\nthe 12th century. We should perhaps also mention here the famous _Amra_\nor Eulogy of St Columba, commonly attributed to Dallan Forgaill, a\ncontemporary of the saint, but Stokes takes the view that it was written\nin the 9th century, and is intentionally obscure. The oldest but not the\nbest copy of the _Amra_ is preserved in the Trinity College, Dublin, MS.\nof the _Liber Hymnorum_, but it also occurs in LU. and elsewhere. It\ninvariably appears heavily gloss-laden, and the glosses and commentary\nadded thereto are out of all proportion to the text. This piece, which\nis not extant in its integrity, was probably intended as artificial\nalliterative prose, but, as we have it, it is a medley of isolated\nphrases and irrelevant comment.\n\n\n  Old collectors.\n\n  Book of the Dun Cow.\n\n  Book of Leinster.\n\n  Yellow Book of Lecan.\n\n  Book of Ballymote.\n\n  Speckled Book.\n\nDuring the 9th and 10th centuries Ireland was harassed by the Vikings,\nand a host of scholars seem to have fled to the continent, carrying with\nthem their precious books, many of which are preserved in Italy,\nSwitzerland, Germany and elsewhere. Hence very few early Irish MSS. are\npreserved in Ireland itself. When the fury of the storm was past, Irish\nscholars showed increased interest in the old literary documents, and\ncopied all that they could lay hands on into miscellaneous codices. The\nearliest of these collections, such as the _Cin of Druim Snechta_, the\n_Yellow Book of Slane_, the _Book of Dubdaleithe_, the _Psalter of\nCashel_, exist no longer, though their names have come down and certain\nof them were known in the 17th century. However, copies of a goodly\nportion of the contents of these old books are preserved to us in one\nform or another, but mainly in a series of huge miscellaneous codices\nranging in date from the 12th to the 16th century. The oldest is _Lebor\nna h-uidre_, or Book of the Dun Cow, preserved in the Royal Irish\nAcademy and published in facsimile (Dublin, 1870). This MS. was compiled\nin part in the monastery of Clonmacnoise by Moelmuire MacCelechair, who\nwas slain in 1106. The Book of the Dun Cow (where necessary we shall\nabbreviate as LU.) derives its name from a legend that Ciaran of\nClonmacnoise (d. 544) took down the story of the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ on a\nparchment made from the hide of his favourite cow. The name seems to\nhave been wrongly applied to the 12th-century MS. in the 15th century.\nLU. is almost entirely devoted to romance, the stories which it contains\nbelonging mainly to the Ulster cycle. The next MS. in point of age is\nthe Book of Leinster (abbreviated LL.) now in Trinity College, Dublin.\nIt was transcribed by Finn, son of Gorman, bishop of Kildare (d. 1160).\nLL. also contains a large number of romances in addition to other\nimportant matter, mainly historical and genealogical, bearing more\nparticularly on the affairs of Leinster. The Yellow Book of Lecan\n(YBL.), also in Trinity College, Dublin, was written at different times\nby the MacFirbis family, but chiefly by Gilla Isa, son of Donnchad Mor\nMacFirbis about 1391. The MacFirbises were hereditary scribes and\ngenealogists to the O'Dowds, chiefs of the Hy Fiachrach (Co. Sligo).\nYBL. contains a vast amount of romance, and is indispensable as\nsupplementing and checking the contents of LU. and LL. The most\nextensive collection of all is the Book of Ballymote (BB.), now\nbelonging to the Royal Irish Academy, which was compiled about the\nbeginning of the 15th century by various scribes. The book was in the\npossession of the chiefs of Ballymote for more than a century. In 1522\nit was purchased by the O'Donnells for 140 milch cows. BB. only contains\nlittle romantic matter, but it has preserved much valuable historical\nand genealogical material. The contents of the _Leabhar Breac_ (LB.), or\nSpeckled Book, now in the Royal Irish Academy, are chiefly\necclesiastical and religious. LB. seems to have been compiled in large\nmeasure before 1544. All these five codices have been published in\nfacsimile by the Royal Irish Academy with a description of their\ncontents. Two important Mid. Ir. MSS. in the Bodleian (Rawlinson B 512\nand Laud 610), containing a good deal of romantic material, are also\npublished in facsimile by Henry Frowde.\n\n\n  Other MSS. material.\n\nOther MSS. which require special mention are (1) The Great Book of\nLecan, compiled in the year 1417 by Gilla Isa Mor MacFirbis, in the\nRoyal Irish Academy; (2) The Book of Lismore, the property of the duke\nof Devonshire at Lismore Castle. This codex was compiled in the latter\nhalf of the 15th century from the lost book of Monasterboice and other\nMSS. Its contents are described in the introduction to Stokes's _Lives\nof Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford, 1890). (3) The Book of\nFermoy in the Royal Irish Academy. The contents are described in the\nintroduction to O'Beirne Crowe's edition of the _Tain Bo Fraich_\n(Dublin, 1870). (4) The Book of Hy Maine recently acquired by the Royal\nIrish Academy. The scribe who wrote it died in 1372. O'Curry, O'Longan\nand O'Beirne Crowe drew up a MS. catalogue of the Irish MSS. in the\nRoyal Irish Academy, and O'Donovan performed the same service for the\nTrinity College, Dublin, collection. A briefer account of the Irish MSS.\nin TCD. will be found in Abbott's Catalogue of the MSS. in that library.\nO'Curry also drew up a list of the Irish MSS. in the British Museum, and\nS.H. O'Grady has printed part i. of a descriptive catalogue of this\ncollection (London, 1901), part ii. by T. O'Maille. The twenty-six MSS.\nin the Franciscan monastery in Dublin are described by J.T. Gilbert in\nthe _Fourth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical MSS._ W.F.\nSkene catalogued the collection of MSS. in the Advocates' Library,\nEdinburgh, a printed catalogue of which has been issued by D. Mackinnon\n(Edinburgh, 1909; see also _Trans. Gaelic Soc. of Inverness_, xvi.\n285-309).\n\nIn order to give some idea of the enormous extent of Irish MS. material\nwe may quote some calculations made by O'Curry, who states that if the\nfive oldest vellum MSS. were printed the result would be 9400 quarto\npages. Other vellum MSS. ranging in date from 1300 to 1600 would fill\n9000 pages of the same size, whilst the innumerable paper MSS. belonging\nchiefly to the early 18th century would cover no less than 30,000 pages.\nThe well-known French scholar, D'Arbois de Jubainville, published in\n1883 a tentative catalogue of Irish epic literature. His work is by no\nmeans complete, but his figures are instructive. He mentions 953 Irish\nMSS. containing epic matter preserved in Irish and English libraries. To\nthese have to be added another 56 in continental libraries. Of this mass\nof material 133 Irish and British MSS. and 35 continental MSS. were\nwritten before 1600. It should, however, be stated that the same subject\nis treated over and over again, and much of the later material is\nabsolutely valueless.\n\n\n  Character of Middle Irish.\n\nBefore we pass on to the consideration of the literature itself, it will\nbe well to make a few preliminary observations on the nature of the\nlanguage in which the pieces are written and on the status of the poet\nin medieval Ireland. The language in which the huge miscellaneous\ncodices enumerated above are contained is called by the general name of\nMiddle Irish, which is a very wide term. Irish scribes often copied\ntheir original somewhat mechanically, without being tempted to change\nthe language to that of their own time. Thus in many parts of LU. we\nfind a thin Middle Irish veneer on what is largely Old Irish of the 8th\nor 9th century. Hence such a MS. often preserves forms which had been\ncurrent several centuries before, and it may even happen that a 14th or\n15th century MS. such as YBL. contains much older forms than a\ncorresponding passage in LL. Of recent years several scholars--notably\nStrachan--have devoted much attention to the Old Irish verb-forms, so\nthat we have now safe criteria for establishing with some degree of\ncertainty the age of recensions of stories and poems preserved in late\nMSS. In this way a number of compositions have been assigned to the 9th,\n10th and 11th centuries, though actual written documents belonging to\nthis period are comparatively rare.\n\n\n  The \"fili.\"\n\nIt remains for us to say a few words about the _fili_, the professional\nliterary man in Ireland. The _fili_ (from the stem _vel-_, \"to see,\"\nWelsh, Breton, _gwelet_, \"to see\") appears to have been originally a\ndiviner and magician, and corresponds to the _vates_, [Greek: ouateis],\nof the ancient Gauls mentioned by classical writers. In Ireland he is\nrepresented as sole possessor of three methods of divination: the _imbas\nforosnai_, _teinm loida_ and _dichetal di chennaib cnaime_. The first\ntwo of these were forbidden by Patrick, but they seem to have survived\nas late as the 10th century. Part of the tremendous influence exercised\nby the _fili_ was due to the belief in his powers of satire. By reciting\na satirical poem or incantation he was able to raise blotches on the\nface of and so disfigure any person who aroused his displeasure.\nNumerous cases of this occur in Irish literature. The origin of the\nscience of the _fili_ is sometimes traced back to the _Dagda_, one of\nthe figures of the Irish pantheon, and they were held in such esteem\nthat the annalists give the obituaries of the head-ollams as if they\nwere so many princes. With the introduction of Christianity they seem to\nhave gradually superseded the druid, and their functions are therefore\nvery wide. We are told that they acted in three capacities: (i) as\nstory-tellers (_fer comgne_ or _scelaige_); (2) as judges (_brithem_),\nincluding the professions of arbiters, legislators and lawyers; (3) as\npoets proper (_fercerte_). We are here only concerned with the _fili_ in\nhis capacity of story-teller and poet. In accordance with the minute\nclassification of the various ranks of society in early Ireland, the\nsocial status of the literary man was very carefully defined. The\ndegrees vary slightly in different documents, but the following list of\nten from the _Senchus Mor_ is very instructive: (1) The highest degree\nis the _ollam_ (ollave), who knows 350 stories; (2) the _anruth_, 175\nstories; (3) the _clii_, 80 stories; (4) the _cana_, 60 stories; (5) the\n_doss_, 50 stories; (6) the _macfuirmid_, 40 stories; (7) the\n_fochlocon_, 30 stories; (8) the _drisac_, 20 stories; (9) the _taman_,\n10 stories; (10) the _oblaire_, 7 stories. In LL. we are told that the\nstories (_scel_) are divided into primary and secondary, and that the\nlatter are only obligatory on the first four of the grades enumerated.\nAgain, certain styles of composition seem to have been the monopoly of\ncertain grades. Thus the poem which was most highly rewarded and\ndemanded the highest technical skill was called the _anomain_, and was\nthe exclusive right of the _ollam_. A notable instance of this kind of\ncomposition is the _Amra_ of Columba, attributed to Dallan Forgaill. The\nhigher grades were allowed a number of attendants, whom the kings had to\nsupport along with the poet himself. Thus the _fochlocon_ had two and\nthe _doss_ four attendants. In the 6th century Dallan Forgaill, the\nchief _fili_ of Ireland, claimed the right to be attended by thirty\n_filid_, which was the number of the train allowed to the supreme king.\nThe reigning monarch, Aed MacAinmirech, weary of the pretensions of the\npoets, attempted to banish them, which led to the famous assembly of\nDruim Ceta, where Columba intervened and reduced the number to\ntwenty-four (the train of a provincial king). In the plan of the hall of\nTara, preserved in LL. and YBL., the _sui littre_ or doctor in theology\nhas the seat of honour opposite the king. The _ollam brithem_ or supreme\njudge or lawyer ranks with the highest rank of nobility, whilst the\n_ollam fili_ is on a footing with the nobleman of the second degree.\n\nWe have already stated that the stories which formed the stock-in-trade\nof the poets were divided into primary and secondary stories. Of the\nlatter there were 100, but little is known of them. However, several\nmore or less complete lists of the primary stories have come down to us.\nThe oldest catalogue (contained in LL.) gives the titles of 187 of these\ntales arranged under the following heads--destructions, cow-spoils,\ncourtships, battles, caves, navigations, violent deaths, expeditions,\nelopements and conflagrations; together with the following, which also\nreckon as prime-stories--irruptions, visions, loves, hostings and\nmigrations. Of these stories sixty-eight have been preserved in a more\nor less complete form. The tales enumerated in these catalogues, which\nin their substance doubtless go back to the 8th or even to the 7th\ncentury, fall into four main categories: (1) the mythological cycle, (2)\nthe Cuchulinn cycle, (3) the Finn cycle, (4) pieces relating to events\nof the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries. Meyer has estimated that of the 550\ntitles of epic tales in D'Arbois's _Catalogue_ about 400 are known to\nus, though many of them only occur in a very fragmentary state; and\nabout 100 others have since been discovered which were not known in\n1883.\n\nThe course of training undergone by the _fili_ was a very lengthy one.\nIt is commonly stated to have extended over twelve years, at the end of\nwhich time the student was thoroughly versed in all the legendary,\nlegal, historical and topographical lore of his native country, in the\nuse of the innumerable and excessively complicated Irish metres, in Ogam\nwriting and Irish grammar. The instruction in the schools of poetry\nseems to have been entirely oral, and the course consisted largely in\nlearning by heart the verses in which the native lore was enshrined.\nThese schools of learning existed in one form or another down to the\n17th century. In the early days the _fili_ is represented as employing a\nmysterious archaic form of speech--doubtless full of obscure\nkennings--which was only intelligible to the initiated. An instance of\nthis _berla feine_, as it was termed, is the piece entitled _Acallam an\nDa Shuad_ (Colloquy of the Two Sages, _Rev. celt._ xxvi. 4 ff.). In this\npiece two _filid_ of the 1st century A.D. are represented as contending\nin this dialect for the office of chief _ollam_ of Ireland, much to the\nchagrin of King Conchobar, to whom their speeches were unintelligible.\nIt was in consequence of this that Conchobar ruled that the office of\n_fili_ should no longer carry with it of necessity the office of judge\n(_brithem_). It ought to be observed that the church never showed itself\nhostile to the _filid_, as it did to the druids. Dubthach, chief _fili_\nof Ireland in the time of St Patrick, is represented as the saint's\nconstant companion, and the famous Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056), though a\nlayman and _fili_, was head of the monastery school at Monasterboice.\n\n\n  The bard.\n\nBefore leaving the subject of the literary classes, we must notice an\ninferior grade of poet--the bard. Like the official _filid_, the bards\nwere divided into grades. There were both patrician and plebeian bards,\neach subdivided into eight degrees, having their own peculiar metres.\nLike the _fili_ the bard had to go through a long course of study, and\nhe was generally attached to the house of some chieftain whose praises\nhe had to sing. In course of time the office of _fili_ became extinct,\nowing to a variety of causes, and from the 13th to the 16th century we\nfind the hitherto despised family bard stepping into the place of the\nmost influential literary man in Ireland. His importance was fully\nrealized by the English government, which did its best to suppress the\norder.\n\n\n  Medieval romances.\n\nThe medieval romances form by far the most attractive part of Irish\nliterature, and it is to them that we shall first turn our attention.\nTwo main groups of stories have to be distinguished. The one is the\nUlster cycle, with Conchobar and Cuchulinn as central figures. The other\nis the Southern or Leinster-Munster cycle, revolving round Finn and\nOssian. Further stories dealing with mythological and historical\npersonages will be mentioned in their turn.\n\n\n  Ulster cycle.\n\n  The \"Tain.\"\n\nThe Ulster cycle may be regarded as Ireland's most important\ncontribution to the world's literature. The chief and at the same time\nthe lengthiest romance in which the heroes of this group figure is the\ngreat epic, the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ or the Cattle-raid of Cooley (Co.\nLouth). Here we find ourselves in a world of barbaric splendour, and we\nare constantly reminded of the Iliad, though the Irish epic from a\npurely literary point of view cannot bear comparison with the work of\nHomer. The main actors in the drama are Conchobar, king of Ulster, the\ngreat warrior Cuchulinn (see CUCHULINN), Ailill and Medb, king and queen\nof Connaught, and Fergus, Conchobar's predecessor as king of Ulster, now\nin exile in Connaught. These persons may or may not have actually lived,\nbut the Irish annalists and synchronists agree in placing them about the\nbeginning of the Christian era. And there cannot be any doubt as to the\nantiquity of the state of civilization disclosed in this great saga. It\nhas been repeatedly pointed out that the Irish heroes are equipped and\nconduct themselves in the same manner as the Gauls described by the\nGreek traveller Posidonius, and Prof. W. Ridgeway has shown recently\nthat several articles of dress and armour correspond exactly to the La\nTene types of the continent. To mention a few primitive traits among\nmany--the Irish champions of the _Tain_ still fight in chariots,\nwar-dogs are employed, whilst the heads of the slain are carried off in\ntriumph and slung round the necks of the horses. It may also be\nmentioned that Emain Macha, Conchobar's residence, is reported by the\nannalists to have been destroyed in A.D. 323, and that portions of\nMeath, which is stated to have been made into a separate province in the\n2nd century A.D., are in the _Tain_ regarded as forming part of Ulster.\nNoteworthy is the exalted position occupied by the druid in the Ulster\nsagas, showing how little the romances were influenced by Christianity.\nNo Roman soldier ever set foot in Ireland, and this early epic\nliterature is of supreme value as a monument of primitive Celtic\ncivilization. Ireland has always been a pastoral country. In early times\nno native coins were in circulation: the land belonged to the tribe.\nConsequently a man's property consisted mainly of cattle. Cattle-raids\nwere an event of daily occurrence, and Sir Walter Scott has made us\nfamiliar with similar expeditions on the part of the Scottish\nHighlanders in the 18th century. Hence it is not a matter for surprise\nthat the theme of the greatest Irish epic is a cattle-raid. At the time\nthere were two wonderful bulls in Ireland, the Bond or Brown Bull of\nCualnge, and the Findbennach or White-horn, belonging to Medb. These two\nanimals are of no ordinary nature. Other stories represent them as\nhaving existed under many different forms before they were reborn as\nbulls. First they appear as swineherds belonging to the supernatural\npeople of the _sid_ of fairy mounds; then they are metamorphosed\nsuccessively as ravens, warriors, sea-monsters and insects. It was Queen\nMedb's ambition to gain possession of the Brown Bull of Cualnge, and for\nthis purpose she collected the united hosts of Ireland to raid the\nprovince of Ulster and carry him off. Medb chooses the season when she\nknows the Ulstermen are all incapacitated as the result of a curse laid\nupon them by a fairy woman. Cuchulinn alone is exempt from this\ndebility.\n\nThe story is divided into a number of sections, and has been summarized\nby Miss Hull as follows:--(1) the prologue, relating, in the form of a\nnight dialogue between Ailill and Medb, the dispute between them which\nbrought about the raid; (2) the collecting of Medb's hosts and the\npreliminary movements of the army, during which period she first became\naware of the presence and powers of Cuchulinn. Her inquiry of Fergus as\nto who this formidable foe is leads to a long section called (3)\nCuchulinn's boy-deeds, in which Fergus relates the remarkable prodigies\nof Cuchulinn's youth, and warns Medb that, though the hero is but a\nbeardless youth of seventeen, he will be more than a match for all her\nforces. (4) A long series of single combats, of which the first part of\nthe tale is made up; they are at first gay and bombastic in character,\nbut become more grave as they proceed, and culminate in the combat of\nCuchulinn with his old companion, Fer Diad. This section contains the\naccount of Cuchulinn's \"distortion\" or frenzy, which always occurred\nbefore any great output of the hero's energy, and of the rout of the\nhosts of Medb which followed it. (5) The general awakening of the\nwarriors of Ulster from their lethargy, and their gathering by septs\nupon the Hill of Slane, clan by clan being described as it comes up in\norder. (6) The final Battle of Gairech and Ilgairech, followed (7) by\nthe rout of Medb's army and (8) the tragic death of the bulls.\n\nThe text of the _Tain_ has come down to us as a whole or in part in\nnearly a score of MSS., most of which, however, are modern. The most\nimportant MSS. containing the story are LU., LL. and YBL. Of these LU.\nand YBL. are substantially the same, whilst LL. contains a longer and\nfuller text later in both style and language. LL. attempts to give a\ncomplete and consistent narrative in more polished form. In ancient\ntimes there were doubtless other versions now lost, but from the middle\nof the 12th century the scribes seem to have taken few liberties with\nthe text, whilst previously the _filid_ were constantly transforming the\nmaterial and adding fresh matter. The YBL. version preserves a number of\nforms as old as the O. Ir. glosses (i.e. 8th century or earlier), and a\ncurious story contained in LL. seems to point to the fact that the\n_Tain_ was first committed to writing in the 7th century. Senchan\nTorpeist, who lived in the first half of the 7th century and succeeded\nDallan Forgaill as chief _ollam_ of Ireland, summoned the _filid_ to\ninquire which of them knew the _Tain_ in its entirety. As they were only\nfamiliar with fragments he despatched them to discover it. One of them\nseated himself at the grave of Fergus MacRoig, who appeared to him in a\nmist and dictated the whole story to him in three days and three nights.\n\nAt this point it will be well to say a few words about the form of the\n_Tain_. The old Irish epic is invariably in prose with poems of varying\nlength interspersed. The narrative and descriptive portions are in prose\nand are frequently followed by a brief epitome in verse. Dialogues,\neulogies and laments also appear in metrical form. The oldest poems,\ntermed rhetoric, which are best represented in LU., seem to be\ndeclamatory passages in rhythmical prose, not unlike the poetical\npassages in the Old Testament, and the original _Tain_ may have\nconsisted of such rhetorics bound together with short connecting pieces\nof prose. At a later date poems were inserted in the metres of the\n_filid_ (particularly the quatrain of four heptasyllabic lines) which\nThurneysen and Windisch consider to have been developed out of medieval\nLatin verse. When in course of time the old rhetorics became\nunintelligible they were often omitted altogether or new poems\nsubstituted. Thus the LL. version contains a larger number of poems than\nthe LU.-YBL. copy, whilst LU. preserves a number of rhetorics which do\nnot appear in the later MS. The prose portions in LU. are very poor from\na literary point of view. These passages are abrupt, condensed and\nfrequently obscure, with no striving after literary effect such as we\nfind in LL. The form in which many episodes are cast is not unlike a\nmnemonic, leaving the story-teller to fill in the details himself. In\nthe 11th century certain portions of the theme possessing great human\ninterest were vastly extended, new poems were added, and in this manner\nsuch episodes come to form sagas complete in themselves. The most\nnotable instance of this is the \"Fight with Fer Diad,\" which is not\ncontained in LU. The genesis of the _Tain_ may thus be briefly\nsummarized as follows. The story was first committed to writing in the\n7th or 8th century, after which it was worked up by the _filid_.\nExtended versions existing in the 10th or 11th century form the basis of\nthe copies we now possess.\n\nThough the sagas of the Ulster cycle are eminently Irish and pagan in\ncharacter and origin, it cannot be denied that traces of foreign\ninfluence are to be observed. A number of Latin and Norse loan-words\noccur in them, and there can be little doubt that the monkish scribes\nconsciously thrust the supernatural element into the background.\nHowever, although figures of Vikings are unmistakable in a few cases,\nand in one story Cuchulinn is made to fight with Hercules, such foreign\nelements can easily be detected in the older tales. They only affect\nminor details, and do not influence the body of the romances.\n\nFrom what we have already said it will be plain that the Irish epic is\nin a fluid state. The _Tain_ is of interest in the history of literature\nas representing the preliminary stage through which the great verse\nepics of other nations have had to pass, but its value as a work of art\nis limited by its form. We must now say a few words about the character\nand style of these romances. As already stated, the atmosphere is\nfrankly pagan and barbaric, with none of that courtly element which we\nfind in the Arthurian epics. The two features which strike one most\nforcibly in the medieval Irish romances are dramatic force and humour.\nThe unexpected and weird is always happening, the effect of which is\nconsiderably heightened by the grim nature of the actors. In particular\nthe dialogues are remarkably brilliant and clever, and it is a matter\nfor surprise that this gifted race never developed a drama of its own.\nThis is doubtless partly due to the political conditions of the island.\nAnd, moreover, we are constantly struck by the lack of sustained effort\nwhich prevented the _filid_ from producing great epics in verse.\nDramatic material is abundantly present in the old epics, but it has\nnever been utilized. As one might expect from the vernacular literature\nof Ireland, these romances are pervaded by a keen sense of humour. We\nfeel that the story-teller is continually expecting a laugh and he\nexaggerates in true Irish fashion, so that the stories are full of\nextravagantly grotesque passages. In the later LL. version we notice a\ntendency to linger over pathetic situations, but this is unknown in the\nearlier stage. Perhaps the most serious defect of all Irish literary\nproducts is the lack of any sense of proportion, which naturally goes\nhand in hand with the love of the grotesque. Far too much attention is\npaid to trivial incidents and minute descriptions, however valuable the\nlatter may be to the antiquarian, to the detriment of the artistic\neffect. Further, the story-teller does not know when to stop. He goes\nmeandering on long after the main portion of the story is finished, with\nthe result that Irish romances are apt to end in a most uninteresting\nanticlimax. Finally we are wearied with a constant repetition of the\nsame epithets and similes, and with turgid descriptions; even the\ngrotesque exaggerations pall when we find them to be stereotyped. But\nthe early epics do not offend our sense of propriety in expression to\nthe same extent as the later Finn cycle.\n\nThe _Tain Bo Cualnge_ formed a kind of nucleus round which a number of\nother tales clustered. A number of these are called _remscela_ or\nintroductory stories to the _Tain_. Such are the \"Revealing of the Tain\"\n(already mentioned), the \"Debility of the Ultonians\" (giving the story\nof the curse), \"The Cattle-Driving of Regamon, Dartaid and Flidais,\"\n\"_Tain bo Regamna_,\" \"The Cattle-Driving of Fraech,\" \"The Dispute of the\nSwineherds,\" telling the previous history of the Bulls, \"The Capture of\nthe Fairy Mound,\" \"The Dream of Mac oc,\" the \"Adventures of Nera,\" the\n\"Wooing of Ferb.\" Other stories form a kind of continuation of the\n_Tain_. Thus the \"Battle of Rosnaree\" (\"_Cath Ruis na Rig_\") relates how\nConchobar, as a result of the loss of the Bull, sends an army against\nthe kings of Leinster and Tara, and would have been routed but for the\nprowess of Cuchulinn. The \"Great Rout of the Plain of Murthemne\" and\n\"Cuchulinn's Death\" tell how the hero's downfall is compassed by a\nmonstrous brood of ill-shapen beings whose father and brothers had been\nslain by him during the _Tain_. He finally meets with his end at the\nhands of Lugaid, son of Curoi mac Daire (the central hero of a Munster\ncycle which has not come down to us), and Erc, king of Tara. We are also\ntold of the terrible vengeance taken on the murderers by Conall Cernach.\nOther stories deal with the \"Conception of Conchobar,\" the \"Conception\nof Cuchulinn,\" \"The Glories of Conchobar's Reign,\" with an account of\nhow he acquired the Throne from Fergus, \"The Wooing of Emer and the\nHero's Education in Scotland under Scathach,\" \"The Siege of Howth,\"\n\"Bricriu's Feast and the Exile of the Sons of Doel Dermait,\" \"The Battle\nof the Boyne\" (_Eriu_, vol. ii.), \"The Deaths of Ailill, Medb and Conall\nCernach,\" \"Destruction of Bruden Da Choca,\" \"The Tragical Death of\nConlaech at the hands of Cuchulinn his father,\" \"The Deaths of Goll and\nGarbh,\" \"The Sickbed of Cuchulinn,\" in which the hero is lured away for\na time into the invisible land by a fairy, Fand, wife of Manandan, \"The\nIntoxication of the Ultonians,\" telling of a wild raid by night across\nthe entire extent of the island from Dun-da-Benn near Coleraine to the\nfort of Curoi MacDaire at Temair-Luachra in Kerry, \"The Death of\nConchobar,\" \"The Phantom Chariot of Cuchulinn,\" in which the hero is\nbrought up from the grave to witness before St Patrick and King Loigaire\nto the truth of the Christian doctrine.\n\nFour other stories in connexion with the Ulster cycle remain to be\nmentioned. The first is \"_Scel mucci Maic Datho_\" (\"The Story of\nMacDatho's Pig\"). Various writers of antiquity inform us that at the\nfeasts of the Gauls the champion received the best portion of meat,\nwhich frequently led to brawls. In this savage but picturesque Irish\nstory we find the Ulstermen vaunting their achievements against the\nConnaughtmen, until at last the contest lies between Conall Cernach and\nCet MacMagach. Nowhere, perhaps, is the dramatic element better brought\nout.\n\nApart from the _Tain_ the greatest and at the same time the longest saga\nin which Cuchulinn figures is _Fled Bricrend_ (Bricriu's Feast). Bricriu\nis the mischief-maker among the Ulstermen, and he conceives the idea of\nbuilding a banqueting hall in order to invite Conchobar and his nobles\nto a feast. After much hesitation they consent. Bricriu in turn incites\nthe three chief heroes, Cuchulinn, Conall Cernach and Loigaire Buadach,\nto claim the champion's portion. He does the same thing with the spouses\nof the three warriors, who declaim in obscure verse the achievements and\nexcellences of their several husbands in a passage entitled the \"Women's\nWar of Words.\" Loosely attached to this story follows a wild series of\nadventures in which the powers of the three champions are tested,\nCuchulinn always proving his superiority. In order to decide the\ndispute, visits are paid to Medb at Rath Cruachan and to Curoi in Kerry,\nand the story ends with the \"beheading incident,\" which occurs in the\nromance of \"Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight.\" _Fled Bricrend_ presents\na number of textual difficulties. The text of the oldest MS. (LU.) shows\nsigns of contamination, and several versions of the story seem to have\nbeen current.\n\nBut the story of the Ulster cycle which is better known than any other,\nis the story of the \"Tragical Death of the Sons of Usnech, or the Life\nand Death of Deirdre,\" one of the \"Three Sorrows of Story-telling.\" This\nis the only tale of the group which has survived in the minds of the\ncommon people down to the present day. It is foretold of Deirdre, a\ngirl-child of great beauty, that she will be the cause of great\nmisfortunes, but Conchobar, having lost his wife, determines to have her\nbrought up in solitude and marry her himself. However, the maiden\nchances to see a noble youth named Naisi, one of the three sons of\nUsnech, and persuades him to carry her off to Scotland, where they live\nfor many years. At length they are induced to return after several of\nthe most prominent Ulster warriors have gone bail for their safety. But\nConchobar resorts to treachery, and the three sons of Usnech are slain,\nwhilst the account of Deirdre's end varies. The oldest version of the\nstory is found in LL., and the characters are as rugged and\nunsophisticated as those of the _Tain_. But in the later versions the\nsavage features are toned down.\n\nBefore passing on, we must mention several old stories which are\nindependent of the Ulster cycle, but which deal with events which are\nrepresented as having taken place before the Christian era. Few of the\nold romances deal directly with what we may call Irish mythology. The\n\"Battle of Moytura\" tells of the tremendous struggle between the Tuatha\nDe Danann and their enemies, the Fomorian pirates. Connected with the\nevents of this saga is the story of the \"Tragic Deaths of the Sons of\nTuirenn,\" which, though mentioned in Cormac's glossary, is not found in\nany MS. older than the 18th century. The three sons of Tuirenn have\nslain Cian, father of Lug Lamfhada, who lays upon them a huge eric-fine.\nThey go through terrific ordeals and accomplish their task, but return\nhome to die. This is the second of the \"Three Sorrows of Story-telling.\"\nAn old story dealing with Tuatha De Danann personages, but having a\ncertain bearing on the Cuchulinn cycle, is the \"Courtship of Etain,\"\nwho, though of supernatural (_sid_) birth, is wedded to Eochaid Airem, a\nmortal king. In her previous existence she was the wife of the\nsupernatural personage Midir of Bri-leith, who wins back Etain from her\nmortal husband in a game of chess and carries her off to his fairy\nmound.\n\nFor sake of completeness we may add the titles of two other well-known\nstories here. The one is the \"Story of Baile the Sweet-spoken,\" which\ntells of the deaths of two lovers for grief at the false tidings of each\nother's death. The other is the \"Fate of the Children of Lir,\" the third\nof the \"Three Sorrows of Story-telling,\" which is only known in a modern\ndress. It relates how the four daughters of Lir (father of the sea-god\nManandan and the original of Shakespeare's Lear) were changed into swans\nby a cruel stepmother, and how, after 900 years of wandering on the\nocean, they at length regain their human form through the\ninstrumentality of St Mochaomhog.\n\nA large number of sagas, which claim to be founded on historical events,\npresent a great similarity to the tales of the Ulster cycle. Most of\nthem are mentioned in the old catalogues. We can only name the more\nimportant here. The \"Destruction of Dind-Rig and Exile of Labraid\nLoingsech\" relates how the kingdom of Leinster was snatched by one\nbrother from another in the 6th century B.C., and how the son of the\nmurdered prince with the aid of a British force sacked Dind-Rig, the\nfortress of the usurper. The story of the visit of the pigmies to the\ncourt of Fergus MacLeite, king of Ulster in the 2nd century B.C., is\nonly contained in a 15th-century MS. This tale is commonly stated to\nhave given Swift the idea of his _Gulliver's Travels to Lilliput_.\n\"_Caithreim Chonghail Claringnigh_,\" which only occurs in a modernized\n17th-century version, deals with a revolution in the province of Ulster,\nsupposed to have taken place before the Christian era.\n\nThe most important Old Irish saga after the _Tain_ is beyond doubt the\n_Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel_, contained in LU. It deals with\nevents in the reign of the High-King Conaire Mor, who is said by the\nannalists to have been slain in 43 B.C. after a reign of seventy years.\nConaire, who was a descendant of the Etain mentioned above, was a just\nruler, and had banished among other lawless persons his own five foster\nbrothers. These latter devoted themselves to piracy and made common\ncause with one Ingcel, a son of the king of Britain, who had been\noutlawed by his father. The high-king was returning from Co. Clare when\nhe found the whole of Meath in flames. He turned aside into Leinster and\nmade for Da Derga's hostel. The pirates perceive this, and Ingcel is\nsent to spy out the hostel and discover the size of Conaire's force.\nThis gives the story-teller a chance for one of those lengthy minute\ndescriptions of persons in which his soul delighted. This catalogue\noccupies one-half of the whole story. The pirates make their attack, and\nthe king and most of his followers are butchered.\n\nWe can do no more than enumerate the titles of other historical tales:\nThe \"Destruction of the Hostel of MacDareo,\" describing the insurrection\nof the Aithech-Tuatha (1st century A.D.), \"The Expulsion of the Deisi\"\nand the \"Battle of Mag Lemna\" (2nd century A.D.), \"Battle of Mag\nMucrime\" (A.D. 195 or A.D. 218), \"Siege of Drom Damgaire\" (3rd century),\n\"Adventures of the Sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, father of Niall\nNoigiallach\" (4th century), \"Death of Crimthann\" (reigned 366-378),\n\"Death of Dathi\" (d. 428), \"Death of Murchertach, son of Erc,\" and\n\"Death of Diarmait, son of Cerball\" (6th century) \"Wooing of Becfola,\nwho became the wife of Diarmait, son of Aed Slane\" (reigned 657-664),\n\"Battle of Mag Rath\" (637), \"Battle of Carn Conaill\" (c. 648), \"Death of\nMaelfothartaig MacRonain\" (7th century), who was a kind of Irish\nHippolytus, \"Battle of Allen\" (722).\n\nIt will be well to deal here with another class of story in its various\nstages of development. We have seen that in the older romances there is\na close connexion between mortals and supernatural beings. The latter\nare represented as either inhabiting the _sid_ mounds or as dwelling in\nislands out in the ocean, which are pictured as abodes of bliss and\nvariously called _Mag Mell_ (Plain of Delight), _Tir na n-Oc_ (Land of\nYouth) and _Tir Tairngiri_ (Land of Promise). The visits of mortals to\nthe Irish Elysium form the subject of three romances which we must now\nexamine. The whole question has been exhaustively dealt with by Kuno\nMeyer and Alfred Nutt in the _Voyage of Bran_ (London, 1895-1897).\nCondla Caem, son of Conn Cetchathach, was one day seated by his father\non the hill of Usnech, when he saw a lady in strange attire approaching\ninvisible to all but himself. She describes herself, as coming from the\n\"land of the living,\" a place of eternal delight, and invites the prince\nto return with her. Conn invokes the assistance of his druid to drive\naway the strange visitor, who in parting throws an apple to Condla. The\nyoung man partakes of no food save his apple, which does not diminish,\nand he is consumed with longing. At the end of a month the fairy-maiden\nagain makes her appearance. Condla can hold out no longer. He jumps into\nthe damsel's skiff of glass. They sail away and were seen no more. This\nis the _Imram_ or Adventure of Condla Caem, the oldest text of which is\nfound in LU. A similar story is entitled _Imram Brain maic Febail_,\ncontained in YBL. and Rawlinson B 512 (the end also occurs in LU.), only\nwith this difference that Bran, with twenty-seven companions, puts to\nsea to discover _tir na mban_ (the land of maidens). After spending some\ntime there, one of his comrades is seized with home-sickness. They\nreturn, and the home-sick man, on being set ashore, immediately turns to\ndust. A later story preserved in BB., YBL. and the Book of Fermoy, tells\nof the visit of Cormac, grandson of Conn Cetchathach, to Tir Tairngiri.\nThese themes are also worked into tales belonging to the Ossianic cycle,\nand Finn and Ossian in later times become the typical warriors who\nachieve the quest of the Land of Youth. The romances we have just\nmentioned are almost entirely pagan in character, but a kindred class of\nstory shows us how the old ideas were transformed under the influence of\nChristianity. A typical instance is _Imram curaig Maelduin_, contained\nin YBL. and in part in LU. Maelduin constructs a boat and sets out on a\nvoyage with a large company to discover the murderer of his father. This\nforms the framework of the story. Numerous islands in the ocean are\nvisited, each containing some great marvel. _Imram ua Corra_ (Book of\nFermoy) and _Imram Snedgusa ocus Mac Riagla_ (YBL.) contain the same\nplan, but in this case the voyage is undertaken as an expiation for\ncrime. In the 11th century an unknown monkish writer compiled the\n_Navigatio S. Brendani_, drawing the material for his episodes from\n_Imram curaig Maelduin._ This famous work only appears in an Irish dress\nin a confused and disconnected \"Life of St Brendan\" in the Book of\nLismore. The same MS. contains yet another voyage, the \"Adventure of\nTadg MacCein.\"\n\n\n  Fenian or Ossianic cycle.\n\nWe must now turn our attention to the later heroic cycle, commonly\ncalled the Fenian or Ossianic. Unfortunately the origin of the stories\nand poems connected with Finn and his warriors is obscure, and scholars\nare by no means agreed over the question (see FINN MAC COOL). In the\nearlier cycle the figures and the age in which they live are sharply\ndrawn, and we can have no hesitation in assuming that the _Tain_\nrepresents in the main the state of Ireland at the beginning of the\nChristian era. Finn and his companions are nebulous personages, and,\nalthough it is difficult to discover the actual starting-point of the\nlegend, from the 12th century onwards we are able to trace the\ndevelopment of the saga with some degree of certainty. A remarkably\nsmall amount of space is devoted to this cycle in the oldest MSS. Of the\n134 pages contained in LU. only half-a-dozen deal with Finn as against\n58 with Cuchulinn. In LL. the figures are, Ulster cycle 100 pp.,\nOssianic 25 pp., the latter being mainly made up of short ballads,\nwhilst in 15th-century MSS., such as the Book of Lismore and Laud 610,\nthe proportion is overwhelmingly in favour of the later group. Again in\nUrard MacCoisi's list of tales, which seems to go back to the 10th\ncentury, only two appear to deal with subjects taken from the Ossianic\ncycle. In the first instance Finn seems to have been a poet, and as such\nhe appears in the 12th-century MSS., LU. and LL. Thus the subjects of\nthe Ossianic cycle in the earliest MSS. appear in a new dress. The\nvehicle of the older epic is prose, but the later cycle is clothed in\nballad form. Of these ballads about a dozen, apart from poems in the\n_Dindsenchus_ are preserved in LU., LL. and YBL., and none of these\npoems are probably much older than the 11th century. In the commentary\nto the _Amra_ of Columbkille a beautiful poem on winter is attributed to\nFinn. At the same time we do find a few prose tales, e.g. \"_Fotha catha_\n_Cnucha_\" in LU., describing the death of Cumall, Finn's father, and in\nLL. and Rawlinson B 502, part of which Zimmer assigns to the 7th\ncentury, we have the first story in which Finn actually occurs. But it\nis remarkable that in no case do tales belonging to the Finn cycle\ncontain any of the old rhetorics which occur in the oldest of the Ulster\nromances. Already in LL., by the side of Finn, Ossian, Cailte and Fergus\nFinnbel are represented as poets, and the strain of lament over the\nglories of the past, so characteristic a feature of the later\ndevelopments of the legend, is already sounded. Hence by the 12th\ncentury the stories of the Fiann and their destruction at the battle of\nGabra must have been fully developed, and from this time onward they\nappear gradually to have supplanted the Cuchulinn cycle in popular\nfavour. Several reasons have been assigned for this. In the first place\nuntil the time of Brian Boroime the high-kings of Ireland had almost\nwithout exception been drawn from Ulster, and consequently the northern\ntraditions were pre-eminent. This exclusiveness on the part of the north\nwas largely broken down by the Viking invasions, and during the 11th\ncentury the leading poets were attached to the court of Brian and his\ndescendants. In this manner an opportunity was afforded to the\nLeinster-Munster Fenian cycle to develop into a national saga. John\nMacNeill has pointed out Finn's connexion with a Firbolg tribe, and\nmaintains that the Fenian cycle was the property of the subject race.\nZimmer has attempted to prove with great plausibility that Finn and his\nwarriors were transformed on the model of the Ulster heroes. Thus one\ntext deals with the boyish exploits of Finn in the manner of Cuchulinn's\nyouthful feats recorded in the _Tain_. And it is possible that the\n_Siaburcharpat Conchulainn_ gave rise to the idea of connecting Ossian\nand Cailte with Patrick. As Cuchulinn was opposed to the whole of\nIreland in the _Tain_, so Finn, representing Ireland, is pitted against\nthe whole world in the _Battle of Ventry_.\n\nWe have already stated that the form assumed by the stories connected\nwith Finn in the earliest MSS. is that of the ballad, and this continued\ndown to the 18th century. But here again the Irish poets showed\nthemselves incapable of rising from the ballad to the true epic in\nverse, and in the 14th century we find the prose narrative of the older\ncycle interspersed with verse again appearing. The oldest composition of\nany length which deals with the Ossianic legends is the _Acallam na\nSenorach_ or Colloquy of the Old Men, which is mainly preserved in three\n15th-century MSS., the Book of Lismore, Laud 610 and Rawlinson 487. In\nthis text we have the framework common to so much of the later Ossianic\nliterature. Ossian and Cailte are represented as surviving the battle of\nGabra and as living on until the time of Patrick. The two warriors get\non the best of terms with the saint, and Cailte is his constant\ncompanion on his journey through Ireland. Patrick inquires the\nsignificance of the names of the places they visit, and Cailte recounts\nhis reminiscences. In this manner we are given nearly a hundred stories,\nthe subjects of some of which occur in the short ballads in older MSS.,\nwhilst others appear later as independent tales. A careful comparison of\nthe _Acallam_ with the Cuchulinn stories, whether from the point of view\nof civilization or language or art, discloses that the first lengthy\ncomposition of the Ossianic cycle is but a feeble imitation of the older\ngroup. All that had become unintelligible in the Ulster stories, owing\nto their primitive character, is omitted, and in return for that the\nreminiscences of the Viking age play a very prominent part.\n\nWith the 16th century we reach the later treatment of the legend in the\n_Battle of Ventry_. In this tedious story Daire, the king of the whole\nworld, comes to invade Ireland with all his forces, but is repulsed by\nFinn and his heroes. The _Battle of Ventry_, like all later stories, is\na regular medley of incidents taken from the writers of antiquity and\nEuropean medieval romance. The inflated style to which the Irishman is\nso prone is here seen at its worst, and we are treated to a nauseous\nheaping up of epithet upon epithet, e.g. we sometimes find as many as\ntwenty-seven adjectives accompanying a substantive running in\nalliterating sets of three.\n\nOf greater literary interest are the later ballads connected with Finn\nand Ossian. The latter has become the typical mouthpiece of the departed\nglory of the Fenian warriors, and Nutt has pointed out that there is a\nstriking difference in spirit between the _Acallam na Senorach_ and the\n15th-16th century poems. In the latter Ossian is represented as a\n\"pagan, defiant and reckless, full of contempt and scorn for the howling\nclerics and their churlish low-bred deity,\" whilst Patrick is a sour and\nstupid fanatic, harping with wearisome monotony on the damnation of Finn\nand all his comrades. The earliest collection of these later Ossianic\npoems is that made in Scotland by James Macgregor, dean of Lismore,\nearly in the 16th century. Another miscellany is the _Duanaire Finn_, a\nMS. in the Franciscan monastery in Dublin, compiled from earlier MSS. in\n1627. This \"song-book,\" which has been edited for the Irish Texts\nSociety by John MacNeill (part i. 1908), contains no less than\nsixty-nine Ossianic ballads, amounting in all to some ten thousand\nlines. Other Ossianic poems of dates varying from the 15th to the 18th\ncentury have been published in the _Transactions of the Ossianic\nSociety_ (Dublin, 1854-1861), including amongst others \"The Battle of\nGabhra,\" \"Lamentation of Oisin (Ossian) after the Fenians,\" \"Dialogue\nbetween Oisin and Patrick,\" \"The Battle of Cnoc an Air,\" and \"The Chase\nof Sliabh Guilleann.\" These ballads still survive amongst the peasants\nat the present day. We further possess a number of prose romances, which\nin their present form date from the 16th to the 18th century; e.g. _The\nPursuit of Diarmaid and Grainne_, _Finn and Grainne_, _Death of Finn_,\n_The Clown in the Drab Coat_, _Pursuit of the Gilla Decair_, _The\nEnchanted Fort of the Quicken-tree_, _The Enchanted Cave of Ceis\nCorann_, _The Feast in the House of Conan_.\n\n  At the present moment it is impossible to give a complete survey of\n  the other branches of medieval Irish literature. The attention of\n  scholars has been largely devoted to the publication of the sagas to\n  the neglect of other portions of the wide field. An excellent survey\n  of the subject is given by K. Meyer, _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i.\n  xi. 1. pp. 78-95 (Berlin-Leipzig, 1909).\n\n\n  Nature poetry.\n\nWe have already pointed out that as early as the Old Irish period\nnameless Irish poets were singing the praises of nature in a strain\nwhich sounds to our ears peculiarly modern. At the present time it is\ndifficult to say how much of what is really poetic in Irish literature\nhas come down to us. Our MSS. preserve whole reams of the learned\nproductions of the _filid_ which were so much prized in medieval\nIreland, but it is, generally speaking, quite an accident if any of the\ndelightful little lyrics entered in the margins or on blank spaces in\nthe MSS. have remained. The prose romances sometimes contain beautiful\nsnatches of verse, such as the descriptions of Mag Mell in _Serglige\nConculaind_, _Tochmarc Etaine_, and the _Voyage of Bran_ or the _Lament\nof Cuchulinn over Fer Diad_. Mention has also been made of the exquisite\nnature poems ascribed to Finn, which have been collected into a pamphlet\nwith English renderings by Kuno Meyer (under the title of \"Four Old\nIrish Songs of Summer and Winter,\" London, 1903). The same writer points\nout that the ancient treatise on Irish prosody published by Thurneysen\ncontains no less than 340 quotations from poems, very few of which have\nbeen preserved in their entirety. To Meyer we also owe editions of two\ncharming little texts which sufficiently illustrate the lyrical powers\nof the early poets. The one is a poem referred to the 10th century in\nthe form of a colloquy between Guaire of Aidne and his brother Marban.\nGuaire inquires of his brother why he prefers to live in a hut in the\nforest, keeping the herds and swine of the king, to dwelling in the\nking's palace. The question calls forth so wonderful a description of\nthe delights of nature as viewed from a shieling that Guaire exclaims,\n\"I would give my glorious kingship to be in thy company, Marban\" (_King\nand Hermit_, ed. with trans. by K. Meyer, London, 1901). Another text\nfull of passionate emotion and tender regret ascribed to the 9th century\ntells of the parting of a young poet and poetess, who after plighting\ntheir troth are separated for ever (_Liadain and Curithir_, ed. with\ntrans. by K. Meyer, London, 1902). In the _Old Woman of Beare_ (publ. K.\nMeyer in _Otia Merseiana_) an old hetaira laments her departed youth,\ncomparing her life to the ebbing of the tide (10th century).\n\n\n  Professional literature.\n\nWe must now step aside from pure literature and turn our attention to\nthe various productions of the professional learned classes of Ireland\nduring the middle ages. The range of subjects coming under this heading\nis a very wide one, comprising history, genealogies, hagiology,\ntopography, grammar, lexicography and metre, law and medicine. It will\nperhaps be as well first of all to deal with the learned _filid_ whose\nworks have been preserved. Irish tradition preserves the names of a\nnumber of antiquarian poets of prehistoric or early medieval times, such\nas Amergin, one of the Milesian band of invaders; Moran Roigne, son of\nUgaine Mor, Adna and his successor Ferceirtne, Torna (c. 400), tutor to\nNiall Noigiallach, Dallan Forgaill, Senchan Torpeist, and Cennfaelad (d.\n678), but the poems attributed to these writers are of much later date.\nWe can only enumerate the chief of those whose works have been\npreserved. To Maelmura (d. 887) is attributed a poem on the Milesian\nmigrations. About the same time lived Flanagan, son of Cellach, who\nwrote a long composition on the deaths of the kings of Ireland,\npreserved in YBL., and Flann MacLonain (d. 918), called by the Four\nMasters the Virgil of Ireland, eight of whose poems have survived,\ncontaining in all about 1000 lines. Cormacan, son of Maelbrigde (d.\n946), composed a vigorous poem on the circuit of Ireland performed by\nMuirchertach, son of Niall Glundub. A poet whose poems are most valuable\nfrom an antiquarian point of view is Cinaed Ua h-Artacain (d. 975). Some\n800 lines of his have been preserved in LL. and elsewhere. Contemporary\nwith him is Eochaid O'Flainn (d. c. 1003), whose chief work is a long\nchronological poem giving a list of the kings of Ulster from Cimbaeth\ndown to the destruction of Emain in 331. A little later comes MacLiac\n(d. 1016), who celebrated in verse the glories of the reign of Brian\nBoroime. His best-known work is a lament over Kincora, the palace of\nBrian. Contemporary with MacLiac is MacGilla Coim Urard MacCoisi (d.\n1023). To Cuan ua Lothchain (d. 1024), chief poet in the reign of\nMaelsheachlainn II., are ascribed poems on the antiquities of Tara.\nSixteen hundred lines of his have come down to us. A writer who enjoyed\na tremendous reputation in medieval Ireland was Flann Mainstrech (d.\n1056), who in spite of his being a layman was head of the monastery\nschool at Monasterboice. He is the author of no fewer than 2000 lines in\nLL., and many other poems of his are contained in other MSS. His\nbest-known work is a _Book of Synchronisms_ of the kings of Ireland and\nthose of the ancient world. We have also poems from his pen on the\nmonarchs descended from Niall Noigiallach and on the chronology of the\nhigh-kings and provincial kings from the time of Loigaire. Flann's\nsuccessor, Gilla Coemgin (d. 1072), gives us a chronological poem\ndealing with the annals of the world down to A.D. 1014. He also is the\nauthor of the Irish version of Nennius which contains substantial\nadditions dealing with early Ireland. Minor writers of the same nature\nwhose works have come down to us are Colman O'Sesnain (d. 1050), Neide\nua Maelchonaire (d. 1136), Gilla na noem ua Duinn (d. 1160), Gilla\nModuda O'Cassidy (1143). In the 13th century these historical poems\nbecome very rare. In the next century we again find antiquarian poets of\nwhom the best-known is John O'Dugan (d. 1372). His most valuable\ncomposition treats of the tribes of the northern half of Ireland at the\ntime of the northern conquest. This work, containing 1660 lines in all\nin debide metre, was completed by his younger contemporary Gilla na naem\nO'Huidhrin. From the beginning of the 13th century the official poets\nbegan to give way to the hereditary bards and families of scribes. Among\nthe chief bardic families we may mention the O'Dalys, the MacWards, the\nO'Higinns, the MacBrodys and the MacDaires. We must here content\nourselves with glancing at a few of the more prominent names. Muiredach\nAlbanach (c. 1214-1240), whose real name was O'Daly, has left behind in\naddition to the religious verses a considerable number of poems in\npraise of various patrons in Ireland and Scotland. He is said by Skene\nto be the first of the Macvurrichs, bards to Macdonald of Clanranald. A\nnumber of his compositions are preserved in the Book of the Dean of\nLismore. Gilla Brigde MacConmidhe was a contemporary of the\nlast-mentioned bard. He wrote a number of poems in praise of the\nO'Neills and O'Donnells. We may next mention the name of an abbot of\nBoyle, Donnchad Mor O'Dalaig (d. 1244), a writer whose extant poems are\nusually of a religious character. Many of them are addressed to the\nVirgin. Most of them appear in late MSS., but some few are preserved in\nthe Book of the Hy Maine. Donnchad Mor is said to be the greatest\nreligious poet that Ireland has produced. Many other members of the\nO'Daly family belonging to the 14th and 15th centuries have left poems\nbehind them, but we cannot mention them here. Angus O'Daly, who lived in\nthe second half of the 16th century, was employed by the English to\nsatirize the chief Gaelic families in Ireland. Two members of the\nO'Higinn family deserve mention, Tadg mor O'Higinn (d. 1315). and Tadg\nOg O'Higinn (d. 1448), a voluminous writer who eulogized the O'Neills,\nO'Connors and O'Kellys. Tadg Og also composed a number of religious\npoems, which enjoyed enormous popularity in both Ireland and Scotland. A\n_duanaire_ was inserted into YBL., which contains some forty poems by\nhim.\n\nClosely connected with the compositions of the official poets are the\nworks of native topography. Most of the sagas contain a number of\nexplanations of the origins of place-names. The _Dindsenchus_ is a\ncompilation of such etymologies. But its chief value consists in the\namount of legendary matter it contains, adduced in support of the\netymologies given. The _Dindsenchus_ has come down to us in various\nforms both in prose and in verse. Irish tradition ascribes it to Amergin\nMacAmalgaid, who lived in the 6th century, but if the kernel of the work\ngoes back as early as this it must have been altered considerably in the\ncourse of the centuries. Both prose and verse forms of it are contained\nin LL. A kindred compilation is the _Coir Anmann_ (Fitness of Names),\nwhich does for personal names what the _Dindsenchus_ does for\ngeographical names. We further possess a versified compendium of\ngeography for educational purposes dealing with the three continents,\nfrom the pen of Airbertach MacCosse-dobrain (10th century).\n\n\n  History.\n\nNo people on the face of the globe have ever been more keenly interested\nin the past of their native country than the Irish. This will already\nhave been patent from the compositions of the _filid_, and now we may\ndescribe briefly the historical works in prose which have come down to\nus. The latter may be divided into two classes, (1) works containing a\nconnected narrative, (2) annals. Closely allied to these are the sagas\ndealing with the high-kings. Even in the serious historical compositions\nwe often find the manner of the sagas imitated, e.g. the supernatural\nplays a prominent part, and we are treated to the same exaggerated\ndescriptions. The earliest of these histories is the wars of the Gael\nand Gall (_Cogad Gaedel re Gallaib_), which gives an account of the\nViking invasions of Ireland, the career of Brian Boroime and the\noverthrow of the Norsemen at the battle of Clontarf. This composition, a\nportion of which is contained in LL., is often supposed to be in part\nthe work of MacLiac, and it is plain from internal evidence that it must\nhave been written by an eye-witness of the battle, or from materials\nsupplied by a person actually present. Numerous shorter tracts dealing\nwith the same period exist, but as yet few of them have been published.\n_Caithreim Cellachain Caisil_ treats of the conflicts between the\nVikings and the Irish, and the _Leabhar Oiris_ gives an account of Irish\nhistory from 979 to 1027. Compilations relating to local history are the\nBook of Fenagh and the Book of Munster. Another ancient work also partly\npreserved in LL. is the Book of Invasions (_Leabhar Gabhala_). This\ndeals with the five prehistoric invasions of Ireland (see IRELAND:\n_Early History_) and the legendary history of the Milesians. The most\ncomplete copy of the _Leabhar Gabhala_ which has been preserved was\ncompiled by Michael O'Clery about 1630. The _Boroma_ or History of the\nLeinster Tribute contained in LL. belongs rather to romance. Another\nhistory is the _Triumphs of Turlough O'Brian_, written about the year\n1459 by John MacCraith, a Munster historian (edited by S.H. O'Grady,\nCamb. Press). This inflated composition is an important source of\ninformation on Munster history from the landing of the Normans to the\nmiddle of the 14th century. We also possess several documents in Irish\nconcerning the doings of the O'Neills and O'Donnells at the close of the\n16th century. A life of Hugh Roe O'Donnell, by Lughaidh O'Clery, has\nbeen published, and a contemporary history of the _Flight of the Earls_,\nby Tadhg O'Cianan, was being prepared in 1908. But the most celebrated\nIrish historian is certainly Geoffrey Keating (c. 1570-1646), who is at\nthe same time the greatest master of Irish prose. Keating was a Munster\npriest educated in France, who drew down upon himself the displeasure of\nthe English authorities and had to go into hiding. He travelled up and\ndown Ireland examining all the ancient records, and compiled a history\nof Ireland down to the Norman Conquest. His work, entitled _Forus Feasa\nar Eirinn_, was never published, but it circulated from end to end of\nIreland in MS. Keating's history is anything but critical. Its value for\nthe scholar lies in the fact that the author had access to many\nimportant sources of information now lost, and has preserved accounts of\nevents independent of and differing from those contained in the Four\nMasters. In addition to the history and a number of poems, Keating is\nalso the author of two theological works in Irish, the Defence of the\nMass (_Eochairsgiath an Aifrinn_) and a collection of sermons entitled\nthe Three Shafts of Death (_Tri biorghaoithe an Bhais_), which are\nmodels of Irish prose.\n\nFrom the writers of historical narrative we turn to the annalists, the\nmost important sources of information with regard to Irish history. We\nhave already mentioned the _Synchronisms_ of Flann Mainistrech. Apart\nfrom this work the earliest collection of annals which has come down to\nus is the compilation by Tigernach O'Braein (d. 1088), abbot of\nClonmacnoise. Tigernach, whose work is partly in Latin, partly in Irish,\nstates that all Irish history previous to 305 B.C. is uncertain. No\nperfect copy is known of this work, but several fragments are in\nexistence. The _Annals of Innisfallen_ (a monastery on an island in the\nLower Lake of Killarney), which are also in Latin and Irish, were\nperhaps compiled about 1215, though they may have begun two centuries\nearlier. The invaluable _Annals of Ulster_ were compiled on Belle Isle\non Upper Lough Erne by Cathal Maguire (d. 1498), and afterwards\ncontinued by two different writers down to 1604. This work, which deals\nwith Irish affairs from A.D. 431, exists in several copies. The _Annals\nof Loch Ce_ (near Boyle in Roscommon) were copied in 1588 and deal with\nIrish events from 1014 to 1636. The _Annals of Connaught_ run from 1224\nto 1562. The _Chronicon Scotorum_, one copy of which was transcribed\nabout 1650 by the famous antiquary Duald MacFirbis, deals with Irish\naffairs down to 1135. The _Annals of Boyle_ extend down to 1253. The\n_Annals of Clonmacnoise_, which come down to 1408, only exist in an\nEnglish translation made by Connell MacGeoghegan in 1627. The most\nimportant of all these collections is the _Annals of the Four Masters_\n(so christened by Colgan), compiled in the Franciscan monastery of\nDonegal by Michael, Conary and Cucogry O'Clery and Ferfesa O'Mulconry.\nThe O'Clerys were for a long period the hereditary ollams to the\nO'Donnells. Michael O'Clery (1575-1643), the greatest of the four, was a\nlay brother in the order of St Francis, and devoted his whole life to\nthe history of Ireland. He collected all the historical MSS. he could\nfind, and was encouraged in his undertaking by Fergal O'Gara, prince of\nCoolavin, who paid all expenses. The great work, which was begun in 1632\nand finished in 1636, begins with the arrival in Ireland of Ceasair,\ngranddaughter of Noah, and comes down to 1616. Nearly all the materials\nfrom which O'Clery drew his statements are now lost. O'Clery is also the\nauthor of a catalogue of the kings of Ireland, the genealogies of the\nIrish saints, and the Martyrology of Donegal and the Book of Invasions.\n\nOf less interest, but every whit as important, are the lists of\ngenealogies which occupy a great deal of space in LL., YBL. and BB., and\ntwo Trinity College, Dublin, MSS. (H. 3.18 and H. 2.4). But by far the\nmost important collection of all is that made by the last great\nshanachie Duald MacFirbis, compiled between 1650 and 1666 in the college\nof St Nicholas at Galway. The only portions of any considerable length\nwhich have as yet been published deal with two Connaught tribes; viz.\nthe Hy Fiachrach from Duald mac Firbis and the Hy Maine (O'Kellys), and\na Munster tribe, the Corcalaidhe, both from YBL. Valuable information\nwith regard to early Irish history is often contained in the prophecies\nor, as they are sometimes termed, _Baile_ (_raptures, visions_), a\nnotable example of which is _Baile in Scail_ (Vision of the Phantom).\n\n\n  Religious literature.\n\nWhen we turn from secular to religious themes we find that Ireland is\nalso possessed of a very extensive Christian literature, which is\nextremely valuable for the comparative study of medieval literature.\nApart from the martyrologies already mentioned in connexion with Oengus\nthe Culdee, a number of lives of saints and other ecclesiastical\nliterature have come down to us. One of the most important documents is\nthe Tripartite Life of St Patrick, which cannot very well have been\ncomposed before the 10th or 11th century, as it is full of the\nextravagant miracles which occur in the later lives of saints. The work\nconsists of three separate homilies, each complete in itself. A later\nversion of the Tripartite Life was printed by Colgan in 1647. The\n_Leabhar Breac_ contains a quantity of religious tracts, most of which\nhave been published. R. Atkinson issued a number of them under the title\nof _Passions and Homilies from Leabhar Breac_ (Dublin, 1887). These are\nnot original Irish compilations, but translations from Latin lives of\nsaints. Nor do they deal with the lives of any Irish saints. Stokes has\npublished nine lives of Irish saints from the Book of Lismore, including\nPatrick, Brigit, Columba, Brendan, Findian (Clonard), Ciaran, Senan,\nFindchua and Mochua. They are written in the form of homilies preceded\nby short explanations of a text of scripture. These lives also occur in\nthe _Leabhar Breac_. Other lives of saints have been published by\nO'Grady in _Silva Gadelica_. The longest life of St Columba was compiled\nin 1536 at the command of Manus O'Donnell. This tedious work is a\nspecimen of hagiology at its worst. The _Leabhar Breac_ further contains\na number of legends, such as those on the childhood of Christ, and\nscattered through many MSS. are short anecdotes of saints which are very\ninstructive.\n\nBut the most interesting Irish religious text is the _Vision of Adamnan_\n(preserved in LU.), which Stokes assigns to the 11th century. The soul\nof Adamnan is represented as leaving his body for a space to visit\nheaven and hell under the conduct of an angel. The whole treatment of\nthe theme challenges comparison with Dante's great poem, but the Irish\ncomposition contains many ideas peculiar to the land of its origin.\nLater specimens of this kind of literature tend to develop into\ngrotesque buffoonery. We may mention the _Vision of Fursae_, the _Vision\nof Tundale_ (Tnugdal), published by V. Friedel and K. Meyer (Paris,\n1907), Laisren's _Vision of Hell_ and the _Vision of Merlino_. A further\nvision attributed to Adamnan contains a stern denunciation of the Irish\nof the 11th century. Another form of religious composition, which was\nvery popular in medieval Ireland, was the prophecy in verse, but\nscarcely any specimens have as yet been published. Kuno Meyer edited a\ntract on the Psalter in his _Hibernica Minora_ from a 15th century\nOxford MS., but he holds that the text goes back to 750. A number of\ncollections of monastic rules both in prose and verse have been edited\nin _Eriu_, and the MSS. contain numerous prayers, litanies and religious\npoems.\n\nIn LU. are preserved two sermons, _Scela na esergi_ (Tidings of\nResurrection) and _Scela lai bratha_ (Tidings of Doomsday); and a number\nof other homilies have been published, such as the \"Two Sorrows of the\nKingdom of Heaven,\" \"The Penance of Adam,\" the \"Ever-new Tongue,\" and\none on \"Mortals' Sins.\" All the homilies contained in LB. have been\npublished by R. Atkinson in his _Legends and Homilies from Leabhar\nBreac_ (Dublin, 1887), and E. Hogan, _The Irish Nennius_ (Dublin, 1895).\nThe popular \"Debate of the Body and the Soul\" appears in Ireland in the\nform of a homily. A collection of maxims and a short moral treatise have\nbeen published by K. Meyer.\n\n  For the religious literature in general the reader may refer to\n  O'Curry, _Lectures on the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History_ (pp.\n  339-434), and G. Dottin, \"Notes bibliographiques sur l'ancienne\n  litterature chretienne de l'Irlande,\" in _Revue d'histoire et de\n  litterature religieuses_, v. 162-167. See also _Revue celtique_, xi.\n  391-404. ib. xv. 79-91.\n\nHere we may perhaps mention an extraordinary production entitled\n_Aisling Meic Conglinne_, the Vision of Mac Conglinne, found in LB. and\nascribed to the twelfth century (ed. K. Meyer, London, 1892). Cathal\nMacFinguine, king of Munster (d. 737), was possessed by a demon of\ngluttony and is cured by the recital of a strange vision by a vagrant\nscholar named MacConglinne. The composition seems to be intended as a\nsatire on the monks, and in particular as a travesty of medieval\nhagiology. Another famous satire, entitled the Proceedings of the Great\nBardic Institution, holds up the professional bards and their\nextortionate methods to ridicule. This curious work contains the story\nof how the great epic, the _Tain bo Cualnge_, was recovered (see\n_Transactions of the Ossianic Society_, vol. v.).\n\n\n  Gnomic literature.\n\nCollections of pithy sayings in the form of proverbs and maxims must\nhave been made at a very early period. Not the least remarkable are the\nso-called Triads (publ. K. Meyer, Dublin, 1906), which illustrate every\nstatement with 3 examples. Over 200 such triads were brought together in\nthe 9th century. There are also two documents attributed to 1st-century\npersonages, \"The Testament of Morann MacMoin to his son Feradach,\" which\nis quoted as early as the 8th century, and \"The Instructions of\nCuchulinn to his foster-son Lugaid.\" K. Meyer has published _Tecosca\nCormaic_ or the Precepts of Cormac MacAirt to his son Cairpre (Dublin,\n1909). Other collections such as the _Senbriathra Fithail_ still await\npublication.\n\n\n  Classical stories.\n\nWith that enthusiasm for the classics which is characteristic of the\nIrish, it is not strange that we should find medieval versions of some\nof the better-known authors of antiquity. It is interesting to note that\nonly those works are translated that could be utilized by the\nprofessional story-teller. So much so, that in the ancient (10th\ncentury) catalogue of sagas enumerated by Urard MacCoisi we find mention\nof _Togail Troi_ and _Scela Alexandir maic Pilip_. We get descriptions\nof battle weapons and clothing similar to those occurring in the native\nsagas. _Togail Troi_ is taken from the medieval prose version, _Historia\nde Excidio Troiae_ of Dares Phrygius. The oldest Irish copy is found in\nLL. This version is exceedingly valuable, as it enables us to determine\nthe meaning of words and formulas in the sagas which are otherwise\nobscure. An Irish abstract of the _Odyssey_, following an unknown\nsource, and part of the story of Theseus have been published by K.\nMeyer. _Scela Alexandir_ is preserved in LB. and BB. _Imthechta\nAeniusa_, taken from the _Aeneid_, is contained in BB. A number of MSS.\ncontain the _Cath Catharda_, a version of books vi. and vii. (?) of\nLucan's _Pharsalia_, which has been published by Wh. Stokes. There is\nfurther at least one MS. containing a version of Statius's _Thebaid_ and\nof Heliodorus's _Aethiopica_. Somewhat later, the medieval literature of\nwestern Europe comes to be represented in translations. Thus we have\nIrish versions, amongst others of the _Gesta Romanorum_, the _Historia\nBrittonum_, the Wars of Charlemagne, the History of the Lombards, Sir\nJohn Maundeville's Travels (trans. by Fingin O'Mahony in 1475), the Book\nof Ser Marco Polo (abridged), Guy Earl of Warwick, Bevis of Southampton,\nthe Quest of the Holy Grail, Octavian, the chronicle of Turpin, Barlaam\nand Josaphat, and the story of Fierabras. The Arthurian cycle is\ndeveloped in independent fashion in the Adventures of the Eagle Boy and\nthe Adventures of the Crop-eared Dog. For translation literature see M.\nNettlau, _Revue celtique_, x. pp. 184, 460-461.\n\n\n  Philology.\n\nHand in hand with the interest of the medieval Irish scholars in the\nhistory of their island goes the cultivation of the native tongue. Owing\nto the profound changes produced by the working of the Irish laws of\naccent and initial mutation, it is doubtful if any other language lends\nitself so well to wild etymological speculation. By the beginning of the\nMiddle Irish period a good part of the cumbrous Old Irish verb-system\nhad become obsolete, and texts which were at all faithfully copied had\nto be plentifully supplied with glosses. Moreover, if, as is probable,\nall the historical and legal lore was in verse, a large part of it must\nhave been unintelligible except to those who knew the _berla fene_. But\neven before this Cormac mac Cuillenain, the bishop-king of Cashel (d.\n903), had compiled a glossary of archaic words which are accompanied by\nexplanations, etymologies, and illustrative passages containing an\namount of invaluable information concerning folk-lore and legendary\nhistory. This glossary has come down to us in various recensions all\nconsiderably later in date than the original work (the oldest copy is in\nLB.). Later collections of archaic words are O'Mulconry's Glossary (13th\ncentury), the Lecan Glossary (15th century), which draws principally\nfrom the glosses in the _Liber Hymnorum_, O'Davoren's Glossary (16th\ncentury), drawn principally from the Brehon Laws, a 16th century list of\nLatin and Irish names of plants employed in medicine, and O'Clery's\nGlossary (published at Louvain, 1643). BB. contains a curious tract on\nOgamic writing. An Irish treatise on grammar, called _Uraicept na\nn-eces_, the Poet's Primer, traditionally ascribed to Cennfaelad and\nothers, is contained in BB. and YBL. It appears to be a kind of medley\nof Donatus and the notions of the medieval Irish concerning the origin\nof their language. The St Gall glosses on Priscian contain Irish terms\nfor all the nomenclature of the Latin grammarians, and show how\nextensive was the use made of Irish even in this department of learning.\n\n\n  Prosody.\n\nThurneysen had edited from BB., Laud 610 and a TCD. MS. three treatises\non metric which give an account of the countless metres practised by the\n_filid_. It is impossible for us here to enter into the question of\nIrish prosody in any great detail. We have seen that there is some\nreason for believing that the primitive form of Irish verse was a kind\nof rhythmical alliterative prose as contained in the oldest versions of\nthe sagas. The _filid_ early became acquainted with the metres of the\nLatin church hymns, whence rhyme was introduced into Ireland. (This is\nthe view of Thurneysen and Windisch. Others like Zeuss have maintained\nthat rhyme was an invention of the Irish.) In any case the _filid_\nevolved an intricate system of rhymes for which it is difficult to find\na parallel. The medieval metres are called by the general name of _Dan\nDirech_, \"Direct Metre.\" Some of the more general principles were as\nfollows. The verses are grouped in stanzas of four lines, each stanza\nbeing complete in itself. Each line must contain a fixed number of\nsyllables, whilst the different metres vary as to the employment of\ninternal and end rhyme, assonance and alliteration. The Irish elaborated\na peculiar system of consonantal correspondence which counted as rhyme.\nThe consonants were divided with a considerable degree of phonetic\naccuracy into six groups, so that a voiceless stop (c) rhymes with\nanother voiceless stop (t, p), a voiced stop (b) with another voiced\nstop (d, g), and so forth. The commonest form of verse is the four-line\nstanza of seven syllables. Such a verse with rhymes _abab_ and\nmonosyllabic or dissyllabic finals belongs to the class _rannaigecht_. A\nsimilar stanza with _aabb_ rhymes is the basis of the so-called _debide_\n(cut in two) metres. A peculiarity of the latter is that the rhyming\nword ending the second line must contain at least one syllable more than\nthe rhyming word which ends the first. Another frequently employed metre\nis the _rindard_, consisting of lines of six syllables with dissyllabic\nendings. In the metrical treatises examples are given of some 200 odd\nmetres. The result of the complicated technique evolved in Ireland was\nan inclination to sacrifice sense to musical harmony. See K. Meyer, _A\nPrimer of Irish Metrics_ (Dublin,1909).\n\n\n  Law.\n\nWe can conclude this survey of medieval Irish literature by mentioning\nbriefly two departments of learning to which much attention was paid in\nIreland. These are law and medicine. The so-called Brehon Laws (q.v.)\nare represented as having been codified and committed to writing in the\ntime of St Patrick. There is doubtless some grain of truth in this\nstatement, as a fillip may have been given to this codification by the\npublication of the Theodosian Code, which was speedily followed by the\ncodes of the various Teutonic tribes. The Brehon Laws were no doubt\noriginally transmitted from teacher to pupil in the form of verse, and\ntraces of this are to be found in the texts which have been preserved.\nBut the Laws as we have them do not go back to the 5th century. In our\ntexts isolated phrases or portions of phrases are given with a\ncommentary, and this commentary is further explained by some later\ncommentators. Kuno Meyer has pointed out that in the commentary to one\ntext, _Crith Gablach_, there are linguistic forms which must go back to\nthe 8th century, and Arbois de Jubainville, who apart from Sir Henry\nMaine is the only scholar who has dealt with the subject, has attempted\nto prove from internal evidence that part of the oldest tract, the one\non _Athgabail_ or Seizure, cannot, in its present form, be later than\nthe close of the 6th century. Cormac's Glossary contains a number of\nquotations from the commentary to _Senchus Mor_, which would therefore\nseem to have been in existence about 900. The Irish Laws were\ntranscribed by O'Donovan and O'Curry, and have been published with a\nfaulty text and translation in five volumes by the government\ncommissioners originally appointed in 1852. A number of other law tracts\nmust have existed in early times, and several which have been preserved\nare still unedited. Kuno Meyer has published the _Cain Adamnain_ or\nAdamnan's Law from an Oxford MS. Adamnan succeeded in getting a law\npassed which forbade women to go into battle. An interesting but\nlittle-investigated text in prose and verse called _Leabhar na gCeart_\nor Book of Rights was edited with an English translation by O'Donovan\n(1847). It deals with the rights to tribute of the high-king and the\nvarious provincial kings. The text of the Book of Rights is preserved in\nYBL. and BB. In its present form it shows distinct traces of the\ninfluence of the Viking invasions, and cannot go back much beyond the\nyear 1000. At one time it was incorporated in a larger work now lost,\nthe Psalter of Cashel. We also possess a 9th-century treatise on Sunday\nobservance (_Cain Domnaig_).\n\n\n  Medicine.\n\nThe medical profession in Ireland was hereditary in a number of\nfamilies, such as the O'Lees (from Irish _liaig_, \"a leech\"), the\nO'Hickeys (Irish _icide_, \"the healer\"), the O'Shiels, the O'Cassidys,\nand many others. These families each had their own special leech-books,\nsome of which are still preserved. In addition to these there are many\nothers. The medical literature which has come down to us is contained in\nMSS. ranging from the 13th to the 18th centuries. The Irish MSS. are\ntranslations from the Latin with the invariable commentary, and they\nfurther contain additions derived from experience. YBL. contains four of\nthese tracts, and amongst others we may mention the Book of the\nO'Hickeys, a translation of the _Lilium Medicinae_ of Bernard Gordon\n(written 1303), the Book of the O'Lees (written in 1443), the Book of\nthe O'Shiels, transcribed in 1657, and the Book of MacAnlega,\ntranscribed in 1512. Of these texts only two have been published as yet\nfrom MSS. in Edinburgh. O'Curry drew up a MS. catalogue of the medical\nMSS. in the Royal Irish Academy, and many more are described in\nO'Grady's catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum. Some few MSS.\ndeal with the subject of astronomy, but up to the present no description\nof the texts has been published.\n\n\n  Later Irish literature.\n\nWith the steady advance of the English power after 1600 it was only\nnatural that the school of bardic poets should decline. But at the\nbeginning of the 17th century for the last time they gave a great\ndisplay of their resources. Tadhg MacDaire, the ollam of the earl of\nThomond, composed a poem in elaborate verse exalting the line of Eber\n(represented by the reigning families of Munster) at the expense of the\nline of Eremon (represented by the reigning families of the other\nprovinces). In a body of verse attributed to Torna Eces (c. 400), but\nobviously of more recent origin, the Eremonian, Niall Noigiallach, is\nlavishly praised, and Tadhg's attack takes the form of a refutation of\nTorna's pretensions. The challenge was immediately taken up by Lughaidh\nO'Clery. The recriminations of the two bards extend to nearly 3000 lines\nof verse, and naturally drew down the attention of the whole Irish world\nof letters. Soon all the hereditary poets were engaged in the conflict,\nwhich raged for many years, and the verses of both parties were\ncollected into a volume of about 7000 lines in _debide_ metre, known as\nthe _Contention of the Poets_. Amongst the prominent poets of the period\nmay be mentioned Tadhg Dall O'Higinn (d. shortly before 1617) and\nEochaidh O'Hussey, who between them have left behind nearly 7000 lines\nin the classical metres, Bonaventura O'Hussey and Ferfesa O'Cainti. The\nintricate classical measures gradually broke down. Dr Douglas Hyde gives\nit as his opinion that the exceedingly numerous metres known in Middle\nIrish had become restricted to a couple of dozen, and these nearly all\nheptasyllabic. Nevertheless they continued to be employed till into the\n18th century. However, during the 17th century we find a new school\narising with new principles and new methods. These consisted in (1) the\nadoption of vowel rhyme in place of consonantal rhyme, (2) the adoption\nof a certain number of accents in each line in place of a certain number\nof syllables. Thus, according to what we have just said, the accented\nsyllables in a line with four accents in one line will fall on, say, the\nfollowing vowels e, u, u, e, and the line rhyming with it will have\nthe same sounds in the same or a different sequence. (For English\nimitations see Hyde, _A Literary History of Ireland_, pp. 548 ff.)\n\nThe consequences of the changed political conditions were of the\ngreatest importance. The bards, having lost their patrons in the general\nupheaval, threw behind them the old classical metres and turned to the\ngeneral public. At the same time they had to abandon the countless\nchevilles and other characteristics of the old bardic language, which\nwere only understood by the privileged few. But to compensate for this\nmuch more freedom of expression and naturalness were possible for the\nfirst time in Irish verse. The new metres made their appearance in\nIreland about 1600, and the learned Keating himself was one of the first\nto discard the ancient prosody. During the latter half of the 17th\ncentury and throughout the 18th century the body of verse produced in\nIreland voices the sorrows and aspirations of the whole nation, and the\nliterary activity in almost every county was correspondingly great. It\nis only during the last few years that the works of any of the poets of\nthis period have been published. Pierce Ferriter was the last chieftain\nwho held out against Cromwell's army, and he was hanged in 1653. His\npoems have been edited by P.S. Dinneen (Dublin, 1903). The bard of the\nWilliamite wars was David O'Bruadar (d. 1697-1698). From this period\ndate three powerful satires on the state of affairs in Munster, and in\nparticular on the Cromwellian settlers. They are of a coarse and savage\nnature, for which reason they have never been printed. Their titles are\nthe Parliament of Clan Thomas, the Adventures of Clan Thomas, and the\nAdventures of Tadhg Dubh (by Egan O'Rahilly). A description of the\nparliament of Clan Thomas is given by Stern in the _Zeitschr. f. celt.\nPhil._ v. pp. 541 ff.\n\nA little later we come across a band of Jacobite poets. The gallant\nfigure of Charles Edward was so popular with Irish bards that a\nconventional stereotyped form arose in which the poet represents himself\nas wandering in a wood and meeting a beautiful lady. We are treated to a\nfull description of all her charms, and the poet compares her to all the\nfair heroines of antiquity. But she replies that she is none of these.\nShe is Erin seeking refuge from the insults of foreign suitors and\nlooking for her mate. The idea of such poems is a beautiful one, but\nthey become tedious when one has read a dozen of them only to find that\nthere are scores of others in exactly the same strain. Besides the\nVisions (_Aisling_), as they are termed, there are several noteworthy\nwar-songs, whilst other poems are valuable as giving a picture of the\nstate of the country at the time. We can do no more than mention the\nnames of John O'Neaghtan (d. c. 1720; edition of his poems by A.\nO'Farrelly, Dublin, 1908), Egan O'Rahilly, who flourished between 1700\nand 1726; Tadhg O'Naghten, Andrew MacCurtin (d. 1479), Hugh MacCurtin,\nauthor of a grammar and part editor of O'Begley's _Dictionary_; John\nClarach MacDonnell (1691-1754), John O'Tuomy (d. 1775); Andrew Magrath,\nTadhg Gaolach O'Sullivan (d. c. 1795), author of a well-known volume of\nreligious poems, a valuable source of information for the Munster\ndialect; and Owen Roe O'Sullivan (d. 1784), the cleverest of the\nJacobite poets (his verses and _bons mots_ are still well known in\nMunster). These poets hailed mostly from the south, and it is chiefly\nthe works of the Munster poets that have been preserved. Ulster and\nConnaught also produced a number of writers, but very little beyond the\nmere names has been preserved except in the case of the Connaught poet\nRaftery (1784-1835), whose compositions have been rescued by Hyde\n(_Abhrain an Reachtuire_, Dublin, 1903). Torlough O'Carolan (1670-1738),\n\"the last of the bards,\" was really a musician. Having become blind he\nwas educated as a harper and won great fame. His poems, which were\ncomposed to suit his music, are mostly addressed to patrons or fair\nladies. His celebrated \"Ode to Whisky\" is one of the finest bacchanalian\nsongs in any language. Michael Comyn (b. c. 1688) is well known as the\nauthor of a version based upon older matter of \"Ossian in the Land of\nYouth.\" This appears to be the only bit of deliberate creation in the\nlater Ossianic literature. Comyn also wrote a prose story called \"The\nAdventures of Torlogh, son of Starn, and the Adventures of his Three\nSons.\" Brian MacGiolla Meidhre or Merriman (d. 1808) is the author of\nperhaps the cleverest sustained poem in the Irish language. His work,\nwhich is entitled the _Midnight Court_, contains about 1000 lines with\nfour rhymes in each line. It describes a vision in which Aoibhill, queen\nof the Munster fairies, is holding a court. A handsome girl defends\nherself against an old man, and complains to the queen that in spite of\nall her charms she is in danger of dying unwed. Merriman's poem, which\nwas written in 1781, has recently been edited with a German translation\nby L.C. Stern (_Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, v. 193-415).\nDonough MacConmara (Macnamara) (d. c. 1814) is best known as the author\nof a famous lyric \"The Fair Hills of Holy Ireland,\" but he also wrote a\nmock epic describing his voyage to America and how the ship was chased\nby a French cruiser. He is carried off in a dream by the queen of the\nMunster fairies to Elysium, where, instead of Charon, he finds Conan,\nthe Thersites among the Fenians, acting as ferryman (_Eachtra Ghiolla an\nAmarain, or The Adventures of a Luckless Fellow_, edited by T. Flannery,\nDublin, 1901).\n\nDuring the first half of the 19th century nothing new was produced of a\nhigh order, though the peasants retained their love for poetry and\ncontinued to copy the MSS. in their possession. Then came the famine and\nthe consequent drain of population which gave Irish the death-blow as a\nliving literary force. The modern movement has been dealt with above in\nthe section on Irish language.\n\nIt remains for us to glance briefly at the later religious literature\nand the collections of folk-tales. The translation of the New Testament\nmade by William O'Donnell and published in 1603 was first undertaken in\nthe reign of Queen Elizabeth, who sent over to Dublin the first fount of\nIrish type. Bishop Bedell, one of the very few Protestant clergymen who\nundertook to learn Irish, translated the remainder of the Scriptures\nwith the help of a couple of natives, but the whole Bible was not\ntranslated and published until 1686. This version naturally never became\npopular, but it is a valuable source of information with regard to\nModern Irish. It is perhaps of interest to note that the earliest\nspecimen of printing in Irish is a ballad on Doomsday (Dublin, 1571). A\nversion of the English Prayer Book was published in 1716.\n\nThe scholars of the various Irish colleges on the continent were\nparticularly active in the production of manuals of devotion mainly\ntranslated from Latin. We can mention only a few of the more important.\n_Sgathan an chrabhaidh_ (The Mirror of the Pious), published in 1626 by\nFlorence Conry; _Sgathan sacramente na h-Aithrighe_ (Mirror of the\nSacrament of Penance), by Hugh MacCathmhaoil, published at Louvain,\n1618; _The Book of Christian Doctrine_, by Theobald Stapleton (Brussels,\n1639); _Parrthas an Anma, or The Paradise of the Soul_, by Anthony\nGernon (Louvain, 1645); a book on _Miracles_, by Richard MacGilla Cody\n(1667); _Lochran na gcreidmheach, or Lucerna Fidelium_, by Francis\nO'Mulloy (Louvain, 1676); O'Donlevy's _Catechism_ (1742). O'Gallagher,\nbishop of Raphoe, published a collection of sermons which went through\ntwenty editions and are still known at the present day. He is one of the\nearliest writers in whom the characteristics of the speech of the north\nare noticeable. The only Catholic version of any considerable portion of\nthe Scriptures up till quite recently was the translation of the\nPentateuch by Archbishop MacHale, who also turned six books of the\n_Iliad_ into Irish. It is only within recent years that attention has\nbeen paid to the collection of folk-songs and tales in Irish, although\nas long ago as 1825 Crofton Croker published three volumes of folk-lore\nin the south of Ireland which attracted the attention of Sir Walter\nScott. Nor do the classic stories of Carleton fall within our province.\nWe may mention among others Patrick O'Leary's _Sgeuluidheacht Chuige\nMumhan_ (Dublin, 1895); Hyde's _Beside the Fire_ (London, 1890) and _An\nSgeuluidhe Gaedhealach_, reprinted from vol. x. of the _Annales de\nBretagne_ (London, 1901); Daniel O'Fogharta's _Siamsa an Gheimhridh_\n(Dublin, 1892); J. Lloyd's _Sgealaidhe Oirghiall_ (Dublin, 1905); and\nLarminie's _West Irish Folk-Tales_ (London, 1893). The most important\ncollections of folk-songs are _Love-Songs of Connaught_ (Dublin, 1893)\nand _Religious Songs of Connaught_ (Dublin, 1906), both published by\nHyde. The most extensive collection of proverbs is the one entitled\n_Seanfhocla Uladh_ by Henry Morris (Dublin, 1907). See also T.\nO'Donoghue, _Sean-fhocail na Mumhan_ (Dublin, 1902).\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--In the absence of a comprehensive history, the best\n  manual is Eleanor Hull's _Text Book of Irish Literature_ (2 parts,\n  London, 1904-1908; vol. 2 contains a bibliographical appendix). D.\n  Hyde's larger _History of Irish Literature_ (London, 1899) is only\n  trustworthy as regards the more _modern_ period. A full bibliography\n  of all published material is contained in G. Dottin's article \"La\n  litterature gaelique de l'Irlande\" (_Revue de synthese historique_,\n  vol. iii. pp. 1 ff.). Dottin's article has been translated into\n  English and supplemented by Joseph Dunn under the title of _The Gaelic\n  Literature of Ireland_ (Washington, 1906, privately printed). The\n  following are important works:--W. Stokes and J. Strachan, _Thesaurus\n  Palaeohibernicus_ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1901-1903); J.H. Bernard and R.\n  Atkinson, _Liber Hymnorum_ (London, 1895); E. O'Curry, _Lectures on\n  the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History_ (Dublin, 1873) and\n  _Lectures on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_ (3 vols.,\n  Dublin, 1873); P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (2\n  vols., London, 1903); E. O'Reilly, _Irish Writers_ (Dublin, 1820);\n  S.H. O'Grady, _Catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum_ (London,\n  1901); H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Introduction a l'etude de la\n  litterature celtique_ (Paris, 1883), _Essai d'un catalogue de la\n  litterature epique de l'Irlande_ (Paris, 1883), _L'Epopee celtique en\n  Irlande_ (Paris, 1892), _La Civilisation des Celtes et celle de\n  l'epopee homerique_ (Paris, 1899); E. Windisch, _Tain Bo Cualnge_, ed.\n  with an introd. and German trans. (Leipzig, 1905); L. Winifred\n  Faraday, _The Cattle-Raid of Cualnge_ (London, 1904); the Irish text\n  according to LU. and YBL. has been published as a supplement to\n  _Eriu_; Eleanor Hull, _The Cuchulinn-saga_ (London, 1899); W.\n  Ridgeway, \"The Date of the First Shaping of the Cuchulinn Cycle,\"\n  _Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol. ii. (London, 1907); A.\n  Nutt, _Cuchulin, the Irish Achilles_ (London, 1899); H. Zimmer,\n  \"Keltische Beitrage\" in _Zeitschrift f. deutsches Altertum_, vols. 32,\n  33 and 35, and \"Uber den compilatorischen Charakter der irischen\n  Sagentexte in sogenannten Lebor na hUidre,\" Kuhn's _Zeitschr._ xxviii.\n  pp. 417-689. We cannot here enumerate the numerous heroic texts which\n  have been edited. For texts published before 1883 see d'Arbois's\n  _Catalogue_, and the same writer gives a complete list in _Revue\n  Celtique_, vol. xxiv. pp. 237 ff. The series of _Irische Texte_, vols.\n  i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1880-1901), by E. Windisch (vols. ii.-iv. in\n  conjunction with W. Stokes), contains a number of important texts.\n  Others, more particularly those belonging to the Ossianic cycle, are\n  to be found in S.H. O'Grady's _Silva Gadelica_ (2 vols. London, 1892).\n  See also R. Thurneysen, _Sagen aus dem alten Irland_ (Berlin, 1901);\n  P.W. Joyce, _Old Celtic Romances_ (London[2], 1901).\n\n  For the Ossianic cycle see H. Zimmer, \"Keltische Beitrage III.\" in\n  vol. 35 of the _Zeitschr. f. deutsches Altertum_, also _Gottinger\n  Gelehrte Anzeigen_, 1887, pp. 153-199; A. Nutt, _Ossian and the\n  Ossianic Literature_ (London, 1899); L.C. Stern, \"Die ossianischen\n  Heldenlieder,\" in _Zeitschr. f. vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte_\n  for 1895, trans. by J.L. Robertson in _Transactions of the Inverness\n  Gaelic Society_, vol. xxii.; J. MacNeill, _Duanaire Finn_ (London,\n  1908); _Book of the Dean of Lismore_, ed. by T. Maclauchlan\n  (Edinburgh, 1862), and in vol. i. of A. Cameron's _Reliquiae Celticae_\n  (Edinburgh, 1892); _Transactions of the Ossianic Society_ (6 vols.,\n  Dublin, 1854-1861); Miss Brooke, _Reliques of Ancient Irish Poetry_\n  (Dublin, 1789).\n\n  Keating's _History_ was translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1866).\n  The first part was edited with Eng. trans. by W. Halliday\n  (Dublin,1811) and the whole work in 3 vols. for the Irish Texts\n  Society by D. Comyn and P. Dinneen (London, 1901-1908). Comparatively\n  few specimens have been published of the older bards. Several from a\n  Copenhagen MS. were printed by Stern in the _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._\n  vol. ii.; J. Hardiman, _Irish Minstrelsy_ (2 vols., Dublin, 1831);\n  J.C. Mangan, _The Poets and Poetry of Munster_ (Dublin^4, no date); G.\n  Sigerson, _The Bards of the Gael and Gall_ (Dublin, 1906). Editions of\n  the poems of Ferriter, Geoffrey O'Donoghue, O'Rahilly, John O'Tuomy,\n  Andrew Magrath, John Claragh MacDonnell, Tadhg Gaolach and Owen Roe\n  O'Sullivan by Dinneen, Gaelic League, Dublin, and Irish Texts Society,\n  London, 1900-1903. (E. C. Q.)\n\nII. SCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATURE.--It is not until after the Forty-five\nthat we find any great manifestation of originality in the literature of\nthe Scottish Highlands. The reasons for this are not far to seek. Just\nas the dialects of Low German in the middle ages were overshadowed by\nthe more brilliant literary dialect of the south, so Scotch Gaelic was\nfrom the outset seriously handicapped by the great activity of the\nprofessional literary class in Ireland. We may say that down to the\nbeginning of the 18th century the literary language of the Highlands was\nthe Gaelic of Ireland. During the dark days of the penal laws and with\nthe extinction of the men of letters and their patrons in Ireland, an\nopportunity was given to the native Scottish muse to develop her powers.\nAnother potent factor also made itself felt. After Culloden the causes\nof the clan feuds and animosities of the past were removed. The\nHighlands, perhaps for the first time in history, formed a compact whole\nand settled down to peace and quietude. A remarkable outburst of\nliterary activity ensued, and the latter half of the 18th century is the\nperiod which Scottish writers love to call the golden age of Gaelic\npoetry. But before we attempt to deal with this period in detail, we\nmust examine the scanty literary products of Gaelic Scotland prior to\nthe 18th century.\n\n\n  \"Book of Deer.\"\n\nThe earliest document containing Gaelic matter which Scotland can claim\nis the _Book of Deer_, now preserved in the Cambridge University\nLibrary. This MS. contains portions of the Gospels in Latin written in\nan Irish hand with illuminations of the well-known Irish type. At the\nend there occurs a colophon in Irish which is certainly as old as the\n9th century. Inserted in the margins and blank spaces are later notes\nand memoranda partly in Latin, partly in Gaelic. The Gaelic entries were\nprobably made between 1000 and 1150. They relate to grants of land and\nother privileges made from time to time to the monastery of Deer\n(Aberdeenshire). The most interesting portion deals with the legend of\nDeer and its traditional foundation by St Columba. The language of these\nentries shows a striking departure from the traditional orthography\nemployed in contemporary Irish documents. The Advocates' Library in\nEdinburgh contains a number of MSS. probably written in Scotland between\n1400 and 1600, but with one exception the language is Irish.\n\n\n  \"Book of the Dean of Lismore.\"\n\nThe solitary exception just mentioned is the famous codex known as the\n_Book of the Dean of Lismore_. The pieces contained in this volume are\nwritten in the crabbed current Roman hand of the period, and the\northography is phonetic, both of which facts render the deciphering of\nthis valuable MS. a task of supreme difficulty. The contents of this\nquarto volume of 311 pages are almost entirely verse compositions\ncollected and written down by Sir James Macgregor, dean of Lismore in\nArgyllshire, and his brother Duncan, between the years 1512 and 1526. A\ndisproportionate amount of space is allotted to the compositions of\nwell-known Irish bards such as Donnchadh Mor O'Daly (d. 1244),\nMuiredhach Albanach (c. 1224), Tadhg Og O'Higgin (d. 1448), Diarmaid\nO'Hiffernan, Torna O'Mulconry (d. 1468). But native bards are also\nrepresented. We can mention Allan Mac Rorie, Gillie Calum Mac an Ollav,\nJohn of Knoydart, who celebrates the murder of the young lord of the\nisles by his Irish harper in 1490, Finlay MacNab, and Duncan Macgregor,\nthe transcriber of the greater part of the volume. The poems of the\nlast-mentioned writer are in praise of the Macgregors. A few other poems\nare by Scottish authors such as Campbell, Knight of Glenorchy (d. 1513),\nthe earl of Argyll and Countess Isabella. A number consist of satires on\nwomen. These Scottish writers are still under the influence of Irish\nmetric, and regularly employ the four-lined stanza. They do not appear\nto adhere to the stricter Irish measures, but delight rather in the\nfreer forms going by the name of _oglachas_. The Irish rules for\nalliteration and rhyme are not rigidly observed.\n\nThe linguistic peculiarities of the Dean's Book await investigation, but\namong the pieces which represent the Scottish vernacular of the day are\nthe _Ossianic Ballads_. These, twenty-eight in number, extend to upwards\nof 2500 lines, and form by far the most important part of the\ncollection. Thus the Dean's Book was compiled a full hundred years\nbefore the earliest similar collection of heroic ballads was made in\nIreland. In Scotland the term Ossianic is used loosely of both the\nUlster and the Fenian cycles, and it may be as well to state that three\nof the pieces in the volume deal with Fraoch, Conlaoch and the Bloody\nRout of Conall Cearnach. It is interesting to note that nine of the\npoems are directly attributed to Ossian, two to Ferghus File, one to\nCaoilte Mac Ronan, and one to Conall Cearnach, whilst others are\nascribed to Allan MacRorie, Gillie Calum Mac an Ollav and Caoch\nO'Cluain, who are otherwise unknown. The Dean's Book was first\ntranscribed by Ewen MacLachlan in 1813. Thomas MacLauchlan published the\ntext of the Ossianic ballads with modern Gaelic and English renderings\nin 1862. In the same volume W.F. Skene gave a useful description of the\nMS. and its contents. Alexander Cameron revised the text of the portion\nprinted by MacLauchlan, and his amended text is printed in his\n_Reliquiae Celticae_, vol. i. (See also L.C. Stern, _Zeitschr. f. celt.\nPhil._ i. 294-326.)\n\n\n  \"Book of Fernaig.\"\n\nBetween the Book of the Dean and the Forty-five we find another great\ngap, which is only bridged over by a collection which presents many\npoints of resemblance to Macgregor's compilation. The _Book of Fernaig_,\nwhich is also written in a kind of phonetic script, was compiled by\nDuncan Macrae of Inverinate between 1688 and 1693. The MS. contains\nabout 4200 lines of verse of different dates and by different authors.\nThe contents of the collection are mainly political and religious, with\na few poems which are termed didactic. As in the Dean's Book love-songs\nand drinking-songs are conspicuously absent, whilst the religious poetry\nforms about one-half of the contents. In state politics the authors are\nJacobite, and in church politics Episcopalian. The Ossianic literature\nis represented by 36 lines. There are a number of poems by 16th-century\nwriters, among whom is Bishop Carsewell. Mackinnon has pointed out that\nthe language of the _Book of Fernaig_ corresponds exactly to the dialect\nspoken in Kintail at the present day. The text of the _Book of Fernaig_\nis printed in its entirety in vol. ii. of Cameron's _Reliquiae\nCelticae_, and many of the poems are to be found in standard orthography\nin G. Henderson's _Leabhar nan Gleann_. The metres employed in the poems\nshow the influence of the English system of versification. (See Stern,\n_Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ ii. pp. 566 ff.)\n\n\n  \"Red and Black Books of Clanranald.\"\n\nTwo other Highland MSS. remain to be noticed. These are the _Red_ and\n_Black Books of Clanranald_, which are largely taken up with the\nhistories of the families of Macdonald and with the achievements of\nMontrose, written in the ordinary Irish of the period by the Macvurichs,\nhereditary bards to the Clanranald chiefs. The _Red Book_ was obtained\nby Macpherson in 1760 from Neil Macvurich, nephew of the last great\nbard, and it figured largely in the Ossianic controversy. In addition to\npoems in Irish by Neil Macvurich, who died at a great age some time\nafter 1715, and other bardic matter, the MSS. now contain only three\nOssianic poems, and these are in Irish. During the Ossianic controversy\nthe _Red Book of Clanranald_ was supposed to contain the originals of\nmuch of Macpherson's famous work; but, on the book coming into the hands\nof the enthusiastic Gaels of the closing years of the 18th century, and\non its contents being examined and found wanting, the MS. was tampered\nwith.\n\n\n  Mary Macleod.\n\nMackenzie's _Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ contains poems written by a\nnumber of writers who flourished towards the end of the 17th century and\nat the beginning of the 18th. These are Mary Macleod, John Macdonald\n(Iain Lom), Archibald Macdonald, Dorothy Brown, Cicely Macdonald, Iain\nDubh Iain 'Ic. Ailein (b. c. 1665), the Aosdan Matheson (one of his\npoems was rendered in English by Sir Walter Scott under the title of\n\"Farewell to Mackenzie, High Chief of Kintail\"), Hector Maclean (also\nknown through a translation by Scott called \"War-song of Lachlan, High\nChief of Maclean\"), Lachlan Mackinnon, Roderick Morrison (an Clarsair\nDall), and John Mackay of Gairloch, but we can here only notice the\nfirst two. The famous Mary Macleod, better known as Mairi Nighean\nAlastair Ruaidh (c. 1588-1693), was family bard to Sir Norman Macleod\nof Bernera, and later to John \"Breac\" Macleod of Macleod, in honour of\nwhom most of her poems were composed. Like very many of the Highland\npoets Mary had little or no education, and it would seem that none of\nthe poems which have come down to us were composed before 1660. Her\npieces are composed in the modern Irish metres with the characteristic\nvowel rhymes of the accented syllables. As might perhaps be expected it\nwas only the Macvurichs (the professional bards of the Clanranald) who\nwent on practising the classical _debide_ metre. This they still\ncontinued to do during the first quarter of the 18th century. Mary\nMacleod's best-known pieces comprise a dirge on the drowning of Iain\nGarbh (Mac'Ille Chalum) in the Minch, a song \"An Talla 'm bu ghnath le\nMacLeoid,\" and an ode to Sir Norman Macleod of Bernera, produced during\nher exile in Mull, which begins \"'S mi'm shuidhe air an tulaich.\" For\nthe details of her career, which are the subject of some dispute, the\nreader may be referred to a paper by Alexander Mackenzie in the\n_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, vol. xxii. pp. 43-66.\nMary Macleod is accounted one of the most musical and original of the\nHighland bards.\n\n\n  \"Iain Lom.\"\n\nJohn Macdonald, better known as Iain Lom (d. c. 1710), was a vigorous\npolitical poet whose verses exercised an extraordinary influence during\nhis lifetime. He is said to have received a yearly pension from Charles\nII. for his services to the Stuart cause. His best-known poems are _Mort\nna Ceapach_, on the murder of the heir of Keppoch, who was eventually\navenged through the poet's efforts, and a piece on the battle of\nInverlochay (1645). However great the inspiration of Mary Macleod and\nIain Lorn, they were after all but political or family bards. In\nsuccession to them there arose a small band of men with loftier\nthoughts, a wider outlook and greater art. The literature of the\nScottish Highlands culminates in the names of Alexander Macdonald,\nDuncan Ban MacIntyre and Dugald Buchanan.\n\n\n  Alexander Macdonald.\n\nAlexander Macdonald, commonly called Alasdair MacMaighstir Alasdair (b.\nc. 1700), was the son of an Episcopalian clergyman in Moidart. He was\nsent to Glasgow University to fit himself for a professional career. But\nan imprudent marriage caused him to abandon his studies, and about 1729\nhe received an appointment as a Presbyterian teacher in his native\ndistrict. He was moved from place to place, and from 1739 to 1745 he\ntaught at Corryvullin on the Sound of Mull, the scene of some of his\nmost beautiful lyrics. About 1740 he was invited to compile a Gaelic\nvocabulary, which was published in 1741. Macdonald has thus the double\ndistinction of being the author of the first book printed in Scotch\nGaelic and of being the father of Highland lexicography. The news of the\nlanding of the Pretender brought visions of release to the\npoverty-stricken poet, who was by this time heartily sick of teaching\nand farming. He turned Roman Catholic, and was present at the unfurling\nof the Stuart standard. He was given the rank of captain, but rendered\ngreater services to the Jacobite cause with his stirring poems than with\nthe sword. After Culloden he suffered great privations. But in 1751 he\nvisited Edinburgh and brought out a collection of his poetry, which has\nthe honour of being the first original work printed in Scotch Gaelic.\nHis volume was therefore entitled _Ais-eiridh na Seann Chanain\nAlbannaich_ (Resurrection of the Ancient Scottish Tongue). Till the day\nof his death he led a more or less wandering life, as he was dependent\non the generosity of Clanranald. Only a small part of Macdonald's\ncompositions have been preserved (thirty-one in all). These naturally\nfall into three groups--love-songs, descriptive poems and patriotic and\nJacobite poems. In his love-songs and descriptive poems Macdonald struck\nan entirely new note in Gaelic literature. His _Moladh Moraig_ and\n_Cuachag an Fhasaich_ (also called _A'Bhanarach Dhonn_) are his\nbest-known compositions in the amatory style. But he is distinctly at\nhis best in the descriptive poems. We have already seen that even as\nearly as the 8th century the poets of Ireland gave expression to that\nintimate love of nature which is perhaps the most striking feature in\nCeltic verse. Macdonald had a wonderful command of his native Gaelic.\nHis verse is always musical, and his skilful use of epithet, often very\nlavishly strewn, enables him to express with marvellous effect the\nvarious aspects of nature in her gentler and sterner moods alike. His\nmasterpiece, the _Birlinn of Clanranald_, which is at the same time,\napart from Ossianic ballads, the longest poem in the language, describes\na voyage from South Uist to Carrickfergus. Here Macdonald excels in\ndescribing the movement of the ship and the fury of the storm. In _Allt\nan t-Siucair_ (The Sugar Brook) we are given an exquisite picture of a\nbeautiful scene in the country on a summer morning. Other similar poems\nfull of melody and colour are _Failte na Mor-thir_ (Hail to the\nMainland), _Oran an t-Samhraidh_ (Ode to Summer), and _Oran an\nGheamhraidh_ (Ode to Winter). When this gifted son of the muses\nidentified himself with the Stuart cause he poured forth a stream of\ninspiring songs which have earned for him the title of the Tyrtaeus of\nthe Rebellion. Among these we may mention _Oran nam Fineachan Gaelach_\n(The Song of the Clans), _Brosnachadh nam Fineachan gaidhealach_ (A Call\nto the Highland Clans), and various songs to the prince. But\nincomparably the finest of all is _Oran Luaighe no Fucaidh_ (Waulking\nSong). Here the prince is addressed as a young girl with flowing locks\nof yellow hair on her shoulders, and called Morag. She had gone away\nover the seas, and the poet invokes her to return with a party of\nmaidens (i.e. soldiers) to dress the red cloth, in other words, to beat\nthe English red-coats. The song contains forty-seven stanzas in all,\nwith the characteristic refrain of the waulking-songs. _Am Breacan\nUallach_ is a spirited poem in praise of the kilt and plaid, which had\nbeen forbidden by the English government. Macdonald is also the author\nof a number of poems in MS. which have been called the quintessence of\nindecency. His works have gone through eight editions, the last of which\nis dated 1892.\n\nIn connexion with Macdonald's Jacobite songs it will be well to mention\nhere the name of a kindred spirit, John Roy Stuart (Iain Ruadh\nStiubhart). Stuart was a gallant soldier who was serving in Flanders\nwith the French against the English when the rebellion broke out. He\nhurried home and distinguished himself on the field of battle. After\nCulloden he gave vent to his dejection in two pathetic songs, one on the\nbattle itself, while the other deals with the sad lot of the Gael.\n\n\n  Duncan Ban.\n\nThe only poet of nature who can claim to rival Macdonald is a man of a\ntotally different stamp. Duncan Ban Maclntyre (Donnachadh Ban,\n1724-1812) was born of poor parents in Glenorchy, and never learned to\nread and write or to speak English. He was present on the English side\nat the battle of Falkirk, on which he wrote a famous ode, and shortly\nafterwards he was appointed gamekeeper to the earl of Breadalbane in\nCoire Cheathaich and Ben Dorain, where he lived for many years until he\naccepted a similar appointment from the duke of Argyll in\nBuachaill-Eite. Stewart of Luss is credited with having taken down the\n6000 lines of verse of his own composition which MacIntyre had carried\nabout with him for many years, and his works were published in 1768. In\nhis later years he was first a volunteer and afterwards a member of the\ncity guard in Edinburgh. In addition to his poems descriptive of nature\nMacIntyre composed a number of Jacobite martial songs, songs of love and\nsentiment, and comic and satiric pieces. The poem _Mairi bhan og_\naddressed to his wife is, on account of its grace and delicate\nsentiment, generally held to be the finest love-song in the language.\nBut it is above all as the poet of ben and corrie that MacIntyre is\nremembered. He has been called the Burns of the Highlands, but the\nbitterness and intellectual power of the Ayrshire poet are absent in\nMacIntyre. Duncan Ban describes fondly and tenderly the glories of his\nnative mountains as only one can who spends his life in daily communion\nwith them. His two great compositions are styled _Ben Dorain_ and _Coire\nCheathaich_. The former is a long poem of 550 lines divided into eight\nparts, alternating with a sort of strophe and antistrophe, one slow\ncalled _urlar_ in stately trochees, the other swift called _siubhal_ in\na kind of galloping anapaests; the whole ending with the _crunluath_ or\nfinal quick motion. It is said to follow very accurately the lilt of a\npipe-tune. The poem, which might be called the \"Song of the Deer,\" has\nbeen well done into English by J. S. Blackie. _Coire Cheathaich_ (The\nMisty Corrie), a much shorter poem than Ben Dorain, gives a loving\ndescription of all the prominent features in the landscape--the flowers,\nthe bushes, the stones, the hillocks with the birds and game, and the\nwhirling eddies with the glistening salmon. MacIntyre's works went\nthrough three editions in his lifetime, and a twelfth was issued in\n1901.\n\n\n  Rob Donn.\n\n  John MacCodrum.\n\nFrom Duncan Ban we pass on to consider the compositions of two men who\nhailed from the outlying parts of Gaeldom. Robert Mackay, or, as he is\ngenerally called, Rob Donn (1714-1778), was a native of Strathmore,\nSutherlandshire, who, like Duncan Ban, never learned to read or write.\nHis life, which was uneventful, was spent almost entirely within the\nconfines of the county of his birth. He left behind a large number of\npoems which may be roughly classified as elegiac, love and satiric\npoems. His elegies are of the typical Highland kind. The singer is\noverwhelmed with sadness and despairing in his loss. His best-known\ncomposition in this style is \"The Death-Song of Hugh.\" Having just heard\nof the death of Pelham, the prime minister, Mackay finds a poor friend\nof his dying alone amid squalor in the heart of the mountains. In a poem\ncomposed on the spot the poet contrasts the positions of the two men and\nreflects on the vanity of human existence. Among his love-poems the\n\"Shieling Song\" is deservedly famous. But it was above all as a satirist\nthat Mackay excelled during his lifetime. Indeed he seems to have had\nthe sharpest tongue of all the Highland bards. We have already seen what\npowers were attributed to satirical poets in Ireland in medieval times,\nand though bodily disfigurements were no longer feared in the 18th\ncentury, nothing was more dreaded, both in Ireland and Scotland, than\nthe lash of the bard. Hence many of Rob Donn's compositions have lost\ntheir point, and opinions have been greatly divided as to his merits as\na poet. His collected poems were first published in 1829, a second\nedition appeared in 1871, and in 1899 two new editions were issued\nsimultaneously, the one by Hew Morrison, the other by Adam Gunn and\nMalcolm Macfarlane. Another satirical poet who enjoyed a tremendous\nreputation in his own day was John MacCodrum, a native of North Uist and\na contemporary of the men just mentioned. It is related of MacCodrum\nthat the tailors of the Long Island refused to make any clothes for him\nin consequence of a satire he had directed against them. He was\nencountered in a ragged state by the Macdonald, who on learning the\ncause of his sorry condition promoted him to the dignity of bard to his\nfamily. Consequently a number of his compositions are addressed to his\npatrons, but one delightful poem entitled _Smeorach Chlann-Domhnuill_\n(The Mavis of Clan Donald) describes in verses full of melody the\nbeauties of his beloved island home.\n\n\n  Dugald Buchanan.\n\nIn the lyrical outburst which followed the Forty-five it was only to be\nexpected that religious poetry should be represented. We have seen that\nmuch of the space in the Dean's Book and in the _Book of Fernaig_ is\nallotted to verse of a pious order, though apart from the works of such\nIrish singers as Donnchadh O'Daly the poems do not reach a very high\npitch of excellence. The first religious poem to be printed in Scotch\nGaelic was a long hymn by David Mackellar, published in 1752. But\nincomparably the greatest writer of hymns and sacred poems is Dugald\nBuchanan (1716-1768). Buchanan was born in Strathyre in Perthshire and\nwas the son of a miller. He received a desultory kind of education and\ntried his hand at various trades. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster\nat Drumcastle near Kinloch Rannoch. He was selected to assist Stewart of\nKillin in preparing the first Highland version of the New Testament for\nthe Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge (published 1767), and at\nthe same time he issued an edition of his own poems. Of all Gaelic books\nthis has been far and away the most popular, having gone through no less\nthan forty editions. Buchanan seems to have been very susceptible to\nreligious influences, and the stern Puritan doctrines of retribution and\neternal damnation preached around him so worked on his mind that from\nhis ninth to his twenty-sixth year he was a prey to that mental anguish\nso eloquently described by Bunyan. The awful visions which presented\nthemselves to his vivid imagination find expression in his poems, the\nmost notable of which are \"The Majesty of God,\" \"The Dream,\" \"The\nSufferings of Christ,\" \"The Day of Judgment,\" \"The Hero,\" \"The Skull,\"\n\"Winter\" and \"Prayer.\" In the \"Day of Judgment,\" a poem of about 120\nstanzas, we are given in sublime verses a vivid delineation of the crack\nof doom as the archangel sounds the last trumpet. The poet then goes on\nto depict the awful scenes consequent upon the wreck of the elements,\nand pictures the gathering together of the whole human race before the\nThrone. But Buchanan's masterpiece is admittedly \"The Skull.\" Traces of\nthe influence of English writers have been observed in all the poet's\nwritings, and it seems certain that the subject of his greatest poem was\nsuggested by Shakespeare. The poet seated by a grave espies a skull. He\ntakes it up and muses on its history. This poem in 44 stanzas concludes\nwith a picture of the torments of hell and the glories of heaven.\n\n\n  Macpherson's \"Ossian.\"\n\nThe writers whom we have been discussing are practically unknown save to\nthose who are able to read them in the original. Now we have to turn our\nattention to a man whose works have never been popular in the Highlands,\nbut who nevertheless plays a prominent part in the history of European\nliterature. Though the precise origin of the Fenian cycle may remain a\nmoot-point to all time, the development of the literature centring in\nthe names of Finn and Ossian is at any rate clear from the 11th century\nonwards. The interest taken in Celtic studies since the middle of the\n19th century in Ireland and Scotland and elsewhere has accumulated a\nbody of evidence which has settled for all time the celebrated dispute\nas to the authenticity of Macpherson's Ossian. James Macpherson\n(1736-1796), a native of Kingussie, showed a turn for versification\nwhilst yet a student at college. Whilst acting as tutor at Moffat he was\nasked by John Home as to the existence of ancient Gaelic literature in\nthe Highlands. After some pressing Macpherson undertook to translate\nsome of the more striking poems, and submitted to Home a rendering of\n\"The Death of Oscar.\" Blair, Ferguson and Robertson, the foremost men in\nthe Edinburgh literary circles of the day, were enthusiastic about the\nunearthing of such unsuspected treasures, and at their instance\nMacpherson published anonymously in 1760 his _Fragments of Ancient\nPoetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland and translated from the\nGaelic or Erse Language_. This publication contained in all fifteen\ntranslations, preceded by a preface from the pen of Blair. Published\nunder such auspices, Macpherson's venture was bound to succeed. In the\npreface it was stated that among other ancient poems an epic of\nconsiderable length existed in Gaelic, and that if sufficient\nencouragement were forthcoming the author of the versions would\nundertake to recover and translate the same. A subscription was raised\nat once, and Macpherson set out on a journey of exploration in the\nHighlands and islands. As the result of this tour, on which he was\naccompanied by two or three competent Gaelic scholars, Macpherson\npublished in London in 1762 a large quarto containing his epic styled\n_Fingal_ with fifteen other smaller poems. In the following year a still\nlarger epic appeared with the title of _Temora_. It was in eight books,\nand contained a number of notes in addition to _Cath-Loda_ and other\npieces, along with the seventh book of _Temora_ in Gaelic as a specimen\nof the original. Ten years later a new edition of the whole was issued.\nThe authenticity of Macpherson's translations was soon impugned by Dr\nJohnson, Hume and Malcolm Laing, and the author was urged by his friends\nto publish the originals. Macpherson prevaricated, even though the\nHighlanders of India sent him a cheque for L1000 to enable him to\nvindicate the antiquity of their native literature. Macpherson at\ndifferent times, and particularly towards the end of his life, seems to\nhave had some intention of publishing the Gaelic of his Ossian, but he\nwas naturally deterred by the feeling that his knowledge of Gaelic was\nbecoming shakier with his continued absence from the Highlands. At any\nrate he left behind a quantity of Gaelic matter in MS. which was\nultimately published by the Highland Society of London in 1807. This\nMS., however, was revised and transcribed by Ross and afterwards\ndestroyed, so that we are ignorant of its nature. The Highland Society\nalso instituted an inquiry into the whole question, but their\nconclusions were somewhat negative. They succeeded in establishing that\nthe characters introduced by Macpherson were familiar in the Highlands\nand that Ossianic ballads really existed, which Macpherson had utilized.\nMacpherson's claims still found ardent advocates, such as Clark, in the\n'seventies, but the question was finally disposed of in papers by\nAlexander Macbain (1885) and L.C. Stern (1895). We can here only\nsummarize briefly the main lines of argument. (1) Macpherson's Ossian is\nfull of reminiscences of Homer, Milton and the Hebrew prophets. (2) He\nconfuses the Ulster and the Fenian heroic cycles in unpardonable\nfashion. (3) The Gaelic text of 1807 only represents one-half of the\nEnglish versions (11 poems out of 22 poems). Some Gaelic fragments from\ndifferent pens appeared prior to 1807, but these differ considerably\nfrom the \"official\" version. (4) In the Gaelic text of 1807 the version\nof the passage from _Temora_ is quite different from that published in\n1763. (5) Macpherson's Gaelic is full of offences against idiom and\nunnaturally strained language. (6) The names Morven and Selma are\nentirely of his own invention (see also MACPHERSON, JAMES). As a result\nof the stir caused by Macpherson's work a number of men set about\ncollecting the genuine popular literature of the Highlands. A few years\nbefore the appearance of _Fingal_, Jeremy Stone, a schoolmaster at\nDunkeld, had collected ten Ossianic ballads and published one of them in\nan English versified translation. For this collection see a paper by D.\nMackinnon in the _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, vol.\nxiv. pp. 314 ff. Unfortunately other persons were led to follow\nMacpherson's example. The chief of these imitators were (1) John Clark,\nwho in 1778 published, along with several others, an English poem\n_Mordubh_, later translated into Gaelic by Gillies; (2) R. Macdonald,\nson of Alexander Macdonald, who is the author of _The Wish of the Aged\nBard_; (3) John Smith of Campbeltown (d. 1807), author of fourteen\nOssianic poems styled _Seandana_, published in English in 1780 and in\nGaelic in 1787; (4) D. MacCallum of Arisaig, who in 1821 published\n_Collath_ and a complete _Mordubh_ \"by an ancient bard Fonar.\"\n\n\n  Later poets.\n\nWe have now reviewed in turn the greatest writers of the Scottish\nHighlands. The men we have dealt with created a kind of tradition which\nothers have attempted to carry on. Ewen Maclachlan (1775-1822), the\nfirst transcriber of the Dean's Book, was assistant librarian of King's\nCollege and rector of the grammar school of Aberdeen. Amongst other\nthings he translated the greater part of seven books of Homer's _Iliad_\ninto Gaelic heroic verse, and he also had a large share in the\ncompilation of the Gaelic-English part of the Highland Society's\n_Dictionary_. A number of Gaelic poems were published by him in 1816.\nThese consist of poems of nature, e.g. _Dain nan Aimsirean, Dan mu\nchonaltradh, Smeorach Chloinn-Lachuinn_, and of a well-known love-song,\nthe _Ealaidh Ghaoil_. William Ross (1762-1790), a schoolmaster at\nGairloch, is the typical Highland poet of the tender passion, and he is\ncommonly represented as having gone to an early grave in consequence of\nunrequited affection. His finest compositions are _Feasgar Luain_ and\n_Moladh na h-oighe Gaelich_. Another exquisite song _Cuachag nan\nCraobh_, is usually attributed to this poet, but it seems to go back to\nthe beginning of the 18th century. A fifth edition of Ross's poems\nappeared in 1902. The most popular writer of sacred poems after Buchanan\nis undoubtedly Peter Grant, a Baptist minister in Strathspey, whose\n_Dain Spioradail_ (first published in 1809) reached a twentieth edition\nin 1904, Sweetness, grace and simplicity are the characteristics which\nhave endeared him to the heart of the Gael. Two other well-known\nhymn-writers spent their lives in Nova Scotia--James Macgregor\n(1759-1830) and John Maclean, a native of Tiree. The compositions of the\nlatter have been published under the title _Clarsach na Coille_\n(Glasgow, 1881). But John Morrison (1790-1852), the poet-blacksmith of\nRodel, Harris, is the most worthy of the name of successor to Buchanan.\nHis works have been carefully edited in two volumes by George Henderson\n(2nd edition, 1896). His poems are remarkably musical and imaginative.\nTwo of the most characteristic are _An Iondruinn_ and _Tha duin' og agus\nseann duin' agam_. William Livingston or MacDhunleibhe (1808-1870) was a\nnative of Islay. He received scarcely any education, and was apprenticed\nas a tailor, but he early made his way to the mainland. He was ever a\nfierce Anglophobe, and did his best to make up for the deficiencies of\nhis early training. He published in English a _Vindication of the Celtic\nCharacter_, and attempted to issue a _History of Scotland_ in parts. His\npoems, which have been at least twice published (1858, 1882), are\nequally powerful in the expression of ruthless fierceness and tearful\nsorrow. In _Fios thun a' Bhaird_ he sings pathetically of the passing of\nthe older order in Islay, and another powerful poem entitled _Duan\nGeall_ deals with the campaign of the Highlanders under Sir Colin\nCampbell in the Crimea. Livingston's contemporary, Evan Maccoll\n(1808-1898), the son of a small farmer on Lochfyneside, in his early\nyears devoured eagerly all the English literature and Gaelic lore that\ncame in his way. In 1836 he issued a volume of songs called the\n_Mountain Minstrel_, containing his productions in Gaelic and English.\nTwo years later two volumes appeared, one entirely in Gaelic, styled\n_Clarsach nam Beann_, the other in English under the old title. A third\nedition of the Gaelic collection was published in 1886. Maccoll acted\nfor many years as clerk in the custom-house at Liverpool, and afterwards\nhe filled a similar post at Kingston, Canada. He has been called the\nMoore of Highland song. His spirit is altogether modern, and his poems\nare much nearer the Lowland type than those of the older bards. Among\nhis best-known pieces are _Bas Mairi_ and _Duanag Ghaoil_. We can do no\nmore than mention the names of John Maclachlan of Rahoy (1804-1874),\nJames Munro (1794-1870), well known as a grammarian, Dugald Macphail (b.\n1818), Mrs Mary Macpherson, Angus Macdonald (1804-1874), Mrs Mary\nMackellar (1834-1890) and Neil Macleod (b. 1843), author of a popular\ncollection _Clarsach an Doire_ (1st ed., 1883; 3rd ed., 1904). Neil\nMacleod is also the writer of the popular song _An Gleann's an robh mi\nog_. Others whom we cannot mention here are known as the authors of one\nor more songs which have become popular. It is natural to compare the\nstate of affairs at the beginning of the 20th century with that\nobtaining in 1800. In the dawn of the 19th century every district in the\nHighlands had its native poet, whilst a century later not a single\nGaelic bard of known reputation existed anywhere within its borders. It\nis only too evident that the new writers prefer English to Gaelic as a\nmedium of literature, partly because they know it better, but also\nbecause in it they appeal to a far wider public.\n\n\n  Prose writers.\n\nIt will have been observed that we have said nothing about prose works\nwritten in Gaelic. Original Gaelic prose is conspicuous by its absence.\nThe first printed work is the translation of Knox's _Liturgy_ by Bishop\nCarsewell, published in 1567 (reprinted in 1873). Calvin's Catechism is\nsaid to have been issued in 1631. The Psalms and Shorter Catechism\nappeared in 1659, while two other psalters saw the light before the end\nof the century, one by Kirke (1684), the other issued by the Synod of\nArgyll (1694). The language of all these publications may, however, be\ntermed Irish. Apart from reprints of the catechism and psalter, the only\nother Gaelic matter which appeared in print before 1750 were Kirke's\nIrish version of the Bible in Roman type with a vocabulary (1690), and\nthe _Vocabulary_ by Alexander Macdonald (1741). But from the middle of\nthe 18th century translations of the works of English religious writers\nstreamed from the various presses. Alleine, Baxter, Boston, Bunyan,\nDoddridge and Jonathan Edwards were all prime favourites, and their\nworks have gone through many editions. Apart from a well-meant but\nwholly inadequate version of Schiller's _Tell_, the only non-religious\nwork which can be termed literature existing in a Gaelic translation is\na portion of the _Arabian Nights_, though fragments of other classics\nsuch as Lamb's _Tales from Shakespeare_ have appeared in magazines. The\none-sided character of Gaelic literature, in addition to exercising a\nbaneful influence on Highland character, has in the long run of\nnecessity proved adverse to the vitality of the language. The best\nstandard of Gaelic is by common consent the language of the Scriptures.\nJames Stewart of Killin's version of the New Testament, published by the\nSociety for Propagating Christian Knowledge, was followed by a\ntranslation of the Old Testament in four parts (1783-1801), the work of\nJohn Stewart of Luss and John Smith of Campbeltown. The whole Gaelic\nBible saw the light in 1807. But the revision of 1826 is regarded as\nstandard. The translators and revisers had no norm to follow, and it is\ndifficult to say how far they were influenced by Irish tradition. Much\nin the Gaelic version seems to savour of Irish idiom, and it is a pity\nthat some competent scholar such as Henderson has not investigated the\nquestion. Of original prose works we can mention two. The one is a\n_History of the Forty-five (Eachdraidh a' Phrionnsa, no Bliadhna\nThearlaich_), published in 1845 by John Mackenzie, the compiler of the\n_Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ (1806-1848). A second edition of this book\nappeared in 1906. The other is the more famous _Caraid nan Gaedheal_, by\nNorman Macleod (new edition, 1899). This volume consists mainly of a\nnumber of dialogues dealing with various departments of Highland life,\nwhich were originally contributed to various magazines from 1829 to\n1848. Macleod's style is racy and elegant, and his work is deservedly\npopular.\n\nIn conclusion we must take notice of the more important collections of\nfolklore. Gaelic, like Irish, is extraordinarily rich in proverbs. The\nfirst collection of Gaelic proverbs was published in 1785 by Donald\nMacintosh. This work was supplemented and enlarged in 1881 by Alexander\nNicolson, whose book contains no fewer than 3900 short sayings. A large\ncollection of Gaelic folk-tales was gleaned and published by J.F.\nCampbell under the title of _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_ (4\nvols., Edinburgh, 1862). Alexander Carmichael published a version of the\n_Tain Bo Calnge_, called _Toirioc na Taine_, which he collected in South\nUist (_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, ii. 25-42),\nalso the story of Deirdre and the sons of Uisneach in prose taken down\nin Barra (ib. xiii. 241-257). Five volumes of popular stories, collected\nby J.G. Campbell, D. MacInnes, J. Macdougall and Lord Archibald\nCampbell, have been published (1889-1895) by Nutt under the title _Waifs\nand Strays of Celtic Tradition_. These collections contain a good deal\nof matter pertaining to the old heroic cycles. Seven ballads dealing\nwith the Ulster cycle were collected and printed by Hector Maclean under\nthe title _Ultonian Hero-ballads_ (Glasgow, 1892). Macpherson gave a\nfillip to collectors of Ossianic lore, and a number of MSS. going back\nto his time are deposited in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. J.F.\nCampbell spent twelve years searching for variants, and his results were\npublished in his _Leabhar na Feinne_ (1872). This volume contains 54,000\nlines of heroic verse. The Edinburgh MSS. were transcribed by Alexander\nCameron, and published after his death by Alexander Macbain and John\nKennedy in his _Reliquiae Celticae_. This work is therefore a complete\ncorpus of Gaelic heroic verse. Finally the charms and incantations of\nthe Highlands have been collected and published by Alexander Carmichael\nin two sumptuous volumes under the title _Carmina Gadelica_ (1900).\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--The standard work is Magnus Maclean, _The Literature of\n  the Highlands_ (London, 1904); see also various chapters in the same\n  writer's _Literature of the Celts_ (London, 1902); L.C. Stern, _Die\n  Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp. 98-109; Nigel MacNeill, _The\n  Literature of the Highlanders_ (Inverness, 1892); J.S. Blackie, _The\n  Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands_ (Edinburgh, 1876);\n  P.T. Pattison, _Gaelic Bards_ (1890); L. Macbean, _Songs and Hymns of\n  the Scottish Highlands_ (Edinburgh, 1888); John Mackenzie, _Sarobair\n  nam Bard Gaelach_, or _The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ (new ed.,\n  Edinburgh, 1904); A. Sinclair, _An t-Oranaiche_ (Glasgow, 1879); _The\n  Book of Deer_, edited for the Spalding Club by Dr Stuart (1869);\n  Alexander Macbain, _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_,\n  vols. xi. and xii.; _The Book of the Dean of Lismore_, edited by T.\n  Maclauchlan (1862); Alexander Cameron, _Reliquiae Celticae_\n  (Inverness, 1892-1894); John Reid, _Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica_\n  (Glasgow, 1832); _Catalogue_ of the books in the Celtic department,\n  Aberdeen University Library (1897); George Henderson, _Leabhar nan\n  Gleann_ (Inverness, 1898); D. Mackinnon, \"The Fernaig MS.\" in\n  _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, xi. 311-339; J.S.\n  Smart, _James Macpherson, An Episode in Literature_ (London, 1905);\n  L.C. Stern, \"Die Ossianischen Heldenlieder\" in _Zeitschrift fur\n  vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte_ (1895), translated by J.L.\n  Robertson in _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, xxv.\n  257-325; G. Dottin, _Revue de synthese historique_, viii. 79-91; M.C.\n  Macleod, _Modern Gaelic Bards_ (Stirling, 1908).     (E. C. Q.)\n\nIII. MANX LITERATURE.--The literary remains written in the Manx language\nare much slighter than those of any other Celtic dialect. With one small\nexception nothing pertaining to the saga literature of Ireland has been\npreserved. The little we possess naturally falls under two\nheads--original compositions and translations. With regard to the first\ncategory we must give the place of honour to an Ossianic poem contained\nin a MS. in the British Museum (written in 1789), which relates how\nOrree, Finn's enemy, was tormented by the women of Finn's household when\nthe latter was away hunting, how he in revenge set fire to the house,\nand how Finn had him torn in pieces by wild horses. Most of the existing\nliterature of native origin, however, consists of ballads and carols,\nlocally called carvels. These used to be sung on Christmas eve in the\nchurches, the members of the congregation each bringing a candle. Any\none who pleased could get up and sing one. These carvels deal largely\nwith the end of the world, the judgment-day and the horrors of hell.\nAbout eighty of them were published under the title of _Carvalyn\nGailckagh_ (Douglas, 1891). An attempt is being made by _Yn Cheshaght\nGailckagh_ to revive the _Oiel Voirrey_ (=Irish _Oidhche Fheile\nMhuire_), \"the feast of Mary,\" as the festival used to be called, and\ngatherings in the old style have been held in Peel for the last two or\nthree years. Apart from the carvels there are other ballads in\nexistence, the most important of which were printed in vol. xvi. of the\n_Publications of the Manx Society_. The earliest is an 18th-century song\nof Manannan Mac y Lheir, traditionally supposed to have been written in\nthe 16th century, and which tells of the conversion of the island by St\nPatrick. Then comes _Baase Ittiam Dhone_ (The Death of Brown William),\ndealing with the death of William Christian, who was shot as a traitor\nin 1662. The best-known Manx song is _Mylecharaine_ (=Irish\n_Maolchiaran_). It is directed against a man of this name who was the\nfirst to give a dowry to his daughter, the custom having previously been\nfor the bridegroom to pay money to the father of the bride. Others are\n_Ny Kirree fo Sniaghtey_ (The Sheep under the Snow), a song about the\nloss of the Douglas herring fleet in 1787 (reprinted at Douglas, 1872),\nand _O Vannin Veg Veen_ (Dear little Mona). A further ballad was taken\ndown by J. Strachan and is published in the _Zeitschrift fur celtische\nPhilologie_, i. 79. In 1760 Joseph Bridson wrote a \"Short Account of the\nIsle of Man\" in Manx (_Coontey Ghiare jeh Ellan Vannin ayns Gailck_),\nwhich was reprinted in vol. xx. of the _Publications of the Manx\nSociety_. The translated literature is almost entirely of a religious\ncharacter. Jenner prints a list of twenty-three volumes in his article\nreferred to below, but we can only here mention the most important. The\nfirst is the translation of the English Prayer-Book by Bishop Phillips,\n1610 (published by A.W. Moore, Oxford, 1895). The _Sermons_ of Bishop\nWilson in 3 vols. (1783) are a very rare work, highly important for our\nknowledge of Manx prose, and it is to be hoped that _Yn Cheshaght\nGailckagh_ will see their way to reprint it. A translation of parts of\nMilton's _Paradise Lost_ (_Pargys Caillit_) by Thomas Christian, 1796,\nis reprinted in vol. xx. of the _Publications of the Manx Society_. The\nlater translation of the Church of England Prayer-Book was printed in\n1765 and again in 1777 and 1840. But by far the most important of all is\nthe translation of the Bible. The energetic Bishop Wilson managed to get\nparts of the Scriptures translated and the Gospel of St Matthew was\nprinted in 1748. Wilson's successor, Bishop Hildesley, completed the\nwork, and in 1775 the whole Bible appeared. The last reprint of the\nBible appeared in 1819, that of the New Testament in 1810 (?). As a\ncuriosity it may be mentioned that recently _Aesop's Fables_ have been\ntranslated into the vernacular (Douglas, 1901).\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--H. Jenner, \"The Manx Language: its Grammar, Literature\n  and Present State,\" _Transactions of the London Philological Society_\n  (1875), pp. 172 ff.; _Publications of the Manx Society_, vols. xvi.,\n  xx., xxi.; L.C. Stern, _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp.\n  110-11.\n\n\n  Early MSS.\n\nIV. WELSH LITERATURE.--The oldest documents consist of glosses of the\n9th and 10th centuries found in four MSS.--Oxoniensis prior and\nposterior, the Cambridge Juvencus and Martianus Capella. These glosses\nwere published by J. Loth in his _Vocabulaire vieux-breton_ (1884), but\ntheir value is entirely philological. In addition, we possess two short\nverses, written in Irish characters, preserved in the Juvencus\nManuscript in the University Library at Cambridge (printed in Skene's\n_Four Ancient Books of Wales_). This manuscript is a versification of\nthe Gospels dating from the 9th century. The value of these two verses\nis threefold: they give us, in the first place, a specimen of the Welsh\nlanguage at a time when the modern laws of euphony were in a\ncomparatively elementary stage; secondly, they are of the utmost\nimportance to the historian tracing the development of Welsh\nversification, and, in future research, they must be taken into account\nby the historian of modern metres in other languages; and, thirdly, the\nsimilarity of their form and diction to other verses, attributed to\nLlywarch Hen, and preserved in a much later orthography, will be a\nserious consideration to the higher critic in Welsh literature.\n\n\n  \"Black Book of Carmarthen.\"\n\n  \"Book of Aneirin.\"\n\n  \"Book of Taliessin.\"\n\n  \"Red Book of Hergest.\"\n\nAll the prose and verse of the succeeding centuries, that is to say from\nthe 10th to the beginning of the 14th, is preserved in four important\nmanuscripts, written during the latter half of the period. The first of\nthese manuscripts is the _Black Book of Carmarthen_, a small quarto\nvellum manuscript of fifty leaves, written in Gothic letters by various\nhands during the reign of Henry II. (published in facsimile by\nGwenogvryn Evans, Oxford, 1907). This book belonged originally to the\npriory of Black Canons at Carmarthen, from whom it passed to the church\nof St David; at the suppression of the monasteries in the reign of Henry\nVIII. it was presented by the treasurer of that church to Sir John\nPrice, one of the king's commissioners, and from him it passed\neventually into the hands of Sir Robert Vaughan, the owner of the famous\nHengwrt collection. It is now among the Peniarth Manuscripts,\nundoubtedly the most valuable collection of Welsh manuscripts in the\nUnited Kingdom. The second manuscript is the _Book of Aneirin_, a small\nquarto manuscript of nineteen leaves of vellum, written about 1250. It\nwas at one time in the possession of Sir Thomas Phillips of Middlehill,\nand now belongs to the free library of the city of Cardiff. The third is\nthe _Book of Taliessin_, in the Hengwrt and subsequently in the Peniarth\ncollection. It is a small quarto manuscript containing thirty-eight\nleaves, written in Gothic letters, about the early part of the 14th\ncentury. The fourth manuscript, and in some respects the most important,\nis the _Red Book of Hergest_, so called from Hergest Court, one of the\nseats of the Vaughans. It is a folio volume of 360 leaves written by\ndifferent hands between the beginning of the 14th and the middle of the\n15th century. This manuscript, which is the most extensive compilation\nof the medieval prose and verse of Wales, is now in the possession of\nJesus College, Oxford, and is kept in the Bodleian Library of that\nuniversity. The main body of the poems contained in these four MSS. was\nprinted by W. F. Skene with a tentative English version in his _Four\nAncient Books of Wales_.\n\nThe other Welsh manuscripts, ranging down from the 15th to the 18th\ncentury, are far too numerous to notice, and it is outside the scope of\nthis article to deal minutely with the original sources of the text of\nWelsh writings.\n\nWe will now only endeavour to sketch the history of Welsh literature\nfrom these early centuries down to our own times, and to show how the\nCeltic people of Wales have developed a literature true to their own\ngenius, and how that literature stands to this day both a minister to\nthe culture of the Welsh people and a sure indication of it.\n\n\n  Gildas\n\n1. _Early Latin Writers._--The works now known as those of Gildas (q.v.)\nand Nennius (q.v.) are written in Latin; they throw considerable light\non the origin of Welsh romantic literature and on the history of the\nearlier poems. Gildas was born at Ailclyd, the modern Dumbarton, that\npart of Britain which is called by Welsh writers _Y Gogledd_, or the\nNorth. Several dates have been assigned for his birth and death, but he\nprobably flourished between 500 and 580, and his book, _De Excidio\nBritanniae_ seems to have been written about 560. This work is a sketch\nof British history under the Romans and in the period after their\nwithdrawal from the country, and includes the period of the wars of the\nBritons with the Picts, Scots and Saxons. Mr Skene suggests very\nreasonably that the well-known letter of the Britons to Aetius, asking\nfor Roman aid, is misplaced, and that if put in its own place some of\nthe anachronisms of Gildas will disappear. This work, which contains\nsome spirited attacks on the leaders of the Britons for their sins, is\nstrangely full of contradictions. It seems to be the work of some person\nwell versed in the facts of that part of British history, to which he\nhad an easy access, but who supplemented them with traditional details\nand with dates which were mere guess-work. Mr Skene thinks that the work\nof Nennius was originally written in Welsh in the north and was\nafterwards translated into Latin. To this nucleus was added the\ngenealogies of the Saxon kings down to 738. Afterwards some person,\ncalled Marc in the Vatican manuscript, appended probably about 823 the\nlife of St Germanus and the legends of St Patrick, which were\nsubsequently incorporated with the history. Some South Welshman added to\nthe oldest manuscript of the history in these countries, about 977, a\nchronicle of events from 444 to 954, in which there are genealogies\nbeginning with Owain, son of Hywel Dda, king of South Wales. This\nchronicle, which is not found in other manuscripts, has been made the\nbasis of two later chronicles brought down to 1286 and 1288\nrespectively. It is consequently not the work of one author. A learned\nIrishman named Gilla Coemgin, who died in 1072, translated it into Irish\nand added many things concerning the Irish and the Picts. The _Historia\nBritonum_ is more valuable for the legendary matter which it contains\nthan for what may be accepted as history, for it gives us the British\nlegends of the colonization of Great Britain and Ireland, the exploits\nof King Arthur and the prophecies of Merlin, which are not found\nelsewhere before the 12th century. The date of the book is of the\ngreatest importance to the history of medieval romance, and there can be\nno doubt that it is earlier than the Norman Conquest and that the\nlegends themselves are of British origin.\n\n2. _The Epic Period, 700-950._--The higher criticism of the early poetry\nof Wales contained in the four ancient manuscripts already mentioned has\nundergone a good many changes since their contents first excited the\ncuriosity of English scholars. In turn Welshmen, with more zeal than\ndiscretion, have displayed an amazing charlatanism in the extraordinary\ntheories which they put forth, and Englishmen have shown an utmost\nmeanness in belittling what is undoubtedly a most valuable monument of\nthe past. But now the labours of Zeuss and others who have made a study\nof Celtic philology furnish us with much safer canons of criticism than\nexisted in 1849, when even a learned Welshman, the late Thomas Stephens,\nwho did more than any one else to establish the claims of his country to\na real literature, doubted the authenticity of a large number of the\npoems said to have been written by Taliessin, Aneirin, Myrddin and\nLlywarch Hen, who are supposed to have lived in the 5th century. A great\nservice was done to Welsh literature by the publication of the texts of\nthose poems from the four ancient manuscripts by W.F. Skene. In addition\nto the text, translations of the poems were furnished by Dr Silvan Evans\nand the Rev. Robert Williams, but the translation, though on the whole a\nvery creditable work, is full of mistakes which few men, writing at that\ntime, could have avoided. The publication of the text of the Black Book,\nwith notes by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, will be of great service towards\nclearing up the mist which envelops this older literature.\n\nMost of the poems in these four manuscripts are attributed to four\npoets, Aneirin, Llywarch Hen, Taliessin and Myrddin, who are said to\nhave lived and written in Cumbria or Y Gogledd, where the actors in the\nevents referred to also lived. The greater part of this region enjoyed\nsubstantial independence down to the end of the 9th century, with the\nexception of the interval from 655, when they were subjected to the\nkingdom of Northumbria by Oswy after the defeat of Cadwallawn and Penda,\nto the battle of Dunnichen in 686, when Ecfrid, king of Northumbria, was\ndefeated. From the 7th to the 9th century Cumbria, including under that\nname all the British territory from the Ribble to the Clyde, was the\nprincipal theatre of British and Saxon conflict. The rise of the dynasty\nof Maelgwn Gwynedd, who, according to Welsh tradition, was a descendant\nof Cunedda Wledig, one of the Picts of the north, brought Wales into\nclose connexion with the Cumbrian kingdom, and prepared both North and\nSouth Wales for the reception of the northern traditions and the rise of\na true Welsh literature.\n\nWhether the poets of the north really wrote any of the poems which in a\nmodified form have come down to us or not, there can be no doubt that a\nnumber of lays attributed to them lived in popular tradition, and that\nunder the sudden burst of glory which the deeds of Cadwallawn called\nforth and which ended in the disastrous defeat of 655, a British\nliterature began to spring up, and was nourished by the hopes of a\nfuture resurrection under his son Cadwaladr, whose death was disbelieved\nin for such a long time. These floating lays and traditions gradually\ngathered into North Wales, brought thither by the nobility and the bards\nwho fled before advancing hosts of the victorious Saxon kings of the\nnorth. The heroes of the north became now the heroes of Wales, and the\nsites of the battles they fought were identified with places of similar\nname in Wales and England.\n\n\n  Aneurin\n\nBy far the longest and the most famous poem of this series is attributed\nto Aneurin. This spelling of his name is comparatively modern, and in\nthe old manuscripts it is given as Aneirin. The later form seems to have\nbeen affected by the form _eurin_, \"golden,\" and to owe the continuation\nof the misspelling to a belief that the poet and Gildas, whose name is\nsupposed to be the Latin form of the Old English _gylden_, were one and\nthe same person. This poem, called the _Gododin_ (with notes by T.\nStephens and published by Prof. Powel for the Cymmrodorion Society,\nLondon, 1888), is extremely obscure, both on account of its vocabulary\nand its topography and allusions. It deals mainly with \"the men who went\nto Cattraeth,\" which is supposed to have been fought between the Britons\nand the Scots under Aedan, king of Dalriada, and the pagan Saxons and\ntheir British subjects in _Devyr_ (Deira) and _Bryneich_ (Bernicia), and\nthe half-pagan Picts of Guotodin, a district corresponding to the\nnorthern half of the Lothians along the Firth of Forth. Critics have\nattempted with partial success to cast some light on its obscurity by\nsupposing that the poem as a whole is made up of two parts dealing with\ntwo distinct battles. This may or may not be, but there is no doubt that\nmany of the stanzas of the poem as found in the manuscript are not in\ntheir proper places, and a critical readjustment of the different\nstanzas and lines would do much towards solving its problem. It seems\nprobable, too, that the original nucleus of the poem was handed down\norally, and recited or sung by the bards and minstrels at the courts of\ndifferent noblemen. It thus became the common stock-in-trade of the\nWelsh rhapsodist, and in time the bards, using it as a kind of\nframework, added to it here and there pieces of their own composition\nformed on the original model, especially when the heroes named happened\nto be the traditional forefathers of their patrons, and occasionally\nintroduced the names of new heroes and new places as it suited their\npurpose; and all this seems to have been done in early times. Older\nfragments dealing too with the legendary heroes of the Welsh were\nafterwards incorporated with the poem, and some of these fragments\nundoubtedly preserve the orthographical and grammatical forms of the 9th\ncentury. So that, on the whole, it seems as fruitless to look for a\ndefinite record of historical events in this poem as it would be to do\nso in the Homeric poems, but like them, though it cannot any longer be\nregarded as a correct and definite account of a particular battle or\nwar, it still stands to this day the epic of the warriors of its own\nnation. It matters not whether these heroes fought at far Cattraeth or\non some other forgotten field of disaster; this song still reflects, as\na true national epic, the sad defeats and the brave but desperate\nrallies of the early Welsh. Like the music of the Welsh, its dominant\nnote is that of sadness, expressing the exultation of battle and the\nvery joy of life in minor notes. To a great extent Welsh poets are to\nthis day true and faithful disciples of this early master.\n\n\n  Taliessin.\n\nMany of the poems attributed to Taliessin are undoubtedly late. Indeed,\nboth Taliessin and Myrddin,[2] the one as the mythological chief of all\nWelsh bards and the other as a great magician, seem pre-eminently suited\nto attract a great deal of later Welsh poetry under their aegis; but the\nolder poems attributed to them are worthy of any literature. Sometimes,\nas in the verses attributed to Llywarch Hen beginning _Stafell\nCynddylan_, an early specimen of poetic grief over departed glory, we\nfind that gentle elegiac note which is so common in early English\npoetry. In the Taliessinic poems, the _Battle of Argoed Llwyvain_ and\nothers, we have that boldness of portraiture which is found in the\n_Gododin_, whilst in many a noble line we seem to hear again the ravens\nscreaming shrilly over their sword-feasts, and the strong strokes of the\nadvancing warriors.\n\n\n  Merlin.\n\nIt was but natural that all the pseudo-prophetic poems, written of\ncourse after the events which they foretold, should be attributed to the\nchief among seers, Myrddin, or, as his name is written in English,\nMerlin; so that all the poems accredited to him, with the exception\nperhaps of the _Avallenau_, were not written before the 12th century.\n\nIn most of the poems attributed to Llywarch Hen and in some of the\nMyrddin poems, the verses begin with the same line, which, though it has\nno direct reference to the subject of the poem itself, is used as a\nrefrain or catch-word, exactly like the refrains employed by Mr\nSwinburne and others in their ballads. These lines generally refer to\nsome natural object or objects, as, for instance, \"the snow of the\nmountain\" or \"bright are the tops of the broom.\"\n\nThe first period, then, of Welsh literature lies between 700 and 950. It\nis in most respects the epic period, the period in which poets wrote of\ngreat men and their deeds, the legendary and the historic heroes of the\nCymry, men like Urien Rheged, and heroes like Hyveidd Hir. Even in the\nnext period the epic note had not quite died out.\n\n\n  The Gododin series.\n\n3. _The Prose Romances and the Poet Princes, 1100-1290._--It will be\nseen that there is a considerable gap between the first and second\nperiod of Welsh literature. It must not be supposed, however, that\nnothing was composed or written during these years. Indeed, it may well\nbe that some of the poetry attributed to the minor bards of the last\nperiod was composed between 900 and 1100, and that some other poetry too\nwas written and lost. But there are abundant reasons for believing that\nWelsh poetry was at a very low ebb during those years. The progress of\nWales as a political unit had suffered a check after the battle of\nChester in 613. The effects of this defeat were not immediate, as the\nWelsh had still enough of their characteristic hopefulness to expect\nultimate victory; we therefore have reasons for believing that the\nGododin series of poems were still used--or perhaps used then for the\nfirst time--to spur on \"the hawks of war\" to greater efforts. Gradually,\nhowever, the Angles, hemming them in on all sides from the Clyde to the\nSevern, began to press nearer and nearer; the Welsh at last seem to have\nlost heart, and no one any longer \"had the desire of song.\" Content with\ntheir old epics and their older myths, which owe perhaps to these years\na darker and more sombre tinge, they allowed their song to be hushed.\nThe great lords had hardly chosen their final abodes; the smaller lords\nhad all been killed in war and their places taken now by one, now by\nanother, so that the warrior prince himself had not the leisure, and\nhardly the inspiration necessary, for song, and the bards found but\nscanty patronage among such a diminished and poverty-stricken nobility.\nThe only order that seemed to prosper was that of the monks, and we owe\nthem our gratitude for preserving the ancient writings and the ancient\ntraditions; but they were simply copyists, though they had undoubtedly\nsome hand in giving the _Gododin_ its final form and in setting in its\nconvenient framework the names of the forefathers of their aristocratic\nabbots.\n\nIn the year 1044 Gruffydd ab Llewelyn conquered Hywel ab Edwin and\nbecame king of Wales. By means of his diplomacy and his arms he\nsucceeded in stemming the tide of Saxon invasion that was threatening to\noverflow even the little remnant of land that was left to the Welsh, and\nhis strong rule gave the Welsh muse another opportunity. Gruffydd,\nhowever, died in 1063, and was eventually succeeded in 1073 by Trahaern\nin North Wales, and Rhys ab Owen in South Wales. The rule of these two\nprinces was destined to be the last period of literary inertness in the\nlong interval following the confinement of Wales to her inaccessible\nhighlands.\n\nDuring these years a man was hiding in Ireland, called Gruffydd ab\nCynan, a scion of the old branch of Welsh kings. In Brittany, too, Rhys\nab Tewdwr, a claimant to the throne of South Wales, had sought the\nprotection of his Breton kinsmen. In 1073 Rhys ab Tewdwr obtained the\nthrone of Rhys ab Owen, and, after many years of hard fighting, Gruffydd\nab Cynan, with the help of Rhys ab Tewdwr, defeated Trahaern at the\nbattle of Myrydd Carn in 1081. On the accession of these two powerful\nprinces the whole country broke forth into songs of praise and\njubilation, and the long night was at an end.\n\nIt is important to remember that both Gruffydd and Rhys had a direct\npersonal influence on the literary revival of their times. Gruffydd ab\nCynan while in exile had seen how the Irish _Oenach_ was held, and had\nseen prizes given for poetry and song. We have it on the authority of\nWelsh writers that he reorganized the bards and improved the music, and\nin many other ways gave a great and beneficial impulse to Welsh\nliterature. He may have brought over some of the later Irish legends\nwhich have had such a powerful effect on the literature of Wales.\n\n\n  Geoffrey of Montmouth.\n\nRhys ab Tewdwr, too, brought with him from Brittany an enthusiasm for\nthe old Celtic tales, and perhaps some of the tales themselves which had\nbeen by that time forgotten in Wales, tales of the Round Table, and\nArthur \"begirt with British and Armoric knights,\" of knightly deeds and\nmagical metamorphoses, which were destined to influence profoundly all\nthe literatures of the West. We find, therefore, in this period that\npoetry flourished mostly in the North under Gruffydd ab Cynan, and prose\nin the south under Rhys ab Tewdwr, where the new enthusiasm for the old\nWelsh legends resulted in the _History of Britain_ of Geoffrey of\nMonmouth, which is an expansion of the books attributed to Gildas and\nNennius. It was written in Latin sometime before 1147, and is dedicated\nto Robert, earl of Gloucester, the grandson of Rhys ab Tewdwr. In the\nintroductory epistle, Geoffrey states that Walter, archdeacon of Oxford,\nhad given him a very ancient book in the British tongue, giving an\naccount of the kings of Britain from Brutus to Cadwaladr, and that he\nhad translated it into Latin at the archdeacon's request. The book,\nhowever, is a compilation and not a translation, but the materials were\nprobably drawn from British sources. In this history Geoffrey asserts\nthat the deeds of Arthur \"were commonly related in a pleasing manner.\"\nHe was perhaps originally but the hero of some popular ballad, or of a\nforgotten stanza of the _Gododin_, and the importance of his name in the\nliterature of the world seems to be due to an accident. We cannot,\nhowever, in this article consider the Arthurian Legend (q.v.) as a\nwhole; we must be content with dealing with the most important of the\nromantic tales which are contained in the _Red Book of Hergest_. They\nmay be divided into four classes:--\n\n(i.) The _Mabinogi_ proper, containing (1) _Pwyll_, prince of Dyvet; (2)\n_Branwen_, daughter of Llyr; (3) _Manawyddan_, son of _Llyr_; (4)\n_Math_, son of Mathonwy.\n\n(ii.) Old British tales referring to Roman times, viz. (1) _Lludd_ and\n_Llevelys_; (2) The Dream of _Macsen Wledic_.\n\n(iii.) British Arthurian tales, viz. (1) _Kilhwch_ and _Olwen_; (2) The\nDream of _Rhonabwy_.\n\n(iv.) Later tales of chivalry, viz. (1) The Lady of the Fountain; (2)\n_Peredur_, son of _Evrawc_; (3) _Geraint_, son of _Erbin_.\n\n\n  The Mabinogion.\n\nThe group of four romances in the first class forms a cycle of legends\nand is called in the manuscript _Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi_--the Four\nBranches of the Mabinogi; so it is only these four tales that can,\nstrictly speaking, be called _Mabinogion_. In these stories we have the\nrelics of the ancient Irish mythology of the _Tuatha De Danann_,\nsometimes mixed with later myths. The _Caer Sidi_, where neither disease\nnor old age affects any one, is the _Sid_ of Irish mythology, the\nresidence of the gods of the _Aes Side_. It is called in one of the old\npoems the prison of _Gweir_, who no doubt represents _Gaiar_, son of\nManandan MacLir, the Atropos who cut the thread of life of Irish\nmythology. _Llyr_ is the Irish sea-god Lir, and was called _Llyr\nLlediaith_, or the half-tongued, implying that he spoke a language only\npartially intelligible to the people of the country. _Bran_, the son of\nLlyr, is the Irish Bran MacAllait, Allait being one of the names of Lir.\n_Manawyddan_ is clearly the Manandan or Manannan MacLir of Irish\nmythology. These tales contain other characters which may not have been\nborrowed from Irish mythology but which are common to both mythologies;\nfor example, Rhiannon, the wife of Pwyll who possessed marvellous birds\nwhich held warriors spell-bound for eighty years by their singing, comes\nfrom _Annwn_, or the unseen world, and her son Pryderi gives her, on the\ndeath of Pwyll, as a wife to Manawyddan.\n\nOf the second class the first story relates to Lludd, son of Beli the\nGreat, son of Manogan, who became king after his father's death, while\nhis brother Llevelys becomes king of France and shows his brother how to\nget rid of the three plagues which devastated Britain:--first, a strange\nrace, the Coranians, whose knowledge was so great that they heard\neverything no matter how low soever it might be spoken; second, a shriek\nwhich came into every house on May eve, caused by the fighting of two\ndragons; and third, a great giant who carried off all the provisions of\nthe king's palace every day. The second tale relates how Maxen, emperor\nof Rome, has a dream while hunting, in which he imagines that he visits\nBritain, and in _Caer Seint_ or Carnarvon sees a beautiful damsel,\nHelen, whom he ultimately finds and marries. Both tales are British in\norigin and are founded on traditions referring to Roman times.\n\nThe most important of these tales are undoubtedly those contained in the\nfirst class, and the story of _Kilhwch_ and _Olwen_. The form in which\nthey are found in the _Red Book of Hergest_ is, as we have already said,\ncomparatively speaking, modern. But it is apparent to any one reading\nthese tales that the writers or compilers, as Matthew Arnold has\nsuggested, are \"pillaging an antiquity, the secret of which they do not\nfully possess.\" The foundations of the tales are the old Celtic\ntraditions of the gods and the older heroes, and they clearly show\nGoidelic influence both in the persons they introduce and in their\nincidents. The tales would at first exist only in oral tradition, and\nafter the advent of Christianity the characters they contain lost their\ntitle of divinity and became simply heroes--warriors and magicians. In\ntime the monks began to write these ancient traditions, embellishing\nthem and suppressing no doubt what they considered to be most\nobjectionable. These then are the tales which we now possess--the\ntraditional doings of the old heroes as set in order by Christian\nwriters.\n\nThe changes which these later copyists wrought in the substance of the\ntales fall into two main divisions. In the first place, they attempted\nto find some connexion between tales or cycles of tales which originally\nhad no connexion whatever, and were therefore forced to invent new\nincidents or to introduce other incidents from the outside in order to\nestablish this connexion; and secondly, as in the case of the _Gododin_,\nthe tales were twisted and altered to support references to and\nexplanations of names known to the writer. So we find in the tale of\n_Math vab Mathonwy_ the incident of the pigs is expanded to explain some\nplace-names which the writer knew. It is this also that gives a local\ninterest to the tales; for instance, _Dyvet_, the land of _Pwyll_, has\ncome to be regarded as the home of _Hud a Lledrith_, of magic and\nenchantment. Some places in North Wales, especially in the vicinity of\nCarnarvon, seem to be well known to the writers, and, therefore, to have\nassociated with them to all time the glamour of the Mabinogion.\n\nBesides the scholastic efforts of the monks, which in course of time so\ngreatly changed these old legends, there was another class of men who\nhad no little influence on the form and matter of Welsh, and\nconsequently of European, romance. These were the Welsh jongleurs--the\nprofessional story-tellers, against whom the bards proper nursed a\ndeadly hatred because, presumably, their tales drew larger audiences and\nwon greater rewards than the _awdlau_ of the poets. There is little\ndoubt that this order existed in Wales at a very early period, being\nquite a natural evolution of the older poet who sang in comparatively\nfree metres of the deeds of the great dead. It is these men who invented\nthe term _Mabinogi_, which is supposed to mean a \"tale for young\npeople\"; but whatever the word may mean, the fact that they were the\nstock-in-trade of the professional story-teller will explain a good many\nof their structural peculiarities.\n\nThus there existed two distinct classes of tales, though it is to be\nsupposed that the subject matter of both was more or less common; there\nare, in the first place, the \"four branches\" and the tales of the second\nclass, and, secondly, tales like those of the third class. With the\nexception of the Irish influence, which we have already referred to, and\nsome later additions from early continental romance in the third class,\nwe may take it that these three classes are of purely British origin.\nThe _pedair cainc_ are the old tales which were first committed to\nwriting at an early period before the influence of the Armoric Arthur\nbegan to be felt, that is to say, about the beginning of the reign of\nRhys ab Tewdwr in 1073. The other tales, that is those we have put in\nthe third class, remained for a much longer time unwritten and were not\nset in writing before the early Arthur of Armoric and British romance\nhad been evolved. This will account for the fact that Arthur is not\nmentioned in the first class of tales, and that in the third class he is\nsimply a British Arthur. The third class is, therefore, in a sense later\nthan the first and second, but its materials are as old as the oldest of\nthe Mabinogion proper, and they show the influence of Irish mythology to\nthe same extent. In the first class Irish names like _Penardim_, which\nhave not been assimilated, show conclusively that the tale is a written\none, while the eloquence of the descriptions in _Kilhwch ac Olwen_ seem\nto point to the fact that it was up to a late period a _spoken_ tale.\nOther such tales there were once, but they have now been lost.\n\nThe romances of the fourth class do not claim much notice. They are\nmostly imitations or translations of Norman French originals, and they\nbelong to the history of European chivalry rather than to the history of\nWelsh literature.\n\nAs literature the Mabinogion may rank among the world's classics. We\ncannot here point out their beauties, but it will be sufficient to\nnotice that the unknown writer who gave them their final form was a true\nartist in every sense of the word. In _Branwen verch Lyr_, for instance,\nthe whole setting of the story is that of a great tragedy, a tragedy\nneither Hellenic nor Shakespearean, but the strong and ruthless tragedy\nof the Celts,--the tragedy of nature among unnatural surroundings, the\ntragedy which in our times Mr Thomas Hardy has so successfully\ndeveloped. In this tale, Branwen is introduced as the sister of\nManawyddan, the king of all Britain, and as the \"fairest maid in the\nworld.\" But as the tragedy deepens we read how this woman, dowered with\nbeauty and goodness and nobility of lineage, is simply used as a pawn in\na political game, and the full force of the tragedy falls on her own\nundeserving head. She is subjected to all kinds of indignities in her\nhusband's court in Ireland, but throughout all her severe trials she\npreserves the cold and detached haughtiness which characterizes the\nfull-bosomed heroines of the northern sagas; and, in the end, when her\nbrother has delivered her and punished the Irish, and when she has\nsafely reached the shores of her own Mon, she raises her eyes and\nbeholds the two islands, Britain and Ireland. \"'Ah God!' said she, 'is\nit well that two islands have been made desolate for my sake?' And she\ngave a deep groan and died.\" So was her tragedy consummated, and the\nwriter, with a superb tragic touch, mentions the very shape of the grave\nin which they left her on the bank of the Alaw in Mon.\n\nOne of the earliest poets of this period whose productions we can be\ncertain of is Meilir, bard of Trahaern, whom Gruffydd ab Cynan defeated\nat the battle of Carn, and afterwards of the conqueror Gruffydd himself.\nHis best piece is the _Death-bed of the Bard_, a semi-religious poem\nwhich is distinguished by the structure of the verse, poetic feeling and\nreligious thought. Meilir was the head of a family of bards; his son was\nGwalchmai, one of the best Welsh poets; the latter had two sons, Einion\nand Meilir, some of whose poetry has reached us. In _Gorhoffedd\nGwalchmai_, Gwalchmai's Delight, there is an appreciation of the charms\nof nature, medieval parallels to which are only to be found in Ireland.\nHis _Arwyrain i Owain_ is an ode of considerable beauty and full of\nvigour in praise of Owain Gwynedd, king of North Wales, on account of\nhis victory of Tal y Moelvre, part of which has been translated by Gray\nunder the name of \"The Triumphs of Owen.\" Kynddelw, who lived in the\nsecond half of the 12th century, was a contemporary of Gwalchmai, and\nwrote on a great number of subjects including religious ones; indeed\nsome of his eulogies have a kind of religious prelude. He had a command\nof words and much skill in versification, but he is pleonastic and fond\nof complicated metres and of ending his lines with the same syllable.\n\nAmong the other poets of the second half of the 12th century may be\nmentioned Owain Kyveiliog and Howel ab Owain Gwynedd. The first named\nwas prince of Powys, and was distinguished also as a soldier. The\n_Hirlas_, or drinking-horn, is a long poem where the prince represents\nhimself as carousing in his hall after a fight; bidding his cup-bearer\nfill his great drinking-horn, he orders him to present it in turn to\neach of the assembled warriors. As the horn passes from hand to hand he\neulogizes each in a verse beginning _Diwallaw di venestr_, \"Fill,\ncup-bearer.\" Having thus praised the deeds of two warriors, Tudyr and\nMoreiddig, he turns round to challenge them, but suddenly recollecting\nthat they had fallen in the fray, and listening, as it were, to their\ndying groans, he bursts into a broken lamentation for their loss. The\nsecond was also a prince; he was the eldest of the many sons of Owain\nGwynedd, and ruled for two years after his father until he fell in a\nbattle between himself and his step-brother Dafydd. He was a young man\nof conspicuous merit, and one of the most charming poets of Wales, his\npoems being especially free from the conceits, trivial commonplaces, and\ncomplicated metres of the professional bards, while full of a gay\nhumour, a love of nature and a delicate appreciation of women. The Welsh\npoets went on circuit like their Irish brethren, staying in each place\naccording as hospitality was extended to them. When departing, a bard\nwas expected to leave a sample of his versification behind him. In this\nway many manuscripts came to be written, as we find them in different\nhands. Llywarch ab Llywelyn has left us one of those departing eulogies\naddressed to Rhys Gryg, prince of South Wales, which affords a\nfavourable specimen of his style.\n\n\n  13th century poets.\n\nThe following are a few of the poets of the 13th century whose poems are\nstill extant. Davydd Benvras was the author of a poem in praise of\nLlywelyn ab Iorwerth; his works, though not so verbose or trite as\nbardic poems of this class usually are, do not rise much above the\nbardic level, and are full of alliteration. Elidir Sais was, as his name\nimplies, able to speak the English language, and wrote chiefly religious\npoetry. Einiawn ab Gwgawn is the author of an extant address to Llywelyn\nab Iorwerth of considerable merit. Phylip Brydydd, or Philip the poet,\nwas household bard to Rhys Gryg (Rhys the hoarse), lord of South Wales.\nOne of his pieces, an apology to Rhys Gryg, is a striking example of the\nfulsome epithets a household bard was expected to bestow upon his\npatron, and of the privileged domesticity in which the bards lived,\nwhich, as in Ireland, must have been fatal to genius. Prydydd Bychan,\nthe Little Poet, was a South Wales bard whose extant work consists of\nshort poems all addressed to his own princes. The chief feature of his\n_Englynion_ is the use of a kind of assonance in which in some cases\nthe final vowels agreed alternately in each quatrain, and in others each\nline ended in a different vowel, in both cases with alliteration and\nconsonance of final consonants or full rhyme. Llygad Gwr is known by an\node in five parts to Llywelyn ab Gruffydd, written about the year 1270,\nwhich is a good type of the conventional flattery of a family bard.\nHowel Voel, who was of Irish extraction, possessed some poetical merit;\nhis remonstrance to Llywelyn against the imprisonment of his brother\nOwain is a pleasing variety upon the conventional eulogy. It has many\nlines beginning with the same word, e.g. _gwr_, man. The poems of\nBleddyn Vardd, or Bleddyn the Bard, which have come down to us are all\nshort eulogies and elegies. One of the latter on Llywelyn ab Gruffydd is\na good example of the elaborate and artificial nature of Welsh\nversification.\n\nThe most illustrious name among the poets of this century is Gruffydd ab\nyr Ynad Coch, \"Gruffydd, son of the Red Justice,\" who wrote many\nreligious poems of great merit. His greatest work, however, is the elegy\nto Llywelyn ab Gruffydd, the last prince of Wales. It is easily first\namong all the elegies written in the Welsh language. We do not find in\nit that artficial grief which is too evident in the _Marwnadau_ of the\nWelsh poets; it re-echoes an intense personal grief, and throughout the\nwhole piece the poet feels that he stands at the end of all things,--the\nend of his own ideals, the extinction of all Cymric hopes. So poignant\nis his grief, and in so universal a manner does the catastrophe of\nLlywelyn's death present itself to him, that he imagines that all the\nnatural features of the Welsh fatherland know that the last great\nWelshman is dead; the winds howl over the mountains, the rain-clouds\ngather thick, the waves rage with grief against the Welsh coasts, and\nfar away on the hills the giant oak-trees beat against each other in the\nfury of their passion. Sadly, in this manner, closes the second period\nof Welsh literature.\n\n4. _The Golden Age of the Cywydd, 1340-1440._--Just as, after the loss\nof the North, the Welsh muse was hushed, so after the final subjugation\nof Wales in 1282, hardly a note was heard for many a long year. The\nancient patrons of literature were dead, and the country had not yet\nsettled down to the steady rule of England. Indeed, the conquest of\nWales effectively put an end to the older Welsh poetry of that type\nwhich we noticed in the last period. These older bards were without\nexception subjects of the princes of North Wales, where the old heroic\npoetry was still popular, and when the power of these princes came to an\nend the old poetry too ceased. When the Welsh muse emerges again from\nthe darkness of this interval she is no longer of the North; the new\npoets are drawn from the Welshmen of the South, a land which had\npractically ceased to be a part of an independent Wales shortly after\nthe Norman conquest of England. We find, too, that the poetry which\npoured forth from the Welsh bards of the south is of an altogether\ndifferent type, it is modern in all its essentials, in diction, in\nlanguage, and, comparatively speaking, in sentiment. Indeed, there is an\ninfinitely greater difference between Dafydd ab Gwilym and Gruffydd ab\nyr Ynad Coch than there is between him and any poet writing in the\nalliterative metres in the 19th century. So that we must suppose that at\nthe time when the poets of North Wales still sang of war and\nmead-drinking in a style and diction that was an inheritance from the\ntimes of the _Gododin_, the poets of the South, unharassed by wars, were\ndeveloping a new poetry of their own, a poetry that had relinquished for\never the Old Welsh models and was at last in line with the great\npoetical movements of Europe. And, judging from the fact that the\nearliest of these poets whose works are accessible to us are in the full\nzenith of their poetical development, we must believe that their work is\nthe consummation of a period, that is to say, that they must have had a\nlong line of predecessors whose works were lost during the period\nintervening between the loss of Welsh independence and the rise of\nDafydd ab Gwilym. These men wrote, as we have already said, in South\nWales, a country which was then under the rule of the Norman lords, who,\nwith the lapse of years and the rise of new systems, were fast becoming\nWelsh. It is no wonder, then, that the poets who wrote under their\npatronage should show unmistakable traces of Norman influence. Most of\nthe barons still spoke French, and it was only natural that they should\nbe well versed in French poetry. The poets followed the lead of their\npatrons, and their work was modelled to a very great extent on French\nand Provencal poetry. Nor does this account altogether for the wonderful\nsimilarity between Welsh _cywyddau_ and other poems of this period and\nthe French lays; we must remember that the Welsh poets lived under\nconditions similar to those under which the troubadours and the\ntrouveres lived, and it was natural that the same environments should\nproduce the same kind of work. The Provencal _alba_ and the French\n_aube_, the _serenade_ and other forms, became well known in South Wales\nand were of course read by the Welsh poets. We find continual references\nin the poets to \"books of love\" under the name of _llyfr Ofydd_, or the\n\"book of Ovid,\" and a reference in one of Dafydd ab Gwilym's poems shows\nconclusively that one particular _llyfr Ofydd_ was a work of the French\npoet Chrestien de Troyes. Indeed, one of the commonest names among the\npoets of this period--the _llatai_,[3] or love-messenger--may be a\nRomance word borrowed through the Norman-French from the Italian\n_Galeotto_, originally the name of the book of the loves of Galahaad,\nbut afterwards the ordinary word for a go-between. This book of\nGaleotto, by the way, was the book which taught Paolo and Francesca da\nRimini, in Dante's _Divina Commedia_, the tragic secret of love.\n\nAnother movement also was favourable to the rise of the new Welsh\npoetry. The iron hand of the church, which had been the censor of poetry\nfor so many centuries, was slowly relaxing its grasp, and the men who a\nfew years before would have sung religious hymns to the Virgin, now laid\ntheir tributes at the feet of divine womanhood as they saw it in the\nWelsh maidens and matrons living among them. The pale queen of heaven no\nlonger held hearts captive; they had transferred their allegiance to the\n\"brow that was as the snow of yesternight,\" and \"the cheeks that were\nlike the passion-flower.\" The Iolo MSS. assert that some time between\nJanuary 1327 and November 1330 there were held, under the patronage of\nIvor Hael, Dafydd ab Gwilym's patron, and others, the three\n_Eisteddfodau Dadeni_, or the Eisteddfods of the Revival of the Muse, to\nreorganize the bards, and to set in order all matters pertaining to\nWelsh poetry. The most important bards who are reported as present at\nsome or all of these meetings were Dafydd ab Gwilym, Sion Cent, Rhys\nGoch of Eryri, and Iolo Goch. It is now, however, generally agreed that\nthis account is a fabrication and that the date of all the poets is\nlater.\n\n\n  Dafydd ab Gwilym.\n\nDafydd ab Gwilym is certainly the most distinguished of all the Welsh\npoets, and were it not for the absolute impossibility of adequately\ntranslating his _cywyddau_ he would rank amongst the greatest poets of\nmedieval times. By far the greater part of his poetry is written in the\nmetre called _cywydd_, with heptasyllabic lines rhyming in couplets. It\nwas he who imparted so much lustre to this metre that it became the\nvehicle of all the most important poetry from his time to the 19th\ncentury, and he is generally referred to by his contemporaries as the\nspecial poet of the cywydd--_Dafydd gywydd gwin_, \"Dafydd of the\nwine-sweet cywydd.\" Most of his poems deal with love in the spirit of\nthe medieval writers of France and of Provence, but with this very\nimportant difference, that the French writers must base their reputation\non their treatment of love as a theme, whereas Dafydd's claim to fame is\nbased on his treatment of nature and of out-door life. In many cases,\nindeed, love is only a conventional peg whereon he may hang his\nobservations on nature, and Welsh literature may claim the distinction\nof having had its Wordsworth in the 14th century. His treatment of\nnature is not merely realistic and objective, it has a certain quaint\nand elusive symbolism and a subjectiveness which come as a revelation to\nthose who are acquainted with the medieval poetry of other nations. Many\nof the poems attributed to him are undoubtedly the work of later hands,\nbut even after making all possible deductions, there is still an\ninfinite variety among what remains, ranging as his poems do from a\nsturdy denunciation of monkish fraudulence to the most delicate and\npathetic recollections of departed joys. He has, besides, considerable\nimportance as a teacher, as when, for instance, he invites the nun \"to\nleave her watercress and paternosters of Romish monks,\" and to come with\nhim \"to the cathedral of the birch to listen to the cuckoo's sermons,\"\nfor, \"were it not an equally worthy deed to save his (Dafydd's) soul in\nthe birch-grove as to do so by following the ritual of Rome and St James\nof Compostella\"? Even in his old age, when he is beginning to repent of\nhis rash and merry youth, nature has not deserted him,--the very tree\nunder which in the old days he used to meet his sweetheart has become\nbent and withered in sympathy with him. Though Dafydd yields not the\npalm to any poet of his class throughout the world, and though his\ninfluence is still a potent factor in the literature of Wales, we are\ncertain of hardly a single fact about his life. He flourished between\n1340 and 1390. His works were published in London in 1789. This edition\nwas reprinted by Ffoulkes of Liverpool in 1870. See L.C. Stern,\n_Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ vol. vii.\n\nSion Cent was chaplain to the Scudamores of Kentchurch in Herefordshire,\nand though, therefore, in orders, was a most bitter opponent of the\npretentious and the evil life of the monks of his time. All his writings\nshow signs of the influence of the moralists of the middle ages, and\ntreat of religious or of moral subjects. His poetry is strong and\naustere, interfused here and there with the most biting satire. He died\nabout 1400. Like many of his contemporaries, Dunbar, Villon, Menot and\nManrique, his dominant note is that of sadness and regret.\n\nRhys Goch Eryri had a sprightly muse which deals with fanciful subjects.\nHis themes are often similar to those of Dafydd ab Gwilym, but whereas\nthe subject of Dafydd's muse was nature and his treatment universal,\nRhys Goch's are simply natural objects which he treats in a vigorous but\nnarrow and cold manner.\n\nIolo Goch, that is, Iorwerth the Red, deserves a special mention as the\npoet who voiced the aspirations of a new Wales when Owen Glyndwr began\nto rise into power, and it is to one of his poems that we owe a most\nminute description of Sycharth, Owen Glyndwr's home. His poetry is\nslightly more archaic in diction than that of his contemporaries, as his\nsubject--war and the glory of Welsh heroes--belonged more properly to\nthe age before his own. In one very striking _cywydd_ composed after\nGlyndwr's downfall, he calls upon this hero to come again and claim his\nown, and addresses himself fancifully to all the countries of the world\nwhere his hero may be in hiding. He died after 1405, and, if the dates\ngenerally given for his birth be even approximately correct, he must\nhave lived to a prodigious age (cf. _Gweithiau Iolo Goch_, by Charles\nAshton, London, 1896).\n\nRhys Goch ap Rhiccert claims to be named with Dafydd ab Gwilym as a\nwriter of lyrics in praise of beautiful women. He has one advantage,\nhowever, over his more famous contemporary in the variety of his metres.\nThe musical lilt and the delicate workmanship of his poems, with their\nrecurring refrain, give him a unique position among his medieval\ncontemporaries as the first purely lyrical poet. His _floreat_ is\nprobably a little later than that of Dafydd ab Gwilym, for we must not\nbe misled by the late orthography of his poems.\n\nDafydd Nanmor is chiefly famous for two exquisite cywyddau, _Cywydd\nMarwnad Merch_, or Elegy of a Maiden, and _Cywydd i wallt Llio_, or\nCywydd to Llio's Hair. In both these poems he shows elegance rather than\ndepth, and a fancy as bold as that of his great master Dafydd. In the\nfirst of these cywyddau his grief is so great that he wishes that he\nwere but the shroud around his dead sweetheart, and, in the second, Llio\nRhydderch's golden hair over her white brow is compared to the\nrefulgence of lightning over the fine snow. He is supposed to be a\nyounger contemporary of Rhys Goch Eryri, but there are many facts to\nwarrant a supposition that he lived much later, even as late as 1490.\n\nLlywelyn Goch ap Meurig Hen deserves to be mentioned as the author of\nthe famous _Marwnad Lleucu Llwyd_, an elegy which is far more convincing\nin its sincerity than Dafydd Nanmor's _cywydd_. Few of his compositions\nare extant, but the one already mentioned is sufficient to place him in\nthe first rank of the poets of the period. He lived approximately from\n1330 to 1390.\n\nThe other poets of this period who deserve some mention are Dafydd Ddu o\nHiraddug, who wrote poems on religious subjects, and who is supposed to\nhave translated part of the _Officium Beatae Mariae_ into Welsh;\nGruffydd Grug, between whom and Dafydd ab Gwilym a most fierce poetic\nquarrel raged, but who is the author of a beautiful elegy on his\nopponent; Gruffydd Llwyd ab Dafydd, who was the poet of Owen Glyndwr,\nand whose cywydd in praise of his patron is one of the best of that\ntype; Hywel Swrdwal and Gwilym ab Ieuan Hen.\n\n\n  Eisteddfod of 1451.\n\n5. _The Silver Age of the Cywydd, 1440-1550._--The insurrection of Owen\nGlyndwr, though originally the result of a private quarrel, was the\ngeneral revolt of a nation against the conquerors whom it hated, and the\nEnglish king knew well enough that the discontent with his rule was\nfanned by the older and more national Welsh institutions, and by none\nmore than by the system of wandering bards. The conditions which had\ngiven rise to this system were fast dying out, but the noblemen, who\nfortunately were still intensely Welsh, were loth to give up their\nfamily bards, and the bards themselves, never a too industrious class,\nwere too glad of their freedom and easy life to turn to more profitable\nwork. We find, therefore, that a law was passed in 1403, the fourth year\nof Henry IV.'s reign, prohibiting bards \"and other vagrants\" from\nexercising their profession in Gwynedd or North Wales. This law,\nhowever, like its predecessor in the reign of Edward I., failed utterly\nin its purpose. By prohibiting the Welsh noblemen from giving their\npatronage to the bards, and, therefore, from distinguishing between the\nreal bards and the mendicant rhymesters, this law took away the only\nsafeguard against the latter class, with the result that by about 1450\nthey had become a pest to the country. About that time there flourished\na poet called Llawdden, who, noticing the very unsatisfactory state of\npoetry in Wales, induced his kinsman, Gruffydd ab Nicolas, a nobleman\nliving in Y Drenewydd (Newtown), to petition Henry VI. for permission to\nhold an eisteddfod similar in purpose to the three _Eisteddfodau Dadeni_\nof the last period. This famous eisteddfod was held at Caerfyrddin\n(Carmarthen) in 1451, and shortly before the actual eisteddfod was held\na \"statute\" was drawn up under the direction of Llawdden, regulating the\ndifferent orders of bards and musicians and setting in order the\n_cynghaneddion a mesurau_, the different kinds of alliterative verse to\nbe presented to the assembled bards at the meeting. Among those present\nat that eisteddfod the most distinguished was Dafydd ab Edmwnd, who then\nmade famous the dictum that the purpose of an eisteddfod was \"to bring\nto mind the past, to consider the present, and to deliberate about the\nfuture.\" He, therefore, proposed emendations in \"the rules of Welsh\nverse,\" making them more strict, so as to keep the unlearned rhymesters\nfrom the privileged bardic class. This measure had a most important\neffect on Welsh literature. It effectively put an end to the charming\nspontaneity which distinguishes the poetry of Dafydd ab Gwilym and his\ncontemporaries, and by introducing an arbitrary set of rules gave an\nartificial tone to almost all the poetry of the next two hundred years.\nIt had, indeed, exactly the same retarding effect on Welsh poetry as the\nUnities had on the French drama. So that, whereas the poems of Dafydd ab\nGwilym, though written in the difficult alliterative metres, are nearly\nall light and have a sweet lyrical re-echo, the poetry of Dafydd ab\nEdmwnd and his successors is often heavy and nearly always artificial.\nAfter making, however, all these deductions, it is a debatable point\nwhether the hard and fast rules which now regulated Welsh poetry did not\neventually justify their existence. They have helped, by inciting to\ncarefulness, to keep the idiom and the language pure and undefiled, and\nto this day style in Welsh poetry is not necessarily a striving after\nthe uncommon as it too often is in English.\n\nThere are some poets included in this period who belong more properly to\nthe last, but even these show signs of the attempt at correctness and\ndistinction which was supplanting the old simplicity. Ieuan ap Rhydderch\nab Ieuan Llwyd, who is supposed to be a brother of the Llio Rhydderch of\nDafydd Nanmor's poem, is the author of some cywyddau and other poems\naddressed to the Virgin, the structure of which shows great skill\naccompanied by force and clearness. He flourished about 1425. Dafydd ab\nMeredydd ap Tudur, who flourished about 1420, is the author of a cywydd\n\"to Our Saviour.\" About the same time lived Rhys Nanmor, Ieuan Gethin ab\nIeuan, and Ieuan Llwyd ab Gwilym. Among the earliest of the poets who\nbelong properly to this period is Meredydd ap Rhys, whose cywyddau are a\nfair specimen of the generality of poems written in these years. Among\nthe most famous of his works is a cywydd \"begging for a fishing-net,\"\nand another giving thanks for the same. We shall find that many of his\ncontemporaries were able to write long and interesting poems on such\nseemingly dry and uninteresting subjects, but it is vain to look for\nanything beyond good verse in such compositions. Of poetry, as generally\nunderstood, there is none.\n\n\n  Dafydd ab Edmwnd\n\nThe commanding figure in this period is, of course, Dafydd ab Edmwnd,\nwho was a disciple of Meredydd ap Rhys. He bears somewhat the same\nrelation to his contemporaries as Dafydd ab Gwilym does to his, and to\nstrain an analogy, we might say that as Dryden was to Milton, so Dafydd\nab Edmwnd was to Dafydd ab Gwilym. He was regarded by his contemporaries\nas the greatest poet that North Wales had ever produced, and some would\nset him up as a rival even to Dafydd ab Gwilym himself. He would\nprobably have produced much greater poetry had he understood that the\ncywydd and the other metres were strait and shackled enough without the\n_cymeriadau_ and other devices which he introduced, or at least\nsanctioned and made popular. He begins many of his cywyddau and odes\nwith the same letter; he is the chief among Welsh formalists, but in\nspite of his self-imposed restrictions he is a great poet also. His most\nfamous poems are three _Cywyddau Merch_ or \"Poems to a Lady,\" and his\n_Cywydd i Wallt Merch_, \"cywydd to a lady's hair.\" He is the author of\nthe lines already quoted: \"thy brow,\" he sings, \"is as the snow of\nyesternight, and thy cheeks like a shower of roses.\" He died about 1480.\nDafydd ab Edmwnd's disciples were Gutyn Owain and Tudur Aled, who was\nalso his nephew. Gutyn Owain lived between 1420 and 1500, and was one of\nthe men appointed by the king's commissioners to trace, or perhaps to\nmanufacture, the Welsh pedigree of Henry VII. He belonged entirely to\nthe school inaugurated by Dafydd ab Edmwnd, and though he was by no\nmeans wanting in imagination, the highest distinction of his verse is\nits intricacy of form and very often the felicity of his couplets.\n\nJust as the rise of Owen Glyndwr in the beginning of the century had\ngiven a new impulse and a new interest to poetry, so in 1485, when Henry\nVII.--the \"little bull\" as he is called by the poets--ascended the\nthrone of England, a particular kind of poetry called _brud_, half\nhistory and half prophecy, became popular, and we have in the\nmanuscripts much writing of this description, a good deal of it\nworthless as poetry. Occasionally, however, some of these \"bruts\" may\nclaim to be called poetry, especially the compositions of Robin Ddu o\nFon, who wrote poems in praise of the Tudors and hailed them as the\ndeliverers of the nation, even before Henry VII. had landed in England,\nand Dafydd Llwyd ab Llywelyn, whose works deserve to be much better\nknown than they are at present. One of the best cywyddau among his works\nis the \"Address to the Raven,\" to whom he promises a right royal feast\nwhen the hero whom all Wales is expecting has met his royal enemy. Tudur\nAled, too, was a zealous partisan of Henry VII. and wrote many cywyddau\nin praise of Sir Rhys ap Thomas, the great champion of Henry's cause in\nSouth Wales. He is also famous as having supplemented and made a new\nrecension of Dafydd ab Edmwnd's rules of poetry in the eisteddfod held\nat Caerwys in 1524. Tudur Aled has always been more widely known in\nWales than almost any other of the earlier poets except Dafydd ab\nGwilym. This is perhaps due to the quotability and sententiousness of\nhis couplets. There is a certain refreshing dryness about his poetry\nwhich partly makes up for his want of imagination. One of the most\ninteresting poets of this century is Lewis Glyn Cothi, who lived between\n1410 and 1490. During the Wars of the Roses he was a zealous\nLancastrian, and his bitterest enemies were the men of Chester, who had\ntreated him scurvily while he was there in hiding, and his _awdl_,\nsatirizing the men of that city, is one of the most vigorous\ncompositions in the language. Indeed, among so many _cywyddau_ of this\nperiod in conventional praise of different patrons, it is most\nrefreshing to find such an outburst of sincere personal feeling, boldly\nand fiercely expressed. He wrote an _awdl_ also rejoicing in the victory\nof Henry VII. Most of his work, however, consists of _cywyddau\nmawl_--praise of patrons--containing weary and unpoetical pedigrees.\nGruffydd Hiraethog, who flourished about 1540, was a disciple of Tudur\nAled. A fierce poetical dispute raged between him and Sion Brwynog of\nAnglesey, who was a contemporary of his. About this time there were many\npoets in Wales who were imitators of Dafydd ab Gwilym, and who did not\nfollow implicitly the lead of Dafydd ab Edmwnd, like those whom we have\nmentioned. Much of their poetry is feeble, but Bedo Brwynllysg\nespecially stands out from among the rest, and his poetry, though highly\nimitative and often over fanciful, is of a much higher order than the\ngenealogical poems of Lewis Glyn Cothi and others. In the same way the\nonly poem of any merit of Ieuan Denlwyn printed in the _Gorchestion_ is\nwritten in this imitative strain. Other poets of the middle of this\nperiod are Deio ap Ieuan Du, Iorwerth Fynglwyd, Lewys Morganwg, Ieuan\nBrydydd Hir, and Tudur Penllyn, who wrote a superb _cywydd_ to Dafydd ab\nSiencyn, the outlaw.\n\nTowards the end of the period we begin to breathe a literary atmosphere\nthat is gradually but surely changing,--it is the change from the misty\nWales of Roman Catholic times to the modern Wales after the Reformation.\nThe poetical incoherencies of the old metres and the tricks of fancy of\nthe old stylists occasionally form a somewhat incongruous dress for the\nthoughts of later poets. The old spirit and the glamour were gradually\nwearing away, only to be momentarily revived in the poetry of Goronwy\nOwen, nearly two centuries later. Two or three figures, indeed, stand\nout prominently during these years, among whom are some of the bards\nordained _penceirddiaid_ (master-poets) in the second Caerwys Eisteddfod\nheld in 1568, viz. William Llyn, William Cynwal, Sion Tudur, and Sion\nPhylip. William Llyn (1530?-1580) was a pupil of Gruffydd Hiraethog. His\ncomplicated _awdlau_ are marvels of ingenuity, but many of them are on\nthat very account almost unintelligible. He was, however, a complete\nmaster of the _cywydd_, in which he sometimes displays a sense of style\nand a sweetness of imagery allied to a melodiousness of language\nunequalled by the other poets of the period. His best-known work is the\nfamous _marwnad_ to his master, Gruffydd Hiraethog. Sion Tudur (d.\n1602), also a disciple of G. Hiraethog, was connected in some capacity\nor other with the cathedral at St Asaph. He is a realist, and delights\nin giving vivid word pictures in a less fanciful strain than his\npredecessors. Sion Phylip (1543-1620) wrote a famous _marwnad_ to his\nfather and a _cywydd_ \"to a sea-gull,\" which is a superb piece of\nnature-painting in the style of Dafydd ab Gwilym. While dealing with\nthis second Eisteddfod at Caerwys, we may note that Simwnt Fychan's\n\"Laws of Poetry\" were accepted at this festival.\n\nTwo poets of this period, whom an English writer describes as \"the two\nfilthy Welshmen who first smoked publicly in the streets,\" were captains\nin Queen Elizabeth's navy, viz. Thomas Prys (d. 1634) of Plas Iolyn, and\nWilliam Myddleton (1556-1621), called in Welsh Gwilym Canoldref. The\nformer wrote, among other things, humorous _cywyddau_ descriptive of\nlife in London and in the English navy of those days, in a style which\nwas afterwards attempted by Lewys Morys. The work of Myddleton, by\nwhich he is best known, is his translation of the Psalms (1603) into\nWelsh _cywydd_ metre, a difficult and profitless experiment.\n\nWith Edmwnd Prys (1541-1624), the famous archdeacon of Merioneth, we\ncome to distinctly modern times. He is hardly a great poet, if we judge\nhim by the canons which are now popular. His gift was a gift of terse\nand biting statement, and his _cywyddau_ on the whole have more of\nliterary than of poetical merit. He was a man of vast learning, and his\nworks are full of scholastic and often difficult allusions. His most\nfamous _cywyddau_ are those written in the literary quarrel between him\nand Wiliam Cynwal. \"Wiliam Cynwal,\" says Goronwy Owen, \"though the\ngreater poet, was like a man fighting with bare fists against complete\narmour,\" and it may be freely granted that in this, the most famous\nquarrel in Welsh literature, the palm of victory rested with the\ncontentious old ecclesiastic. We shall deal with the rest of Edmwnd\nPrys's literary work in the section on the rise of popular poetry.\n\nHere the age of the _cywydd_ and the _awdl_, as the chief forms of\nverse, ends. They appear again in the succeeding centuries, but as\naliens among a nation that no longer paid them homage. The distinctly\nWelsh fashion in song was dying out.\n\n6. _Prose, 1550-1750._--One of the most striking features of Welsh\nliterature is the almost entire absence of prose between 1300 and 1550.\nThe genius of the people has always been an eminently poetical and\nimaginative one, and the history of Wales, politically and socially, has\nalways been a fitter subject for poetry than for prose. During this\nperiod, Wales enjoyed a rest from propagandists and revolutionaries\nwhich has seldom been the happy lot of any other nation--they lay\ncontent with their own old traditions, acquiescing proudly in their\nseparation from the other nations of Europe, and in their aloofness from\nall the movements which shook England and the continent during those\nyears. Dynasties came and went, one religion ousted another religion, a\nnew learning exposed the absurdities of the old, but the Welsh, among\ntheir hills, knew nothing of it; and when new ideas began to brood over\nthe consciousness of the nation, they never got beyond the stage of\nproviding new subjects for _cywyddau_. The Peasant Revolt, for instance,\nhad but little effect on Welsh history, its most important contribution\nto the heritage of the nation being Iolo Goch's superb \"_Cywydd_ to the\nLabourer.\" Even the Reformation, which helped to change the whole fabric\nof English literature, had little effect on that of Wales, and the age\nof the _cywydd_ dragged out wearily its last years without experiencing\nthe slightest quickening from the great movement which was remaking\nEurope. Hardly a prophet or reactionary raised his voice in defence or\ncondemnation, and the Welsh went on serenely making and reading poetry.\nThe two political movements in which Wales was really interested, the\nrevolt of Glyndwr and the accession of Henry VII., paid their tribute to\nits poetry alone, and both enterprises had sufficient of romance in them\nto repel the historian and to capture the poet. Naturally, therefore, we\nhave no prose in this period, because there was no cause strong enough\nto produce it. What prose the nation required they found in the tales of\nromance, in the legends of Arthur and Charlemagne and the Grail, and, as\nfor pedigrees and history, were they not written in the _cywyddau_ of\nthe poets?\n\nThe little prose that was produced during this period (1300-1550) was of\nan extraordinary kind. It was simply an exercise in long sentences and\nin curiously built compounds, and therefore more nearly allied to\npoetry. It generally took the form of _dewisbethau_, a list of the\n\"choice things\" of such and such a person, or of the later triads\n(_trioedd_), which, starting from an ancient nucleus, gradually grew\ntill, at the present day, Wales has a gnomic literature out of all\nproportion to the rest of its prose. Modern Welsh prose, however, is\nonly very indirectly connected with these compositions. It is almost\naltogether a product of the Biblical literature which began to appear\nafter the Reformation, and we shall proceed to give here the main facts\nand dates in its development. The first Welsh book was printed in 1546.\nIt consisted of extracts in Welsh from the Bible and the Prayer Book,\nand a calendar. The author was Sir John Prys (1502-1555). The most\nimportant name in the early part of this period is William Salesbury\n(1520?-1600?). His chief books were, _A Dictionary in Englyshe and\nWelshe_ (printed in 1547, and published in facsimile reprint by the\nCymmrodorion Society), _Kynniver Llith a Ban_ (1551), the Prayer Book in\nWelsh (1567), and the most important of all his works, the translation\nof the New Testament (1567). It is difficult to form any estimate, at\nthis distance of time, of the impetus which William Salesbury gave to\nWelsh prose, but it must be regretfully admitted that his great work was\nmarred by many defects. He had a theory that Welsh ought to be written\nas much like Latin as possible, and the result is that his language is\nvery poor Welsh, both in spelling and idiom; it is an artificial\ndialect. It is a striking testimony, however, to his influence that many\nof the constructions and words which he manufactured are found to this\nday in correct literary Welsh.\n\nIn 1567 was published a _Welsh Grammar_ by Dr Gruffydd Roberts, a Roman\nCatholic priest living at Milan (reprinted in facsimile, Paris, 1883),\nand in 1583, under the direction of Dr Rhosier Smyth, his _Drych\nCristionogawl_ was published at Rouen. Many other important Welsh books\nwere produced during these years, but the work which may be regarded as\nhaving the greatest influence on the subsequent literature of Wales was\nthe translation of the _Welsh Bible_ (1588) by Dr William Morgan\n(1547?-1604), bishop of Llandaff, and afterwards of St Asaph. The\nAuthorized Version (1620) now in use is a revision of this work by Dr\nRichard Parry, bishop of St Asaph (1560-1623). In 1592 the _Welsh\nGrammar_ of Sion Dafydd Rhys (1534-1609) was published--a most valuable\ntreatise on the language and on the rules of Welsh poetry. It was\nfollowed in 1621 by the _Welsh Grammar_, and in 1632 by the _Welsh\nDictionary_ of Dr John Davies o Fallwyd (1570?-1644).\n\nThere are two prose compositions which stand entirely by themselves in\nthis period of Bibles and grammars--the _History_ of Ellis Gruffydd, and\nMorris Kyffin's _Deffyniad y Ffydd_. The former was a soldier in the\nEnglish army during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and wrote a long\nhistory of England from the earliest times to his own day. This\ndocument, which has never been published, and which lies hidden away\namong the Mostyn MSS., is a most important and valuable original\ncontribution to the history of the author's contemporaries, and it sheds\nconsiderable light on the inner life of the court and the army. It is\nwritten in a delightfully easy style, contrasting favourably with the\nstiff diction of this period of translations. The work of Morris Kyffin\n(1555?-1598?) which we have mentioned is a translation of Bishop Jewel's\n_Apologia Ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (1562) and was published in 1595. This\nwork is the first piece of modern Welsh prose within reach of the\nordinary reader, written in the rich idiom of the spoken Welsh. It is a\nprecursor of many other books of its kind, a long series culminating in\nthe immortal _Bardd Cwsc_. In this sense Morris Kyffin may with perfect\njustice be hailed as the father of modern Welsh prose.\n\nMost of the works which were afterwards written in the strong idiomatic\nWelsh of Morris Kyffin were on religious subjects, and many of them were\ntranslated from the English. The first was _Ymarfer o Dduwioldeb_ (1630)\nby Rowland Vychan o Gaergai (a translation of Bailey's _Practice of\nPiety_), which was followed in 1632 by Dr John Davies's _Llyfr y\nResolution_, and in 1666 by _Hanes y Ffydd Ddiffuant_ (A History of the\nTrue Faith) by Charles Edwards. All these authors and many of their\nsuccessors were strong adherents of the Established Church, which was\nthen intensely Welsh in sentiment. But in the midst of these churchmen,\na flame-bearer of dissent appeared--Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd, who published\nin 1653 \"a mystery to be understood of some, and scorned of\nothers\"--_Llyfr y Tri Aderyn_ (The Book of the Three Birds). It is in\nthe form of a discussion between the eagle (Cromwell), the dove\n(Dissent) and the raven (the Established Church). This book is certainly\nthe most important original composition published during the 17th\ncentury, and to this day remains one of the widely-read classics of the\nWelsh tongue. Morgan Llwyd wrote many other books in Welsh and English,\nall more or less in the vein of the first book.\n\nDuring the remaining years of this period, the prose output of the Welsh\npress consisted mainly of devotional books, written or translated for or\nat the instigation of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The\nEstablished Church, with the help of this society, made a gallant\nattempt to lighten the darkness of Wales by publishing books of this\ndescription, and it is mainly due to its exertions that the lamp of\nWelsh prose was kept burning during these years. Among the clergy who\nproduced books of this description were Edward Samuel (1674-1748), who\npublished among other works _Holl Ddyledswydd Dyn_, a translation of\n_The Whole Duty of Man_ (1718); Moses Williams (1684-1742), a most\ndiligent searcher into Welsh MSS. and translator; Griffith Jones of\nLlanddowror (1683-1761), the father of Welsh popular education; Iago ab\nDewi (1644?-1722) and Theophilus Evans (1694-1769), the famous author of\n_Drych y Prif Oesoedd_ (1716 and 1740). This book, like _Llyfr y Tri\nAderyn_ and _Y Bardd Cwsc_, has an established position for all time in\nthe annals of Welsh literature.\n\nWe come now to the greatest of all Welsh prose writers, Ellis Wyn o\nLasynys (1671-1734). His first work was a translation of Jeremy Taylor's\n_Holy Living_, under the title of _Rheol Buchedd Sanctaidd_ (1701). His\nnext work was the immortal _Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc_ (1703). The\nfoundation of this work was L'Estrange's translation of the _Suenos_ of\nthe Spaniard Quevedo. Ellis Wyn has certainly followed his original\nclosely, even as Shakespeare followed his, but by his inimitable magic\nhe has transmuted the characters and the scenery of the Spaniard into\nWelsh characters and scenery of the 17th century. No writer before or\nafter him has used the Welsh language with such force and skill, and he\nwill ever remain the stylist whom all Welsh writers will strive to\nimitate. The magic of his work has endowed the stately idiom of Gwynedd\nwith such glamour that it has now become the standard idiom of Welsh\nprose. See Stern, _Z. f. celt. Phil._ iii. 165 ff.\n\n7. _The Rise of Popular Poetry, 1600-1750._--When Henry VII. ascended\nthe throne, the old hostility of the Welsh towards the English\ndisappeared. They had realized their wildest hope, that of seeing a\nWelshman wearing \"the crown of London.\" Naturally enough, therefore, the\ndescendants of the old Welsh gentry began to look towards England for\nrecognition and preferment, and their interest in their own little\ncountry necessarily began to wane. The result was that the traditional\npatrons of the Welsh muse could no longer understand the language of the\npoets, and the poets were forced to seek some more profitable\nemployment. Besides, the old conditions were changing; the medieval\ntraditions were indeed dying hard, but it gradually and imperceptibly\ncame about that the poets of the older school had no audience. The only\npoets who still followed the old traditions were the rich farmers who\n\"sang on their own land,\" as the Welsh phrase goes. A new school,\nhowever, was rising. The nation at large had a vast store of\nfolk-poetry, full of all the poetical characteristics of the Celt, and\nit was this very poetry, despised as it was, that became ultimately the\ngroundwork of the new literature.\n\nThe first landmark in this new development was the publication in 1621\nof Edmwnd Prys's metrical version of the Psalms (followed by later\neditions in 1628, 1630, 1638 and 1648), and of the first poem of the\n_Welshmen's Candle_ (_Cannwyll y Cymry_) of Rhys Pritchard, vicar of\nLlandovery (1569-1644). This was published in 1646. These works were not\nwritten in the old metres peculiar to Wales, but in the free metres,\nlike those of English poetry. The former work is of the utmost\nimportance, as these Psalms were about the first metrical hymns in use.\nThey are often rugged and uncouth, but many of the verses--such as the\n23rd Psalm--have a haunting melody of their own, which grips the mind\nonce and for ever. The second work, the first complete edition of which\nwas published in 1672, consisted of moral verses in the metres of the\nold folk-songs (_Penillion Telyn_), and for nearly two centuries was the\n\"guide, philosopher and friend\" of the common people. Many other poets\nof the early part of this period wrote in these metres, such as Edward\nDafydd o Fargam (fl. 1640), Rowland Fychan, Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd and\nWilliam Phylip (d. 1669). Poetry in the free metres, however, was\ngenerally very crude, until it was given a new dignity by the greatest\npoet of the period, Huw Morus o Bont y Meibion (1622-1709). Most of his\nearlier compositions, which are among his best, and which were\ninfluenced to a great extent by the cavalier poetry of England, are love\npoems, perfect marvels of felicitous ingenuity and sweetness. He fixed\nthe poetic canons of the free metres, and made what was before homely\nand uncouth, courtly and dignified. He wrote a _cywydd marwnad_ to his\ncontemporary, Edward Morus o'r Perthi Llwydion (d. 1689), who was also a\npoet of considerable merit. Most of his work is composed of \"moral\npieces\" and carols. Other poets of the period were Sion Dafydd Las\n(1650-1691), who was among the last of the family bards, and Dafydd\nJones o Drefriw (fl. 1750). Towards the end of the period comes Lewys\nMorys (1700-1765). His poetry alone does not seem to warrant his fame,\nbut he was the creator of a new period, the inspirer and the patron of\nGoronwy Owen. According to the lights of the 18th century, he was, like\nhis brothers Richard and William, a scholar. His poetry, except a few\nwell-known pieces, will never be popular, because it does not conform to\nmodern canons of taste. His greatest merit is that he wrote the popular\npoetry then in vogue with a scholar's elegance.\n\n8. _The Revival, 1750-1830._--The two leading figures in this period are\nGoronwy Owen (1722-1769) and William Williams, Pantycelyn (1717-1791).\nGoronwy Owen wrote all his poetry in the _cynghanedd_, and his work gave\nthe old metres a new life. He raised them from the neglect into which\nthey had fallen, and caused them to be, till this day, the vehicle of\nhalf the poetical thought of Wales. But he was in no way a\nrepresentative of his age; he, like Milton, sang among a crowd of\ninferior poets themes quite detached from the life of his time, so that\nhe also, like his English brother, lacks \"human interest.\" After Dafydd\nab Gwilym, he is the greatest poet who sang in the old metres, and the\ninfluence of his correct and fastidious muse remains to this day.\nWilliam Williams, however, wrote in the free metres in a way that was\nastoundingly fresh. It is not enough to say of him that he was a\nhymnologist; he is much more, he is the national poet of Wales. He had\ncertainly the loftiest imagination of all the poets of five centuries,\nand his influence on the Welsh people can be gauged by the fact that a\ngood deal of his idiom and dialect has fixed itself indelibly on modern\nliterary Welsh. Besides the hymns, he wrote a religious epic,\n_Theomemphus_, which is to this day the national epic of evangelical\nWales. Even as Goronwy Owen is the father of modern Welsh poetry in the\nold metres, so William Williams is the great fountain-head of the free\nmetres, because he set aflame the imagination of every poet that\nsucceeded him. With two such pioneers, it is natural that the rest of\nthis period should contain many great names. Thomas Edwards (Twm o'r\nNant) (1739-1810) has been called by an unwarrantably bold hyperbole,\n\"the Welsh Shakespeare.\" Most of his works are interludes and ballads,\nand he used to be very popular with the common people; he is, to this\nday, probably the oftenest quoted of all the Welsh poets. William Wynn,\nrector of Llangynhafal (1704-1760), is the author of a \"_Cywydd_ of the\nGreat Judgment,\" which bears comparison with Goronwy Owen's masterpiece.\nEvan Evans (Ieuan Brydydd Hir) (1731-1789) was famous both as a poet and\nas a scholar and antiquarian. Edward Rhisiart (1714-1777), the\nschoolmaster of Ystradmeurig, was a scholar and a writer of pastorals in\nthe manner of Theocritus. Most of the other poets who flourished towards\nthe end of this period--Dafydd Ddu Eryri (1760-1822), Gwallter Mechain\n(1761-1849), Robert ab Gwilym Ddu (1767-1850), Dafydd Ionawr\n(1751-1827), Dewi Wyn o Eifion (1784-1841)--were brought into prominence\nby the Eisteddfod, which began to increase in influence during this\nperiod until it has become to-day the national festival. They all wrote\nfor the most part in _cynghanedd_, and the work of nearly all of them is\nmarked by correctness rather than by poetical inspiration.\n\n9. _Prose after 1830._--In the preceding periods, we have seen that\nWelsh prose, though abundant in quantity, had a very narrow range. Few\nwriters rose above theological controversy or moral treatises, and the\nhumaner side of literature was almost entirely neglected. In this\nperiod, however, we find a prose literature that, with the exception of\nscientific works, is as wide in its range as that of England, and all\ndepartments are well and competently represented, though by but few\nnames. Dr Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) struck a new note when he began to\ncontribute his literary and theological essays to the periodicals, but,\nthough many have equalled and even surpassed him as theological\nessayists, few, if any, of his followers have attempted the literary and\ncritical essays on which his fame as writer must mainly rest. Together\nwith Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-1883), the author of the inimitable\n_Llythyrau Hen Ffarmwr_, he may be regarded as the pioneer of the new\nliterature. Samuel Roberts (1800-1885), generally known as S.R., wrote\nnumerous tracts and books on politics and economics, and as a political\nthinker he was in many respects far in advance of his English\ncontemporaries. It was in this period, too, that Wales had her national\nnovelist, Daniel Owen (1836-1895). He was a novelist of the Dickens\nschool, and delighted like his great master \"in writing mythology rather\nthan fiction.\" He has created a new literary atmosphere, in which the\ncharacters of Puritanical and plebeian Wales move freely and without\nrestraint. He can never be eclipsed just as Sir Walter Scott cannot be\neclipsed, because the Wales which he describes is slowly passing away.\nHe has many worthy disciples, among whom Miss Winnie Parry is easily\nfirst. Indeed, in her finer taste and greater firmness of touch, she\nstands on a higher plane than even her great master. The inspiring\ngenius of the latter part of this period is Owen M. Edwards (b. 1858),\nand, as a stylist, all writers of Welsh prose since Ellis Wynn have to\nconcede him the laurel. His little books of travel and history and\nanecdote have created, or rather, are creating a new school of writers,\nscrupulously and almost pedantically careful and correct, an ideal\nwhich, on its philological side is the outcome of the scientific study\nof the language as inaugurated by Sir John Rhys and Professor Morris\nJones. One of the earliest, if not the ablest writer of this \"new Welsh\"\nwas the independent and original Emrys ap Iwan (d. 1906), whose\n_Homiliau_ was published in 1907.\n\n10. _Poetry after 1820._--The origins of this period are really placed\nin the last period. Its great characteristics are the development of the\nlyric, and the influence of English and continental ideas. Just as the\n_cywydd_ was among the older writers the favourite form of poetry, so\nthe lyric becomes now paramount, almost to the exclusion of other forms.\nThe first great name, after those already mentioned in the development\nof this form of poetry, is that of Anne Griffiths (1776-1805). Her\npoetry is exclusively composed of hymns, but to the English mind, the\nword \"hymn\" is entirely inadequate to give any idea of the passion, the\nmysticism and the rich symbolistic grace of her poems. She gave to the\nWelsh lyric the depth and the rather melancholy intensity which has\nalways characterized it. Evan Evans (Ieuan Glan Geirionydd) (1795-1855)\nwas also a hymnologist, but he wrote many secular lyrics and\n_awdlau_--among the former being the famous _Morfa Rhuddlan_. Ebenezer\nThomas (Eben Fardd) (1802-1863) was a famous _Eisteddfodwr_; his best\nwork is his _awdlau_, and no one will deny him the distinction of being\nthe master poet of the _awdl_ in the 19th century. Gwilym Cawrdaf\n(1795-1848), also a writer of _awdlau_, has the gift of simple and\ndirect expression, well exemplified in _Hiraeth Cymro am ei wlad_.\nDaniel Ddu (1792-1846) was a scholar who wrote some touching lyrics and\nhymns. Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-1883) attempted an epic, _Emmanuel_, with\nindifferent success. His shorter works and some of his _awdlau_ are of a\nmuch higher order. Caledfryn (1801-1869) was a direct successor of Dewi\nWyn and the earlier writers of _awdlau_, but his _Drylliad y Rothsay\nCastle_ is superior to anything which his master wrote. Similar in\ngenius, though not on quite as high a plane, were Nicander (1809-1874),\nCynddelw (1812-1875), Gwalchmai (1803-1897) and Tudno (1844-1895).\n\nJohn Blackwell (Alun) (1797-1840) was a lyricist of the first order.\nWith Ieuan Glan Geirionydd, he is the pioneer of the secular lyric of\nthe 19th century. Succeeding to this group of lyricists, we have another\nlater group, Ceiriog (1832-1887), Talhaiarn (1810-1869) and Mynyddog\n(1833-1877), who certainly had the advantage over their predecessors in\nfreshness, in vigour and in human interest, but they lacked the\nscholastic training of the earlier group, and so their work is often\nuneven, and cannot therefore be fairly compared with that of the earlier\npoets. Ceiriog, of course, is the greater name of the three, and is to\nWales what Robert Burns was to Scotland, sharing with him his poetical\nfaults and merits. He is called the national poet of Wales, because he\nwas the first to sing of the land and the nation he knew, and he cast\nthe glamour of his genius over the life of the _gwerin_, the peasants of\nWales.\n\nSomewhat higher flights were essayed by Gwilym Marles (1834-1879) and\nIslwyn (1832-1878). Their poetry is Wordsworthian and mystical, and well\nexemplifies the love of metaphysics and speculation which is growing in\nWales. Islwyn's _Y storm_, though uneven, is full of powerful passages,\nand he was a master of blank verse. Of the remaining poets of the period\nliving in 1908, the most distinguished was the Rev. Elvet Lewis in the\nolder generation, and Eifion Wyn in the younger--both writers of lyrics.\nOther lyrical poets of the first class are Gwylfa and Silyn Roberts. In\nthe old metres, two poets stand out prominent above all others--J.\nMorris Jones and T. Gwynn Jones. The _Awdl i Famon_ of the former, and\nthe _Ymadawiad Arthur_ of the latter, gave reason to believe that Welsh\npoetry was only entering on its golden period.\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--_General_.--T. Stephens, _Literature of the Kymry_\n  (London[2], 1876); L.C. Stern in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1\n  pp. 114-130; Gweirydd ap Rhys. _Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1300-1650_\n  (London, 1885); C. Ashton, _Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1651-1850_\n  (Liverpool, 1893); J. Loth, _Les Mabinogion_ (2 vols., Paris, 1889);\n  E. Anwyl, _Prolegomena to Welsh Poetry_ (London, 1905), also on the\n  Mabinogi in _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ i. 277 ff.; I.B. John, _The\n  Mabinogion_ (London, 1901); T. Shankland, _Diwygwyr Cymru_, reprinted\n  from _Seren Gomer_ (1899); W.J. Gruffydd, _Foreign Influences on Welsh\n  Literature in the XIV. and XV. Centuries_, Guild of Welsh Graduates\n  (1908); Gwilym Lleyn, _Llyfryddiaeth y Cymry_ (Llanidloes, 1867);\n  Robert Williams, _Enwogion Cymru_ (Llandovery, 1852); Owen Jones,\n  _Cymru_ (2 vols., London, 1875); D.W. Nash, _History of the Battle of\n  Cattraeth_ (Tenby, 1861); _Encyclopaedia Cambrensis_ (10 vols.,[2]\n  1889-1896); C. Ashton, _Bywyd ac amserau yr Esgob Morgan_ (Treherbert,\n  1891); J. Foulkes, _J. Ceiriog Hughes, ei fywyd a'i waith_ (Liverpool,\n  1887); J.M. Jones, _Llenyddiaeth fy ngwlad_ (Holywell, 1893); H. Elvet\n  Lewis, _Sweet Singers of Wales_ (London, 1889); H.W. Lloyd, _Welsh\n  Books Printed Abroad in the XVI. and XVII. Centuries_ (London, 1881).\n\n  _Anthologies, Selected Prose and Verse, &c._--W.F. Skene, _The Four\n  Ancient Books of Wales_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868); W. Owen (Pughe),\n  Iolo Morganwg and Owen Jones (Myfyr), _Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales_\n  (3 vols., London, 1801;[2] Denbigh, 1870, in 1 vol.); Dr John Davies\n  (o Fallwyd), _Flores Poetarum Britannicorum_ (Shrewsbury, 1710;\n  Swansea, 1814; reprinted London, 1864); Iolo Morganwg, _Iolo\n  Manuscripts_ (Llandovery, 1848); E. Evans, _Some Specimens of the\n  Poetry of the Antient Welsh Bards translated into English, &c._\n  (London, 1764); Hugh Jones, _Dewisol Ganiadau yr Oes Hon_ (Shrewsbury,\n  1759;[5] Merthyr, 1827), _Diddanwch Teuluaidd_ (London, 1763); David\n  Jones, _Blodeugerdd Cymry_ (Shrewsbury[2], 1779); Owen Jones, _Ceinion\n  Llenyddiaeth Gymreig_ (2 vols., London, 1876); W. Lewis Jones,\n  _Caniadau Cymru_ (Bangor[2], 1908); W. Jenkyn Thomas, _Penillion\n  Telyn_ (Carnarvon, 1894); Myrddin Fardd, _Cynfeirdd Lleyn_ (1905);\n  _Cyfres Lien Cymru_, vols. i.-vi. (Cardiff, 1900-1906); W.J. Gruffydd,\n  _Y Flodeugerdd Newydd_ (Cardiff, 1908); O.M. Edwards, _Beirdd y\n  Berwyn_ (Conway, 1903).\n\n  _Versification, &c_,--Dafydd Morganwg, _Yr Ysgol Farddol_ (Cardiff[3],\n  1887); Iolo Morganwg, _Cyfrinach Beirdd Ynys Prydain_ (Merthyr,\n  1829;[2] Carnarvon, 1874); _Simwnt Vychan and Dafydd Ddu Athraw,\n  Dosparth Edeyrn Davod Aur_, ed. by J. Williams ab Ithel (Llandovery,\n  1856); J. Morris Jones, \"Welsh Versification,\" _Zeitschr.f. celt.\n  Phil._ iv. pp. 106-142.\n\n  _Collected Works, Editions and Reprints_,--J. Gwenogvryn Evans and\n  John Rhys, _Y Llyvyr Coch o Hergest_ (2 vols. Oxford, 1887-1890),\n  _Pedeir Kainc y Mabinogi_ (Oxford, 1897); J. Gwenogvryn Evans, _The\n  Black Book of Carmarthen_ (Oxford, 1907; also in facsimile, Oxford,\n  1888), _Llyvyr Job trans. by Dr Morgan, 1558_ (reprinted 1888), _Oll\n  Synwyr pen_ [Salesbury] (Bangor, 1902); J. Morris Jones and John Rhys,\n  _Llyvyr Agkyr Llandewivrevi_ (Oxford, 1894); Aneurin Owen, _Ancient\n  Laws and Institutes of Wales_ (2 vols., London, 1841), _Brut y\n  Tywysogion_ (London, 1863); J. Williams ab Ithel, _Gododin with Notes\n  and Translation_ (Llandovery, 1852); T. Stephens, _Gododin with Notes\n  and Translation_, ed. by T. Powel (London, 1888); R. Williams,\n  _Selections from the Hengwrt MSS._ (2 vols., London, 1876-1892); T.\n  Powel, _Ystorya de Carolo Magno_ (London, 1883); _Psalmau Dafydd\n  trans. by W. Morgan_ (facsimile, 1896); Owen Jones (Myfyr) and W. Owen\n  (Pughe), _Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym_ (London, 1789); Walter Davies\n  and J. Jones, _Poetical Works of Lewis Glyn Cothi_ (1837); Prince\n  Louis Bonaparte, _Athrawaeth Gristnogavl by Morys Clynoc_ (facsimile\n  London, 1880); Walter Davies, _Caniadau Huw Morus_ (2 vols., 1823);\n  _Psalmau Dafydd gan W. Middleton_ (Llanfair, 1827); J. Morris Jones,\n  _Gweledugaethai y Bardd cwsg gan Elis Wynne_ (Bangor, 1898); R. Jones,\n  _The Poetical Works of Goronwy Owen_ (2 vols. London, 1876); W.J.\n  Gruffydd, _Cywyddau Goronwy Owen_ (Newport, 1906); T.E. Ellis,\n  _Gweithiau Morgan Llwyd_ (Bangor, 1899); J.H. Davies, _Yn y Llyvyr\n  hwn_ (Bangor, 1902); S.J. Evans, _Drych y Prif Oesoedd gan Th. Evans_\n  (Bangor, 1902); W.P. Williams, _Deffyniad Ffydd Eglwys Loegr gan Morys\n  Kyffin_ (Bangor, 1908); N. Cynhafal Jones, _Gweithiau W. Williams\n  Pantycelyn_ (2 vols., 1887-1891); O.M. Edwards, _Gweithiau Islwyn_\n  (1897).     (W. J. G.)\n\nV. BRETON LITERATURE.--Unlike the literature of Wales, the literature of\nBrittany is destitute of originality, and we find nothing to compare\nwith the _Mabinogion_. Till the 19th century all the monuments which\nhave come down to us are copies of French models, though the retention\ndown to the 17th century of that intricate system of versification found\nin Welsh and Cornish may indicate that what was really Breton in spirit\nhas not been preserved (v. J. Loth, _La Metrique galloise_, ii.\n177-203). It is usual to divide the literature into three periods in\nconformity with the language in which the monuments are written--Old,\nMiddle, and Modern Breton. No connected monuments of the first period\n(8th to 11th centuries) have come down to us. For our knowledge of the\nlanguage of this period we must have recourse to the manuscripts\ncontaining glosses and the names occurring in ancient documents. The\nchief collections of glosses are (1) the Oxford glosses on Eutychius;\n(2) the Luxemburg glosses; (3) the Bern glosses on Virgil; (4) the\nglosses on Amalarius (Corpus Christi, Cambridge); (5) five _Collationes\nCanonum_, the chief manuscripts being at Paris and Orleans. All these\nglosses have been published in one volume by J. Loth (_Vocabulaire\nVieux-Breton_, Paris, 1884). From a linguistic point of view the Breton\nnames in the Latin lives of saints are very important, particularly\nthose of St Samson, St Paul, Aurelian, St Winwaloe, St Ninnoc, St Gildas\nand St Brieuc. Of even greater value are the names in the Charter of\nRedon, which was written in the 11th century, but dates largely from the\n9th (published by A. de Courson, 1865); we may also mention the Charter\nof Landevennec (11th century). In the Middle Breton period, which\nextends from the 11th to the 17th centuries, we are obliged, down to the\n15th century, to rely on official documents such as the Charter of\nQuimperle. French seems to have been the language of the aristocracy and\nthe medium of culture. Hence the oldest connected texts are either\ntranslated or imitated from French, and are full of French words. We\nmight mention a Book of Hours belonging to the 16th century, published\nby Whitley Stokes, and three religious poems bound up with the _Grand\nMystere de Jesus_; further, the _Life of St Catherine_ (1576) in prose\n(published by Ernault, _Revue celtique_, viii. 76), translated from the\n_Golden Legend_, the _Mirror of Death_, containing 3360 verses, which\nwas composed in 1519 and printed in 1576, the _Mirror of Confession_, a\ntranslation from the French in prose (1621), the _Christian Doctrine_, a\ntranslation in verse (1622), a collection of carols (_An Nouelou\nancien_, 1650, _Rev. celt._ vols. x.-xiii.) and the _Christian\nMeditations_ of J. Cadec, 1651 (_Rev. Celt._ xx. 56). The earliest\nBreton printed work is the _Catholicon_ of Jean Lagadeuc, a\nBreton-Latin-French dictionary, dated 1464 but printed first in 1499\n(reprinted by R.F. Le Men, Lorient, 1867). Modern Breton begins with the\northographical reforms of the Jesuit, Julien Maunoir, whose grammar (_Le\nSacre College de Jesus_) and dictionary appeared in 1659. Throughout the\nmodern period we find numerous collections of religious poems and\nmanuals of devotion in prose and verse, which we cannot here attempt to\nenumerate. But the bulk of Breton literature before the 19th century\nconsists of mysteries and miracle plays. This class of literature had a\ntremendous vogue in Brittany, and the native stage was only killed about\n1850. It is stated, for instance, that no less than 15,000 copies were\nsold of the _Tragedy of the Four Sons of Aymon_, first published in\n1815. It is impossible to give the titles of all the dramas which have\ncome down to us (about 120). The manuscript collection of the\nBibliotheque Nationale in Paris is described in the _Revue celtique_,\nxi. 389-423 (many since published) and Le Braz gives a useful list of\nother manuscripts in the bibliographical appendix to his _Theatre\nceltique_. A few of these plays belong to the Middle Breton period. The\n_Life of St Nonn_, the mother of St David, belongs to the end of the\n15th century, and follows the Latin life (published by Ernault in the\n_Revue celtique_, viii. 230 ff., 405 ff.). _Le Grand Mystere de Jesus_\n(1513) follows the French play of Arnoul Gresban and Jean Michel\n(published by H. de la Villemarque, Paris, 1865). A French original is\nalso followed in the _Mystere de Sainte Barbe_ (1st ed., 1557, 2nd ed.,\n1647, reprinted by Ernault, Nantes, 1885). These mystery plays may be\ndivided into four categories according to the subjects with which they\ndeal: (1) Old Testament subjects; (2) New Testament subjects; (3) lives\nof saints; (4) romances of chivalry. There is occasionally a dash of\nlocal colouring in these plays; but the subject matter is taken from\nFrench sources or, in the case of the third category, from Latin lives.\nEven when the life of a Breton saint, e.g. St Gwennole, is dramatized,\nthe treatment is the traditional one accorded to all saints of whatever\norigin. Amongst the most favourite subjects in addition to those already\nmentioned we may note the following: _Vie des quatre fils Aymon_, _Ste\nTryphine et le roi Arthur_, _Huon de Bordeaux_, _Vie de Louis Eunius_,\n_Robert le Diable_. These mysteries commonly contain from 5000 to 9000\nlines of either 12 or 8 syllables apiece. For the sake of completeness\nwe may add the names of three farces, described by Le Braz: _Ar Farvel\ngoapaer_ (_Le bouffon moqueur_), _Ian Melarge_ (_Mardi-gras_), _La Vie\nde Mardi-gras, de triste Mine, sa femme, et de ses enfants_. The actors,\nwho were always peasants, came to be regarded with an unfavourable eye\nby the clergy, who finally succeeded in killing the Breton stage.\n\nWe look in vain for any manifestation of originality in Breton\nliterature until we reach the 19th century. The consciousness of\nnationality then awakened and found expression in verse.\n\nThe movement led by Le Gonidec (described above in the section on Breton\nlanguage) caused ardent patriots to endeavour to create a national\nliterature, more especially when the attention of the whole world of\nletters was directed to Brittany after the publication of the _Barzas\nBreiz_. The most prominent of these pioneers were Auguste Brizeux, F.M.\nLuzel and Prosper Proux. Brizeux (1803-1858), better known as a French\npoet, wrote a collection of lyrics entitled _Telen Arvor_, or the\n_Armorican Harp_ (Lorient, 1844, reprinted Paris, 1903). Luzel's\noriginal compositions were published under the title of _Bepred Breizad,\nToujours Breton_ (Morlaix, 1865), and Prosper Proux is known as the\nauthor of _Canaouenno gret gant eur C'hernewod_ (1838) and _Ar Bombard\nKerne_, or _The Hautboy of Cornouailles_ (Guingamp, 1866). Dottin also\nmentions _Telenn Remengol_, by J. Lescour (Brest, 1867); _Telenn\nGwengam_, by the same writer (Brest, 1869), a volume of _Chansoniou_ by\nY.M. Thomas (Lannion, 1870), and another by C. Rannou. This was a very\ncreditable beginning, but the themes of these writers are apt to be\nsomewhat conventional and the constant recurrence of the same situation\nor the same idea grows monotonous. An anthology of poems connected with\nthis movement appeared at Quimperle in 1862 under the title of _Bleuniou\nBreiz, Poesies anciennes et modernes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (reprinted,\nParis, 1905). Several of La Fontaine's fables were published in a Breton\ndress by P.D. de Goesbriand (Morlaix, 1836), and a collection of fables\nin verse which is thought very highly of by cultivated Bretons appeared\nunder the title of _Marvaillou Grac'h koz_ by G. Milin (Brest, 1867). A\nbook of Georgics in the dialect of Vannes appeared under the title of\n_Levr al labourer_ (The Farmer's Book) by l'Abbe Guillome (Vannes,\n1849), and Le Gonidec prepared a translation of the Scriptures, which\nwas revised by Troude and Milin, and published at St Brieuc in 1868. But\nthe real literature of Brittany consists of legends, folk-tales and\nballads. The first to tap this source was Hersart de la Villemarque\n(1815-1895), who issued in 1839 his famous collection of ballads\nentitled _Barzas Breiz_, but which cannot be regarded as an anthology of\nBreton popular poetry. The publication of this work gave rise to a\ncontroversy which is almost as famous as that caused by Macpherson's\nforgeries. De la Villemarque was endowed with considerable poetic gifts,\nand, coming as he did at a time when folk-poetry was the fashion, he\ndetermined to collect the popular literature of his own country.\nHowever, he was not content to publish the poems as he found them\ncirculating in Brittany. With the aid of several collaborators he\ntransformed his material, eliminating anything that was crude and gross.\nThe poems included in his collection may be divided into three classes:\n(1) Poems rearranged by himself or others. These consist mainly of\nlove-songs and ballads. (2) Modern poems transferred to medieval times.\n(3) Spurious poems dealing with such personages as Nominoe and Merlin.\nThe compiler of the _Barzas Breiz_ unfortunately laboured under the\ndelusion that these Breton folk-songs were in the first instance the\nwork of medieval bards corresponding to Taliessin and Llywarch Hen in\nWales, and that it was possible to make them appear in their primitive\ndress. The very title of the collection indicates the artificial nature\nof the contents. For _Barzas_ (in the 2nd edition of 1867 spelt\n_Barzaz_) is not a Breton word at all but is formed on Welsh _barddas_\n(bardic poems). For the whole controversy the reader may consult H.\nGaidoz and P. Sebillot, \"Bibliographie des traditions et de la\nlitterature populaire de la Bretagne\" (_Revue celtique_, v. 277 ff., and\nG. Dottin in the _Revue de synthese historique_, viii. 95 ff.). In\nBrittany it is usual to divide the popular poetry into _gwerziou_ and\n_soniou_. The _gwerziou_ (complaintes) deal with local history,\nfolk-lore, religious legends and superstitions, and are in general much\nmore original than the other class. The _soniou_ consist of love-songs,\nsatires, carols and marriage-lays, as well as others dealing with\nprofessional occupations, and seem in many cases to show traces of\nFrench influence. The first scholar who published the genuine ballad\nliterature of Brittany was F.M. Luzel, who issued two volumes under the\ntitle of _Gwerziou Breiz-Izel, chants populaires de la Basse-Bretagne_\n(Lorient and Paris, 1868, 1874). This collection contains several of the\noriginals of poems in the _Barzas Breiz_. Luzel is also the author of a\ncollection of Breton tales in French translation, _Contes bretons\nrecueillis et traduits par F.M. Luzel_ (Quimperle, 1870). The same\nauthor published _Les Legendes chretiennes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris,\n1881) and _Veillees bretonnes, moeurs, chants, contes et recits\npopulaires des Bretons-Armoricains_ (Morlaix, 1879). Another\nindefatigable collector of Breton legends is Anatole le Braz, who was\ncommissioned by the minister of public instruction to investigate the\nstories current with reference to _An Ankou_ (death). Le Braz's results\nare to be found in his _La Legende de la mort_ (1902[2]). A well-known\ncollection of stories with a French translation was issued by the\nlexicographer Troude under the title of _Ar marvailler brezounek_\n(Brest, 1870), and one of the most popular books at the present day is\n_Pipi Gonto_, by A. le Moal (St Brieuc, vol. i. 1902, vol. ii. 1908). A\nrecent collection of stories with a religious tendency is C.M. le Prat's\n_Marvailhou ar Vretoned_ (Brest, 1907). The modern movement, which\nstarted in the 'nineties of last century, has already produced numerous\ndramas and volumes of lyrics, and it may now be affirmed in all\nseriousness that Brittany is producing something really national. The\nscope of the writers of the earlier movement was very limited and little\noriginality was displayed in their productions. The literary output of\nthe last ten years in Brittany may truly be termed prodigious, and much\nof it reaches quite a high level. The dramas which are being produced\nare mainly propagandist in the interests either of the _Union\nRegionaliste Bretonne_ or of temperance reform. These are for the most\npart very crude, but they have been received with great enthusiasm, and\nthis has led to the revival of the old mysteries, though in a somewhat\nmodified form. The foremost living writer is Fanch Jaffrennou, who\nwrites under the name of \"_Taldir_\" (Brow of Steel) and is the author of\ntwo very striking volumes of lyrics--_An Hirvoudou_ or _Sighs_ (St\nBrieuc, 1899) and _An Delen Dir_ or _The Harp of Steel_ (St Brieuc,\n1900). The latter is the most interesting outcome of the modern\nmovement. Among other poets we may mention N. Quellien (_Annaik_, Paris,\n1880; _Breiz, Poesies bretonnes_, Paris, 1898), Erwan Berthou (_Dre an\nDelen hag ar c'horn-boud, Par la harpe et par le cor de guerre_, St\nBrieuc, 1904), C.M. le Prat, who writes under the name of Klaoda (_Mouez\nReier Plougastel_, \"The Voice of the Cliffs of Plougastel,\" St Brieuc,\n1905), J. Cuillandre (_Mouez an Aochou, La Voix des greves_, Rennes,\n1903), abbe Lec'hvien, _Gwerziou ha soniou_ (St Brieuc, 1900), and,\nfurther, two anonymous volumes of verse, _An Tremener, Gwerziou ha\nsoniou_ (Brest, 1900), and _Kanaouennou Kerne_ (Brest, 1900). Two older\ncollections are mentioned by Dottin--J. Cadiou, _En Breiz-Izel_\n(Morlaix, 1885) and _Ivona_ (Morlaix, 1886). An anthology of latter-day\nlyrics appeared at Rennes in 1902 under the title of _Bleuniou\nBreiz-Izel, Dibab Barzoniezou_. Of the numerous plays those most\ndeserving of mention from a literary point of view are perhaps _Ar\nVezventi_ by T. le Garrec; the comedy _Alanik al Louarn_ by J.M. Perrot\n(Brest, 1905) based on the farce of Pathelin; Tanguy Malmanche, _Le\nConte de l'ame qui a faim_, in which Breton superstitions connected with\nthe spirits of the dead are introduced with strange effect; J. le Bayon,\n_En Eutru Keriolet_ (Vannes, 1902), which deals with the life and death\nof a blaspheming Breton nobleman of the early part of the 17th century;\nF. Jaffrennou, _Pontkallek_ (Brest, 1903), which tells of the betrayal\nof a noble Breton who was put to death by the French in 1720; and the\nfarce _Eur Pesk-Ebrel_ by L. Rennadis (Morlaix, 1900).\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--A history of Breton literature does not exist, though we\n  possess ample materials for such a work. The following works and\n  articles may be consulted: G. Dottin. _Revue de synthese historique_,\n  viii, 93-104, contains a full bibliography; J. Loth, _Chrestomathie\n  bretonne_ (Paris, 1890); L.C. Stern in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i.\n  xi. 1, pp. 132-137; A. le Braz, _Le Theatre celtique_ (Paris, 1904);\n  H. Gaidoz and P. Sebillot, \"Bibliographie des traditions et de la\n  litterature populaire de la Bretagne\" (_Revue celtique_, v. 277-338;\n  supplement by P. Sebillot_, Revue de Bretagne, de Vendee, et d'Anjou_,\n  1894); F.M. Luzel, \"Formules initiates et finales des conteurs en\n  Basse-Bretagne\" (_Revue celtique_, iii. 336 ff.); L.F. Sauve,\n  \"Formulettes et traditions diverses de la Basse-Bretagne\" (_Revue\n  celtique_, v. 157 ff.); _Charmes_, \"Oraisons et conjurations\n  magiques,\" ib vi. 66 ff.; \"Devinettes bretonnes,\" _ib._ iv 60 ff.;\n  \"Proverbes et dictons de la Basse-Bretagne,\" _ib._ i-iii. For Breton\n  proverbs see also A. Brizeux, \"Furnez Breiz,\" in _Oeuvres de A.\n  Brizeux_ (Paris, 1903); J. Loth, \"Chansons en bas-vannetais\" (_Revue\n  celtique_, vii. 171 ff.); N. Quellien, _Chansons et danses des\n  Bretons_ (Paris, 1889); E. Ernault, \"Chansons populaires\" (_Revue\n  celtique_, xxiii. 121 ff.); P. le Roux, \"Une Chanson bretonne du\n  xviii^e siecle\" (_Revue celtique_, xix. 1). Since 1901 a complete\n  bibliography of modern works pertaining to Breton language and\n  literature appears from time to time in the _Annales de Bretagne._\n       (E. C. Q.)\n\nVI. CORNISH LITERATURE.--The literature of Cornwall is more destitute of\noriginality and more limited in scope than that of Brittany, and it is\nremarkable that the medieval drama should occupy the most prominent\nplace in both. The earliest Cornish we know consists of proper names and\na vocabulary. About 200 Cornish names occur among the manumissions of\nserfs in the Bodmin Gospels (10th century). They were printed by Whitley\nStokes in the _Revue celtique_, i. 232. Next comes the Cottonian\nVocabulary, which seems to follow a similar Anglo-Saxon collection and\nis contained in a 12th-century MS. at the British Museum. It consists of\nseven pages and the words are classified under various headings, such as\nheaven and earth, different parts of the human body, birds, beasts,\nfishes, trees, herbs, ecclesiastical and liturgical terms. At the end we\nfind a number of adjectives. This vocabulary was printed by Zeuss[2], p.\n1065, and again in alphabetical order by Norris in the _Ordinalia_. The\nlanguage of this document is termed Old Cornish, although the forms it\ncontains correspond to those of Mid. Welsh and Mid. Breton.\n\nThe first piece of connected Cornish which we know consists of a poem,\nor portion of a play(?), of forty-one lines discovered by Jenner in the\nBritish Museum. This fragment was probably written about 1400 and deals\nwith the subject of marriage (edited by W. Stokes in the _Revue\nceltique_, iv. 258). A little later is the _Poem of Mount Calvary_ or\n_the Passion_, of which five MSS. are in existence. The poem has been\ntwice printed, first by Davies Gilbert with English translation by John\nKeigwin (1826), and again by W. Stokes for the London Philological\nSociety in 1862. It consists of 259 stanzas of eight lines of seven\nsyllables apiece, and contains a versified narrative of the events of\nthe Passion made up from the Gospels and apocryphal sources, notably the\nGospel of Nicodemus. But the bulk of Cornish literature is made up of\nplays, and in this connexion it may be noted that there still exist in\nthe west of Cornwall the remains of a number of open-air amphitheatres,\nlocally called _plan an guari_, where the plays seem to have been acted.\nThe earliest representatives of this kind of literature in Cornwall form\na trilogy going under the name of _Ordinalia_, of which three MSS. are\nknown, one a 15th-century Oxford MS. from which the two others are\ncopied. The _Ordinalia_ were published by Edwin Norris under the title\nof _The Ancient Cornish Drama_ (Oxford, 1859). The first play is called\n_Origo Mundi_ and deals with events from the Old Testament down to the\nbuilding of Solomon's temple. The second play, the _Passio Domini_, goes\non without interruption into the third, the _Resurrectio Domini_, which\nembraces the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection and Ascension, the\nlegend of St Veronica and Tiberius, and the death of Pilate. Here again\nthe pseudo-Gospel of Nicodemus is drawn upon, and interwoven with the\nScriptural narrative we find the Legend of the Cross. As the title\n_Ordinalia_ indicates, these plays are of learned origin and are\nimitated from English sources. The popular name for these dramas,\n_quari-mirkle_, is a literal translation of the English term miracle\nplay, and Norris shows that whole passages were translated word for\nword. Many of the events are represented as having taken place in\nwell-known Cornish localities, but apart from this scarcely any traces\nof originality can be discovered. The same remark holds good in the case\nof another play, _Beunans Meriasek_ or the _Life of St Meriasek._ This\ndeals in an incoherent manner with the life and death of Meriasek (in\nBreton _Meriadek_), the son of a duke of Brittany, and interwoven with\nthis theme is the legend of St Silvester and the emperor Constantine,\nquite regardless of the circumstance that St Silvester lived in the 4th\nand St Meriasek in the 7th century. The MS. of this play was written by\n\"Dominus Hadton\" in the year 1504, and is preserved in the Peniarth\nlibrary. The language is more recent than that of the _Ordinalia_, and\nthere is a certain admixture of English. The _Life of St Meriasek_ falls\ninto two parts, and at the end of each the spectators are invited to\ncarouse. St Meriasek was in earlier times the patron saint of Camborne,\nwhere his fountain is still to be seen and pilgrims to it were known by\nthe name of _Merra-sickers._ In this play, consequently, we might expect\nto find something really Cornish. But le Braz has shown that the author\nof this motley drama was content to draw his materials from Latin and\nEnglish lives of saints. The story of Meriasek himself was taken from a\nBreton source and closely resembles the narrative of the 17th-century\nBreton hagiographer, Albert le Grand. The last play we have to mention\nis _Gwreans an Bys_ (The Creation of the World), of which five complete\ncopies are known. Two of these are in the Bodleian and one in the\nBritish Museum, which also possesses a further fragment. The oldest text\nwas revised by William Jordan of Helston in 1611, but there are\nindications that parts of it at any rate are older than the Reformation.\nThis play bears a great resemblance to the first part of the _Origo\nMundi_, and may have been imitated from it. It was printed first by\nDavies Gilbert in 1827 with a translation by John Keigwin, and again by\nW. Stokes in the _Transactions of the London Philological Society_ for\n1864. The language shows considerable signs of decay, and Lucifer and\nhis angels are often made to speak English. The only other original\ncompositions of any length written in Cornish are _Nebbaz Gerriau dro\ntho Carnoack_ (A Few Words about Cornish), by John Boson (printed in the\n_Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall_, 1879), and the _Story of\nJohn of Chy-an-Hur_ (Ram's House), a folk-tale which appears in Ireland\nand elsewhere. The latter was printed in Lhuyd's _Grammar_ and in\nPryce's _Archaeologia_. Andrew Borde's _Booke of the Introduction of\nKnowledge_ (1542) contains some Cornish conversations (see _Archiv f.\ncelt. Lexikographie_, vol. i.), and in Carew's _Survey of Cornwall_ a\nnumber of words and phrases are to be found. Apart from the Cornish\npreface to Lhuyd's _Grammar_, the other remains of the language consist\nof a few songs, verses, proverbs, epigrams, epitaphs, maxims, letters,\nconversations, mottoes and translations of chapters and passages of\nScripture, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Commandments, King\nCharles's Letter, &c. These fragments are to be found (1) in the Gwavas\nMS. in the British Museum, a collection ranging in date from 1709 to\n1736; (2) in the Borlase MS. (1750); (3) in Pryce's _Archaeologia\nCornu-Britannica_ (1790); (4) in D. Gilbert's editions of the _Poem of\nthe Passion_ (1826) and the Creation of the World (1827). They are\nenumerated, classified and described by Jenner in his _Handbook._\n\n  AUTHORITIES.--H. Jenner, _Handbook of the Cornish Language_ (London,\n  1904); A. le Braz, _Le Theatre celtique_ (Paris, 1905); E. Norris,\n  _The Ancient Cornish Drama_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1859); T.C. Peter, _The\n  Old Cornish Drama_ (London, 1906); L.C. Stern, _Die Kultur d.\n  Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp. 131-132.     (E. C. Q.)\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n  [1] J. Loth gives it as his opinion that as late as 1400-1600 a\n    Cornishman and a Breton might have been able to understand one\n    another.\n\n  [2] It is indeed probable that Myrddin is a purely fictitious\n    character, whose name has been made up from Caer Fyrddin\n    (=Maridunum), which was certainly not a personal name.\n\n  [3] Another derivation of this word is from _llad_, \"profit\" + _hai_,\n    a suffix denoting the agent. Others derive it from or connect it with\n    the Irish _slad-_.\n\n\n\n\nCELT, a word in common use among British and French archaeologists to\ndescribe the hatchets, adzes or chisels of chipped or shaped stone used\nby primitive man. The word is variously derived from the Welsh _cellt_,\na flintstone (that being the material of which the weapons are chiefly\nmade, though celts of basalt felstone and jade are found); from being\nsupposed to be the implement peculiar to the Celtic peoples; or from a\nLow Latin word _celtis_, a chisel. The last derivation is more probably\ncorrect. The word has come to be somewhat loosely applied to metal as\nwell as stone axe-heads. The general form of stone celts is that of\nblades approaching an oval in section, with sides more or less straight\nand one end broader and sharper than the other. In length they vary from\nabout 2 to as much as 16 in. The largest and finest specimens are found\nin Denmark: one in an English collection being of beautiful white flint\n13 in. long, 1-1\/2 in. thick and 3-1\/2 in. broad. Those found in Denmark\nare sometimes polished, but usually are left rough. Those found in\nnorth-western Europe are ground to a more or less smooth surface. That\nsome were held in the hand and others fixed in wooden handles is clear\nfrom the presence of peculiar polished spaces produced by the friction\nof the wood. In the later stone adzes holes are sometimes found pierced\nto receive the handles.\n\nThe bronze celts vary in size from an inch to a foot in length. The\nearlier specimens are much like the stone ones in shape and design, but\nthe later manufactures show a marked improvement, the metal being\nusually pierced to receive the handles. It is noteworthy that the\nceltmakers never cast their axes with a transverse hole through which\nthe handle might pass. Bronze celts are usually plain, but some are\nornamented with ridges, dots or lines. That they were made in the\ncountries where they are found is proved by the presence of moulds.\n\nA point worthy of mention is the position which stone celts hold in the\nfolk-lore and superstitious beliefs of many lands. In the West of\nEngland the country folks believe the weapons fell originally from the\nsky as \"thunderbolts,\" and that the water in which they are boiled is a\nspecific for rheumatism. In the North and Scotland they are\npreservatives against cattle diseases. In Brittany a stone celt is\nthrown into a well to purify the water. In Sweden they are regarded as a\nprotection against lightning. In Norway the belief is that, if they are\ngenuine thunderbolts, a thread tied round them when placed on hot coals\nwill not burn but will become moist. In Germany, Spain, Italy, the same\nbeliefs prevail. In Japan the stones are accounted of medicinal value,\nwhile in Burma and Assam they are infallible specifics for ophthalmia.\nIn Africa they are the weapons of the Thunder-God. In India and among\nthe Greeks the hatchet appears to have had a sacred importance, derived,\ndoubtless, from the universal superstitious awe with which these weapons\nof prehistoric man were regarded.\n\n  See Sir J. Evans's _Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Lord\n  Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (1865-1900) and _Origin of Civilization_\n  (1870); E.B. Tylor's _Anthropology, and Primitive Culture_, &c. For\n  the history of polished stone axes up to the 17th century see Dr\n  Marrel Bandouin and Lionel Bonnemere in the _Bulletin de la Societe\n  d'Anthropologie de Paris_, April-May 1905.\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th\nEdition, Volume 5, Slice 5, by Various\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nMost CHARISMA HOUSE BOOK GROUP products are available at special quantity discounts for bulk purchase for sales promotions, premiums, fundraising, and educational needs. For details, write Charisma House Book Group, 600 Rinehart Road, Lake Mary, Florida 32746, or telephone (407) 333-0600.\n\nTOXIC RELIEF by Don Colbert, MD  \nPublished by Siloam  \nCharisma Media\/Charisma House Book Group  \n600 Rinehart Road  \nLake Mary, Florida 32746  \nwww.charismahouse.com\n\nThis book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means\u2014electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise\u2014without prior written permission of the publisher, except as provided by United States of America copyright law.\n\nUnless otherwise noted, all Scripture quotations are from Holy Bible, New King James Version. Copyright \u00a9 1979, 1980, 1982 by Thomas Nelson, Inc., publishers. Used by permission.\n\nScripture quotations marked KJV are from the King James Version of the Bible.\n\nScripture quotations marked NLT are from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright \u00a9 1996. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL 60189. All rights reserved.\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2001, 2003, 2012 by Don Colbert, MD  \nAll rights reserved\n\nCover design by Bill Johnson\n\nVisit the author's website atwww.drcolbert.com.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:  \nColbert, Don.  \nToxic relief \/ Don Colbert. \u2013 [Updated and rev.].  \np. cm.  \nIncludes bibliographical references (p. ).  \nISBN 978-1-61638-599-6 (trade paper) \u2013 ISBN 978-1-61638-707-5 (e-book) 1.  \nFasting. 2. Detoxification (Health) I. Title.  \nRA784.5.C654 2012  \n613\u2013dc23\n\n2011039067\n\nThis book contains the opinions and ideas of its author. It is solely for informational and educational purposes and should not be regarded as a substitute for professional medical treatment. The nature of your body's health condition is complex and unique. Therefore, you should consult a health professional before you begin any new exercise, nutrition, or supplementation program or if you have questions about your health. Neither the author nor the publisher shall be liable or responsible for any loss or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestion in this book.\n\nPeople and names in this book are composites created by the author from his experiences as a medical doctor. Names and details of their stories have been changed, and any similarity between the names and stories of individuals described in this book to individuals known to readers is purely coincidental.\n\nThe statements in this book about consumable products or food have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. The recipes in this book are to be followed exactly as written. The publisher is not responsible for your specific health or allergy needs that may require medical supervision. The publisher is not responsible for any adverse reactions to the consumption of food or products that have been suggested in this book.\n\nWhile the author has made every effort to provide accurate telephone numbers and Internet addresses at the time of publication, neither the publisher nor the author assumes any responsibility for errors or for changes that occur after publication.\n\n12 13 14 15 16 \u2014 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1  \nPrinted in the United States of America\nDEDICATION\n\nIWOULD LIKE TO DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO MY GRANDSON BRADEN, whom I call my \"Joy Boy.\" He is two and a half years old and full of love, joy, and energy.\n\nI'm his papa, and a couple of months ago he came bursting into my exam room, yelling, \"Papa, Papa!\" He was so excited to see me, he ran over to me and gave me a big hug and then turned around to see three small children in the room with their mother and father. The little four-year-old boy was very ill, and he was my patient. Also, his ten-month-old baby brother and six-year-old sister were in the room.\n\nJoy Boy first went over to the baby and just hugged and loved on that baby for about a minute. Next he went over to the four-year-old boy and hugged him for about a minute. You could tangibly feel the love and healing as Joy Boy hugged the ill child. Then with a toothy grin, he headed down to the sister and hugged her.\n\nThe parents were amazed at my little Joy Boy and the joy and love he showed. May all of us become as little children and share the love and joy of Christ with a sick and dying world.\n\nI wish to also thank my wife, Mary, for her much needed love and support during the writing of this book.\nCONTENTS\n\nForeword\n\nIntroduction\n\n[Section I  \nYou Need Toxic Relief](..\/Text\/Md_ISBN9781616385996_epub_section1_r1.html#d7e251419)\n\nChapter 1 Our Toxic Earth\n\nSick and Toxic\n\nThe Dish on Oil Spills\n\nWhat Happens in Nuclear Explosions?\n\nAwash in Chemical Chaos\n\nIndoor Pollution\n\nSick Building Syndrome\n\nAre You Breathing in Bacteria, Mold, and Yeast?\n\nPesticide Pollution\n\nAre You Being Forced to Inhale Secondhand Smoke?\n\nBeware of Sunscreen\n\nToxins in Our Food and Land\n\nWaxes That Don't Wash Off\n\nPesticides in Animal Feed\n\nToxic Fat?\n\nIn the brain\n\nIn the breasts\n\nToxins in Our Water\n\nChemical Chaos and Wildlife\n\nThe Dangers of Solvents\n\nAn Abundance of Mercury\n\nFood Additives and Flavorings\n\nConclusion\n\nChapter 2 A Toxic Battle Within.\n\nThe Antibiotic Attack\n\nThe Nightmare of Candida\n\nThe Molecular Warfare of Free Radicals\n\nA Way of Escape\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nChapter 3 Overnourished While Starving?.\n\nFacing the Terrible Truth About the American Diet\n\nSugar addicts\n\nProcessed foods\n\nDead foods\n\nToxic fats\n\nFast foods\n\nGenetically modified foods (GMOs)\n\nObese While Starving?\n\nEating Too Much of the Wrong Stuff?\n\nUndernourishment and Disease\n\nWhy Conventional Medicine Can't Help\n\nStop and Think About How We Eat\n\nStressed Out?\n\nChange the Way You Think\n\nHealth-First Eating\n\nFive Alive\n\nLimit Meats\n\nAvoid High-Protein Diets\n\nIn Conclusion\n\n[Section II  \nDr. Colbert's Detoxification Program](..\/Text\/Md_ISBN9781616385996_epub_section11_r1.html#d7e818960)\n\nChapter 4 Toxic Relief Through Fasting\n\nWhat's Your Body Trying to Tell You?\n\nFinding Relief Through Fasting\n\nPeriodic Fasting\n\nFasting\u2014a Natural Principle of Healing\n\nGeneral Benefits to Fasting\n\nFasting Energizes Cells\n\nRejuvenate Physically, Mentally, and Spiritually\n\nA Cellular Garbage Dump?\n\nLet's Talk About Fasting\n\nFasting\u2014What's It All About?\n\nTotal fasting\n\nWater-only fasting\n\nJuice fasting\n\nRestoring Nature's Delicate Balance\n\nCellular Constipation?\n\nGiving Your Gut a Rest\n\nJuice Fasting vs. Water-Only Fasting\n\nMuscle loss\n\nAntioxidants\n\nHealing\n\nJuice Fasting and Weight Loss\n\nNo metabolically induced weight gain\n\nStay energized\n\nLiver friendly\n\nKeeping the Colon in the Game\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nChapter 5 The Joy of Juice.\n\nYour Juice-Fasting Program\n\nCellular Spring Cleaning\n\nThe Wonders of Juice\n\nVital Vegetables\n\nEnzyme Energy\n\nPhyto Power!\n\nSelecting Your Vegetables and Fruit for Juicing\n\nCarotenoids\n\nCruciferous vegetables\n\nFlavonoids\n\nChlorophyll\n\nAllium\n\nEllagic acid\n\nVitamins and Minerals Through Juicing\n\nMagnesium\n\nFolic acid\n\nVitamin C\n\nComing Attractions\n\nChapter 6 Dr. C's Detox Fast.\n\nBefore Your Fast\n\nHow Long Should I Fast?\n\nWatch Out For .\n\nHelpful Aids to the Detoxification Process\n\nExfoliating and cleansing the skin\n\nInfared sauna\n\nLet's Get Started\n\nWhat If I Can't Use Organics?\n\nLook for thicker peels\n\nProduce with thin peels\n\nWashing off produce waxes\n\nChoosing a Juicer\n\nGuidelines for Your Fast\n\nThe day before your fast\n\nFast on the weekends\n\nDon't use prepared juices\n\nDon't drink alcohol, coffee, or sports drinks\n\nSip juices slowly\n\nPreparing Produce\n\nBest Fruit and Veggie Choices\n\nThe Basics of Juice Fasting\n\nSuggested Juicing Recipes\n\nCruciferous Veggies Are Important!\n\nSoups\n\nSpice It Up\n\nHerbal Teas\n\nBreaking Your Fast\n\nThe first day after your fast\n\nThe second day after your fast\n\nThe third day after your fast\n\nThe fourth day after your fast\n\nSpecial Advice for Special Problems\n\nCandidiasis, food allergies, parasites\n\nHypoglycemia\n\nSensitive GI tract\n\nConsider Making Juicing a Lifestyle\n\nShopping List\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nChapter 7 Your Champion Prizefighter.\n\nYour Body's Natural Detox System\n\nHow This Giant Works\n\nYour Giant Filter\n\nWatch for the Signs\n\nWhat About You?\n\nLiver Detox Method #2\n\nLiver Detox Method #3\n\nPhase One Detoxification\u2014Your Chemical Factory\n\nWhat Happens During Phase Two?\n\nEating for Your Liver\n\nSlowing Down the Process\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nChapter 8 A Nutritional Program for a Healthy Liver.\n\nA Winning Attitude and Helpful Support\n\nEliminate Toxins\n\nMake Liver-Friendly Diet Choices\n\nLiver-Friendly Starches\n\nStarches to Shun\n\nLiver-Friendly Fats\n\nBeverages Are Important Too\n\nPowerful Detox Proteins\n\nThe Golden Rule of Liver Care\n\nNutrients for the Liver\n\nA Good Multivitamin\/Multimineral Supplement\n\nMinerals\n\nAntioxidants\n\nGlutathione\n\nVitamin C\n\nLipoic acid\n\nVitamin E\n\nCoenzyme Q10\n\nBioflavonoids\n\nMilk thistle\n\nGreen tea\n\nProanthocyanidins\n\nQuercetin\n\nAmino Acids\n\nNAC (N-acetyl cysteine)\n\nGlycine\n\nGlutamine\n\nLipotropic Supplements\n\nPhosphatidyl choline (or lecithin)\n\nBeets\n\nHerbs for Detoxing\n\nSummarizing Main Supplements\n\nChapter 9 \"Eliminate the Negative\".\n\nYour First Line of Defense\n\nA Look Inside\n\nDigestion and Toxicity\n\nDiluting Your Stomach Acid\n\nThe Path Your Food Travels\n\nGetting Rid of the Waste\n\nNatural Diet vs. American Diet\n\nWhat's Affecting You?\n\nRelax . . . Breathe . . . Take a Minute\n\nOverloading\n\nIntestinal Permeability\n\nThe Effects of Food Allergies\n\nWatch for These Symptoms\n\nRepairing Your Intestines\n\nSupplements to Help Repair the GI Tract\n\nGood Bacteria, Bad Bacteria, and Yeast\n\nBacteria and Your Immune System\n\nCounterfeit Proteins Running Amok\n\nPartially Digested Food\n\nFinding Friendly Bacteria\n\nBeneficial Bacteria\n\nFOS\n\nYogurt\n\nLactobacillus plantarum and saccharonyces boulardii\n\nParasites That Plunder\n\nThe protozoa\n\nThe worms (helminths)\n\nThe arthropods\n\nThe Gift of Garlic\n\nThe Curse of Constipation\n\nLaxatives\n\nVitamin C\n\nChlorophyll drinks\n\nThree Main Factors\n\nFantastic Fiber\n\nNature's Detoxifier\n\nFiber Foods\n\nMicrocrystalline cellulose\n\nFlaxseed\n\nCitrus pectin\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nSummarizing Main Supplements\n\nChapter 10 Finding Healing Through Fasting.\n\nFor Colds and Flu\n\nFasting for Autoimmune Diseases\n\nFasting for Coronary Disease\n\nHypertension\n\nFasting for Psoriasis and Eczema\n\nFasting for Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis\n\nFasting for Allergies and Asthma\n\nFasting for Type 2 Diabetes\n\nFasting for Obesity\n\nFasting for Benign Tumors\n\nWhen You Should Not Fast\n\nIn Conclusion\n\n[Section III  \nDetoxing Your Whole Person](..\/Text\/Md_ISBN9781616385996_epub_section111_r1.html#d7e25054174)\n\nChapter 11 Spiritual Fasting\u2014What It's All About.\n\nGaining Control\n\nThe Destructive Power of Uncontrolled Desires\n\nFleshly Cravings\n\nFasting to Control the Lower Nature\n\nAbiding in the Word of God\n\nAbiding in Christlike Speech\n\nThe Why of Spiritual Fasting\n\nBuilds godly character\n\nLooses chains of bondage\n\nHumbles ourselves\n\nFasting for Spiritual Healing, Glory, and Refreshing\n\nFinding the Presence of God\n\nFasting Delivers Us From Error\n\nFasting for Healing\n\nThe When of Spiritual Fasting\n\nRegularly Scheduled Visits\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nChapter 12 Spiritual Fasting Throughout the Bible .\n\nCorporate Fasting for Forgiveness of Sins\n\nThe Esther Fast\u2014for Protection, Deliverance, and Divine Favor\n\nThe Ezra Fast\u2014for Direction and Protection\n\nThe Elijah Fast\u2014to Combat Spiritual Enemies\n\nThe Daniel Fast\u2014to Overcome the Flesh\n\nThe Second Daniel Fast\u2014for Spiritual Breakthroughs\n\nThe Disciples' Fast\u2014for Empowered Ministry\n\nLiving a Fasted Life\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nA Personal Note From Don Colbert.\n\nAppendix A Other Solutions for Toxic Relief.\n\nOil spills\n\nNuclear radiation\n\nAir pollution\n\nOther Solutions for Toxic Relief\n\nSick building syndrome\n\nBacteria, mold, and yeast\n\nPesticide pollution\n\nSecondhand smoke\n\nToxins in our water\n\nAppendix B Your Fasting Journal\n\nBefore You Begin\n\nAppendix C Tips for Healthy Eating.\n\nHelpful Tips for Grocery Shopping\n\nProducts to Avoid\n\nHealthy Guidelines for Food Preparation\n\nHelpful Appliances and Kitchen Essentials\n\nTips for Choosing the Most Beneficial Cooking Process\n\nAppendix D Product Information.\n\nNotes\nFOREWORD\n\nDON COLBERT CAME TO ORAL ROBERTS UNIVERSITY IN AUGUST 1977 as a sophomore. After completing his undergraduate work, he went on to complete medical school at ORU as well. During that time he walked through a life-threatening experience that heightened his awareness of the healing power of God. Because of the supernatural healing he experienced firsthand, Dr. Colbert became a man set on fire to bring God's health and wellness to as many people as humanly possible.\n\nIn 1963, ORU was founded on the principle of educating the \"whole man\"\u2014body, mind, and spirit. I knew in my heart that God wanted us to be well in every area of life. God created each of us in perfect balance, and if any part of that balance is out of line, every part suffers. Each person can be treated that way in medicine as well. We are spirit, we live in a body, and we have a mind.\n\nDr. Colbert is carrying out God's commitment to the whole-man concept. His knowledge of the body being interconnected to the mind and spirit is quite unique. His application of that knowledge helps provide an atmosphere for the whole man to get well. Dr. Colbert believes that by treating all parts as being interrelated, it gives the person a better chance to be brought back into balance in all areas.\n\nThis book addresses the whole-man concept in a medical fashion that also includes the necessary awareness of the mind and spirit being treated with equal importance in the body. Because of his many personal experiences in finding health and wellness, God has uniquely gifted Dr. Colbert with an ability to see beyond the sickness and see into the person. He has chronicled that knowledge in this book in order to pass it on to those who desire to search out new answers to age-old problems.\n\nIt is my prayer that you too may experience the same wellness that Dr. Colbert and many of his patients have experienced. I thank God for His healing power that is so very important to us all, and I thank God for Dr. Colbert's desire to spread that healing knowledge of the whole man with books such as this one. May God richly bless you as you read.\n\n\u2014ORAL ROBERTS  \nJANUARY 24, 1918\u2013DECEMBER 15, 2009\nINTRODUCTION\n\nMORE THAN EVER BEFORE, WE ARE EXPOSED TO AND AWARE OF toxins in our food and environment that take a massive toll on our health. Shopping for organic foods has become commonplace, with farmer's markets and organic health food chains such as Whole Foods, Trader Joe's, and Sprouts springing up in most cities and suburbs around the country. Documentaries such as _Super Size Me, An Inconvenient Truth,_ and _No Impact Man_ draw our attention to the way ingested foods affect our bodies and mankind's actions affect our planet. We've learned that much of our air is toxic, much of our water is polluted, much of our food is depleted of nutrients and usually packed with toxic chemicals and hormones, and viruses and bacteria are rampant.\n\nAdd to that the concerning impact of natural disasters and man-made disasters such as the Gulf oil spill of 2010 or the Japanese earthquake and tsunami of 2011 that led to a nuclear reactor explosion, and there's no question the toxicity of our planet is reaching critical mass.\n\nIs there any way to escape it?\n\nYes, there is. And this book is designed to teach you how.\n\nThe original version of this book was published in 2001. At that time, I wrote that we lived in a dangerously toxic state, and sadly, most of us weren't even aware of it. Even at that time, deaths related to our toxic diet and lifestyle accounted for most deaths in America. Heart disease, cancer, strokes, diabetes, obesity, and other diseases caused more than 85 percent of all deaths, and many diseases at that time were also caused by a buildup of toxins that create excessive free radicals and oxidative stress, damaging tissues and organs and setting the stage for disease and distressing symptoms including fatigue, memory loss, premature aging, skin disorders, arthritis, hormone imbalances, chronic fatigue, anxiety, emotional disorders, cancers, heart disease, and much, much more.\n\nSadly, that pattern hasn't changed. It has, if anything, gotten worse. Our planet continues to get sicker and sicker with each passing year, and with it the people and animals living upon it. Natural and man-made disasters only fuel the eruption of greater and greater toxicity around us.\n\nBut the encouraging news is twofold. First, our awareness is much greater than it was ten years ago, when I published the first version of _Toxic Relief._ You are likely holding this book in your hands because you're well aware of the toxins at work in our food, our environment, and our bodies and want a game plan and hope of a better future, and for that I applaud you. In this book you will find exactly what you're looking for.\n\nAnd that's where the second piece of encouraging news comes in. After many years as a medical practitioner and family physician devoted to improving health and educating patients, I'm convinced there's a better way to care for our bodies and find hope for our future. Yes, we are toxic, and many of us suffer from long lists of chronic illnesses as a result. But we are not hopeless. There is toxic relief!\n\nThat's why I've written this updated and revised version of _Toxic Relief._ Much of the pain, suffering, and consequential early death caused by our toxic lifestyle and environment can be avoided and even reversed, and this book offers you a practical guide full of encouragement and genuine hope. Not only can you prevent chronic illness and poor health due to toxicity, but also if you are currently suffering from chronic disease and illness, you may even be able to turn your situation completely around. In this book I have provided you with a medically sound and easy-to-follow program to give you toxic relief.\n\nAs you will learn in this book, cleansing your body right down to the cellular level will renew your vitality, restore your energy, reclaim your health, shed toxic fat, lengthen your life, and give you a healthy glow you haven't had in years.\n\nNot only that, but this program of fasting and detoxification is also for the total person. Fasting as a spiritual discipline is as old as Moses. This program is designed to cleanse and restore you to health\u2014body, mind, and spirit!\n\nSo, if you've been suffering from toxic overload of the body, mind, and spirit, it's time to get ready to experience blessed toxic relief.\n\n\u2014DON COLBERT, MD\n[SECTION I  \nYOU NEED TOXIC RELIEF](..\/Text\/Md_ISBN9781616385996_epub_toc_r1.html#d7e3756)\nChapter 1\n\nOUR TOXIC EARTH\n\nON APRIL 20, 2010, AN OIL RIG CALLED DEEPWATER HORIZON exploded in the Gulf of Mexico's waters and took nearly three months to contain. Each day that the oil spill remained active, anywhere from 53,000 to 62,000 barrels of oil spilled into the ocean's waters, resulting in a total of 4.9 million barrels (or 205.8 million gallons) of oil spilled by the time the well was capped. Pictures of oil-drenched fish, birds, and pelicans circulated the Internet during those three unpredictable months, testifying to the sickening pollutants at work in the gulf waters. By late June, more than four hundred oil-exposure complaints and one hundred oil-spill-related illnesses had been reported to poison-control centers.\n\nLess than one year later, on March 11, 2011, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake and its resulting tsunami in Japan led to an explosion in the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, causing a fuel meltdown in three of its four reactors and leading to a radiation leak into the ocean and surrounding land. More than 170,000 residents within a twelve-mile radius were evacuated from their homes, and at least 200 people were exposed to radiation within the first few days of the explosion. Later, we learned that two workers at the nuclear plant were exposed to two times the government limit of radiation\u2014their exposure equaling more than the radiation effect of having one thoudand abdominal X-rays. As of the printing of this book, the evacuation zone areas around the Daiichi plant have been declared uninhabitable and are likely to remain so for years, possibly decades.\n\nTake a mental trip back in time with me and consider this: in less than ten years' time we've witnessed disasters such as Hurricane Katrina, tsunamis in Thailand and Japan, flooding in Tennessee and Alabama, earthquakes in Haiti and Japan, plus a major oil spill and nuclear plant explosion. What is the health impact on humans when such disasters strike? Ought we be worried about their short- and long-term effects? What do we need to know to help our bodies thrive despite these occurrences? These are the kind of new questions we face in a time when natural and man-made disasters are prevalent on our planet.\n\nAnd yet, there's even more to be considered. Beyond the catastrophic natural and man-made disasters that have crashed into our lives this last decade, the ongoing sad reality is that we live in a toxic world. Plain and simple, our toxic planet is taking a heavy toll upon our bodies every day, whether we know it or not.\n\nThink about these facts. Due to our technological advances since the Industrial Revolution, we have continued to pour dangerous chemicals and pollutants into our streams, soil, and air. At this moment you probably have some amount of lead in your body, usually stored in your bones\u2014all of us do. Most of us have small amounts of DDT (or its metabolite DDE, which is what it changes into during metabolism) in our fatty tissues.\n\nExisting environmental lead levels are at least five hundred times greater than prehistoric levels. Lead, one of the most commonly used metals (other than iron), is used for manufacturing batteries, chemicals, and other metal products. Lead has actually contaminated our entire planet. Lead has even been found in some of the most remote areas on the planet such as the Arctic Ice Cap and in the New Guinea aborigines that live far away from any sources of lead exposure. The contamination is most likely due to airborne pollution. It has actually been established that we have between five hundred to seven hundred times more lead in our bones than our ancestors did.\n\nUnfortunately, much of our water, food, and air is polluted by chemicals that are nonbiodegradable, or that take many years to break down. Not only is it difficult for the earth to break down these chemicals, but also it is difficult for your body to detoxify or eliminate them efficiently. Sometimes we lack the detoxifying enzymes required to detoxify them. Thus, these chemicals become stored in our bodies, especially in fatty tissues, and are even stored in the brain, which is made of about 60 percent lipids, which are fatlike substances.\n\nSick and Toxic\n\nIf our earth is sick and toxic, then there is a very good chance that most of us will be sick and toxic. Unfortunately, we are usually unable to smell, taste, see or sense most of the toxic chemicals to which we are exposed on a daily basis. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult to avoid exposure.\n\nEvery day we are exposed to thousands of toxins, and they are slowly accumulating in our bodies. If we do not get toxic relief, these poisons may eventually kill us through sickness and disease.\n\nBut we are not hopeless. We do not need to sit passively by while our immune systems break down under the heavy burden. Toxic relief is available. You can cleanse your body from years of accumulated toxins and their effects by learning to support your body's own elaborate system of detoxification.\n\nLet's take a closer look at the toxins with which our bodies must deal in an ongoing way.\n\nThe Dish on Oil Spills\n\nThe sad fact is, we don't actually yet know how much damage a major oil spill can wreak on the human body. Although we have witnessed more than thirty major oil spills in the last fifty years, very little research has been conducted on the effect these spills have on the human body. What's more, the research that was conducted on a fraction of those thirty spills often used small samples without group comparisons and never examined any long-term consequences.\n\nThose close to the spills, such as cleanup workers, often report symptoms such as stinging eyes, rashes, nausea, dizziness, headaches, coughs, and other respiratory concerns after working in spill regions. But these are all conditions that researchers feel confident can be reversed. As further confirmation that spill effects on humans are likely reversible, one study conducted in the aftermath of the shipwreck of an oil tanker called _Prestige_ off the coast of Galicia in 2002 evidenced a marked increase of DNA damage in individuals who had been exposed to the spill, but the damage was shown to have been reversed just months after the initial tests were run. For the moment, then, researchers seem optimistic that damage to exposed humans in the wake of an oil spill is reversible and nonpermanent.\n\nStill, the concern about human health as a result of an oil spill is far-ranging. Those who work to clean up the damage wonder how breathing in the oil fumes and handling the tarballs will affect the quality of their ongoing health. Parents wonder how such fumes and chemicals will affect the health of their small children. And everyone seems to wonder when the time will be safe to consume seafood again\n\nWhen an oil spill happens, a few toxic chemicals are immediately released that can affect the human body. The first of these are benzene and toluene. Benzene is associated with leukemia. Both of these are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which evaporate quickly once the oil hits the surface of the water but can cause respiratory distress when coming in contact with humans. Other chemical substances, called polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), can linger in the water much longer and provide more cause for concern. When it comes to an oil spill's effect on the food chain, we face potentially long-term risks. For instance, we know that vertebrate species in the water can generally filter out PAHs without much difficulty, but invertebrate species (such as oysters and shrimp) have a much harder time of it, and the PAH chemicals can accumulate in those organisms for years. In a place like Louisiana, where the Deepwater Horizon spill happened, knowledge of this fact can be especially helpful, since oysters and shrimp make up much of the fishing industry there.\n\nDue to the magnitude of the Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010 and the resulting discovery that not much research had historically been conducted on any oil spill's effect on human health, the Department of Health and Human Services earmarked $10 million for tracking oil-spillrelated illnesses in the aftermath of the 2010 spill, and more than 14,000 employees of the BP oil company responsible for the spill volunteered to be part of a tracking system. Scientists have been tracking the effects of the spill since it happened, but conclusions will take some time to be seen.\n\nFor further protocols on how to protect yourself from an oil spill's effects, see Appendix A.\n\nWhat Happens in Nuclear Explosions?\n\nWhen the news broke that a 9.0-magnitude earthquake had hit Japan, you may have watched in near disbelief, as I did, the footage of the major tsunami wave crashing its way onto Japan's shores. And as devastating and unbelievable as that catastrophe was, it seems no one was prepared for what happened next: the announcement of the explosions at the Fukushima nuclear plant. Suddenly the world collectively wondered, _Will this be Chernobyl again?_\n\nWith a nuclear meltdown like the one that happened in Japan in March 2011, two major concerns worry health officials most. The first is the release of radioactive iodine that causes thyroid cancer. The second is the release of cesium, which is absorbed throughout the body and stays in the organs, tissue, and atmosphere much longer than the radioactive iodine. The Chernobyl explosion in Ukraine in 1986 brought with it the second threat of the release of cesium, and it is actually through that explosion that we learned of cesium's long-term damaging effects. Prior to the Chernobyl explosion, it was believed the cesium would be diluted or washed out with rain. But rather than being washed out, it accumulated in vegetation. Once animals fed on that vegetation, they too became contaminated, which affected our meat and milk as a result.\n\nExposure to radioactive iodine, while harmful, is clearly the less threatening of the two possibilities. Not only does it have a half-life of eight days, meaning that every eight days it breaks down harmlessly and ultimately becomes a nonissue within a couple months, but it also can be countered with potassium iodide tablets taken within the first twentyfour hours. Conversely, cesium can remain in the soil for up to thirty years and can have immensely damaging effects on the body, such as burns, acute radiation sickness, and even death.\n\nIn the incident of the Fukushima explosion, we learned about three months after the explosion that the release of radiation was double that which was originally predicted\u2014770,000 terabecquerels, as opposed to 370,000 terabecquerels. We also learned that children over thirty-two miles from the explosion site suffered fatigue, diarrhea, and nosebleeds\u2014the three most common of eight radiation signs\u2014testifying to the greater susceptibility of children to the effects of radiation in the environment. Additionally, another radioactive chemical, strontium 90, was detected in soil at eleven locations just sixty-two kilometers from the nuclear power plant. Radioactive strontium 90 accumulates in bones and is believed to cause bone cancer and leukemia.\n\nClearly, nuclear explosions pose a serious concern for health, but thankfully the incidences of such explosions are rare. Refer to Appendix A for further considerations and protocols to follow in the event of being exposed to radiation.\n\nAwash in Chemical Chaos\n\nOur bodies are battling an onslaught of toxic chemicals of staggering proportions. In 2009, nearly one billion pounds of toxic chemicals were released into our air, according to the Environmental Protection Agency's Toxic Release Inventory of 2009. Think about these statistics:\n\n  About seventy-seven thousand chemicals are produced in North America.\n\n  Over three thousand chemicals have been added to our food supply.\n\n  More than ten thousand solvents, emulsifiers, and preservatives are used in food processing.\n\n  About one thousand new chemicals are introduced each year.\n\nWhat's more, a study in the _British Medical Journal_ in 2004 estimated 75 percent of cancers are caused by environmental and lifestyle factors. Another report by the Columbia University School of Public Health estimated diet and toxins in the environment cause 95 percent of cancer. Estimates also show Americans holding between four hundred and eight hundred chemicals in their bodies at any given time, most of them stored in fat cells.\n\nThe air you breathe may be polluted by exhaust from our cars, buses, trains, and planes, and by industrial air pollution, air pollution from waste disposal, and more. Carbon monoxide makes up about half of our air pollutants. Most of this comes from fuel. This dangerous gas has been directly linked to heart disease.\n\nHeavy metals and other pollutants are emitted from smelting plants, oil refineries, and incinerators. Ozone is the main chemical offender in smog. It irritates the eyes as well as the respiratory tract. The smog and air pollution in Los Angeles County is so high at times in the summer months that residents are warned against exercising outside. The air can become so thick with chemicals that at times it can be difficult to see.\n\nYou can live for weeks without food and days without water, but only minutes without air. If the air you are inhaling contains smog, chemicals, carbon monoxide, heavy metals, and other pollutants, then it passes into your nose, into your lungs, and on through your bloodstream. With each breath, toxic chemicals are actually being pumped by the heart to every cell in your body via the bloodstream.\n\nIndustrial plants, incinerators, and hazardous waste sites release volatile organic chemicals. These may include benzene, formaldehyde, vinyl chloride, toluene, carbon tetrachloride, and other volatile organic chemicals. Many of these can cause cancer.\n\nIn addition, the American Lung Association recently reported that coal-fired plants are estimated to kill thirteen thousand people per year, with more than 386,000 tons of air pollutants emitted from more than four hundred plants in the United States per year. These coal-fired plants are also the culprits for emitting airborne mercury, which often enters the human food chain through fish and wildlife. High levels of mercury can lead to brain damage, birth defects, and damage to the nervous system, and the air pollutants from coal plants are believed to cause heart attacks, strokes, lung cancer, birth defects, and premature death. (See Appendix A.)\n\nIndoor Pollution\n\nIf you think that pollution is only found out of doors, you are wrong. Indoor pollution is often even more dangerous to your health than what you inhale outside. Let's look.\n\nMost people spend about 90 percent of their time inside homes, office buildings, restaurants, factories, and school buildings. In these places, indoor toxins, chemicals, and bacteria are trapped and recirculated throughout the heating and air conditioning systems of these structures and may create a much greater health risk.\n\nToday's buildings are much more airtight and well insulated than they were years ago, making them vaults for germs, bacteria, and chemical toxins. If you travel with your job or business, you could be even worse off. Sealed-tight airplanes can seal in germs, bacteria, and pollutants collected from people around the globe.\n\nSick Building Syndrome\n\nThink you're safer because your office building is new? I hate to have to be the one to inform you, but you couldn't be more wrong. Volatile organic compounds such as benzene, styrene, carbon tetrachloride, and other chemicals are as much as one hundred times greater in new buildings compared to the levels found outdoors.\n\nNew buildings are the worst. Building materials emit gasses into the air through a process known as \"out-gassing.\" New carpets release formaldehyde. Paints release solvents such as toluene and formaldehyde, and furniture made from pressed wood releases formaldehyde into the air as well. Additionally, out-gassing may also occur from fabrics, couches, curtains, carpet padding, glues, and more.\n\nThe many chemicals released through out-gassing from carpets, paints, and glues can become so strong that those who work in these buildings can get really ill. When a building's indoor pollution level rises this high, you are more likely to become ill with _sick building syndrome. Sick building syndrome_ is defined as \"the occurrence of excessive workor school-related illness among workers or students in buildings of recent construction.\" With time, however, these toxic levels gradually decrease.\n\nHigh amounts of volatile organic compounds can also be found in offices. These compounds are emitted from copying machines, laser printers, computers, and other office equipment.\n\nHave you been experiencing headaches that get more severe at work? Are your eyes itchy, red, and watery? What about a sore throat, dizziness, nausea, and problems concentrating? These are just a few of the many symptoms associated with sick building syndrome.\n\nOther symptoms of sick building syndrome include nasal congestion, shortness of breath, problems with memory and concentration, fatigue, and itching. In addition, carpet glues as well as particleboard, which is also made from glues and chemicals that contain formaldehyde, commonly cause both fatigue and headaches.\n\nAre You Breathing in Bacteria, Mold, and Yeast?\n\nNew materials are not the only cause of sick building syndrome. Airborne mold, bacteria, and the poisons given off by yeast can also cause sick building syndrome. Many people remember the mysterious deaths in 1976 of 182 Legionnaires who were staying at a Philadelphia hotel while attending a conference. It was later determined that this group of people contracted pneumonia from legionella bacteria that had contaminated the hotel's air conditioning system. Before this event, occurrences of sick building syndrome were virtually unheard of.\n\nNevertheless, many, if not most, air conditioning units and heating systems contain some amount of mold. Significant amounts are frequently found in them, and the spores from that mold can travel throughout a building.\n\nMold grows wherever dampness is found, which makes air conditioning units incubators for it. Damp homes not only breed mold, but they also breed dust mites. Dust mites are the most common airborne allergy.\n\nPesticide Pollution\n\nDampness is not the only danger to a healthful indoor environment. Dangerous indoor pollution is also created with the ever-increasing use of pesticides, which can be found in some really surprising products.\n\nBelieve it or not, pesticides can be found in disposable diapers, shampoos, air fresheners, mattresses, and carpets. You are being exposed to pesticides every day. You may even have your home sprayed regularly with pesticides to control bugs.\n\nThe most common pesticides in use today are of a variety called _organophosphates._ This group includes diazinon, which was pulled off the market as of December 31, 2004 by the EPA. The University of California recently found that prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides is related to lower intelligence scores in children by age seven. Researchers have also suggested a link between exposure to organophosphate pesticides and ADHD in children.\n\nPesticides are easily absorbed into your body through contact with your skin, by breathing them into your lungs, and by ingesting them through your mouth. Even though your body is designed to eliminate such dangerous poisons, the sheer amount of them that you encounter daily is far more than your body was ever designed to deal with. Therefore, pesticides, their metabolites, and other dangerous toxins eventually build up in your body over time. And the greater the buildup, the more difficult it becomes for your body to eliminate them. When such a residue of pesticides builds up in your body, you can begin to experience the following symptoms or diseases:\n\n  Memory loss\n\n  Depression\n\n  Anxiety\n\n  Psychosis and other forms of mental illness\n\n  Parkinson's and other forms of neurological degeneration\n\n  Possibly hormone-sensitive cancers such as breast and prostate cancer\n\nAre You Being Forced to Inhale Secondhand Smoke?\n\nAnother powerful offender is cigarette smoke. The smoke from a burning cigarette as it sits lit in an ashtray contains a higher toxic concentration of gasses than what the smoker actually inhales.\n\nSecondhand cigarette smoke contains cadmium, cyanide, lead, arsenic, tars, radioactive material, dioxin (which is a toxic pesticide), carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, nitrogen oxides, nicotine, sulfur oxides, and about seven thousand other chemicals.\n\nNicotine in the cigarette smoke is the main cause for the cigarette addiction. However, nicotine also constricts blood vessels and stimulates the cardiovascular system and the nervous system. The cancer-causing substances and toxins found in the tars in smoke are the main dangers of cigarette smoke.\n\nBeware of Sunscreen\n\nAs careful as most of us\u2014especially women\u2014are to protect our skin with a measure of SPF protection every day, a recent study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that most sunscreens, moisturizers, lip balms, lipsticks, fragrances, and other cosmetics often contain a damaging chemical called oxybenzone. This chemical has been linked to allergies, hormone disruption, and cell damage, as well as low birth weight in baby girls whose mothers are exposed to the chemical during pregnancy.\n\nAdditionally, oxybenzone is a penetration enhancer, which means it eases the penetration of the skin for other chemicals with which it is combined.\n\nTake care with the sunscreen and cosmetic products you choose to use on your skin\u2014choose natural products that don't contain oxybenzone!\n\nToxins in Our Food and Land\n\nPesticides continue to be sprayed onto our land, subsequently making their way into our food supply. As we eat pesticide-tainted fruits and vegetables, and especially fatty meats, pesticides become stored in our fatty tissues, which not only include our adipose tissue but also the brain, the breasts, and the prostate gland.\n\nEvery year approximately 877 million pounds of pesticides and herbicides are sprayed on the crops in America that make up our food supply\u2014that's close to 1 billion pounds of toxic chemicals intentionally introduced into our environment and food supply _each year_  In addition, the herbicide glyphosate has more than doubled in use between 2001 and 2007, from 85\u201390 million pounds per year to 180\u2013185 million pounds. Chlorine and hypochlorites make up 51 percent of the pesticides used in the United States.\n\nThe farmers who work closely with these chemicals are at a greatly increased risk of developing certain cancers, especially brain cancer, prostate cancer, leukemia, and lymphoma. Studies on farmers reveal that as their exposure to pesticides and herbicides is increased, so is their risk for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.\n\nFurthermore, a recent report by the Pesticide Action Network North America and Commonwealth found that Americans are exposed to up to seventy residues of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) per day in their diets. \"Exposure to POPs has been linked to serious disease and developmental disorders, including breast and other types of cancer, immune system suppression, nervous system disorders, reproductive damage, and disruption of hormonal systems.\"\n\nAlthough POPs have been banned in the United States, other countries still manufacture and use the chemicals, and their residues are leaked into our air and water supplies. This has led to the finding that virtually all foods are contaminated with the POPs that have been banned from the United States\u2014it isn't uncommon for our daily diet to contain food items touched by three to seven POPs.\n\nSome of these dangerous substances are known to last for hundreds and even thousands of years before breaking down.\n\nDDT is an example of a chemical that doesn't break down. It was used in this country on a large scale from the early 1940s to 1972. It is an extremely dangerous poison that was banned in 1972 due to its devastating effect on wildlife, causing multiple abnormalities in the egg shells of many birds and deformities of reproductive organs of many other animals. Bald eagles, condors, alligators, and other animals developed deformities, and their populations decreased dramatically. Nevertheless, DDT residues are still present in the bodies of practically all Americans. DDT belongs to the class. of pesticides known as organochlorines. Many of these have been known to cause cancer and birth defects. They are also stored in the body's fatty tissues.\n\nIn 1962, environmentalist Rachel Carson wrote a book called _Silent Spring_ , which demonstrated the toxic and deadly effect that DDT has on our food chain.\n\nCarson warned us that if pesticides could have such harmful and dramatic effects on animals and birds, then their effects upon humans would be no different. Nearly forty years ago, this insightful woman actually predicted the global consequences of environmental pollution in her eye-opening book.\n\nDespite the ban of DDT, it still found its way into our soil and our vegetables, especially root vegetables such as potatoes and carrots.\n\nThere are over six hundred pesticides used in the United States. However, the Environmental Protection Agency has named sixty-four pesticides as potentially cancer-causing compounds. For more information on pesticides in our food please refer to my book _Living in Divine Health._\n\nAs I stated before, all of us here in the United States have residues of DDT, or its close relative DDE, in our fatty tissues. Tragically, even though many of these extremely dangerous toxic pesticides were banned for use in the United States, manufacturers are still permitted to export them abroad. We send these poisons to Mexico and other third-world countries for their crops, and then import foods tainted with them back into this country.\n\nDairy products are one of the main sources of DDT in our diets, and freshwater fish is usually tainted with DDT and PCB.\n\nPesticides have been linked to a lower sperm count in men and to higher amounts of xenoestrogen in women. Xenoestrogens are chemical counterfeits that fool the body into accepting them as genuine estrogen. These estrogens are more potent than the estrogen made by the ovaries. When this occurs, a woman's hormones can get way out of balance, leading to symptoms of PMS, fibrocystic breast diseases, and potentially endometriosis. It can even have a stimulating effect on breast cancer and endometrial cancer.\n\nWaxes That Don't Wash Off\n\nNo doubt you've tried to wash off a shiny red apple or a dark green cucumber, only to find that it was covered with a layer of waxy film that's nearly impossible to wash off.\n\nGrowers do this on purpose. Thick waxes are applied to nearly everything we buy in the produce section of our grocery stores. The wax keeps the produce from dehydrating by sealing in water and also gives vegetables more eye appeal. Fruits and vegetables that have been waxed look bright, shiny, and healthy.\n\nMany of these waxes, however, contain powerful pesticides or fungicides that have been added to keep the food from spoiling. These waxes are made to stay on, not wash off. Nevertheless, if you want to stay healthy, remove them. Also be aware that some fruits and vegetables are more prone to be awash in pesticides than others. The greatest culprits are known as the \"dirty dozen,\" indicated in the chart below \u2014when consuming these fruits and vegetables, be sure to buy organic. And better yet, choose many fruits and vegetables from the \"clean fifteen\" list on a regular basis. Research has shown that those who eat from the \"clean fifteen\" list ingest fewer than two pesticides daily, compared with ten pesticides a day when eating from the \"dirty dozen\" list.\n\nYOUR GUIDE TO PESTICIDES IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLE\n\nDirty Dozen  \nMost Pesticides | Clean Fifteen  \nLeast Pesticides  \n---|---  \nApples | Onions  \nCelery | Sweet corn  \nStrawberries | Pineapple  \nPeaches | Avocado  \nSpinach | Asparagus  \nNectarines | Sweet peas  \nGrapes (imported) | Mangoes  \nBell peppers | Eggplant  \nPotatoes | Cantaloupe  \nBlueberries | Kiwi  \nLettuce | Cabbage  \nKale\/collard greens | Watermelon  \n| Sweet potatoes  \n| Grapefruit  \n| Mushrooms\n\nPesticides in Animal Feed\n\nNot only can heavy concentrations of pesticides be found in the fruits and vegetables we eat, but they are also in animal feed. Therefore our meat supply ends up tainted with pesticides too.\n\nPesticide chemicals accumulate in the fatty tissues of the animals we eat. When we bite into a fatty piece of steak, a greasy hamburger, sausages, bacon, or even butter and cream, we are ingesting even more pesticide residues.\n\nOne of the greatest culprits found in animal feed is, believe it or not, arsenic\u2014more commonly known as poison. In research conducted by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, arsenic was detected in 55 percent of uncooked chicken purchased from local grocery stores. The most contaminated products had ten times a higher arsenic level than the least contaminated products. Tyson and Foster Farms were among the brands with the least detectable traces of arsenic.\n\nToxic Fat?\n\nAre you overweight, even a little? Your body is designed to eliminate the toxins you eat. But when pesticides are not broken down and eliminated from your body, they usually become stored in your fatty tissues. Consider those love handles a hiding place for stored toxins and poisons. In other words, fat is usually toxic too.\n\nSince your brain is composed of about 60 percent fat, some of these poisons will end up being stored in it as well as in the breasts, prostate gland, and any other fatty tissue in the body.\n\nIn the brain\n\nMany of those suffering with neurological diseases probably have higher levels of pesticides stored in their brains and other fatty tissues.\n\nHave you ever gone on a diet, only to find that you feel more forgetful, foggy-minded, and fatigued? When you diet, those pesticides stored in your fatty tissues can be released and may be deposited in the fatty tissue of the brain. You see, often the liver is unable to break down and eliminate adequately the pesticides that have been liberated from your fatty tissues. This can send even more of these residues to the brain as they seek a place to be stored.\n\nIn the breasts\n\nAs I mentioned, certain pesticides can pass themselves off in the body as the female hormone estrogen. Therefore, such toxins are called xenoestrogens.\n\nSince high levels of estrogen are linked to breast cancer, high levels of counterfeit estrogens, or xenoestrogens, can also promote cancer. Xenoestrogens mimic estrogen by stimulating estrogen receptors in the body. Therefore, when you ingest increasing levels of certain pesticides, the incidence of breast cancer rises.\n\nFor example, a study from Israel showed a decline in the incidence of breast cancer among Israeli women following the enactment of a law against using pesticides.\n\nHere in the United States, we manufacture more than 1.3 billion pounds of pesticides every year. That means each one of us is exposed to pesticides every day. Various types of pesticides can actually act even more powerfully as they are combined with others, dramatically increasing their toxicity.\n\nToxins in Our Water\n\nMost chemicals that have been emitted into our air, sprayed on our farmlands, or dumped in our landfills will eventually end up in our water. Rains wash these chemicals out of the air and off our land into our lakes and rivers.\n\nPesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, which contain nitrates, eventually end up in underground aquifers. The toxins gathered in chemical waste sites and dump sites, including landfills, can also eventually seep into our water supplies and contaminate them. Even underground storage tanks that hold gasoline can leak into the ground water. Rainstorms can actually wash these toxic chemicals into streams and larger bodies of water. Sooner or later, they find their way into our drinking water supply.\n\nThe Kellogg Report stated that the growth of industry in this century has been responsible for the introduction of new, complex, and sometimes lethal pollutants into our nation's water systems. Municipal treatment plants neither detect nor detoxify the water supply of the majority of chemical pollutants, according to the report.\n\nUndrinkable water is now a major problem in the United States due to chemical pollution. About 50 percent of our underground water, or ground water, is contaminated.\n\nGround water supplies drinking water for approximately half of the people in America. Often municipalities treat ground water with aluminum to remove organic material, and traces of aluminum remain in the drinking water.\n\nChlorine is added to the water to kill microorganisms. Chlorine can also combine with organic materials to form trihalomethanes, which are cancer-promoting substances. We increase our risk of developing bladder and rectal cancer by drinking chlorinated water. In fact, the risk increases as our intake of chlorinated water increases.\n\nTrihalomethanes such as chloroform evaporate out of the water during a hot shower and are then inhaled. In fact, a ten-minute hot shower can increase the chloroform absorbed into our bodies more than drinking one-half gallon of chlorinated tap water.\n\nAlthough chlorine kills most bacteria, it does not kill viruses and parasites. Parasites include protozoa such as amoeba, giardia, and cryptosporidium. Parasites also include the helminths, which are worms, and arthropods, which are ticks, mites, and other bugs. Giardia is one of the major causes of diarrhea in day-care centers. Giardia contaminates many of the lakes and streams in America. You may be drinking them in your own water.\n\nTOP 10 MOST COMMON TOXINS  \nIN THE AIR, WATER, OR FOOD SUPPLY\n\nToxin | Major Sources | Risks  \n---|---|---  \nPCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) | Farm-raised salmon | Cancer, impaired fetal brain development  \nPesticides | Fruits, vegetables, commercially raised meats, bug sprays | Cancer, Parkinson\u00eds disease, miscarriage, nerve damage, birth defects, blocking absorption of food nutrients  \nMold and Fungus | Contaminated buildings, peanuts, wheat, corn, alcoholic beverages | Cancer, heart disease, asthma, multiple sclerosis, diabetes\n\nToxin | Major Sources | Risks  \n---|---|---  \nPhthalates | Plastic wrap, plastic bottles, plastic food storage containers | Endocrine system damage  \nVOCs | Drinking water, carpet, paints, deodorants, cleaning fluids, varnishes, cosmetics, dry-cleaned clothing, moth repellants, air fresheners | Cancer, eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, memory impairment  \nDioxins | Animal fats | Cancer, reproductive and developmental disorders, chloracne, skin rashes, skin discoloration, excessive body hair, mild liver damage  \nAsbestos | Insulation on floors and ceilings, water pipes and heating ducts from the 1950s\u00f11970s | Cancer, scarring of lung tissue  \nHeavy metals | Drinking water, fish, vaccines, pesticides, preserved wood, antiperspirant, building materials, dental amalgams, chlorine plants | Cancer, neurological disorders, Alzheimer\u00eds disease, foggy head, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, decreased red and white blood cells, abnormal heart rhythm, damage to blood vessels  \nChloroform | Air, drinking water, food | Cancer, reproductive damage, birth defects, dizziness, fatigue, headache, liver and kidney damage  \nChlorine | Household cleaners, drinking water | Sore throat, coughing, eye and skin irritation, rapid breathing, wheezing, lung collapse\n\nChemical Chaos and Wildlife\n\nPesticides, solvents, industrial chemicals, industrial waste, petroleum products, and thousands of other chemicals are already exacting a terrible toll on our wildlife.\n\nHere in Florida where I live, we saw this close up at Lake Apopka, a beautiful body of water I drive by often.\n\nIn the book _Our Stolen Future,_ Theo Colborn recorded the effects of a pesticide spill that occurred in 1980 in Lake Apopka. Following the spill, the alligator population was studied by a biologist from the University of Florida, along with a biologist from the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission. They found that the female alligators' ovaries had abnormalities in both their eggs and egg follicles, similar to what happens in humans who are exposed to DES early in childhood.\n\nThe male alligators revealed structural abnormalities as well. Their testes and penises were smaller than normal. In addition, the males also had elevated levels of estrogen and significantly reduced levels of testosterone.\n\nThe pesticide spill also affected turtles in Lake Apopka. Researchers found a striking absence of male turtles. They found many female turtles in the lake and many turtles that were neither male nor female, which resulted from a large-scale hormonal disruption due to the pesticide in the lake. The turtles that should have become males ended up being neither male nor female and therefore remained unable to reproduce.\n\nThis study has scary implications for more than just wildlife, for if the hormonal disruption of reptiles can create such effects, what might happen to people over the long term? It's certainly worth thinking about.\n\nNevertheless, if the poisoning of our planet by all these pesticides isn't enough to create alarm, they are not the only environmental toxins your body must battle. Solvents found in cleaners may also contain dangerous poisons as well.\n\nThe Dangers of Solvents\n\nSolvents, which are chemicals used in cleaning products, are everywhere. Solvents dissolve other materials that otherwise would not be soluble in water.\n\nSolvents can injure your kidneys and liver. They can also depress the elaborate central nervous system of your body.\n\nLike pesticides, solvents are fat-soluble, which simply means that they are likely to be stored in your fatty tissues, including, of course, your brain.\n\nSolvents have the ability to dissolve into the membranes of your cells, especially your fat cells, and accumulate there. Formaldehyde is commonly used as a solvent in many different ways. Manufacturers use it to make drapes, carpet, and particleboard\u2014even cosmetics!\n\nPhenol is another common solvent widely found in cleaning products. This dangerous chemical is actually used in making aspirin and sulfa drugs. Your skin easily absorbs phenol.\n\nToluene is another solvent that is similar to benzene. It is used for making a variety of different glues and typewriter correction fluids. If you have elevated levels of toluene in your body, you might experience arrhythmias of the heart as well as nerve damage.\n\nBenzene is a solvent used in making dyes and insecticides. Long-term exposure to benzene can cause leukemia.\n\nThe final solvent we are going to look at is vinyl chloride, which is used in the manufacture of PVC pipes and plastic food wrappers. This chemical has been linked to several types of cancers and sarcomas.\n\nOther common toxins include the industrial chemical PCB, which was banned in 1977. Many lakes and streams are contaminated with PCB. Increased amounts of PCB in the body are associated with an increased risk of cancer, including liver cancer and melanoma. A great percentage of people have PCB in their fatty tissues.\n\nHeavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, and arsenic are also commonly stored in our bodies due to our toxic environment.\n\nNot only are we exposed to pesticides and solvents, but also our bodies must deal with about three thousand different chemical food additives.\n\nAn Abundance of Mercury\n\nFor many reasons, exposure to mercury has become a chronic and dangerous reality. When exposed to the central nervous system, mercury can cause psychological, neurological, and immunological problems, not to mention having a long half-life in the body of fifteen to thirty years. Toxic exposure to mercury has been associated with Alzheimer's disease, autoimmune disease, kidney dysfunction, infertility, food allergies, multiple sclerosis, and an impaired immune system.\n\nDental amalgams are likely the worst culprit for our exposure to mercury, with one dental amalgam filling releasing up to 15 micrograms of mercury per day. For the average individual, who has up to eight amalgam fillings, this means an individual potentially absorbs up to 120 micrograms of mercury per day from this one source that passes readily through cell membranes and into the blood brain barrier. The mercury continually releases vapors throughout the life of the filling, and activities such as chewing, brushing, and the intake of hot fluids stimulate its release. I highly recommend that you consult with a dentist specially trained in the removal of amalgam fillings. (See Appendix D.)\n\nA second high-risk source of mercury is in our food supply through the consumption of fish and shellfish. Although fish and shellfish contain high-quality protein and are a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, nearly all fish and shellfish contain traces of mercury, as mercury is released into the atmosphere in great measure through pollution and then poisons our water sources. My strongest suggestions would be to avoid eating shark, mackerel, swordfish, and tilefish, which have been shown to contain very high levels of mercury, and to instead choose wild Alaskan salmon. A high-quality fish oil supplement is also a wonderful alternative to fish consumption.\n\nOne additional powerful way to combat the toxicity of mercury in our bodies is through increasing the amount of the antioxidant glutathione, which we will explore in a later chapter.\n\nFood Additives and Flavorings\n\nFood additives are a long list of chemical substances that are added to your food for flavor, color, to make it last longer, and for a host of other reasons. The largest group of food additives is the flavorings. Most of these flavoring agents are synthetic versions made from chemicals. Another group of food additives includes coloring agents, and most of these are also synthetic chemicals.\n\nThis may surprise you, but chemical food additives are usually made from petroleum or coal tar products!\n\nOther food additives include preservatives, phosphates, bleaching agents, emulsifiers, texturizers, humectants, and ripening agents, such as ethylene gas, which is sprayed on bananas to make them ripen faster.\n\n**Tips to Avoid Toxins**\n\n1. _Choose organic produce and free-range, organic meat._ If you can only purchase one organic product, choose eggs or milk. If possible, always purchase free-range, organic chicken and beef.\n\n2. _Choose quality fish oil rather than fish._ Fish is often contaminated with PCBs and mercury, so choose a high-quality fish oil instead.\n\n3. _Avoid processed foods._ Remember, they're processed with chemicals!\n\n4. _Only use natural cleaning products._ Most health food stores have natural cleaning products available.\n\n5. _Switch to natural brands of toiletries._ This includes shampoo, toothpaste, deodorants, and cosmetics. Again, they're available at your local health food store.\n\n6. _Avoid insect repellants that contain DEET._ Instead, choose a safe, effective, and natural alternative.\n\n7. _Gradually remove metal fillings in your teeth._ These are a major source of mercury, which promotes toxic buildup in your body. Consult with a biological dentist. (See Appendix D.)\n\n8. _Avoid artificial air fresheners, dryer sheets, fabric softeners, or other synthetic fragrances._ These can pollute the air you're breathing.\n\n9. _Avoid artificial food additives._ This includes artificial sweeteners and MSG.\n\n10. _Get safe amounts of natural sun exposure (10\u201320 minutes a day) to boost your vitamin D._ This will also boost your immune system!\n\nConclusion\n\nSo you can see that even your immune system is being bombarded with toxic chemicals from every direction. You are being exposed to pesticides, food additives, solvents, and other chemicals through both your food and environment every day.\n\nIf that were not enough, your body must also contend with another entire array of toxins that it produces itself from within. Let's go to the next chapter and take a look.\nCHAPTER 2\n\nA TOXIC BATTLE WITHIN\n\nIF YOU LIVED IN A PERFECT, UNSPOILED ENVIRONMENT WITH NO chemicals or poisons, your body would still produce its own toxins. Just like the engine of a car that creates exhaust as it burns fuel to run, in a much more profoundly complex and wonderful way, your body creates many different toxins in an infinite variety of ways just to function. In a perfect environment, dealing with your body's internal toxins would be a cinch for your liver and excretory system. But when your liver and GI tract and the organs and tissues of the body are bombarded both from without and within with far more toxins and free radicals than they were ever designed to handle, it can begin to scream for toxic relief. Not only does your liver have thousands upon thousands of chemical toxins that come from external sources with which to contend, your body must deal with its own manufactured toxins. Let's take a look at the toxic battle that rages against your body from within.\n\nThe Antibiotic Attack\n\nWhich one of us has not taken antibiotics for a bad case of sinusitis, strep throat, bronchitis, or a serious infection? Going to the doctor and getting antibiotics today is about as common as eating a peanut butter sandwich. But if you have had repeated bouts of antibiotics, or even a single bout of super antibiotics, then you could be at risk for developing an overgrowth of yeast and dangerous intestinal bacteria. Let me explain.\n\nYour intestines are filled with good bacteria called _lactobacillus acidophilus_ and _bifidus_ that prevent the overgrowth of bad bacteria (called _pathogenic bacteria_ or _microbes_ ) in your intestinal tract. When you take antibiotics, many of your body's beneficial bacteria can be killed. Your good bacteria function like a firewall to keep pathogenic bacteria and yeast in check. So when antibiotics throw off the balance, the bad or pathogenic bacteria may grow like a wildfire, out of control with nothing to slow it down or stop it.\n\nNow your body is in trouble, for bad bacteria may produce endotoxins, which may be as toxic as almost any chemical, pesticide, or solvent that enters your body from the outside.\n\nOvergrowth of bacteria in your small intestines can cause excessive fermentation, similar to the fermentation that happens when you leave apple cider outside for too long. This fermentation process creates even more poisons, including _indoles, skatols_ , and _amines._\n\nThe Nightmare of Candida\n\nWithout antibiotics we'd be in trouble. Infections that might have snuffed out a life a century ago are little more than a nuisance today. But we are just beginning to get a full picture of the toll that the overuse of antibiotics has taken on a generation of users.\n\nMostly unheard of in centuries past, an epidemic of candida and yeast overgrowth in the intestinal tract has swept through our nation. When the body's delicate balance of good bacteria and yeast is out of balance, a host of symptoms and diseases can result, ranging from relatively minor GI disturbances such as bloating, gas, and irritable bowel syndrome to major diseases such as psoriasis, colitis, and Crohn's disease.\n\nJust like a biblical plague of locusts that ravaged ancient farmlands, yeast overgrowth causes damage to the intestines like a plague of toxins. These toxins produced by yeast are absorbed through your intestines and create devastation to the inside of your body similar to disaster upon the land caused by biblical plagues.\n\nFor example, candida albicans releases over eighty different poisons into the body. The most toxic substances produced by candida albicans are acetaldehyde and ethanol, which is alcohol.\n\nAcetaldehyde is related to formaldehyde, which is the dangerous solvent found in carpets and pressed wood. Formaldehyde is dangerous enough in the small amounts that you might breathe in, but can you imagine what the effect to your body would be of drinking it? The consequences of having it produced inside your body are potentially disastrous!\n\nAcetaldehyde is also extremely toxic to the brain, even more so than ethanol. It causes memory loss, depression, problems concentrating, and severe fatigue.\n\nWhen you consider the potential danger of having strong, devastating poisons created inside your body, you will recognize that the toxins within can do as much or even more damage than environmental toxins.\n\nYou may be thinking, \"Whew! I'm glad I don't have candida!\" If you don't, I'm glad too. Nevertheless, that doesn't mean that your body isn't battling a toxic war every single day. With or without candida, your cells are in armed combat.\n\nThe Molecular Warfare of Free Radicals\n\nWhile you are going about your daily business, a war is raging inside your body at the molecular level. Free radicals are similar to machinegunning microscopic shrapnel, injuring your cells throughout the day. Let me explain.\n\nFor a moment, picture an atom. It has a nucleus, and it has electrons around it. The nucleus is positively charged, and the electrons are negatively charged. It would look something like the sun with the planets around it.\n\nWhat happens when someone blows smoke in your face or you are exposed to air pollution or radiation? Or what happens when you ingest some chemical or pesticide? When the toxin enters a cell, the free radicals created by one of these toxins can pull one of the electrons out of orbit. Thus, massive instability begins at the molecular level\u2014remember these are living, electrically charged cells. When the atom, which is missing an electron, becomes unstable, it begins to grab electrons from other nearby molecules to replace it, causing chain reactions.\n\nThese unstable electrons are called _free radicals_ because they have been freed or liberated from where they were. The chain reactions caused by liberated electrons can send free radicals spraying through your bloodstream and cells, tissues, and organs throughout your body, wreaking great havoc and even possibly setting the stage for cancer, heart disease, and a host of other degenerative diseases.\n\nThink what would happen if a large crane were driven through the streets of Manhattan with an uncontrolled wrecking ball swinging from side to side. The skyscrapers might not fall, but they would be severely damaged. That's similar to what free radicals can do to your cells, tissues, and organs.\n\nOn a different level, free radicals are also formed during the process of oxidation. For example, when metals are oxidized, rust is produced. When oxidation occurs on painted surfaces, the paint begins to flake off. When you cut an apple in half, it turns brown\u2014that is _oxidation._ It also occurs when meat rots. Our bodies are undergoing oxidative processes every day.\n\nOxidation is actually caused by free radicals. But what happens when you place lemon juice on an exposed slice of an apple?\n\nThe apple slice doesn't turn brown as rapidly because the antioxidants in lemon block the oxidative process\u2014it slows the formation of free radicals.\n\nEach of your body's trillions of cells has a protective wrapping around it made of lipids or \"fatty\" cell membranes. But free radicals, like wrecking balls, can start ricocheting off the cell membranes\u2014damaging the cell membranes and eventually damaging intracellular structures such as the mitochondria, nucleus, and other organelles.\n\nWhen wood is burned in a fireplace, smoke is produced. In the body, every cell contains mitochondria that produce energy. The heart muscle cells have thousands of mitochondria because they need a lot of energy, but the fat cells have the fewest mitochondria. Oxygen combines with glucose in the mitochondria to produce energy. However, in the process of energy production, damaging free-radical forms of oxygen are produced instead of smoke. In other words, when wood is burned, smoke is produced. But in our bodies, when energy is produced, free radicals are formed such as singlet oxygen and hydrogen peroxide.\n\nWhen free radicals begin a chain reaction, they must be stopped quickly. Antioxidants from our diet or supplements and antioxidants produced in our bodies rush to the rescue instantly to quench the freeradical fire of activity. Many free radicals occur with normal metabolic processes in all cells in the body. Internal antioxidants produced by our body such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase work as antioxidants controlling free-radical production.\n\nBut problems occur when the level of free-radical activity gets out of control. When the body is overburdened with free radicals from air pollution, pesticides, cigarette smoke, fried foods, trans fat, sugars, and polyunsaturated fats in our diet, excessive stress, inadequate sleep, etc., then excessive amounts of free radicals ravage our cells. They can actually cause the breakdown of the fats in the cell membranes, ravage the proteins and enzymes, and then eventually damage DNA, actually causing mutations. These mutations may eventually result in cancer. Free radicals can also damage the cell membranes and nuclear membranes, depleting our energy and setting us up for degenerative disease. So you see, free radicals are bad news!\n\nA Way of Escape\n\nAt this point you may be feeling a bit overwhelmed by the monumental battle your cells, tissues, and organs are being faced with each day. Look in the mirror and see the results of this war: premature aging, wrinkles, sagging skin, sickness, chronic fatigue, arthritis, cancer, heart disease, and so much more.\n\nYour body is under an aggressive, ongoing assault against an evergrowing burden of toxins that is probably already causing a heavy toll upon your health\u2014whether or not you even know it. But the good news is that you don't have to sit by passively while your God-given entitlement to good health is stolen right out from under your nose. There is toxic relief!\n\nAs I mentioned earlier, your body is designed with an incredible system of defense that keeps you healthy even under extreme circumstances\u2014 and you never have to give it a second thought. But when you become overwhelmed with toxins or your excretory systems are not working up to par, your liver and excretory system eventually become overburdened. They simply cannot keep up.\n\nNevertheless, you can choose to step in and even the score. By undergoing the program of detoxification outlined in the following chapters, you can cleanse your body from a lifetime of toxins and discover the health and vitality that come with toxic relief. Since the burden of toxins has built up in your body over time, you may have learned to accept the fatigue and general lack of vitality that toxicity causes. You'll simply be amazed at how much better you will feel after freeing your body of its toxic burden.\n\nIn my practice, I've encouraged many of my chronically ill patients to undergo detoxification. The results have been simply astonishing. Heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, chronic fatigue, and many other serious diseases are being absolutely reversed as my patients cleanse their own bodies from toxins. Later in this book you'll find a chapter devoted to detoxing for specific diseases.\n\nIn addition, if you are overweight or obese, this program of detoxification has the added benefit of slimming you down. And as you've seen, many of the toxins that are stored in your body get trapped in tissue, especially belly fat. Therefore, your health will improve dramatically once those toxins are removed and not just recirculated to other areas of the body. Not only will you feel better and live longer, you'll look better too.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nHere's an overview of my toxic relief program. Plan to commit about a month to feeling better and looking better:\n\n  You will start by undergoing a two-week diet to strengthen and support your liver and improve your elimination through the GI tract.\n\n  Then you will go on a juice fast for three to seven days (or longer if monitored by a doctor). You will go back on the special diet for your liver and GI tract for another two weeks.\n\n  You will begin making lifestyle changes and plan to fast periodically to continue to cleanse and maintain your health.\n\nThere you have it! As you go through this program, you will discover renewed energy, rejuvenated health, and a fresh, glowing sense of vitality that will absolutely astonish you.\n\nToxic relief is for your total person. As you learn about this program of toxic relief, you will discover that not only does your body labor under a burden of physical toxins, but also your soul and spirit wage their own battle against toxins on another front. As you read through this book, you will discover that this program of toxic relief addresses your soul and spirit too. So get ready for a brand-new you\u2014inside and out, body, mind, and spirit!\n\nNow that you've seen the truly overwhelming toxic picture, turn with me to begin to find healthful, vital, life-giving toxic relief. But first we must face the terrible truth about the American diet.\nChapter 3\n\nOVERNOURISHED WHILE STARVING?\n\nAN OLD PROVERB SAYS THAT A MAN DIGS HIS OWN GRAVE WITH HIS fork and knife. It's absolutely true! Today in America, we are one of the most overfed and undernourished societies that ever lived.\n\nFacing the Terrible Truth About the American Diet\n\nMost of America's health problems today are caused by dietary abuses. Elizabeth Frazao of the US Department of Agriculture reported poor eating habits are linked to more than half of the deaths in the United States.\n\nDiet is a significant factor in the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD), certain types of cancer, and stroke\u2014the three leading causes of death in the United States, and responsible for over half of all deaths . . . . Diet also plays a major role in the development of diabetes (the seventh leading cause of death), hypertension, and obesity. These six health conditions incur considerable medical expenses, lost work, disability, and premature deaths\u2014much of it unnecessary, since a significant proportion of these conditions is believed to be preventable through improved diets.\n\nSugar addicts\n\nFor starters, we're a nation of sugar addicts. The average American consumes 11,250 pounds of sugar during his or her lifetime, which is about 150 pounds of sugar per person per year. That's half a truckload! That means that we're shoveling a small mountain of sugar into our bodies throughout our lifetimes.\n\nProcessed foods\n\nProcessed foods are convenient and inexpensive: for example, white bread, hot dogs, bologna, and so on. However, the price you will be paying in the future does not justify the short-term convenience. We really end up robbing Peter to pay Paul.\n\nProcessed foods are another method of dietary abuse of our bodies. They generally are so manipulated to prolong shelf life that they are grossly deficient in nutrients. They usually contain food additives, sweeteners, flavorings, coloring agents, preservatives, bleaching agents, emulsifiers, texturizers, humectants, acids, alkalis, buffers, and other chemicals. As a result of ingesting processed foods, our tissues and organs must continually draw from our bodies' stored nutrient reserves, setting us up for nutrient deficiencies. No wonder we are overfed with processed foods yet undernourished. Such foods provide loads of calories with little nutrition.\n\nDead foods\n\nDevitalized food is another way of abusing our bodies instead of nourishing them. When foods have been grown in nutrient-poor soil, they end up looking pretty, but that's about all. When our soil has been robbed of important minerals and nutrients, the food it produces will be nutritionally poor as well.\n\nToxic fats\n\nHydrogenated and partially hydrogenated fats or trans fats are the most toxic of all fats and are present in most margarines, commercial peanut butters, shortening, soups, packaged foods such as cake and biscuit mixes, fast food, frozen food, baked goods, chips and crackers, breakfast foods, cookies and candy, toppings and dips, etc. These are very inflammatory fats that contribute to plaque formation in arteries. Deepfried foods\u2014especially when fried in polyunsaturated fats\u2014are also very toxic and inflammatory and contribute to a buildup of plaque in arteries.\n\nFast foods\n\nFast foods, fried foods, and eating way too much meat while denying our bodies healthful fruits and vegetables are, again, just more ways in which we abuse our bodies through our diets.\n\nGenetically modified foods (GMOs)\n\nThe National Academy of Sciences released a report stating that genetically engineered products introduce new allergens, toxins, disruptive chemicals, and unknown protein combinations into our bodies. Pesticidal foods have been grown that are genetically engineered to produce their own pesticide. When we ingest these foods, we will also be ingesting the pesticide produced by the food. It's too early to tell all the side effects and dangers of these foods. However, we are already seeing the allergic effects.\n\nIt's easy to see why we're overfed and undernourished. We gorge ourselves with increasing amounts of food to respond to our bodies' cravings for nutrition. After we've eaten, our bodies, even though under a heavy burden of calories, still realize that they never received the nutrients they needed. So our brains send more signals, triggering hunger, which is interpreted by us as the need or desire for even more food. We end up spiraling down into a vicious cycle of overfeeding with empty foods, craving more nutrition and overfeeding again with even more empty processed, devitalized, sugary foods.\n\nTWELVE FOOD ADDITIVES TO AVOID\n\nAdditive | Source  \n---|---  \nSodium Nitrate (also called Sodium Nitrite) | Bacon, ham, hot dogs, lunch meats, smoked fish, corned beef  \nBHA and BHT | Cereals, chewing gum, potato chips, vegetable oils  \nPropyl Gallate | Meat products, chicken soup base, chewing gum  \nMonosodium Glutamate (MSG) | Soups, salad dressings, chips, frozen entrees, restaurant food  \nTrans Fats | Restaurant food  \nAspartame | Diet foods, low-calorie desserts, gelatins, drink mixes, soft drinks  \nAcesulfame-K | Baked goods, chewing gum, gelatin desserts  \nFood Colorings: Blue 1, 2, Red 3, Green 3, Yellow 6 | Beverages, candy, baked goods, pet food, cherries, fruit cocktail, sausage, gelatin  \nOlestra | Potato chips  \nPotassium Bromate | White flour, breads, rolls  \nAdditive | Source  \n---|---  \nWhite Sugar | Baked goods, cereals, crackers, sauces, processed foods  \nSodium Chloride | Salt\n\nThe end result is ever-expanding waistlines, thighs, and buttocks. We get fatter and fatter, forcing our bodies to groan under the burden of extra pounds. But in terms of actual nourishment, we give our bodies less and less.\n\nObese While Starving?\n\nWe may be actually starving from a nutritional standpoint, while at the same time becoming grossly obese. The end result of this merciless abuse of our bodies is disease and death. Sadly, we really are digging our graves with our forks and knives!\n\nAs a result of our overindulgences we have an epidemic of heart disease, atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, allergies, obesity, arthritis, osteoporosis, and a host of other painful and debilitating degenerative diseases.\n\nEating Too Much of the Wrong Stuff?\n\nMany people have the mistaken notion that they can exist on junk food day by day and then take a multivitamin or a multitude of vitamins a day and still maintain excellent health. Some people even do this trying to reverse degenerative diseases. Unfortunately, many doctors and nutritionists are pushing this fallacy, often out of ignorance.\n\nTaking vitamins and other nutrients and continuing to eat poorly is similar to never changing the oil or oil filter in your car and yet continuing to drive it. Periodically you might add small amounts of oil to the car to keep the oil level in normal range. This is, in essence, what most people are doing in their mistaken belief that they can continue to eat junk food, yet take a vitamin a day or multitudes of vitamins and be healthy.\n\nI've had patients who have brought in very large suitcases filled with supplements of all kinds. Unfortunately, these have been some of my sickest patients. That's because they continued to eat whatever they pleased, foolishly believing that supplements alone could make up for whatever their diet was lacking.\n\nHow wrong they were! Some were literally spending thousands of dollars every month and getting sicker by the day.\n\nMost chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, and cancer, are usually associated with nutritional deficiencies. However, dieting and eating too much sugar, fats, processed foods, fast foods, and other devitalized and inflammatory foods are literally draining the life out of us as they constipate our bodies, make our tissues acidic, introduce toxins, inflame our tissues, drain us of our nutrient reserves, and accelerate degeneration. Americans have been duped into believing that we can continue to eat whatever we want and that simply taking a vitamin or a multitude of vitamins can neutralize or protect ourselves from whatever we have eaten.\n\nUndernourishment and Disease\n\nWhen treating those with degenerative diseases, I began to notice a pattern. Most of these individuals weren't underfed. In fact, most of them were big overeaters. They ate plenty\u2014but they ate all the wrong things. They were overfed and yet completely undernourished.\n\nThis was particularly true of people with obesity, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, a host of different allergic conditions, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus. In fact, to some degree, it appeared to apply to nearly all degenerative diseases.\n\nFor many of these people, medications won't help. Nor can taking vitamins and nutrients eliminate the cause of these diseases. That's because it's not lack that causes many of these diseases\u2014it's eating too much of the wrong foods.\n\nI began to realize that one of the main causes of these degenerative diseases is overconsumption of sugary, fatty, starchy, and high-protein foods\u2014foods that have been processed, fried, and further devitalized. These are inflammatory foods that actually invite disease into our bodies. These people were taking in enormous amounts of empty, fattening calories, but they were not nourishing their bodies but inflaming them.\n\nTaking some supplements such as a comprehensive multivitamin with minerals, omega-3 fats, and vitamin D3 is important. However, much more important are eliminating (or significantly reducing) consumption of the toxic fats, sugars, processed \"dead\" inflammatory foods, and eating more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and other \"living\" foods.\n\nTaking in dead, man-made, processed food creates a trap. When your body realizes that it hasn't received the nourishment it craves, even after you've eaten a large, calorie-laden meal, your brain sends a signal that it still needs nourishment. But when you answer that craving with more dead food, you start a cycle that leaves your body laboring under a devastating burden of too much sugar, starch, and fat, leading to chronic inflammation and degenerative disease.\n\nThis kind of burden creates enormous stress for your entire digestive tract. It overtaxes the liver and overwhelms your entire body with massive amounts of dangerous fats, chemicals, and other toxins.\n\nAll the while, in a sense, you are starving. You are becoming depleted of what you really need: essential vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, phytonutrients, and enzymes. Eating in this way will make you feel fatigued and irritable, and over time you'll begin to develop one or more of the degenerative diseases listed above.\n\nOvernutrition is worse than undernutrition. In fact, animal studies have shown that getting too few calories, which is technically called _calorie restriction,_ can actually increase longevity. Although I do recommend calorie restriction for some diseases, such as type 2 diabetes and obesity, I believe that as a nation we need to work harder at eating in a way that keeps us within a healthy weight range.\n\nWhy Conventional Medicine Can't Help\n\nConventional medicine with its prescriptions many times cannot help. Thomas A. Edison said, \"The doctor of the future will give no medicine, but will interest his patients in the care of the human frame, in diet and in the cause and prevention of disease.\" What we need is better prevention.\n\nStop and Think About How We Eat\n\nOur prosperity as a nation has come at a price. After years of overeating and overindulgence, we are experiencing an epidemic of degenerative and inflammatory diseases.\n\nMost of us eat a standard American diet. That means lots of fat, sugar, and highly refined wheat and corn products, including white bread, crackers, bagels, pasta, and cereals. Add other processed food, such as potato chips, corn chips, and white rice. Don't forget the fatty meats such as T-bone steaks, ribs, bacon, pork chops, and processed meats including salami, ham, pepperoni, and roast beef usually loaded with salt, fat, nitrites, and nitrates. Now, top it all off with a large amount of saturated fat, hydrogenated fat, and processed highly inflammatory vegetable oil, such as most commercial salad dressings, most commercial cooking oils, and mayonnaise. They are typically high in inflammatory processed omega-6 oils. It's no wonder we have an epidemic of heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and arthritis as well as many other degenerative diseases.\n\nNow for dessert. What could be more American than apple pie? Nevertheless, the absolute worst foods\u2014and all-time American favorites\u2014contain tons of sugar and hydrogenated fat. These include many baked goods, such as cupcakes, cookies, pies, Danishes, fudge, and brownies\u2014and don't forget the doughnuts and candy bars.\n\nWe didn't always eat this way. Former generations were some of the healthiest on the planet. As an agrarian culture, many of our grandparents lived much closer to the land. But today, our lifestyle is much too stressed and fast-paced, and as a result our diet suffers.\n\nStressed Out?\n\nMost of us are nearly drowning in stress. We live on the run, tossing down dinner from a \"drive-thru\" on our way to meetings or our children's activities. On other days, we wash ashore at the end of the day with barely enough strength to make TV dinners. Or worse yet, we fill up on chips or whatever else we can find on the run.\n\nWe wear ourselves out working longer hours, and we enjoy our lives less and less. We exercise very little, if at all, and we keep up our hectic pace through stimulants such as coffee, tea, sodas, and chocolate. We stress our bodies even more by purchasing more \"things,\" bigger houses, and new cars, which means longer work hours to pay for our cravings. Our list of commitments grows while our endurance runs out.\n\nStressed-out America is on a path to degenerative disease and premature death. Many of us are dying in middle age. But it doesn't have to be this way. We can choose to relax, slow down, smell the roses, and choose a healthy diet.\n\nChange the Way You Think\n\nMost of us have grown up eating the American diet and feeling pretty good about it. But to live healthier, longer lives, we must rethink what we've been taught about food\u2014before it's too late.\n\nHow do we change our thinking? We can start by changing the _why_ of eating. Just why do you eat? Do you eat because something tastes good and your flesh is craving it? Or do you eat because you are providing your body with fuel to run? For most Americans, eating has become more of a recreation than a daily necessity based upon nutritional wisdom.\n\nNow, I'm not trying to suggest that eating shouldn't be enjoyed. God created all things for us to enjoy, and eating was one of those things. But when our dietary choices, which were designed to nourish and sustain our bodies, actually begin to make us ill, then we must change the way we think.\n\nHippocrates, the father of medicine, said, \"Our food should be our medicine and our medicine should be our food.\" In other words, what we eat should be so good for us that it actually heals and restores our bodies. What a difference from the average American mind-set about eating!\n\nStart thinking about more than just taste and pleasure when you eat. Begin to eat for your health's sake!\n\nSo, here's your new set of priorities: health first, taste and pleasure second. I guarantee that once you begin to satisfy _the true_ need of your body\u2014the need for genuine nourishment\u2014you'll begin to enjoy your food much more.\n\nHealth-First Eating\n\nA health-first eating lifestyle begins by eliminating or drastically reducing how much fried food, processed foods, processed vegetable fats, saturated fats, hydrogenated and partially hydrogenated fats, and sugar you take in. It also means avoiding fatty cuts of meats and selecting smaller portions of the leanest meats. These include free-range chicken or turkey breast and free-range beef such as extra-lean ground round, tenderloin, and filet.\n\nFive Alive\n\nEat three to five servings (no fewer than three) of living, organic vegetables and two to four servings of fruit every day. That means fruits and vegetables should make up a large percentage of your diet. This is the recommendation of the United States Department of Agriculture, and mine also.\n\nI did my internship and residency training at Florida Hospital, which is run by the Seventh-Day Adventist church. The Seventh-Day Adventists avoid alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, and pork. They are also taught to refrain from eating eggs, meats, and even fish. Many are strict vegetarians. While I was there as a resident, the cafeteria served vegetarian foods only. Adventists who are vegetarians live about thirteen years longer than the average nonsmoking American.\n\nOne such Seventh-Day Adventist was the physician Dr. John Harvey Kellogg. He was a vegetarian who, together with his brother, built a factory in Battle Creek, Michigan, to produce various health foods, including whole-grain cereals. That's where your box of Special K comes from. However, Dr. Kellogg didn't process his cereals as the majority of them are processed today to extend shelf life. Dr. Kellogg believed that 90 percent of all diseases were caused by improperly functioning colons.\n\nOne of Dr. Kellogg's patients, C. W. Post, was also an employee. He later developed Post Cereals.\n\nLimit Meats\n\nThe Bible does not recommend vegetarianism, so neither do I. Adam and Eve were vegetarians in the Garden of Eden, and some prophets, such as John the Baptist, Samson, and others who had taken Nazirite vows, were vegetarians. Still, Jesus Christ was not.\n\nNevertheless, most Americans eat far too much meat\u2014and over 95 percent of our exposure to dioxins comes from eating commercial animal fats. The health risks of dioxins include cancer, reproductive and developmental disorders, and mild liver damage. When eating beef, I recommend those which are organic grass-fed rather than grain-fed, as grass-fed beef contains three to five times more conjugated linoleic acid, a beneficial fat, and more healthy omega-3 fats and significantly less saturated fat and omega-6 fat than grain-fed beef. However, practice moderation and only consume at most 18 ounces of red meat a week.\n\nI recommend that women eat only 2 to 3 \u00bd ounces of lean, free-range meat, preferably only once daily, or at the most twice daily. Men, limit meats to only 3 \u00bd to 6 \u00bd ounces of lean, free-range meat, only one or, at the most, two times a day. I also recommend rotating your foods and eating different protein sources, starches, fruits and veggies daily and rotating every four days. For example, for meat, turkey one day; chicken the next; fish the next; and red meat the next. Then rotate back to turkey. You do the same for starches, veggies, and fruits. If you eat meat twice a day, then eat the same meat for lunch and dinner. Patients who practice this are usually much healthier and have fewer food allergies and sensitivities.\n\nIt's important to be careful when consuming fish. Most fish stocks around the world are contaminated with heavy metals, particularly mercury, which can be very dangerous to your body. Health problems linked to metal toxicity include:\n\n  Cancer\n\n  Neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease\n\n  Fatigue and fuzzy thinking\n\n  Decreased production of red and white blood cells\n\n  Abnormal heart rhythm\n\n  Damage to blood vessels\n\nKeep in mind the general rule that the larger the fish, the higher its mercury level and toxic potential. Also, I highly recommend the consumption of wild Alaskan salmon\u2014or, to be safe, the regular intake of a high-quality fish oil\u2014rather than farm-raised fish, as farm-raised fish usually contain antibiotics, hormones, PCBs, and other chemicals.\n\nAvoid High-Protein Diets\n\nMore and more people are going on high-protein diets such as the Atkin's Diet. Yes, they are losing weight. But the long-term effects of this diet can be very dangerous and may lead to many degenerative diseases.\n\nIf you are on this diet, limit your protein portions to 6 \u00bd ounces or less for men and 3 \u00bd ounces or less for women once or twice a day. For more information on this subject, refer to my book _What You Don't Know May Be Killing You_ (Siloam, 2004) _._\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nIf you see yourself in this chapter, be encouraged. Even if you've spent a lifetime digging your own grave with your fork and knife, it's never too late to change. You will make many choices about your destiny by what you choose to eat. Choose now to reap health, happiness, and a long life. You hold the key to your own future health.\n\nLet's turn now and look at what I believe is the single most effective answer to overnourishment\u2014fasting! More than anything else, fasting is a dynamic key to cleansing your body from a lifetime collection of toxins, reversing inflammation and overnourishment and the diseases they bring, and ensuring a wonderful future of renewed energy, vitality, longevity, and blessed health.\n[SECTION II  \nDR . COLBERT'S  \nDETOXIFICATION PROGRAM](..\/Text\/Md_ISBN9781616385996_epub_toc_r1.html#d7e6657)\nChapter 4\n\nTOXIC RELIEF THROUGH FASTING\n\nDAVID, * A MAN WHO HAD WORKED FOR MANY YEARS AS AN ENVIronmental engineer, seemed frightened and agitated as he walked into my office. His skin was pallid and deathly gray. His eyes seemed lifeless, and his demeanor was halting and somewhat confused.\n\nHe sat down and crossed his arms in disgust after he threw some paperwork on my desk. Visibly shaken, he declared loudly, \"My body is more polluted than a toxic waste dump!\" He pointed to the shocking results of the hair analysis for heavy metals he had brought with him. \"I guess I'm just a walking toxic waste dump. According to these numbers, if my body was a piece of earth, it would be too toxic for my neighbors to live next to!\"\n\nThe figures didn't lie. If a piece of land contained the toxins that this man's body contained, the government would probably have declared it a toxic waste site. How frightening!\n\nThis polluted planet is having a devastating impact upon us. If, like David, we've gotten to the place where our good health and mental acuity are already compromised, then we've almost gone too far.\n\nDavid's eyes filled with fear as he pleaded, \"I don't know what to do. I feel awful. I'm tired all the time. I can hardly remember the normal daily details of my life. I expect I'll die of cancer or something worse if this can't be turned around. Can you help me, Doc?\"\n\nAlthough my heart really went out to him, I knew that what David needed was not sympathy. Pure and simple, David needed toxic relief.\n\nWhat about you? Your body may not be as toxic as David's, but it's still probably a lot more toxic than you might imagine. The good news is that toxic relief is available!\n\nWhat's Your Body Trying to Tell You?\n\nFor starters, ask yourself this question: Are you listening to your body? Do you understand what it's trying to tell you?\n\nSickness and degenerative disease are usually simply nature's way of telling you that your body is toxic and needs to be cleansed. If you were driving your car and the red engine light came on indicating that it was time to check the engine, would you continue to drive the car without taking it to the shop to have it checked? This actually happened to a patient. She ended up having to replace her engine because she ignored the red engine light.\n\nYou may laugh, as her family members did when she told the story. However, this is exactly what many of us are doing. Our red engine light is flashing through the symptoms and signs of degenerative diseases that we are experiencing\u2014diabetes, heart disease, arthritis, headaches, allergies, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and other degenerative diseases.\n\nToo often we simply ignore the signs and symptoms and continue eating the wrong foods. We also keep living our stressed-out, unhealthy lifestyles including cigarette smoking, drinking alcohol, and not exercising.\n\nOur bodies simply weren't designed to handle it all. Nevertheless, we continue to push and stress our bodies with these toxic burdens until they eventually develop diseases. At that point, we then run to the doctor and get medication, which further strains the liver's ability to detoxify and does nothing to cleanse it.\n\nIf this sounds like you, chances are you are simply toxic and probably overfed. As I mentioned earlier, simply beefing up your intake of supplements usually won't help. So what can you do?\n\nFinding Relief Through Fasting\n\nThe answer is fasting. Fasting is a powerful, natural way to cleanse your body from the burden of excess toxins, such as toxic fats, and from many other chemicals and toxins that cause degenerative diseases.\n\nFasting is the safest and best way to heal the body from degenerative diseases caused by being overfed with the wrong nutrition.\n\nThe ancient father of medicine, Hippocrates, said, \"Every thing in excess is opposed by nature.\" Many years as a practicing medical doctor have convinced me that he was right. Our nation is suffering an epidemic of degenerative diseases and death that is caused by excess\u2014plain and simple. We have eaten too much sugar, too much fat, too many empty calories, and far too much processed, devitalized food.\n\nPeriodic Fasting\n\nFinding toxic relief through fasting can turn your life and health around. It is a natural, biblical system of supporting and cleansing the body from built-up chemicals, fats, and other toxins. It also has amazing spiritual benefits, as we will see later on.\n\nPeriodic fasting, followed by a cleansing diet, will allow you to live free of the physical and neurological burden of toxins. Fasting gives your toxic, overtaxed body an opportunity to \"catch up\" with its overwhelming task of waste removal.\n\nFasting\u2014a Natural Principle of Healing\n\nFasting allows your body to heal by giving it a rest. All living things need to rest, including you. Even the land must rest, which was a principle God gave to the ancient agrarian Jewish nation regarding their fields. Every seventh year they were not permitted to grow any crops at all. They had to let the land lie fallow so that it could reestablish its own mineral and nutrient content. (See Leviticus 25:1\u20137.)\n\nToday, we live in a time in which farmers have completely forgotten this age-old principle. This is one of the factors involved in our being overfed and undernourished. It's because much of our soil is depleted that our food sources have also become partially depleted of the minerals, vitamins, and other nutrients that our bodies crave. When we eat and don't get the nutrition we need from our food, we will usually eat more, trying to fill the body's craving for nourishment. Before long, we have become obese, overfed, and undernourished.\n\nEvery winter many animals will hibernate or rest for a season. Every night when you sleep, you give rest to your body and mind. Blessed rest is as much a law of the universe as gravity. It's also a powerful principle of healing.\n\nThink about it: When an animal is injured or sick, what does it do? It finds a resting place where it can lap up water, and it quits eating while it heals. This is natural, instinctual wisdom that God placed within the animal kingdom.\n\nBut when our bodies get sick, what do we do?\n\nWhen we get sick with an injury or illness, such as pneumonia, a sinus infection, or strep throat, instead of resting and fasting by drinking water or juices only, we eat ice cream, puddings, creamy soups, and other rich, high-caloric foods that do nothing to cleanse and detoxify the body.\n\nWe also prolong our illnesses by taking Tylenol to suppress the fever so that we can go back to work far sooner than our bodies are ready. We push ourselves by taking antibiotics, decongestants, and antihistamines to dry up the mucus. This also impedes the natural process of detoxification. Instead of healing, our bodies may store even more toxic material.\n\nNow I do recommend antibiotics for infectious diseases when they are warranted. Such times include for bacterial infections such as pneumonia, acute bronchitis, urinary tract infections, strep tonsillitis, and many other bacterial infections. However, too many doctors prescribe antibiotics for viral infections, allergic symptoms, or when a patient requests them. Sometimes they are given because a doctor is unable to figure out what is going on or what is causing the fever.\n\nHippocrates' saying \"Let your medicine be your food and let your food be your medicine\" applies here as well. In other words, let what you take into your body provide healing. Rest the body. Drink plenty of fluids. Drink fresh juices that allow the body to heal. Don't you think humans should have as much sense as the animals?\n\nHippocrates practiced around 400 b.c. and commonly used medicinal foods such as apples, barley, and dates to treat his patients. Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Galen, and Paracelsus all believed in fasting and practiced this therapy. They used fasting, juices, soups, nutrition, and rest to bring their patients back to health. Hippocrates treated the patient and not the disease.\n\nGeneral Benefits to Fasting\n\nFasting gives a rest to the digestive tract. Your body uses a significant amount of your energy every day in digesting, absorbing, and assimilating your food. Since fresh juices are very easy for the body to assimilate, they give your digestive tract a chance to rest and repair. This, in turn, gives your overburdened liver a chance to catch up on its work of detoxification.\n\nJuice fasting, as we will see later, also creates an alkaline environment for your body's cells and tissues so that they can start releasing waste products through your body's various channels of elimination. The primary elimination channels of the body include the kidneys and urinary tract, the colon, the lungs, and the skin. Fasting allows your liver to catch up on its internal cleansing and detoxification. At the same time, the digestive organs, including the stomach, pancreas, intestines, and gallbladder, get a much-deserved rest.\n\nEven the blood and the lymphatic system can be effectively cleansed of toxic buildup through fasting. During fasting, our cells, tissues, and organs can begin to dump out accumulated waste products of cellular metabolism as well as chemicals and other toxins. This helps your cells to heal, repair, and be strengthened.\n\nYou have about sixty trillion to one hundred trillion cells in your body, and each one takes in nutrients and produces waste products. Fasting allows each cell to dump its waste products and thus be able to function at peak efficiency.\n\nFatty tissues release chemicals and toxins during fasting. These, in turn, are broken down by the liver and excreted by the kidneys. Your body will excrete toxins in many different ways during a fast. Some people actually develop boils, rashes, or body odor during fasting since toxins are being released through the body's largest excretory organ, the skin.\n\nFasting Energizes Cells\n\nFasting is also an energy booster. The toxic buildup in the cells and oxidative stress compromise the mitochondria (the energy factories in each cell) so they cannot effectively produce energy. This leads to fatigue, irritability, and lethargy. Let me explain. Mitochondria are similar to tiny energy factories within each of your cells where energy is produced. Metabolic waste, chemicals, other toxins, and oxidative free radicals affect the function of the mitochondria of the cell, making them less efficient in producing energy.\n\nRejuvenate Physically, Mentally, and Spiritually\n\nPeriodic, short-term fasting will also strengthen your immune system and help you live longer.\n\nDeep cleansing of every cell in your body through fasting has the wonderful added benefit of improving your appearance. As your body detoxifies, your skin will eventually become clearer and glow with a radiance that you probably haven't seen for quite a few years. The whites of your eyes usually become clearer and whiter and may even sparkle.\n\nAs toxic fat melts away through fasting, you'll feel and look better than you have in years. Your energy will be supercharged. And your mental functioning usually improves as your body cleanses, repairs, and rejuvenates.\n\nFasting cleanses and rejuvenates the body physically, mentally, and spiritually. It is also one of the best ways of preventing and treating sickness and disease, as we will see later.\n\nA Cellular Garbage Dump?\n\nHave you ever driven by a garbage dump in the middle of the summer? It isn't a pleasant experience. So, don't let your body become a cellular garbage dump filled with toxins that eventually lead to degenerative diseases. Instead, cleanse your body periodically with fasting to both prevent or to treat degenerative diseases.\n\nYou may be thinking, \"Fasting is something that I just cannot do! Fasting is for far more disciplined people than me. It's impossible for me to fast.\"\n\nIf you've responded this way, you probably see fasting as a feat of unflinching self-denial and otherworldly determination for which only a few are cut out. Certainly not yourself! However, that's simply not true. Although some fasting is little more than a rigorous test of self-endurance, that's not at all the kind of fasting I'm suggesting here.\n\nThe detox fast that I will be outlining in the following chapters is not a grueling feat of self-denial. If you carefully follow the steps that I will outline, you will not find fasting difficult at all.\n\nSo, let's take a look at the first step, which is the preparation.\n\nLet's Talk About Fasting\n\nFasting in general is very controversial. Many methods of fasting exist, as well as many attitudes about fasting. As a doctor, I've been able to look closely at the various popular methods of fasting. Some of them are good, while others can be downright dangerous. So, before you decide to begin fasting, let's investigate fasting and look carefully at the method of fasting that I'm convinced will put you on a path to healthier living.\n\nFasting\u2014What's It All About?\n\nDespite the fact that many believe that the only true method of fasting is the total fast\u2014not eating or drinking anything\u2014I consider this method to be unsafe. Let's look.\n\nTotal fasting\n\nFasting is often thought of as taking nothing by mouth. Technically speaking, this is true fasting. But it's not the type of fasting I'm suggesting here for detoxification.\n\nI never recommend total fasting. Your body must always have at least two quarts of water a day to sustain your life, for you can only live for a few days without water.\n\nThe kind of fasting that most of us are familiar with is avoiding all solid food and consuming liquids only.\n\nWater-only fasting\n\nThe strictest, most severe fast is a water-only fast. In general, I usually don't recommend this type of fasting. But for certain autoimmune diseases such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis or for severe atherosclerosis such as severe coronary artery disease, the benefits of water-only fasting are powerful. Nevertheless, you can also experience similar benefits for these diseases with juice fasting\u2014it just takes longer.\n\nIf you are considering water-only fasting, be prepared to completely devote several days to doing little more than fasting. For most individuals, water-only fasting so weakens the body that working a full-time job while fasting is not possible.\n\nIf you do not have one of these diseases, I believe that the best fasting method for cleansing and detoxification is juice fasting. Juice fasting provides most of the benefits of water-only fasting without the unpleasant weakness and hunger that often accompany a water-only fast.\n\nJuice fasting\n\nThe fasting method I recommend for complete detoxification is juice fasting. For this type of fast, you will need lots of fresh fruits, vegetables, and a juicer.\n\nSome feel that juice fasting is not really fasting in the truest sense of the word. Others doubt that it has the same benefits of water fasting. And while water-only fasting does have some truly restorative healthful effects, juice fasting can be even more beneficial, and it is far less strenuous, since it supports detoxification, alkalinizes the body, and supports the liver. One usually doesn't experience the weakness or hunger of water fasting and usually experiences tremendous energy during the fast.\n\nAs I mentioned, water-only fasting can reduce inflammation in the body. In addition, it may actually cause the hardened arterial plaque of severe coronary disease to regress. Juice fasting can produce a similar effect, but over an extended period of time.\n\nIn addition, raw, freshly squeezed juices supply generous amounts of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, enzymes, and phytonutrients that help your body to restore itself and heal.\n\nLet's take a look at some of the special benefits of juice fasting.\n\nRestoring Nature's Delicate Balance\n\nFew people ever consider that the health of their bodies is based partially upon a delicate natural acid and alkaline balance. Nevertheless, this balance is essential to your body's ability to detoxify successfully. When all your body gets is the standard American diet, your tissues become more acidic than nature intended\u2014upsetting this delicate balance.\n\nIf you'd like to know how acidic your body is, you can find out very easily by simply purchasing some pH strips at the drugstore. Collect the first morning urine and dip a pH paper into it. It will indicate your urine's pH level with a change of color. The urinary pH usually indicates the pH of the tissues. The change of color can then be matched to a numerical reading. A card is included in the pH paper that correlates a color to a pH number.\n\nMost people will have a pH test reading of about 5.0 to 6.0, which means their bodies are very acidic. It should be between 7.0 and 7.5. Close enough doesn't count. Even though five is only two points less than seven, a pH of 5.0 is actually a hundred times more acidic than a pH of 7.0.\n\nCellular Constipation?\n\nWhat happens when your body is too acidic? Precious minerals including calcium, potassium, and magnesium are lost in the urine, and cells become less permeable, which means they are unable to excrete waste products effectively. In a sense, your cells become constipated, or each one of them may become full of waste that it cannot get rid of.\n\nWhen this occurs, the mitochondria or energy-producing structures in the cell do not function properly, and you usually feel fatigued. Your cells become toxic. Now, free-radical activity increases, and the toxic overload continues to build until eventually your body begins to deteriorate and degenerative diseases occur.\n\nJuice fasting brings back the natural balance. It alkalinizes the tissues and raises the pH. Now the cells can begin to excrete toxins again. Detoxification has begun.\n\nGiving Your Gut a Rest\n\nAn occasional juice fast\u2014every one, three, or six months\u2014gives your gastrointestinal system a much-needed rest.\n\nJuices are easy on the digestive system. They are easily absorbed into the body without requiring much work from your stomach and intestines. Water fasts also give the digestive system a rest.\n\nJuice Fasting vs. Water-Only Fasting\n\nFasting is not new. As a matter of fact, it's been around since before Moses. Many people go on water-only fasts and believe that this is the only true way to fast. However, this program of juice fasting will usually provide you with more benefits than water fasting, but without many of the drawbacks. Let's take a look.\n\nMuscle loss\n\nThe right kind of juice fast will continue to nourish your body. You won't experience the kind of muscle loss that can happen during a wateronly fast. If you're a fan of the television series _Survivor,_ you've watched the participants wither away every week, losing large quantities of muscle mass. In essence, except for a few spoons of rice each day, they usually are on a water-only fast. Periodic juice fasting provides the body with so much nutrition that such muscle loss would be minimal.\n\nIn addition, prepared correctly, juice can provide the nutrients, amino acids, and fuel that your liver requires to detoxify. This is an extremely important aspect of detoxification that we will examine in-depth later on.\n\nAntioxidants\n\nThat's not all! Juice fasting has even more cleansing benefits. Correctly prepared, juice can supply a vast array of antioxidants\u2014which you will need to protect your liver from the enormous amounts of free radicals that are released during fasting. Water-only fasts decrease the stores of antioxidants, increasing your risk for oxidative damage from free radicals to tissues and organs throughout your body.\n\nWater fasting, and even long-term juice fasting, depletes your body of glutathione. That may not seem that important, but it really is. Glutathione is the most important and the most abundant antioxidant in the body. It protects us from free-radical activity and regenerates itself as well as vitamins C, E, and other antioxidants. e overworked liver is a hotbed of free-radical activity, and adequate levels of glutathione are essential or the liver can not detoxify heavy metals, chemicals, pesticides and some medications and can be damaged by free radicals.\n\nTo cleanse your body effectively, I believe it is much healthier to go on a series of short juice fasts rather than one long fast. This allows your body time to recuperate and rebuild its stores of antioxidants as well as glutathione. I also recommend taking a glutathione-boosting supplement while fasting. (See Appendix D.)\n\nHealing\n\nFasting with the right kinds of raw, fresh juices increases the healing benefits of fasting.\n\nSpecially prepared juices are packed full of nutrients, phytonutrients, and enzymes. These can supply the raw materials your body needs to repair your cells, heal your organs, and protect your tissues from free radicals.\n\nJuice Fasting and Weight Loss\n\nThis sensible, medically sound method of fasting can very quickly allow you to shed any extra toxic fat that your body may be carrying\u2014even if you're significantly overweight. In addition, you can avoid a water-only fasting trap of which many people are not even aware. What's the trap? Water-only fasting usually suppresses the metabolic rate, significantly causing you _to gain_ significant amounts of weight after the fast!\n\nThat's one of the reasons that fasting with a program of specially prepared juices is so much more sensible. Not only that, but it's also much easier to stay on a specially prepared juice fast because you're less likely to have severe food cravings compared to a water-only fast.\n\nNo metabolically induced weight gain\n\nThe reason for this is because fasting with specially prepared juices usually does not throw your body into a state of muscle catabolism, which is excessive muscle breakdown.\n\nDuring a water-only fast, the body goes into this state and eventually burns muscle tissue as fuel. After about two to three days of burning muscle, which is converted to glucose, as fuel, the body shifts to burning ketones from the breakdown of fat as fuel. Thus after a few days of water fasting, the body begins breaking down more fat and less muscle. Ketosis develops, and the body can become more acidic.\n\nThe metabolic rate also slows down. This metabolic slowdown can actually cause you to gain weight after the water fast when you begin to eat again.\n\nLet me explain. When you go on a water-only fast, mechanisms in your brain signal your body that you are starving even if you are not. Therefore, your body goes into a survival state to try and hold on to all of the calories it gets. In this state, you can actually eat nothing and lose only a small amount of weight.\n\nHowever, your body doesn't immediately move back out of that state when you start eating again. It may take months for the metabolic rate to recover. Thus when you go back to eating a normal diet, you will usually gain weight rapidly and will often gain more weight. When you do another fast, the metabolic rate may have never fully recovered, and therefore you may continue to gain more weight after the fast is broken.\n\nThis should not happen to you on my specially prepared juice fast. Fasting with the juice program that I have provided in this book will provide your body with enough calories and nutrition so that you should be able to bypass this experience altogether.\n\nThe final effect for you will be\u2014weight loss! Not only will this special fasting method free your body of disease-causing chemicals, but it will also free it of toxic fat. If you are overweight, and even significantly obese, one of the truly wonderful and healthful benefits of this fasting method is that it can help bring your body back to the normal, healthy size that God intended. A regular, sensible fasting program can slim you down very quickly, and you will also experience the more important benefit of eliminating the fatty areas in your body, especially toxic belly fat where dangerous toxins and chemicals are usually stored. As these toxic fat depots are mobilized, toxins in the fat will be released and toxins will be detoxified and flushed more readily from your body.\n\nNot only will you live longer through this juice detoxification plan, but you will feel better and look better also!\n\nStay energized\n\nMany fasting programs are so physically challenging that you can be left feeling completely wiped out with little or no energy to function. This juice-fasting program is designed to keep you energized enough to work, play, and enjoy your daily activities.\n\nAs a matter of fact, since juice fasting will increase both the detoxification capabilities of the body and increase the elimination of toxins, you may actually experience more energy during this fast, not less.\n\nLiver friendly\n\nWater-only fasting can place considerable additional strain upon an already overworked liver. And since your liver is the primary detoxification organ, you need to do all that you can to support its vital function in your body.\n\nJuice fasting does this, while on the other hand, water fasting usually places more strain on the liver and usually further depletes the liver of glutathione, the most important detoxifier and the most important antioxidant. That's one of the reasons for the overwhelming sense of fatigue you can experience during a water-only fast.\n\nDuring a water-only fast, a flood of toxins is released from fat and other cells and tissues so quickly that the liver can become overwhelmed trying to keep up the process of detoxification. Such a burden is placed upon the liver at this point that it usually requires more glutathione, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and antioxidants. Juice fasting supplies the vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and antioxidants, but water fasting does not. In addition, a shower of free radicals is created in this flood of released toxins, creating a hotbed of free-radical activity in the liver and possibly injuring the liver.\n\nKeeping the Colon in the Game\n\nOne of my main concerns about water-only fasting is that it knocks out a major player in the detoxification game\u2014the colon. When you fast with water only, your colon usually shuts down. In a less toxic world, this probably wouldn't matter so much. But with the toxic load with which our bodies are dealing, we don't want this vital detox player sitting on the bench.\n\nOne extremely important reason for keeping this vital player in the detox game is DDT, as well as other pesticides.\n\nAs mentioned earlier, most of us have DDT or DDE (the toxic metabolite of DDT) in our fatty tissues. During a water-only fast in which the colon rests, DDT as well as other pesticides and solvents are released from the fatty tissues into the bloodstream at an extremely rapid rate. This, in turn, can overwhelm the liver so that it cannot detoxify the chemical effectively. If this happens, DDT and other pesticides and solvents can end up in other fatty tissue in the body, including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.\n\nThat's why it's absolutely essential to keep this powerful detox player in the game. Even while you're on this program of juice fasting, consider drinking herbal teas to keep the colon functioning. If you become constipated, be prepared to use an herbal tea or a mild enema. I recommend a Vitamix blender, which maintains the fiber in the juice. The soluble fiber binds toxins and hormones and aids in excreting them out of the body, whereas water-only fasting includes no fiber. We'll discuss more about this later.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nControversy will always remain between water-fasting and juice-fasting methods. That's why it's important to consider carefully both methods and determine which one will be most effective for you.\n\nNow let's look at juice fasting and the promise it holds for your renewed health and vitality.\n\n* Fictionalized character created from a composite of accounts\nChapter 5\n\nTHE JOY OF JUICE\n\nRECENTLY WHILE TRAVELING IN ANOTHER CITY, MY WIFE, MARY, was standing at a Clinique counter at a department store and struck up a friendly conversation with a couple next to her in line. The middleaged man shared that six months previous he had undergone a monthlong juice fast. Interestingly, he hadn't fasted at the advice of a medical person or because he had read about it. He simply felt the need to go on a juice fast.\n\nA few minutes into the discussion the man's wife began painting a picture of the physical changes that took place in her husband's body as he detoxified. In three or four days of fasting, his skin began to give off a foul odor and emit a dark ashy substance as the toxins deep within his body were visibly released. His amazing symptoms lasted only for a few days.\n\nHe continued sharing his story with Mary. By the end of the month of fasting, he felt better than he had for years. He couldn't remember when he had more energy. He felt truly invigorated, renewed, and cleansed\u2014down to the very core of his being.\n\n\"That was just six months ago,\" he said. \"But I want to go on another juice fast again just to feel that good again.\" He was eager to experience the sense of rejuvenation once more. *\n\nYour Juice-Fasting Program\n\nI find it uniquely interesting that this man simply felt the need to go on this fast. Apparently his body was extremely toxic. He may have worked in a toxic environment. Who knows? His inclination to go on an extended juice fast may have spared him from cancer or heart disease several years later. It's impossible to say. But some inner wisdom told him he needed to cleanse his body. I'm glad he listened.\n\nToxic substances, as we learned earlier, are everywhere. They are in the water that we drink, the air that we breathe, and the food that we eat. They attack us from outside and from within.\n\nWe are living in the most toxic time the world has ever known. Our ability to stay healthy is increasingly determined by our body's ability to detoxify.\n\nThe best way to eliminate these toxins from our bodies is to start a detoxification program. Here's how:\n\n  Start by following the liver cleansing diet for two to four weeks.\n\n  Take supplements for a healthy liver.\n\n  Drink at least two quarts of alkaline water a day.\n\n  Get plenty of fiber.\n\n  Undergo periodic juice fasting for three to seven days at a time (or longer if monitored by a physician).\n\n  Finish up with another two weeks on the liver cleansing diet.\n\nBy following this simple program, you can safely and effectively eliminate the dangerous toxins from your body.\n\nCellular Spring Cleaning\n\nPeriodic fasting is like periodic house cleaning. You may have a regular routine of house cleaning that includes dusting, vacuuming, mopping floors, cleaning bathrooms, and a host of other chores. But once or twice a year, many people go after the hidden dirt and grime. They wash curtains, pull furniture away from the walls, wash windows, scrub out cabinets, and don't miss a nook or cranny until everything shines.\n\nOur bodies aren't much different. They need regular, thorough cleanings to function at peak efficiency.\n\nThe longer we live on this toxic earth, the more we absorb and collect toxins in our tissues. These toxins are actually stored in the tissues of our bodies, especially in the fatty tissues. The liver also stores some toxins that it cannot break down and excrete. Believe it or not, the metabolite of DDT, called DDE, is present in most people's fat.\n\nFasting is an effective way to help your body eliminate these toxins.\n\nThe Wonders of Juice\n\nThe USDA, the Surgeon General, the National Cancer Institute, as well as the US Department of Health and Human Services, all recommend that we eat plenty of fruits and vegetables.\n\nThe minimum amount of fruits and vegetables recommended a day is five\u2014three vegetables and two fruits. Less than one-third of Americans get the minimum of five servings a day. Because we eat so little fruit and vegetables, many Americans suffer from nutritional deficiencies, including vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Common deficiencies include folic acid deficiencies in both men and women. In fact, 60 percent of older Americans do not get enough folic acid to prevent elevated homocysteine levels, which is a risk factor for heart disease.\n\nTo make matters worse, the most common vegetables that Americans eat are potatoes in the form of french fries, onions in the form of fried onion rings, and tomatoes in the form of ketchup. Even our fresh vegetables are losing their vitamin and mineral content. When we compare the USDA food tables from twenty-five to thirty years ago to the food tables of today, we will see that the nutrient value for over a dozen fruits and vegetables has dropped dramatically.\n\nFor example, nearly half the vitamin A and calcium in broccoli have disappeared. In other words, there is about a 50 percent drop in these nutrients in broccoli as compared to the USDA handbook twenty-five to thirty years ago.\n\nVital Vegetables\n\nFruits and vegetables are power-packed with phytonutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals that prevent cancer, heart disease, strokes, osteoporosis, and most other degenerative diseases.\n\nDo all you can to eat more fruits and vegetables. Since most of us don't have the time to eat the raw fruits and vegetables, it is much simpler to begin juicing fruits and vegetables on a daily basis.\n\nBy juicing fresh fruits and vegetables, the juices are separated from the fiber and are quickly digested, absorbed, and assimilated by the body. Juice every day to be sure you get plenty of fruits and vegetables. Eight ounces of carrot juice provide the carotenoids that are equal to approximately one and one-half pounds of carrots. It would take quite a bit of time to prepare and eat that many carrots every day.\n\nAnother excellent way to get adequate amounts of vegetables is through Green Superfood. (See Appendix D.) One scoop is approximately equivalent to six servings of vegetables. I recommend this at least once a day in the morning.\n\nWhen you get in the daily habit of juicing fruit and vegetables, you can be sure you're getting the recommended three to five servings of vegetables a day and two to four servings of fruit a day that you need. Not only will you learn to love starting your day with delicious fruit and vegetable juices, but also you will dramatically reduce your risk of heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, osteoporosis, and macular degeneration.\n\nGive your body the fuel that it craves most\u2014fresh fruits and vegetables\u2014in a form that is easily digested, absorbed, and assimilated. You can do this through freshly squeezed juices.\n\nEnzyme Energy\n\nFresh juices are full of enzymes. Enzymes are actually organic compounds or catalysts that increase the rate at which food is broken down and absorbed by the body. Fresh fruits and vegetables are extremely high in enzymes. These enzymes are destroyed during cooking and processing. Bottled and packaged juices are pasteurized, which destroys the enzymes. Fresh juice contains living digestive enzymes that are important in breaking down foods in the digestive tract. This preserves your own body's digestive enzymes. This, in turn, gives your digestive system a much-needed rest so that it can repair, recuperate, and be rejuvenated.\n\nEating fats, protein, and starch puts a lot of strain on the digestive tract. Recall eating a large T-bone steak and potato with butter or sour cream along with bread and a dessert. Did you get sleepy an hour or two later? That was because that large meal sat in your stomach for hours as the body expended tremendous energy to digest it.\n\nCooked, starchy foods such as mashed potatoes, breads, and pasta contain no enzymes. Therefore, they draw from the enzymes that are produced in the pancreas and deplete your energy.\n\nHowever, when you drink freshly juiced fruits and vegetables that are teeming with live enzymes, valuable pancreatic enzymes are preserved, giving your pancreas a break.\n\nJuicing pineapples even gives you extra enzyme energy. Pineapples contain the enzyme bromelain, which has been used for decades in treating inflammatory problems such as arthritis, improving wound healing, aiding digestion, and numerous other clinical and therapeutic applications.\n\nPhyto Power!\n\nBut the most important nutrients in fresh fruits and juices are the phytonutrients. Phytonutrients are simply plant-derived nutrients that contain antioxidants. Here are some of the incredible things these mighty plant nutrients can do:\n\n  Prevent and fight tumors and cancer\n\n  Lower cholesterol\n\n  Increase immune function\n\n  Fight viruses\n\n  Stimulate detoxification enzymes\n\n  Block the production of cancer-causing compounds\n\n  Protect the DNA from damage\n\nMany of these phytonutrients are found in the pigments of the fruits and vegetables, such as the chlorophyll of green vegetables, the carotenes or carotenoids in orange fruits and vegetables, and the flavonoids in berries.\n\nApproximately one out of two men and one out of three women in the United States will at some time develop cancer in his or her lifetime. Consuming cruciferous vegetables every day in the form of juices is one of the best ways to protect your body from cancer.\n\nSelecting Your Vegetables and Fruit for Juicing\n\nTo prepare your juice for fasting it's important to select the vegetables and fruit that will do you the most good. So let's take a brief look at the major categories of phytonutrients so we can make the healthiest selections.\n\nCarotenoids\n\nFirst, let's look at the carotenoids. There are more than six hundred.\n\nCarotenoids are the fat-soluble pigments you find in red, orange, yellow, and dark green fruits and vegetables. Carrots, watermelon, pink grapefruit, sweet potatoes, squash, tomatoes, spinach, kale, collard greens, cantaloupe, and yams are bursting with carotenoids. Half of these healthy wonders have the added ability to convert into vitamin A in our livers.\n\nFor years, nutritionists taught that the most powerful carotenoid was beta-carotene, which is what you find in carrots. Today, we know that other carotenoids have even greater antioxidant and anticancer powers.\n\nThe great thing about carotenoids is you can never overdose on them. If you take more than your body needs, then the excess will simply not be converted into vitamin A. Instead, it will be stored in your body's fatty tissues and even organs.\n\nStudies have shown that the more carotenoids you take in through your diet, the lower your risk of developing cancer. Wow! That's phyto power\n\nLycopene\n\nLycopene is a carotenoid found in the red pigment of carrots, tomatoes, pink grapefruit, and watermelon. This is a powerful antioxidant that reduces the instance of certain cancers. A study following more than 47,000 individuals found that men who consume large amounts of tomato-based foods each week had significantly lower rates of prostate cancer.\n\nLycopene is also protective against cancers of the GI tract, including the esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum.\n\nLutein\n\nAnother very important carotenoid is lutein. This healing substance is found in most yellow fruits and vegetables, such as yellow squash and corn as well as spinach and collard greens.\n\nLutein protects the eyes from macular degeneration\u2014a major cause of blindness in older individuals.\n\nOther carotenoids\n\nMost of us only know about beta-carotene. We feel that we're getting all we need in our daily vitamin pill. But hundreds of other carotenoids exist, including alpha and gamma carotene, astaxanthin, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, and cryptoxanthin. Astaxanthin has been known to protect against cataracts, macular degeneration, and blindness, as well as sunburn, reducing oxidative damage to DNA, inflammation, and reducing risk of cancers such as breast, colon, bladder, and mouth. Astaxanthin, which occurs naturally in certain algae, is the new super carotenoid. You can find it in most health food stores.\n\nWe've only begun to scratch the surface in our research about them. But by juicing lots of raw, fresh vegetables, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, collard greens, and spinach, we give our bodies a vast array of different carotenoids. Each one of these wholesome vegetables adds another layer of protection from cancer and other degenerative diseases.\n\nCarotenoids and smoking\n\nEven though carotenoids have enormous cancer-fighting properties for nonsmokers, they work just the opposite for smokers.\n\nA large study completed a few years ago showed that supplementation with beta-carotene actually increased the instance of lung cancer in smokers. The National Cancer Institute has repeated this study with similar results.\n\nBecause of these two startling studies, smokers are warned never to take beta-carotene as a supplement. Odd, isn't it? Supplements of betacarotene decrease the incidence of lung cancer in nonsmokers. I believe if the study had used a symphony of antioxidants such as lipoic acid, CoQ10, vitamins E and C, a glutathione-boosting supplement, grape seed extract, and pine bark in addition to the beta carotene, the results would have turned out quite different.\n\nEvery time a smoker puffs on a cigarette or cigar, he plants a seed for lung cancer. How true the Bible is when it warns that the seeds we sow are the plants we will reap. (See Galatians 6:7.) If you continue to smoke, you will eventually harvest disease\u2014disease that is even fueled by beta-carotene.\n\nI once heard a preacher say, \"You can still smoke and go to heaven, but you'll just get there a lot sooner!\" So, stop smoking and start juicing. Juicing is one of the best ways to break an addiction to cigarettes.\n\nCruciferous vegetables\n\nCruciferous vegetables are cancer blasters. They include cabbage, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, collard greens, mustard greens, watercress, turnips, and radishes. These cancer fighters contain more phytonutrients with anticancer properties than any other family of vegetables.\n\nThe word _cruciferous_ comes from the same word root as _crucifying,_ which means \"to place one on a cross.\" Oddly, the flowers of cruciferous vegetables contain two components that appear similar to the shape of a cross.\n\nThe potent cancer-fighting phytonutrients in the cruciferous vegetables family include indoles, isothiocyanates, and sulforaphanes, which are sulfur-containing compounds. They also contain phenols, coumarins, dithiolthiones, and glucosinolates, as well as other phytonutrients that are yet to be discovered. Indoles, especially indole-3-carbinol, are potent cancer antagonists. Sulforaphanes stimulate liver detoxification enzymes. Isothiocyanates induce production of detoxification enzymes by the liver, and they prevent damage to the DNA. Studies have correlated a high intake of cruciferous vegetables, especially cabbage, with lower rates of cancers, especially cancers of the breast and colon.\n\nBroccoli sprouts have the highest concentration of these protective phytonutrients. Select young broccoli sprouts that are about three days old. They contain twenty to fifty times more of the potent phytonutrient sulforaphane than mature broccoli.\n\nJuicing cruciferous vegetables on a regular basis can help your liver to detoxify from pesticides, chemicals, drugs, and other pollutants. However, if you juice excessive amounts of cruciferous vegetables or juice them every day long term, they can inhibit thyroid function to a degree. So moderation is the key, and if you do decide to juice cruciferous vegetables daily for months or years, I recommend that you periodically have a thyroid blood test (TSH).\n\nEven the American Cancer Society recommends eating cruciferous vegetables regularly to decrease your risk of cancer.\n\nFlavonoids\n\nFlavonoids are another group of powerful phytonutrients. They are found in plant pigments, especially blackberries, blueberries, cherries, and grapes. More than four thousand different flavonoid compounds give fruits and vegetables their beautiful red, blue, and purple color. They are also found in vegetables such as broccoli, tomatoes, and peppers.\n\nIsn't it interesting that God placed these beautiful colors in different fruits and vegetables that provide protection from most diseases? Our eyes are actually drawn to the beautiful colors\u2014the brilliant oranges in carrots, the bright reds in tomatoes, the brilliant greens in spinach and other green foods, and the brilliant purples and reds in the berries. Really, a big bowl of fresh vegetables is a beautiful sight. Seeing these brilliant flavonoids should entice us to eat them regularly. However, most of us choose dead, processed, man-made foods that are high in sugars, fats, and salt and are devoid of these protective phytonutrients.\n\nFlavonoids and younger-looking skin\n\nFlavonoids can keep your skin looking younger. This is because they play an enormous role in the formation and repair of collagen. Collagen is the major structural protein in the body, and it is also the most abundant protein found in your body. It actually holds the cells and tissues of your body together.\n\nCollagen tends to degenerate with age and slowly collapse, which is why our skin begins to sag as we get older. However, the flavonoids found in berries, cherries, grapes, and a host of other fruits and vegetables help to maintain the integrity of your skin's collagen. Therefore, it helps to keep your skin's collagen from degenerating and collapsing with age.\n\nBy simply juicing berries and grapes every day, you can get enough flavonoids to nourish your skin's collagen and slow down the aging process.\n\nFlavonoids also help protect you against heart disease.\n\nGrape seed extract and pine bark extract\n\nTwo flavonoid powerhouses are grape seed extract and pine bark extract. They have twenty times as much free-radical scavenger power as vitamin C and fifty times more than vitamin E. The flavonoid phytonutrient in these two extracts is called proanthocyandins. The flavonoid in grape seed extract comes from the seed of the grape, and the flavonoid in pine bark extract comes from the bark of the anneda pine tree.\n\nQuercetin\n\nThe bioflavonoid quercetin is a powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antihistamine that can help your body fight allergies. Allergic conditions include allergic rhinitis, eczema, hives, and even some cases of asthma. Quercetin inhibits the release of histamine. Thus, it acts as an antihistamine\u2014but it's all natural! Quercetin is found in onions and apples. No wonder the old saying \"An apple a day keeps the doctor away\" is true since apples contain quercetin.\n\nNot only are fruits and vegetables full of power-packed flavonoids, but many vegetables also contain chlorophyll. Let's look.\n\nChlorophyll\n\nChlorophyll comes from the green pigment in plants. Just as the life of a person is in the blood, so the life of a plant is in the chlorophyll. In other words, chlorophyll is like the plant's blood.\n\nChlorophyll is very high in magnesium. It's vitally important for photosynthesis, which is the way plants convert light into energy. Foods that are high in chlorophyll include greens such as beet greens, spinach, collard greens, parsley, and other deep green vegetables. Wheatgrass, barley grass, alfalfa, spirulina, chlorella, and blue-green algae are plant \"superfoods.\" They are superfoods because of their high chlorophyll content.\n\nThese superfoods are also high in flavonoids, which gives them anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antiviral effects. Various algae, including chlorella, spirulina, and blue-green algae are very high in carotenoids. In fact, spirulina has about ten times the concentration of carotenoids as carrots. These different algae also contain nearly all the essential amino acids along with practically every mineral and trace mineral that your body needs! Green Superfood contains all of these high-chlorophyll foods. (See Appendix D.)\n\nChlorophyllin\n\nGreens such as spinach, collard greens, beet greens, cilantro, and parsley, together with the superfoods, are very high in chlorophyllin. Chlorophyllins fight cancer by inhibiting many different carcinogens. Chlorophyllin can help reduce the cancer-causing substances, called heterocyclic amines (HCAs), in cooked meats and fried foods. They even help to reduce the carcinogens in cigarette smoke. They also help to protect DNA from radiation damage.\n\nNot only are green foods packed with this vital substance, but also the magnesium levels they contain give them a double punch. Magnesium helps to cleanse the GI tract. As a matter of fact, it works similarly to a mild laxative. Therefore, green foods help your body remove toxins from your GI tract so they are not reabsorbed.\n\nHigh-chlorophyll foods are effective antioxidants, cancer and tumor fighters, as well as virus fighters. Green food preparations, such as Green Superfood, can be added to your freshly squeezed morning juices. (See Appendix D.)\n\nAllium\n\nOther important phytonutrients are the allium compounds. Garlic contains the highest concentration of these phytonutrients. Allicin is the main allium compound and is what gives garlic its strong odor. Garlic actually has over a hundred different compounds, and they are probably the reason garlic has so many therapeutic effects.\n\nFor instance, garlic helps to promote Phase Two detoxification of the liver. It protects against cancer. It has antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiparasitic properties as well. It also helps to detoxify the body of heavy metals such as lead and mercury, and it strengthens the immune system.\n\nCooking and processing garlic robs it of many of these incredible disease-fighting properties. That's why I recommend juicing garlic to get all its health benefits.\n\nEllagic acid\n\nEllagic acid is found in strawberries, raspberries, grapes, and black currants. This powerful healing substance has been shown to inhibit cancer that has been chemically induced in rats.\n\nEllagic acid also blocks against the cancer-causing effects of many different toxins, including compounds in cigarette smoke called PAH. It also protects against damage by toxins to chromosomes, which are our genetic blueprint. Finally, ellagic acid is a powerful antioxidant and can actually increase glutathione levels.\n\nA new method of determining a food's antioxidant capacity is called ORAC (oxygen radical absorbency capacity). Foods with the highest ORAC scores have the greatest ability to neutralize free radicals. Fruits are at the top of the list. The top five foods on the list are prunes, raisins, blueberries, blackberries, and kale. Strawberries are number eight. Broccoli is number fifteen, and tomatoes are number forty-two. Isn't that amazing that blueberries, blackberries, and strawberries have a higher antioxidant capacity than most all other fruits and vegetables? (If you eat raisins, make sure they are organic since raisins are usually high in pesticides.)\n\nVitamins and Minerals Through Juicing\n\nEven though the majority of Americans appear to be healthy, most are not. The majority of Americans are actually taking inadequate amounts of vitamins and minerals.\n\nMagnesium\n\nFor example, Americans commonly don't get enough magnesium in their diets. The government says each one of us should get 310\u2013420 milligrams of magnesium a day, but few of us do. Vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables, are very high in magnesium. By juicing green vegetables every day, or by taking Green Superfood, you will be sure to get all the magnesium you need.\n\nMineral deficiencies are even more common in the standard American diet than vitamin deficiencies. It's also common for women to get too little iron and calcium in their diets.\n\nFolic acid\n\nOne of the most common nutritional deficiencies in the world is folic acid deficiency. One reason for this is that we simply don't eat enough vegetables. In addition, some medications, such as birth control pills, contribute to this deficiency. Alcohol and stress can play a part also. Nevertheless, adequate folic acid is vital to good health; without it we stand to increase our risk of heart disease by having elevated levels of homocysteine (a toxic amino acid).\n\nFolic acid is necessary for DNA repair, and it keeps your immune system strong. Studies have shown that high doses of folic acid can eliminate most of the precancerous cells on women with cervical dysplasia. Dark green leafy vegetables, such as spinach and collard greens, are excellent sources of folic acid.\n\nVitamin C\n\nEven though severe vitamin C deficiency and scurvy are extremely rare in the United States and other countries, marginal deficiencies are relatively common. I believe this plays a role in the development of diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Excellent sources of vitamin C include freshly juiced citrus fruit such as grapefruit and oranges. Other sources include kiwi, strawberries, broccoli, and brussels sprouts.\n\nVitamin C is easily lost during both cooking and storage of the food. Vitamin C from natural sources contains bioflavonoids, which enhance the effect of vitamin C.\n\nJuicing a wide variety of fruits and vegetables will assure you of getting enough of most all vitamins and minerals.\n\nComing Attractions\n\nThese are just a few of the recent nutritional breakthrough discoveries found by researchers. Nutritional medicine is still in its infancy, but what we've learned thus far is truly exciting.\n\nWithout a doubt, many more important phytonutrients will be discovered and will offer more protection against cancer, heart disease, and other degenerative diseases.\n\nBut don't wait for scientific proof\u2014start juicing today. Nevertheless, I want to encourage you to begin using these powerful phytonutrients every day by daily juicing fresh fruits and vegetables. They will play a major role in your detox fast, but don't stop there. Determine that after your fast is over you will make juicing fresh fruits and vegetables a part of your daily breakfast routine.\n\nThe research that we have already should convince each of us of the overwhelming healing power and health benefits of fresh, raw fruits and vegetables. Don't wait for more studies. Start making use of this lifesaving wisdom right now!\n\n* This is a dramatized account of a true story.\nChapter 6\n\nDR. C'S DETOX FAST\n\nYOU STAGGER INTO THE KITCHEN HALF ASLEEP, DRAGGING THE BELT of your robe behind you like a long tail. Too groggy to speak, you pull your juicer out from a lower cabinet, plunk it on the counter, and reach for the apples, carrots, and other fruits and vegetables piled high in a giant bowl.\n\nWith the water running, you clean and chop the colorful ingredients of your first day's juice fast menu. In minutes, your juicer is whirring, spinning, and extracting the elements of your brand-new, healthier, detoxified lifestyle.\n\nIt's done. You slowly, carefully touch your lips to the glass, wondering if you'll be able to drink this concoction you just made. But as you touch it to your tongue, you're amazed. It's more than delicious\u2014it's delightful and refreshing. You had been willing to grit your teeth and endure this juicing program because you were convinced of its benefits to your health. But you never dreamed you'd enjoy it so much!\n\nI genuinely believe that you are going to find this fasting program more enjoyable, easier, and more rewarding than you ever expected. Not only that, but when you are through, your renewed energy and vitality will amaze you.\n\nSo let's get started with the juice fast portion of this detoxification program.\n\nBefore Your Fast\n\nBefore beginning the actual juice fasting portion of this program, you should have been following the diet to support your liver for about two weeks (four weeks for those with extreme toxicity). As you've seen already, you will want to go back on the liver support diet for the same period of time following your juice fast.\n\nIf you've completed the liver support diet, you're ready to detox. So, let's get started. Here are some pointers:\n\nAs you begin, you should already have increased your intake of alkaline water to two quarts a day. Continue drinking at least two quarts per day of alkaline water throughout the duration of your fast.\n\nDuring the fast, I do not recommend consuming vitamins. You should have taken a number of vitamins and minerals during your two-week liver support diet. You must stop taking all of these supplements until your fasting period is over. Afterward, you will go back on the liver support diet for two additional weeks. At that point, you will need to resume taking these supplements until the two-week period is ended. You should continue taking a comprehensive multivitamin, a glutathione booster, and a chlorophyll drink daily even after completing the program. Many also need vitamin D3 and an omega-3 supplement.\n\nHow Long Should I Fast?\n\nPeriodic, short juice fasts that last three to seven days at a time are an excellent way to detoxify your body. And using the guidelines provided, they are extremely safe. Fasting for longer than seven days should only be done under a doctor's supervision.\n\nI usually recommend that patients start out by fasting one day and gradually work up to seven days. However, under a doctor's supervision, this fast can be continued for one to three weeks or even longer.\n\nDetox fasting should be done several times a year. Once again\u2014repeated juice fasts for four to seven days are usually enough time to cleanse the body.\n\nWatch Out For . . .\n\nFasting can produce some interesting changes in your body, so be aware of this before you begin. Some of these changes are more common than others. So, here are some precautions you need to consider.\n\n  _You may experience light-headedness._ Light-headedness is common. Therefore, don't rise up suddenly from lying or sitting during your fast period. You may even experience some dizziness if you stand up too quickly. If you do get light-headed, lie down and elevate your feet on a few pillows.\n\n  _You may experience changes in energy._ Some people become very fatigued during a fast. Others feel much more energetic. Don't be alarmed if you experience either of these extremes. Initially you may be fatigued, but energy levels increase as you detox.\n\n  _Your sleep habits may change._ You may not need as much sleep at night as normal. Don't be alarmed.\n\n  _You should get plenty of rest._ During a fast, you will need plenty of rest, both during the day and at night. Be prepared to take a siesta in the afternoon for about thirty minutes to an hour and one-half, if possible. Some people may even need a morning nap.\n\n  _You should limit activity._ I do not recommend any strenuous exercise during the fast. Take strolls in a park, walk on a beach, or enjoy any other slow, relaxing activities.\n\n  _Constipation can be a problem._ Constipation is also common, especially during longer fasts. (You probably won't experience constipation on short, juice fasts especially when using a Vitamix blender, which retains all the fiber.) For this I recommend juicing pitted prunes or pitted plums along with apples. Or you may drink herbal teas, which we will discuss in the next section. Also, mixing one scoop of Green Superfood in one of the juices helps prevent constipation.\n\nIf you still cannot have a bowel movement, take magnesium citrate and increase the dose until you have a bowel movement. Usually 400 to 1,000 milligrams is sufficient. For severely constipated patients I recommend using an enema. Simply fill an enema bag with lukewarm water. One pint to one quart of water is usually enough. Then follow the instructions on the enema box. It is best to first lie on your back for a minute or so, then on your right side, then on the stomach, and then finally on your left side. Gently massage your stomach at the same time. If you still have problems with constipation, I recommend that you see a colon therapist who is able to administer colonics or colenemas.\n\n  _You may have cold hands and feet._ During a fast it's common to experience a lowering of body temperature, which may make your hands and feet feel cold. Don't be concerned. Simply use an extra blanket at night and wear extra clothing.\n\n  _Your tongue may become coated._ Another very common symptom during fasting is coating of the tongue. Your tongue may develop a white or yellow film. This film signals you that your body is detoxifying.\n\n  _You may experience bad breath._ Your breath may take on an unpleasant odor as your body detoxifies. Just keep a toothbrush with you, and brush your teeth and tongue often with organic toothpaste such as Tom's of Maine brand.\n\n  _Skin eruptions may occur._ Acne, boils, and rashes are other signs that your body is excreting toxins through your skin, which is the body's largest excretory organ. Make sure that you are drinking adequate water and taking adequate fiber and that you have at least one bowel movement a day.\n\n  _Body odor may be a problem._ Some people even develop an offensive body odor as toxins exit the body through the sweat glands.\n\n  _Nausea and vomiting may also occur during a fast._ This is usually a sign that you've become mildly dehydrated. That's why getting enough fluids is critically important during your fast.\n\n  _Your urine may appear darker than normal._ This also usually means that your body is shedding toxins or that you are not consuming adequate liquids. So if this occurs, increase your fluid intake.\n\n  _You may have added mucous drainage from your sinuses, bronchial tubes, and even the GI tract._ Don't be alarmed by this. Once again, these symptoms are usually just your body's way of voiding itself of many of the built-up toxins it has been storing.\n\nHelpful Aids to the Detoxification Process\n\nYou may want to incorporate some of the following helpful regimens to your cleansing protocol:\n\nExfoliating and cleansing the skin\n\nThe epidermis is the outer nonvascular layer of the skin covering the dermis. You may be aware that your body secretes toxins and waste through your skin each day. Taking proper care of your skin is a vital part of the detoxification process. If the pores of your skin are clogged with dead skin cells, the impurities and toxins may remain locked inside the body, placing stress on your liver and kidneys.\n\n_Dry skin brushing_ is an effective way to keep the pores of your skin open and clear. It is essential that your skin be allowed to \"breathe.\" Brushing the skin daily stimulates blood and lymph flow throughout the body, leading to a more efficient removal of waste.\n\nYou may want to invest in a loofah sponge or a natural soft-bristle brush. To brush your skin, start with the soles of your feet, working up your legs, torso, and arms until you have brushed the majority of your body, avoiding only your face. Use firm, hard strokes, brushing toward your heart to increase blood flow. The entire brushing process should take approximately five minutes. It may make your skin feel warm because you have increased circulation.\n\nInfared sauna\n\nBecause our modern world has created new environmental issues, which have increased the number of pollutants and toxins that are inhaled, ingested, or absorbed into our cells and tissues, often our cells and tissues become overwhelmed with toxins. This absorption of toxins increases the risk of cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and immune disorders. The body's cells must receive proper nutrients and expel these harmful toxins.\n\nAn infrared sauna can be effective to help the body get rid of harmful toxins, thus aiding the detoxification process. Infrared saunas use an infrared radiant heat source. This superior method of detoxification allows your body to secrete up to three times more perspiration than that of conventional saunas. This natural process rids your body of harmful toxins, including solvents, pesticides, and heavy metals, and may ultimately burn up to three hundred calories during a twenty- to thirtyminute session.\n\nThe infrared sauna stimulates the cellular metabolism and breaks up the water molecules that hold toxins within the body, thus allowing the body to void these toxins through perspiration. These treatments, combined with a customized diet and nutritional program, have vastly improved, restored, and rejuvenated many of my patients at the cellular level, allowing them to feel better and lead a healthier lifestyle. For more information on infrared saunas, see Appendix D.\n\nLet's Get Started\n\nTo get started on your juice fast, you will want to purchase lots of fresh, organically grown vegetables and fruits. I have provided a shopping list of vegetables for you to take to the store at the end this chapter.\n\nOrganic vegetables are the best because they are grown without pesticides and herbicides. Since you are fasting to remove such chemicals, it's important not to take any in during your fast. I believe organic produce is the safest. It can be found at many of the larger health food stores. There are even health food stores that are as large as some supermarkets, such as Whole Foods. These have a wide variety of organic fruits and vegetables at a competitive price.\n\nIn addition, many of the larger supermarkets are beginning to stock organic produce as the public is demanding it. Our voices will be heard if we continue to ask the supermarket to carry organic products.\n\nWhat If I Can't Use Organics?\n\nNevertheless, organic vegetables tend to be more expensive, and they can be difficult to find. If you can't always use organics, then choose organic for the fruits and vegetables that are highest in pesticides: apples, celery, strawberries, peaches, spinach, nectarines (imported), grapes (imported), sweet bell peppers, potatoes, blueberries (domestic), lettuce, and kale\/collard greens. Choose regular fruits and vegetables for the list of fruits and vegetables lower in pesticides: onions, sweet corn, pineapples, avocado, asparagus, sweet peas, mangoes, eggplant, cantaloupe (domestic), kiwi, cabbage, watermelon, sweet potatoes, grapefruit, and mushrooms.\n\nGrowers are free to use about four hundred different pesticides on crops. Each year in the United States, over one billion pounds of pesticides and herbicides are sprayed on the food we eat. Pesticides that have been banned in the United States are often shipped to other third-world countries. Fruits and vegetables grown in these countries are sprayed with pesticides banned in the United States and then exported from those countries back into the United States.\n\nSo here are some rules to remember when purchasing fruits and vegetables.\n\nLook for thicker peels\n\nUsually, the thicker the peel, the safer the fruit. For example, bananas have thick peels and generally have little pesticide in the actual fruit. That is, unless they are grown in third-world countries where more potent pesticides can be used, which can penetrate the entire fruit.\n\nOranges, tangerines, lemons, grapefruits, and watermelons are also excellent fruits since they have a thicker peel.\n\nProduce with thin peels\n\nFruits and vegetables with thin peels or none at all usually contain higher pesticide residue. These include apples, grapes, peaches, strawberries, blueberries, nectarines, celery, and spinach. Fruits and vegetables with some of the highest levels of pesticides include celery, peaches, strawberries, and apples.\n\nIn addition to the pesticides that are sprayed on the plants, waxes are added to keep the produce from spoiling. Unfortunately for us, most of these waxes contain pesticides and fungicides too. These seal water in and prevent the produce from spoiling.\n\nWashing off produce waxes\n\nIf you've ever tried, I'm sure you found that these waxes are pretty difficult to remove. In fact, they usually can't be removed by simply washing them with water.\n\nSpecially prepared cleansers\n\nYou can purchase a natural, biodegradable cleanser from most health food stores. Use it to gently scrub off the wax, and then rinse the produce off. You may also simply soak your produce in a mild detergent such as Ivory or pure castille soap from a health food store. Gently scrub your fruits and vegetables and rinse them off.\n\nHydrogen peroxide\n\nAnother way to remove waxes and pesticides is to soak the fruits and vegetables in a sink of cold water. Then add 1 tablespoon of 35 percent, food-grade hydrogen peroxide (which can be purchased at a health food store) to the water. The sink should be approximately half-filled. Allow the produce to soak for five to fifteen minutes. Then rinse thoroughly with fresh water.\n\nSoak fruits with thin peels and leafy vegetables for only five minutes or so. Thicker vegetables, such as carrots and other fibrous vegetables, should be soaked for ten to fifteen minutes.\n\nClorox bleach\n\nBelieve it or not, another good way to remove waxes and pesticides is to soak your produce in a sink half full of cold water. Then add 1 teaspoon of Clorox bleach. It must be the Clorox regular bleach, not a generic brand. Soak the produce for the same amount of time as above, and rinse them thoroughly for about three to five minutes.\n\nChoosing a Juicer\n\nThere are many different types of juicers, and some are very expensive. You may start with an inexpensive juicer such as a Juice Man juicer from Walmart, which costs about seventy dollars. The Champion juicer is an excellent juicer and will usually last for decades. My favorite juicer is the Vitamix blender because it is a whole food juicer that works more like a large blender. (See Appendix D.) It is able to completely juice and liquefy the entire fruit or vegetable, including the seeds. This has the added benefit of providing the fiber in addition to the vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, enzymes, and phytonutrients. However, it is more expensive, usually costing around four hundred dollars. I personally recommend the Vitamix blender. (See Appendix D.) If you choose another juicer, simply add at least 1 to 2 tablespoons of the pulp back to the juicer. Stir it up and drink it.\n\nGuidelines for Your Fast\n\nThe day before your fast\n\nOn the day before your juice fast, prepare yourself for the fast by eating only fruits and vegetables.\n\nFast on the weekends\n\nI strongly recommend that you begin your juice fast on the weekend. By doing so, you will be able to spend more time resting. If you experience any side effects such as fatigue, light-headedness, or a headache, it will not interfere with your job (since it is the weekend).\n\nThe more you are able to rest during a fast, the better. I commonly tell patients who are sick to rest since, if they continue to work or exercise, the energy that would be used for healing is diverted for other body activities. Therefore, during the fast it is best to rest so that your energy can be directed at healing and detoxifying.\n\nDon't use prepared juices\n\nIt's very important that you juice raw, fresh fruits and vegetables. Don't try to do this fast by purchasing prepared juices. They are simply not the same. Fresh juice contains the living enzymes, phytonutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Bottled, canned, and processed juices have been pasteurized. Many of the phytonutrients and enzymes have been lost in the process.\n\nDon't drink alcohol, coffee, or sports drinks\n\nDuring your fast, drink only juices and herbal teas. You may also sip soup broth by gently warming vegetable juice.\n\nLimit teas to herbal teas and green, white, and black tea. Also, drink plenty of alkaline water, about two quarts a day.\n\nSip juices slowly\n\nWhen drinking your specially prepared juices, sip them slowly to mix the juice with saliva. Don't gulp them down.\n\nPreparing Produce\n\nPeel oranges and grapefruits, but be sure and leave on the white, pithy part of the peel. That is the part that contains the important bioflavonoids.\n\nLeave the skins on all other fruits and vegetables. Remove the green top portion from carrots, since they may contain a toxic substance. Slice the fruits and vegetables so that they fit nicely into your juicer.\n\nIt's best to drink the juices immediately after juicing\u2014but some people simply don't have the time to use the juicer throughout the day. You may store your juice in the fridge and drink it throughout the day. As soon as a fruit or vegetable is sliced, it begins to lose nutritional value. For instance, cut an apple and place it on a dish on your counter. You will notice that it doesn't take long to turn brown. This is due to oxidation from exposure to the air.\n\nWhen you slice cucumbers, they lose about 40 to 50 percent of their vitamin C content within the first few hours. A cantaloupe that has been sliced will lose about a third of its vitamin C content within a day. That's why it is always best to drink fruit and vegetable juices immediately to get the maximum nutritional benefits. However, you are still getting tremendous benefits even if you store your juice for one day and drink it during that day. Remember to include a slide of lemon or lime when juicing to slow down oxidation. Recall when you slice an apple it turns brown rapidly, but by squeezing lemon or lime juice on it, the browning, or oxidation, is delayed significantly.\n\nBest Fruit and Veggie Choices\n\nWhen you're juicing, keep in mind that some fruits and vegetables provide more health benefits than others.\n\nFruits and veggies that are especially cleansing on the juice fast include: cabbage, watercress, and other cruciferous vegetables; greens; dandelion root and dandelion greens; sprouts; celery; carrots; lemons and limes; apples; beets; and berries (blueberries, blackberries, and strawberries). Caution: Some people may be allergic to berries.\n\nFor optimum detoxification, drink one juice drink a day that contains cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage or broccoli and beets. The phytonutrients in these vegetables help detoxify your body by helping to detox your liver and enhancing the flow of bile. Include dandelion greens or dandelion root and watercress to support your liver in its detoxification efforts during the fast too.\n\nThe Basics of Juice Fasting\n\nIn general, I recommend a four- to seven-day juice fast. On the next few pages you will find four different juicing recipes, which you can alternate each day. It's my recommendation that you prepare one recipe per day for each meal (drinking it three times per day). It is extremely important to choose organic celery, apples, peaches, and berries, as these foods are typically very high in pesticide residue. Organic fruits and vegetables are produced with the use of feed or fertilizer of plant or animal origin without the use of chemicals, antibiotics, growth stimulants, or pesticides.\n\nOf course, this is simply a guideline, and you are welcome to find your own rhythm and favorite juicing recipes. Be creative!\n\nSuggested Juicing Recipes\n\nGREEN LIMEADE\n\n1 package organic field greens\u2014red, green, or romaine (not iceberg)\n\n6 organic limes, peeled (if blended in Vitamix, use of the peel)\n\n1 small piece of ginger\n\n2 organic apples\n\n\u00bd bunch organic celery\n\n1 organic cucumber\n\n**Instructions:** Juice and add more ice or water if desired. Add 1\u20133 tablespoons of the pulp back to the juice, stir, and enjoy!\n\n* * *\n\nVEGETABLE COCKTAIL\n\n5 organic carrots\n\n1 organic green pepper\n\n1 organic broccoli stalk\n\n2 stalks organic celery\n\n1 organic cucumber\n\n1 organic hot pepper\n\n1 organic lemon\n\n**Instructions:** Juice and add 1\u20133 tablespoons of the pulp back to the juice. Stir and enjoy!\n\n* * *\n\nSPINACH PINEAPPLE DRINK\n\n1 bag organic spinach\n\n1 organic pineapple, skin cut off\n\n1 bunch organic celery\n\n4 organic cucumbers\n\n2 organic lemons, peeled\n\n**Instructions:** Juice all and add 1\u20133 tablespoons of the pulp back to the juice. Stir and enjoy!\n\n* * *\n\nVITAMIX DRINK\n\n3\u20134 organic baby carrots or handful of organic dandelion leaf, organic spinach, organic kale, or organic collard greens\n\n1\/8 organic lime with skin or 1\/8 organic lemon with skin\n\n1 organic Granny Smith apple or 4 oz. organic blueberries, organic blackberries, organic strawberries, or organic raspberries\n\nHandful of organic broccoli, organic cauliflower, organic cabbage, organic watercress, or organic beets\n\n1\u20132 stalks organic celery (optional)\n\n4 oz. water\n\n4 oz. ice\n\nYou can vary your Vitamix Drink by making different selections from the four main groups. Patients usually do best if they rotate their fruits and veggies over four days and don't use the same ones each day. For example, one day use carrots, lime, blueberries, broccoli, and the next day use spinach, lemon, Granny Smith apple, and watercress. You may also juice all your fruits and veggies in the morning and keep your juice in the fridge for covenience.\n\n**Instructions:** Juice all.\n\n* * *\n\nCruciferous Veggies Are Important!\n\nI want to emphasize that it is critically important to drink at least one juice drink with cabbage or broccoli and one juice drink with beets each day while on the juice fast to increase and support liver detoxification as well as to enhance the flow of bile.\n\nAny of the vegetable combinations can also be juiced first and then slowly warmed. Don't overheat them. Then you may have them as soup. However, never boil the juices, for that will destroy their enzymes. Take them off the stove before they boil. They should be warm, not hot. If you have a Vitamix blender, the juicer has the ability to heat up the juice through rapid spinning. Remember, it's best to choose organic.\n\nSoups\n\nSOUP 1\n\n2 garlic cloves\n\n\u00bd organic cucumber\n\n2 stalks organic celery\n\nA handful of organic spinach\n\n* * *\n\nSOUP 2\n\n4 carrots\n\n2 stalks organic celery\n\nA handful of organic parsley or organic cilantro\n\n1 garlic clove\n\n* * *\n\nSOUP 3\n\n2 organic tomatoes\n\n1 organic cucumber\n\n2 stalks organic celery\n\n1 garlic clove\n\n* * *\n\nSOUP 4\n\n\u00bc-\u00bd head of organic cabbage\n\n2 stalks organic celery\n\n2 organic carrots\n\nA handful of organic parsley or organic cilantro\n\n* * *\n\nSOUP 5\n\n1 organic cucumber\n\n2 organic tomatoes\n\nA handful of organic parsley or organic cilantro\n\n1 garlic clove\n\n* * *\n\nSpice It Up\n\nYou may add a dash of Tabasco sauce and\/or dulse powder. Dulse is a very tasty, salty seaweed that has a red\/purple leaf. It is high in potassium, calcium, iron, and iodine, and it is used in soups and salads.\n\nHerbal Teas\n\nMILK THISTLE TEA AND DANDELION TEA\n\nCertain herbs are very important for supporting the liver in detoxification during the fast. Other herbs are important for supporting the kidneys and the GI tract. Milk thistle and dandelion tea are very important in supporting the liver for detoxification.\n\nMilk thistle actually protects the liver from toxins, and dandelion helps to increase bile production and stimulate the gallbladder to excrete the bile. Drink milk thistle tea every day during your fast or with dandelion tea to protect the liver and to help rid the body of bile, which contains many of the toxins.\n\nHerb teas can be sweetened with a small amount of stevia, which can be found in most health food stores.\n\n* * *\n\nASPARAGUS TEA AND NETTLE TEA\n\nSince toxins are eliminated primarily through the kidneys and GI tract, it is critically important to support the kidneys during a fast. Asparagus tea along with nettle tea has diuretic properties. This also helps to support the kidneys so that they can eliminate toxins more effectively.\n\n* * *\n\nGREEN TEA\n\nGreen tea is very high in polyphenols called catechins. This tea has two hundred times more antioxidant power than vitamin E and five hundred times more than vitamin C. Green tea does contain caffeine, however. So, don't drink it too late in the day, or it can interfere with sleep. I strongly recommend that you enjoy green tea in the morning and for lunch. Always choose organic.\n\n* * *\n\nCHAMOMILE TEA\n\nChamomile tea benefits digestion and also has calming properties. It is an excellent tea to drink after dinner to help calm you before going to bed.\n\n* * *\n\nSLEEPY TIME TEA\n\nSleepy Time tea is an effective herbal remedy for those who suffer from insomnia.\n\n* * *\n\nSMOOTH MOVE TEA\n\nSmooth Move tea is an excellent herbal tea to temporarily help with regularity during a juice fast.\n\n* * *\n\nBreaking Your Fast\n\nBreaking your fast often is the most difficult and most important part of fasting. Therefore, you must understand how to break your fast before you even begin.\n\nYou must reintroduce foods gradually to realize the greatest health benefits of fasting. You see, your digestive tract has been at rest. That means hydrochloric acid and pancreatic enzymes may not be available to help you digest proteins, starches, and fats right away. Therefore, the longer your fast time, the more slowly you should come off of your fast.\n\nHere's an eating schedule for coming off of your fast if your fast is three days or longer. If the fast is three days or less, you can eat fruit the first day, then go on the liver support diet for two weeks as outlined in chapter 8. Remember not to overeat or bring on meats and fats for the first few days after stopping a fast. If your fast is four days or more, then slowly reintroduce foods, starting with fruits.\n\nThe first day after your fast\n\nEat fresh fruit such as apples, watermelon, grapes, or fresh berries as often as every two to three hours on the first day that your fast is broken.\n\nHowever, don't eat papaya or pineapple on the first day after a fast. These fruits contain strong enzymes that may upset your stomach. Fruits with the highest water content, such as watermelon, are the easiest to digest.\n\nThe second day after your fast\n\nOn the second day after the fast is broken, have fruit in the morning. For lunch and dinner, have a bowl of fresh vegetable soup.\n\nEat slowly and chew your food very well. Be sure not to overeat.\n\nBe sure you continue to drink at least two quarts of alkaline water a day. You may also continue to drink your juices once or twice a day.\n\nThe third day after your fast\n\nOn the third day, you may add to the fruit and vegetable soup a salad and\/or a baked potato. You may also add a slice of whole-grain bread such as Ezekiel bread, brown rice bread, or millet bread.\n\nThe fourth day after your fast\n\nOn the fourth day, you may introduce a small amount (1 or 2 ounces) of free-range chicken, turkey, fish, or free-range lean meat.\n\nJust remember, the key is eating slowly and chewing very well. Drink water thirty minutes before your meal, but not more than 4 ounces with your meal. Most importantly\u2014don't overeat.\n\nSpecial Advice for Special Problems\n\nNot everyone who begins a fasting program is in the same healthy state. You may have some physical problems that you need to address before beginning to fast. Therefore be on the lookout for these special problems before starting this fasting program.\n\nCandidiasis, food allergies, parasites\n\nIf you regularly experience excessive bloating, gas, and diarrhea, you may be suffering from candidiasis, bacterial overgrowth in the small intestines or even a parasitic infection. You may also be suffering from malabsorption, maldigestion, increased intestinal permeability, food allergies, or food sensitivities.\n\nIf you have any of these symptoms, I strongly recommend getting a comprehensive digestive stool analysis with parasitology and\/or a food sensitivity test. (See Appendix D.)\n\nIn addition, I recommend that you read my book _The Bible Cure for Candida and Yeast Infections_ and follow the special diet it contains for three months before you start fasting.\n\nHypoglycemia\n\nIf you have hypoglycemia, first add 1\u20133 tablespoons of pulp back to your juice, and do this every two to three hours. You can grind 1\u20133 tablespoons of flaxseeds, or take another form of fiber, and add it to your juice or simply use a Vitamix blender, which retains the fiber. Juice every two to three hours instead of juicing only four or five times a day. If you do not have a Vitamix, simply add 1\u20133 tablespoons of the fiber extracted from the juicer back to your drink.\n\nYou can place 1\u20133 tablespoons of flaxseeds into a coffee grinder and grind them. Other good sources of fiber include rice bran, psyllium seeds or husks, and oat bran.\n\nSensitive GI tract\n\nI have found that patients with very sensitive GI tracts do better when they separate fruit juices from vegetable juice.\n\nIf you experience pain, bloating, gas, or diarrhea after drinking one of the juices, simply omit that juice and try a different one. By process of elimination, you can find what fruit or vegetable is causing the problem. When you identify the item to which you are sensitive, simply eliminate it from your juice fast.\n\nConsider Making Juicing a Lifestyle\n\nMany believe that they can fast one time and go back to eating the same high-fat, high-sugar, high-processed starches, and high-meat diet that caused them to develop the degenerative diseases in the first place. That would be the same as saying that if a person stopped smoking for a month, then he could go back and start smoking his two packs of cigarettes a day. Don't go back to the old unhealthy habits. Instead, let your detoxification program and fast be the beginning of a new, healthier lifestyle.\n\nTo make juicing a regular part of your healthy lifestyle, consume at least 8\u201316 ounces of juiced vegetables and fruits daily. Continue using the Green Superfood on a daily basis too. It's about equal to getting six servings of vegetables.\n\nIn addition, keep eating lots of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains as well as legumes, nuts, and seeds. Eat smaller amounts of lean, free-range meats and poultry. Limit or avoid dairy. Choose organic skim milk products if you consume dairy. Limit or avoid processed foods. Finally, choose good fats such as extra-virgin olive oil instead of saturated and hydrogenated fats.\n\nShopping List\n\nWhen you go to the grocery store, shop for the following organic fruits and vegetables: carrots, cabbage, Granny Smith apples, cucumbers, beets, celery, parsley, cilantro, berries (strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, raspberries), lemons and limes, grapefruit, pineapple, ginger root, watermelon, garlic, greens (spinach, collard greens, beet greens, dandelion greens), tomatoes, sweet potatoes, dandelion root, and watercress.\n\nThe Lemonade Fast \"Master Cleanse\"\n\nYou may want to use a master cleanse periodically to help your body detoxify. There are several kinds available at health food stores, or you can use the following recipe to create your own:\n\n  2 Tbsp. freshly squeezed lemon or lime juice\n\n  1 Tbsp. 100 percent pure maple syrup (from a health food store)\n\n  1\/10 tsp. cayenne pepper or less\n\n  8 oz. spring water\n\n  Liquid stevia to taste\n\nMix and drink eight to twelve glasses a day and keep in the fridge. Eat or drink nothing else except water, laxative herb tea, peppermint tea, or chamomile tea.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nRemember that your body is the temple of God. Determine to keep it strong and healthy. Continue to do periodic juice fasts every month or every two to three months or at the end of each season, depending on your degree of toxicity or if you have a degenerative disease. You will reap a lifelong harvest of good health.\n\nThird John 2 says, \"Beloved, I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper and be in health, even as thy soul prospereth\" (KJV). You will fulfill this scriptural truth in your own body and the bodies of your family members by sowing to your health and reaping the reward of divine health.\n\nAn essential part of this program is the role it plays in cleansing and restoring your body's own powerful detoxification system. By better understanding how detoxification works within you, you can be better equipped to help your body enjoy vital and life-giving toxic relief.\nChapter 7\n\nYOUR CHAMPION PRIZEFIGHTER\n\nY OU MAY BE OLD ENOUGH TO REMEMBER THE GARBAGE WORKERS' strike in New York City. The garbage piled high along all the streets and curbs. Before long, it overflowed into the streets and littered the sidewalks. You can't imagine the smell! Before it was all over, the backlog of uncollected trash and garbage threatened to cripple the entire city and affect the health of everyone in it. What a mess!\n\nMany of our bodies are in the same state of crisis, but we don't know it. The garbage from our diet, the garbage from our unhealthy lifestyle, and the garbage from our toxic environment are crippling our entire systems to a point that degenerative disease begins.\n\nChemicals and toxins are everywhere. Our bodies simply cannot keep up.\n\nYet, even though toxins without and within bombard us, our bodies are uniquely created to handle enormous amounts of toxins, poisons, germs, and diseases. Your body's detoxification system is astonishingly powerful\u2014and with the proper support and diet it is able to both detoxify and eliminate chemicals and toxins.\n\nThat's where you come in. You have it within your power to provide your incredible liver and GI tract with enough help so that they can once again function at peak efficiency. The benefits to you are unending. They include preventing and even reversing disease, having more energy, looking better, feeling better, losing weight, and much more.\n\nIt's important to gain a good understanding of just what these amazing detox systems are all about, for they are your first line of defense against disease. If you don't have cancer, heart disease, or another degenerative disease, these defense systems may be the reason.\n\nThe first system of toxic cleansing is your liver. It's an amazing organ that works day and night to cleanse your blood from chemicals, poisons, bacteria, and any other foreign invader that comes to rob you of your good health.\n\nTo be healthy and live on this toxic planet, you must have a healthy liver. Your liver is a champion prizefighter among detox organs. You must keep it healthy and working at peak efficiency. That's why it's vital that before you begin your fast, you undergo a two-week nutritional program (four weeks if you're extremely toxic) to strengthen and support your liver so it can carry out its key role in the detoxification process. (See chapter 8 for the nutritional program.)\n\nIf you were a general in the army fighting an all-out war, you wouldn't send your best, frontline troops into battle without the best weapons, uniforms, and provisions. Well, because of the toxic world in which you live, your body is fighting a war every day. The good news is that it's a war that it can win. But you have an enormous part in ensuring the long-term successful outcome.\n\nLet's look at some of the vital ways in which you can supercharge your liver's frontline defense abilities against toxins, chemicals, and poisons. But first, let's get a good understanding of what this amazing front line of defense actually does for you.\n\nYour Body's Natural Detox System\n\nThe liver weighs about five pounds and is the largest single organ and the hardest-working organ in the body. If you could look into your body right now, you would see that your liver is about the size of a football. It sits not far from your heart, which is about the size of your fist.\n\nThis amazing detox organ has many, many functions\u2014about five hundred as a matter of fact. But it has five main functions. Let's look at them:\n\n1. It is a major part of your body's immune defense, filtering your blood to remove toxins such as viruses, bacteria, yeast, and other poisonous material.\n\n2. It stores vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates.\n\n3. It processes fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.\n\n4. It produces bile, a substance that breaks down fats so they can be digested.\n\n5. It breaks down and detoxifies hormones, chemicals, toxins, and metabolic waste.\n\nHow This Giant Works\n\nIt's amazing how little we know about how our bodies actually work. We may understand the most complicated details about car engines and computers. Yet few of us really comprehend the most incredible creation of all\u2014our own human bodies. If we did, we'd be absolutely amazed.\n\nJust how does the liver cleanse your body and keep you well? This amazing filter has three main ways to detoxify the body:\n\n1. Filtering your blood\n\n2. Secreting bile\n\n3. Using a two-step enzyme process of detoxification\n\nLet's investigate.\n\nYour Giant Filter\n\nThe first way is by filtering your blood. Do you have a car? The oil filter in your car filters the oil, keeping it clean so that the engine runs smoothly. But what would happen if you changed the oil without changing the oil filter? The fresh new oil would become dirty as it passed through the dirty oil filter. The liver detox program and fasting are like changing the oil filter so the liver can get caught up on its work of cleansing and detoxing the body.\n\nEvery minute, about two quarts of blood are filtered through your liver. That's an amazing amount of blood when you consider that most of our bodies have only about five quarts of blood.\n\nIf you have a swimming pool in your backyard for your kids, its filter would have to clean about half of the pool's water every minute to keep up with what your liver can do.\n\nWhen your liver is working efficiently, it is able to filter out 99 percent of the bacteria and other poisonous toxins from your blood before sending it back into circulation.\n\nAre you the one in your family who is responsible for keeping the oil filters in your car changed? Or are you responsible to keep the air filters for your heating or air conditioning system clean? Perhaps you've been the one in charge of maintaining the filter in your backyard pool. If so, you have a pretty good idea of how much maintenance a filter requires. Any filter needs continual maintenance to keep it clean and efficient. Your liver is no different.\n\nThink about the filthy filter that you pull out of your air conditioner, or that filthy, black oil filter you take out of your car after three thousand to five thousand miles. Filters become packed with the dirt and grime they clean. And like any other filter, your liver can get overloaded with toxins.\n\nHere are some ways that your natural filter gets overloaded with toxins:\n\n  From toxins in our food\n\n  From toxins in our water\n\n  From poor digestion\n\n  From yeast and bacterial overgrowth in the intestinal tract\n\n  From food allergies and sensitivities\n\n  From parasites\n\n  From toxins in the air\n\n  From toxins in the home or workplace\n\n  From thousands of free radicals produced in every cell in the body\n\n  From impaired liver function from alcohol, drugs, a fatty liver, medications such as statin drugs, and viral hepatitis\n\nLike the dust and dirt that accumulate in your air filter, these toxins will eventually overwork your liver so that it may not be able to filter effectively. When this happens, your liver has to work harder and harder to keep filtering toxins. Before long it gets so overworked that it cannot function very well.\n\nIf you have ever tried to vacuum your carpet when the sweeper bag was full, then you can picture how this could happen. Now you begin to experience the symptoms of toxic overload.\n\nWatch for the Signs\n\nWe doctors are always looking for signs that indicate something is going on beneath the body's surface that we can't easily see.\n\nYou should learn to watch for certain signs too. Here are some signs that will indicate to you that your body is on toxic overload: autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis; osteoarthritis; chronic fatigue; chronic headaches; psoriasis; acne; food allergies; constipation; diabetes; coronary artery disease; atherosclerosis; chronic infections; recurrent infections; angina; and hypertension.\n\nIf you have any of these signs of toxic overload, you will need to go on a two-week liver dietary program to build up your liver before you begin your detox fast.\n\nWhat About You?\n\nAre you often irritable? Do you have bouts of anger and even rage? Do you have dark circles under your eyes? You may have liver toxicity. It's very common for those with a toxic liver to have bouts of anger and rage. Here are some other signs and symptoms you should watch for:\n\n  Pallid skin\n\n  A coated tongue\n\n  Bad breath\n\n  Skin rashes\n\n  Poor skin tone\n\n  Itchy, weepy, swollen, and red eyes\n\n  Yellow discoloration of the eyes\n\n  Offensive body odor\n\n  Itchy skin\n\n  Mental disorientation\n\n  Sleepiness or fatigue\n\n  Swollen abdomen\n\n  Easy bruising\n\n  Altered or bitter taste in your mouth\n\n  Purple spider veins on your chest or abdomen\n\nLiver Detox Method #2\n\nThe filtering of blood performed by the liver is only the beginning. It is Detox Method #1. The liver also detoxifies your body by removing toxins in the \"bile.\" This is Detox Method #2.\n\nEvery day your liver produces about a quart of bile. This substance actually helps to digest dietary fats by breaking them down so they can be used as fuel. You see, your body could never fully use the olive oil, nuts, and other fatty foods you feed it without this complex method of processing it.\n\nNot only does it break down fats, but it also breaks down fat-soluble vitamins through this same process.\n\nA very important function of bile, however, is to eliminate poisonous toxins from your body. It becomes the vehicle for flushing them out of your body through your colon. This process starts in the liver where they pass through bile ducts, the gallbladder, and the small intestine, and are eventually eliminated through the colon. However, if you are constipated or you don't eat enough fiber or high-fiber foods, these toxins and bile may remain in the intestines too long. When this happens, the toxic poisons that should have been flushed from your body are actually reabsorbed.\n\nIn a manner of speaking, this situation is little different than when your septic system backs up, except that the toxic effect may even be worse. But the difference is that you don't notice it right away. You may not notice it for years, until disease and chronic pain begin to rob you of your freedom and vitality.\n\nYou can keep this kind of backup from taking place by making sure your diet is loaded with plenty of fiber. Such a simple solution really can spare you years of grief and pain because of degenerative illness!\n\nIf your diet lacks fiber, bile and toxins will circulate back to the liver by way of a system known as the \"entero-hepatic circulation.\" In this system, a portion of the small intestines called the ileum reabsorbs 95 percent of bile acids and the toxins they contain. From here they are taken back to the liver.\n\nThe bile that is produced by the liver is actually stored in the gallbladder. The liver excretes its toxins in the bile. Bile is the fluid manufactured from three ingredients: bilirubin, lecithin, and cholesterol. If these three ingredients get out of balance, such as when you have too much cholesterol, then crystals, sludge, or even gallstones can form. It is important to insure adequate bile production so that toxins will be eliminated through the bile and sludge will not form. Adequate water intake, as well as lecithin, phosphatidyl choline, dandelion root, beets or beet extract, celery, radish, artichokes, and adequate fat intake usually ensure adequate bile production.\n\nLiver Detox Method #3\n\nMethod number three is by far and away the most important one. This is the method of detoxing poisons and other toxins. It involves a two-step process that has the same effect as changing the oil filter on your car.\n\nThis two-step process of detoxification neutralizes toxins and other chemicals and substances that need to be removed from the body. It is an absolutely phenomenal process that deep cleanses and removes most of the thousands of poisons, chemicals, and toxins to which we are exposed every day.\n\nYour liver performs more than five hundred different functions, and many of them are happening at the same time. Still, this two-step filtering process is your liver's greatest and most important role. Without it, your body would suffer a similar fate as your car if you never changed the oil filter. It would eventually fill up so full of toxins that you would probably die prematurely.\n\nMany of these chemicals are fat soluble, which means that they can be stored in the fatty tissues of the body if the toxins are not effectively detoxified and eliminated by the liver and GI tract. These toxins can be stored for years on end and later released when you diet, exercise, or perspire\u2014but especially when you fast. Infrared saunas and, to a lesser degree, exercise that involves perspiring are also excellent ways to excrete fat-soluble toxins through the skin, which is the body's largest excretory organ.\n\nHave you ever placed vinegar and oil in a jar and shaken them together to pour on a salad? If you let the jar sit for a few minutes, they eventually separate because oil and water don't mix.\n\nThey don't mix in your body, either. So when your body wants to remove fats or fat-soluble chemicals and toxins, it must change them into a water-soluble form to get rid of them. Your amazing liver does just that. It transforms these fat-soluble toxins and chemicals into watersoluble chemicals so they can be excreted from the body.\n\nThis two-step filtering process is simply called Phase One and Phase Two detoxification. Let's take a look at these life-saving processes.\n\nPhase One Detoxification\u2014Your Chemical Factory\n\nNot only is your liver a giant filter, but it is also a chemical factory. Phase One detoxification involves thousands of chemical reactions. In the Phase One detoxification pathway, enzymes break down poisonous toxins. Phase One detoxification uses as many as one hundred different enzymes to accomplish its task.\n\nWhen a toxin is processed by the Phase One detoxification system, different things can happen to it.\n\n  It may become neutralized.\n\n  It may be changed into a less toxic form.\n\n  It may become more water soluble and then eliminated through the bile or urine.\n\n  It may be transformed into an even more toxic substance that will create more free radicals.\n\nThis final result of Phase One can damage your liver. When these very toxic substances are formed, they can produce so many free radicals that they drain your liver of its antioxidants, including the vital antioxidant glutathione.\n\nWhat Happens During Phase Two?\n\nPhase Two detoxification kicks in when Phase One has created one of these intermediate substances. A toxic intermediate is similar to a stubborn stain that needs a second wash and rinse cycle to remove it.\n\nThese intermediate toxic compounds that have been partially detoxified by the Phase One detoxification pathways now need to be further broken down and bound to an amino acid or nutrient for Phase Two detoxification; in order to be water soluble, however, the glutathione conjugation pathway is the most important detox pathway. This pathway is responsible for detoxification of approximately 60 percent of the toxins that are excreted in the bile. This pathway detoxifies toxic metals, petroleum products, many solvents, drugs such as Tylenol and penicillin, bacterial toxins, alcohol, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides.\n\nIf too many drugs, chemicals, heavy metals, or toxins are processed, the nutrients\u2014and especially the glutathione\u2014it takes to fuel so much detoxification gets used up. Poisonous toxins then begin to build up again. At a cellular level, it starts to look like the New York garbage strike.\n\nEating for Your Liver\n\nSince our diets often consist of processed, refined, and fast foods, many Americans lack the necessary vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and other nutrients the liver needs to do the job of Phase Two detoxification. When you combine poor nutrition with our overwhelming exposure to toxins, it is not difficult to see how the liver becomes overloaded and overwhelmed.\n\nThrough Phase One detoxification, your liver is able to change drugs, toxins, chemicals, and hormones into intermediate compounds that are now ready to be excreted or to go through Phase Two detoxification. Phase One is similar to bagging your garbage and taking it out to the street. Phase Two is like the garbage man putting it in his garbage truck and taking it to the dump. However, for efficient Phase One and Phase Two detoxification, your liver must have specific raw materials for each individual detoxification \"pathway.\"\n\nWhen large amounts of drugs, toxins, or heavy metals pass through your liver, they can use up much of the store of the master detoxifier and master antioxidant, glutathione. Your body and your liver have more of the powerful antioxidant glutathione than any other antioxidant\u2014and it is the most important intracellular antioxidant as well. This mighty antioxidant and detoxifier helps the body rid itself of heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, and arsenic.\n\nExcessive exposure to toxic chemicals, such as organophosphate pesticides, will eventually cause your body's glutathione levels to be depleted. A diet too low in protein, cruciferous vegetables, or other sources of glutathione can also cause your body's reserves to dip too low. Here are some other factors that will drain glutathione from your body:\n\n  Excessive exposure to cigarette smoke\n\n  Excessive exposure to auto exhaust\n\n  Excessive exposure to paint fumes\n\n  Excessive alcohol consumption\n\n  Excessive exercise, such as marathons\n\n  Excessive intake of acetaminophen (Tylenol is the number one cause of acute liver failure in the United States)\n\nWhen glutathione is used up faster than it can be produced from your diet, you eventually become much more susceptible to cancer.\n\nThe special diet in the next chapter is designed to help you to be sure that your body has all of this powerful antioxidant and detoxifier that it needs.\n\nSlowing Down the Process\n\nIt's essential that Phase One and Phase Two are able to move along without any hindrances. Imbalances can create problems. Taking too many medicines all at once can slow down Phase One. Toxins and even certain foods can slow down this process also. This may cause a toxic buildup or toxic overload that can eventually damage the liver cells.\n\nSome medications can hinder Phase One enzymes. They include:\n\n  Antihistamines (Seldane and Hismanal, which have been taken off the market)\n\n  Ketoconazole (Nizoral, an antifungal medication)\n\n  Benzodiazepenes such as Xanax, Ativan, and Valium (Do not stop taking these medications, but consult your physician to see if you can be slowly weaned off them.)\n\nSo, if you have any of the symptoms of toxicity, stay away from these medications. It's important that your body's process of cleansing progress unhindered.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nTrouble also results when the detox process moves too quickly. When Phase One breaks down toxins so fast that Phase Two cannot process them all, those extremely toxic intermediate toxins build up. So, you can see why it's important to keep this cleansing process moving along. When the process gets stalled and dangerous poisons back up, enormous amounts of free radicals are released that can cause great damage not only to the liver but to other tissues and organs as well.\n\nWhen this occurs, bile can damage the intestines and the pancreas. Free radicals can damage cells and can even cause genetic damage, leading to cancer. Therefore, it's essential to keep these powerful detoxification phases functioning in synchrony smoothly and cleanly.\n\nThe special dietary program outlined in the following chapter will help you to do just that. This nutritional program is uniquely designed to strengthen and support your liver to prepare it for the increased role of detoxification during your fast.\nChapter 8\n\nA NUTRITIONAL PROGRAM FOR A HEALTHY LIVER\n\nIT'S IMPOSSIBLE TO GET AWAY FROM IT. YOU ARE WHAT YOU EAT\u2014especially when it comes to your physical body. And what you eat will make all the difference in maintaining your liver.\n\nThis program of cleansing and detoxification begins with a diet and regimen of supplements that you will need to take for a period of at least two weeks to prepare your body for a juice fast and to restore your body following the fast.\n\nThe first part of this program is dietary. The following dietary guidelines will help cleanse and support your liver before and after your detox fast. To get the optimum benefit of this plan, be careful to strictly follow these guidelines.\n\nFirst, you need to change your diet and lifestyle to reduce the amount of toxins you are taking in. In addition, you will want to improve your body's ability to eliminate toxins.\n\nA Winning Attitude and Helpful Support\n\nBegin the healthy liver diet with a winning attitude and the support of your friends and loved ones! Not only do you need a determined attitude to make necessary lifestyle changes, but it will be very important to maintain a positive and cheerful outlook as well.\n\nWhen making lifestyle changes that affect your entire family, it is best to discuss the program with them first. A supportive family and friends working together and encouraging each other throughout the program are a powerful force for success. The most important thing you will need before beginning the healthy liver diet is a positive attitude. Second to that, a supportive family can help you achieve your goals for living in divine health. With these two considerations in place, you are ready to begin.\n\nEliminate Toxins\n\nAvoid cigarette smoke, alcohol, and drugs. Set a goal of decreasing your intake of all medications. If you are on prescription medicines, you must, of course, do this with your doctor's help. Except for a few medications that will be mentioned later, it is best not take any medications during your detox fast.\n\nIf you take a lot of over-the-counter medicines, consider more natural ways to treat your various medical conditions, such as using vitamins, herbs, and homeopathic remedies, and refer to the books in my Bible Cure series. In other words, if you have a neck strain from tension, consider warm baths and massages first before taking medications for neck pain. If you suffer from constipation, consider more natural ways to regulate your system, such as eating more fruit and vegetables, increasing fiber, taking magnesium, vitamin C, Smooth Move tea or other supplements before reaching for laxatives.\n\nJust remember, be sensible. Never go off medications that you need without consulting your doctor.\n\nOnce your body is cleansed of built-up toxins, you may discover you have much less need for these medications.\n\nMake Liver-Friendly Diet Choices\n\nCleaning the filter on your pool may seem simpler than maintaining your body's filter. But liver maintenance is not difficult. It can be accomplished by eating a liver-friendly diet. Therefore, make the right choices.\n\nHere are some foods to avoid:\n\n  Processed foods\n\n  Refined foods\n\n  Simple sugars, including honey\n\n  Fast foods\u2014burgers, fries, pizza, fried chicken, tacos\n\nDramatically decrease your consumption of or avoid the following:\n\n  Meat (choose organic extra-lean, free-range meats and poultry)\n\n  Dairy products (choose organic skim milk, plain yogurt or kefir, and small amounts of organic butter if you must have dairy products)\n\n  Saturated fats\u2014cheese, marbled meats (choose organic skim milk cheese or soy cheese, and organic lean meats)\n\nEliminate these foods:\n\n  Trans fats, hydrogenated, and partially hydrogenated fats such as margarine, shortening, commercial peanut butters, pastries, and whipped toppings\n\n  Deep-fried foods\n\n  Preserved meats\n\n  Fatty meats\n\n  Animal skins\n\n  Processed vegetable oils\u2014most salad dressings (organic extra-virgin olive oil is a good choice to use)\n\n  Alcohol\n\n  Coffee\n\n  Colas\n\n  Chocolate\n\nChoose a diet with plenty of the following: *\n\n  Organic fruits\n\n  Organic vegetables\n\n  Free-range meats that are organic and lean or extra lean\n\nEat as many raw organic vegetables as possible. When cooking vegetables, steam fresh organic vegetables instead of boiling them. Prepared fresh organic vegetables are always better than frozen, and frozen are better than canned. Try preparing organic homemade vegetable soup too. It's a delicious way to give your body a wide variety of vegetables. Just try not to overcook them, and use as many fresh, raw vegetables as possible. You may also lightly stir-fry vegetables with olive oil or grill them.\n\nFreshly juiced vegetables and fruits are great as well. Drink a glass of freshly juiced fruits and vegetables in the morning instead of coffee.\n\nCertain vegetables are more important than others for liver detoxification. Cruciferous vegetables are essential. Here are some that you should eat often:\n\n  Cabbage\n\n  Brussels sprouts\n\n  Kale\n\n  Mustard greens\n\n  Watercress\n\n  Cauliflower\n\n  Broccoli\n\n  Collard greens\n\n  Turnips\n\nHere's a list of other liver-friendly vegetables to eat often:\n\n  Legumes (or all types of beans, unless you are sensitive to them. If you develop gas or bloating, I recommend a product called Beano, which contains the enzyme alphagalactosidose to assist in digesting beans.)\n\n  Beets\n\n  Carrots\n\n  Dandelion root\n\n  Dandelion greens\n\nCruciferous vegetables contain potent phytonutrients such as indole-3-carbinol, sulforaphane, and other phytonutrients, which aid the liver in detoxifying chemicals and drugs. Broccoli sprouts usually have the highest concentration of these phytonutrients.\n\nLiver-Friendly Starches\n\nSome starches are better than others. These include:\n\n  Brown rice\n\n  Rice pasta\n\n  Millet bread\n\n  Amaranth\n\n  Oatmeal and oat bran\n\n  Wild rice\n\n  Brown rice bread\n\n  Quinoa\n\n  Buckwheat\n\nStarches to Shun\n\nSome starches tend to be much less liver-friendly. Starches to avoid are as follows:\n\n  Wheat products, including breads, bagels, crackers, pasta, chips, and cereals\n\n  Corn products\n\nLiver-Friendly Fats\n\nSome fats are very good for your liver and for detoxification in general. Here's a list of them.\n\n  Extra-virgin olive oil\n\n  Avocados\n\n  Raw, fresh nuts and seeds (avoid peanuts and cashews)\n\n  Flaxseed oil (but never cook with this oil)\n\n  Evening primrose oil\n\n  Black currant seed oil\n\n  Borage oil\n\n  Pharmaceutical-grade fish oil\n\nBeverages Are Important Too\n\nWhat you drink and how much you drink are just as important as what you eat. Here's a list of dos:\n\n1. Drink plenty of alkaline water with fresh-squeezed lemon or lime (two quarts daily).\n\n2. Drink fresh, juiced vegetables and fruits.\n\n3. Drink green, white, or black tea and other herbal teas.\n\nDrinking at least two quarts of alkaline water every day will help your kidneys eliminate toxins as well.\n\nPowerful Detox Proteins\n\nFor protein, fatty fish such as wild salmon is best. For more information, please read my book _Eat This and Live!_ (Siloam, 2009).\n\nHere's a list of powerful proteins for great detoxification. I recommend 2\u20133\u00bd ounces protein for women and 4\u20136\u00bd ounces for men.\n\n  Wild salmon\n\n  Sardines\n\n  Tongal tuna\n\n  Organic free-range, extra-lean chicken\n\n  Organic free-range turkey\n\n  Organic free-range, extra-lean beef (limit to once or twice a week)\n\n  1\u20132 organic pastured eggs (once or twice a week)\n\nHaving an occasional organic pastured egg will help supply the needed amino acids for Phase Two detoxification. Organic pastured eggs come from hens that are not caged and fed corn or other grains high in inflammatory omega-6 oils. Instead they eat grass, insects, and worms, and are higher in beneficial omega-3 fats.\n\nThe Golden Rule of Liver Care\n\nThe Golden Rule is one of the most important rules for living with others. Here's the Golden Rule of liver care: _Don't overeat._ Only eat until you are satisfied and no more. Overeating places an enormous added burden on your liver and detoxification pathways.\n\nIf you tend to be an overeater, here are some pointers that can help. Fill plates and place them on the table at dinner rather than having everyone serve himself country-style from bowls. This will help you to control portions, and it will help you to resist the temptation to eat more just because it's there in front of you. Bless the food and develop an attitude of gratitude. Eat slower. Chew your food slowly (thirty times) and rest between bites. Set your fork down between bites. Let your dining be an experience. Don't shovel food in nonstop like a starving man. Give your stomach a chance to find out how full it is getting before you give it more. It usually takes about twenty minutes for a satisfied or full signal to reach the appetite center in the brain to turn off the appetite. Plan a walk right after dinner rather than sitting and visiting at the dinner table, where you may be tempted to overeat. When you dine out, try not to be a charter member of the \"clean plate club.\" Restaurant portions are too large for most people. Take half of those enormous portions home in a doggy bag for the next day, or split the meal with your spouse.\n\nLet's turn now and look at some nutrients that are essential for your detox program.\n\nNutrients for the Liver\n\nThe following supplements should be taken to strengthen and support your liver to prepare for a detoxification fast and when coming off of a detoxification fast.\n\nA Good Multivitamin\/Multimineral Supplement\n\nTaking a comprehensive multivitamin and mineral supplement on a daily basis is absolutely essential to promote effective liver detoxification. A good multivitamin will contain an entire array of B vitamins, which are especially important for Phase One detoxification. Let's look:\n\n  Vitamin B1, or thiamine, helps decrease the toxic effects of alcohol, cigarette smoking, and heavy metal toxicity.\n\n  Vitamin B2 is used by the body in the manufacture of glutathione.\n\n  Vitamin B3 is used in detoxification and is required by Phase One detoxification.\n\n  Vitamin B5 is required for Phase One detoxification and is important for synthesizing glucuronic acid and coenzyme A, which are very important in Phase Two detoxification. It also helps to detoxify acetaldehyde, which is produced from alcohol and by candida overgrowth in the intestines.\n\n  Vitamin B6 is required for Phase One detoxification.\n\n  Vitamin B12 is required for Phase One detoxification.\n\n  Folic acid is required for Phase One detoxification.\n\nA good rule of thumb is that each of the above B vitamins should be present in a dose of at least 100 percent of the daily value.\n\nMinerals\n\nA comprehensive multivitamin and mineral will contain some absolutely essential minerals for detoxing. Here are a few:\n\n  Zinc\n\n  Copper\n\n  Manganese\n\nYou should have about 15 milligrams of zinc, 2 milligrams of copper, and 2 milligrams of manganese. These three form the powerful antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, which protects the liver against freeradical damage.\n\n  Selenium\n\n  Magnesium\n\nI recommend 150 to 200 micrograms of selenium and 400 milligrams of magnesium a day. Selenium is part of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, and it also acts as an antioxidant. It protects cell membranes from free-radical damage. Selenium also protects the liver from the toxic effects of heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, lead, and arsenic. The daily recommended dosage for adult males and females is 55 ug.\n\nMagnesium is a cofactor used in more than three hundred different enzyme reactions. Magnesium also helps to manufacture DNA for protein synthesis, fatty acid synthesis, and removal of toxic substances. Therefore, it is critically important for the liver to have adequate amounts of magnesium so that the liver can continue to perform its other roles of protein, carbohydrate, and fat metabolism.\n\nAll of these vitamins and minerals listed above can be found in a comprehensive multivitamin. (See Appendix D.)\n\nAs you can imagine by now, antioxidants are extremely important in the vital work of your liver. Making sure you have enough of them is essential. Let's look.\n\nAntioxidants\n\nGlutathione\n\nBefore we talk about any other antioxidant, I want to stop for a moment and talk to you about glutathione. Glutathione is a 3-amino-acid peptide (or tripeptide) consisting of glycine, glutamine, and cysteine. You may not have heard of this powerful super-antioxidant, but in my opinion it is truly the master antioxidant and master detoxifier. When glutathione levels in cells drop too low, cell death occurs.\n\nThis is why glutathione is essential to the health of every cell in the body. It helps control inflammation, is critical for the immune system, boosts energy, and protects cells and tissues from free radicals, which protects you from disease.\n\nFurthermore, glutathione is important for optimal function of the five most important organs in the body\u2014the heart, lungs, brain, liver, and kidneys. Glutathione is also required for optimal function of the immune system and for maintaining healthy eyes. Glutathione is considered the most abundant and most important antioxidant in the human body.\n\nOver ten years ago when I was first researching for this book, _Toxic Relief_ , I was aware of the antioxidant glutathione as the master antioxidant and master detoxifier, but I simply didn't fully comprehend the importance, the power, and versatility of glutathione. In my opinion it is the Michael Jordan of antioxidants and detoxifiers in the body.\n\nI really saw the power of glutathione in action about seven or eight years ago when I began to treat Parkinson's patients with IV glutathione. The first time I used IV glutathione was on an elderly gentleman with severe Parkinson's disease. This fellow had a resting tremor of his hands and arms; he was rigid like the Tin Man and had a poker face with no expression. He would walk with a slow shuffling gait without any arm swing, similar to a zombie. He was stiff and rigid and would almost fall when I asked him to stop and turn around.\n\nHowever, a few minutes after giving him IV glutathione I couldn't believe the change in him. He began to move his arms and legs easily and then began to run and jump. The tremors stopped, and he began to laugh as he became overjoyed to feel normal again. However, after a few hours he froze back up and became rigid, stiff, with no expression, and the tremors returned. I knew glutathione had a major impact on his body, but he needed a supplement that would raise his glutathione levels significantly long term, but unfortunately there was no such supplement at that time. Years later I started checking glutathione levels on many of my patients with chronic diseases and found that many of them had low glutathione levels and many had a mutation of their glutathione gene.\n\nThe good news is that your body produces its own glutathione. The bad news is that a poor diet, excessive stress, lack of sleep, disease, infections, toxins, pollution, medication, and aging all deplete your glutathione levels, leaving you susceptible to chronic disease, inflammation, accelerated aging, and cancer. In addition, the amount of toxins we're exposed to every day is usually far above and beyond what our normal body's production of glutathione is able to combat. Our bodies were never expected to battle the onslaught of toxins, pesticides, chemicals, heavy metals, and other harmful substances we're now exposed to every day in our food supply, water, air, and environment.\n\nOur glutathione levels decrease by about 1 percent per year after the age of twenty-one. The _Lancet_ medical journal reported a study that showed the highest levels of glutathione in healthy young people, lower levels in healthy elderly, lower still in sick elderly, and the lowest levels of all in hospitalized elderly.\n\nWhat makes glutathione so effective and necessary? The secret of its power is the sulfur chemical groups (or sulfhydryl groups) in glutathione. Sulfur is a sticky, smelly molecule that acts like flypaper. Toxins stick to it and get trapped. In a body with a robust supply of glutathione, those toxins easily get trapped and then eliminated from the body. However, when glutathione levels in our bodies are low or become depleted, we can't effectively get rid of the toxins, and we can't effectively quench free-radical reactions. Thus we get a buildup of toxins and more damage to cells and tissues from free radicals, eventually resulting in disease. Columbia University's school of public health stated that 95 percent of cancer is caused by a poor diet and excessive toxins.\n\nMany patients with chronic diseases, including fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, autoimmune disease, heart disease, diabetes, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, liver disease, kidney disease, and chronic viral infections such as HIV, AIDS, chronic hepatitis C, and chronic Epstein-Barr virus have low glutathione levels. Many patients with chronic disease also have a mutation of the glutathione gene, so they don't and can't produce enough glutathione.\n\nThankfully, much research has been done to demonstrate the amazing effects of glutathione to protect and repair the body. More than ninetyfour thousand research articles concerning glutathione exist on PubMed alone! And this research is demonstrating that glutathione plays an important and beneficial role in treating such conditions as AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, Crohn's disease, chronic fatigue, chronic infections, diabetes, Down syndrome, heart disease, hepatitis, high cholesterol, kidney failure, male infertility, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, prostate problems, stroke, and so much more.\n\nAgain, due to the level of toxicity on our planet today, even the healthiest individuals need help increasing the body's natural levels of glutathione. This, I believe, is the best and most important thing we can do to find toxic relief!\n\nGlutathione the master antioxidant\n\nGlutathione quenches free-radical reactions and is known as the master antioxidant. An antioxidant prevents oxidative damage by supplying electrons to prevent or repair oxidation and quench free radicals. A simple example of oxidation is when you slice an apple; after an hour or so the slices begin to turn brown. But if you squeeze lemon on the apple slices, the vitamin C in the lemon juice supplies electrons to prevent oxidation, so it takes much longer for the slices to turn brown. Researchers predict that we get between one thousand to one million free-radical hits per cell per day. Can you imagine someone hitting you one time on the shoulder or shooting someone one time with a BB gun? Now imagine getting hit one thousand times on the same shoulder or being shot one thousand times in the same place by a BB gun. However, smokers and people who work in toxic environments and eat foods high in sugar and toxic fats may be getting closer to one million free-radical hits per cell per day. No wonder there is such a high risk of eventually developing cancer in smokers. Well, the good news is that if your glutathione levels inside your cells are high, they will quench most free radicals and recycle other antioxidants including vitamin C, vitamin E, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and lipoic acid; also, glutathione will recycle itself. Glutathione donates electrons to the overall antioxidant pool, which in turn reactivates the antioxidant so it can again do its job of donating electrons and quenching free radicals and preventing oxidation. Antioxidants are recycled in both water-soluble and fat-soluble components in the body. Glutathione is the master antioxidant that makes this possible.\n\nGlutathione decreases inflammation\n\nInflammation is at the root of most chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, autoimmune disease, Parkinson's disease, arthritis, and asthma. Inflammation also decreases glutathione levels. But the good news is that simply increasing the production of glutathione helps to decrease inflammation in the body.\n\nGlutathione increases energy\n\nThe main complaint I hear in my doctor's office every day is, \"Doctor, I'm tired.\" Does that sound familiar?\n\nAdenosine triphosphate (ATP) is our body's energy currency, transporting chemical energy within our cells for metabolism, and is produced in the mitochondria of our cells. The mitochondria are the tiny energy factories in our cells. All cells have mitochondria; however, the fat cells have the fewest and heart muscle cells have the most. During ATP production in our mitochondria, two damaging free radicals, hydroxyl and peroxide, are produced and are potentially very damaging to our mitochondria. This is why we need glutathione to quench the free radicals in the mitochondria, which in turn helps to increase ATP production and increase one's energy.\n\nAs we age, our mitochondria usually become more and more dysfunctional, and as a result, older individuals become more and more fatigued. One study found that when a ninety-year-old had a muscle biopsy, 95 percent of his mitochondria were dysfunctional. This simply means they were unable to produce adequate amounts of ATP. However, a muscle biopsy of a five-year-old child revealed minimal mitochondrial dysfunction. Keeping glutathione levels at optimal levels will usually help prevent mitochondrial dysfunction and improve one's energy dramatically.\n\nGlutathione detoxifies the body of toxins and heavy metals\n\nGlutathione has the ability to bind most heavy metals, such as cadmium, lead, iron, arsenic, and mercury, and eliminate them from the body. In fact, glutathione is the most critical part of the detox system of the body. Remember my description of glutathione as sticky flypaper? Most toxins, including many solvents, chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and heavy metals, stick to glutathione similar to a fly sticking to flypaper and are carried out of the body.\n\nWhat's more, the damaging effects of radiation are repaired with glutathione. Can you believe that? Glutathione is truly a super antioxidant and super detoxifier! Glutathione also strengthens the immune system.\n\nAs we age, we are more prone to develop viral and bacterial infections. Glutathione enables the immune system to function optimally and activates the natural killer cells that destroy viruses, bacteria, and even cancer cells. Our lymphocytes need glutathione in order to multiply and in order to develop a strong immune response. Chronic viral illnesses such as Epstein-Barr virus, hepatitis C, cytomegalovirus, and other chronic viral infections are associated with low glutathione levels. However, by simply boosting the glutathione level, many patients with chronic viral illness report dramatic improvement. Lymphocytes begin to proliferate and form natural killer cells and T cells as the immune system begins to function optimally.\n\nWAYS TO BOOST GLUTATHIONE\n\nActivity or Intake | Effect  \n---|---  \nCold showers daily or swimming 5\u00f110 minutes per week in ice cold water | Raises glutathione about 20\u00f125 percent  \nUndenatured whey protein | Boosts glutathione about 35 percent  \nLipoic acid | Boosts glutathione about 30\u00f150 percent  \nMilk thistle | Raises glutathione about 35 percent  \nN-Acetyl Cysteine | Raises glutathione about 85 percent but requires 8,000 milligrams a day  \nSAM-e | Raises glutathione levels about 50 percent  \nOther supplements (see Appendix D) | Raises glutathione about 267\u00f1292 percent\n\nVitamin C\n\nVitamin C is also able to raise levels of glutathione. Minimally it is an excellent antioxidant for decreasing free radicals. In high doses, vitamin C is able to remove or chelate heavy metals such as mercury and lead.\n\nDuring liver detoxification, take 250 to 1,000 milligrams of vitamin C, two to three times a day. However, if you begin to experience diarrhea, decrease the dose and then gradually increase it. The high dose is just for the 1\u20132 weeks of liver detox prior to your fast.\n\nLipoic acid\n\nLipoic acid is a universal antioxidant that can penetrate water-soluble and fat-soluble compartments of the body and rid the body of water- and fat-soluble free radicals. Lipoic acid is also able to recycle both vitamin E and vitamin C, as well as enhance the antioxidant function of vitamin E, vitamin C, and glutathione. It has been used to treat heavy metal toxicity from mercury and lead. Lipoic acid has also been used in treating liver disease, and it protects the liver from the effects of alcohol. I recommend 100 milligrams of lipoic acid two to three times a day.\n\nVitamin E\n\nVitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that prevents oxidation of lipids in cell membranes and other fatty structures. Oxidation of lipids occurs when fats react with oxygen, thus producing free radicals. I recommend 400 IU of vitamin E each day containing all eight forms of vitamin E.\n\nCoenzyme Q10\n\nCoenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is found throughout the body. It is sometimes called \"ubiquinone\" since it is ubiquitous, or everywhere. It is most concentrated in the heart. This powerful antioxidant protects cell membranes, cell structures, and other substances of the body against free-radical damage. It also protects vitamin E from oxidative damage. Ubiquinol is the active form of CoQ10.\n\nCoenzyme Q10 is very important in energy production in the cells. It has been used to treat cardiovascular disease, including congestive heart failure, cardiomyopathy, angina, and hypertension. Coenzyme Q10 may have a role in both cancer treatment and cancer prevention. It also helps to detoxify the body of medications and anesthetics. It is especially important for patients on statin medications to lower cholesterol since these medications lower CoQ10 levels also.\n\nFor detoxification, I recommend at least 100 milligrams daily with food.\n\nLet's now look at bioflavonoids and investigate their importance to your program of detoxification.\n\nBioflavonoids\n\nMore than six thousand different bioflavonoids exist. These are watersoluble plant pigments that pack a powerful health punch. The most important ones for detoxification are:\n\n  Milk thistle (silymarin)\n\n  Green tea\n\n  Proanthocyanidins (pine bark extract and grape seed extract)\n\n  Quercetin\n\nLet's take a closer look at these.\n\nMilk thistle\n\nMilk thistle extract, known as silymarin, is one of the most powerful protectors of the liver against free-radical damage. It also protects the liver from many different extremely toxic chemicals, including the poisonous mushroom amanita phalloides, which is actually fatal in 40 percent of the people who ingest it.\n\nMilk thistle prevents the depletion of glutathione. Since vast amounts of glutathione can be expended in the detoxification process, it can lead to glutathione depletion. Milk thistle will prevent this depletion during detoxification. Milk thistle can actually raise the level of glutathione in the liver up to 35 percent.\n\nMilk thistle is an important antioxidant to take during the detoxification fasting program, and it is part of the glutathione-boosting supplement in Appendix D.\n\nTake 200 milligrams of milk thistle three times a day during detoxification, and drink milk thistle tea while fasting. After detoxification I recommend taking an ongoing dosage of 100 milligrams, two to three times a day, or take the glutathione-boosting supplement.\n\nGreen tea\n\nAs an antioxidant, green tea is two hundred times more powerful than vitamin E and five hundred times more powerful than vitamin C. Green tea is believed to block the effect of cancer-causing chemicals. It also activates detoxification enzymes in the liver, which helps defend your body against cancer.\n\nFor detoxification purposes, I recommend one cup of green tea two to three times a day. If you prefer, you may take one 100-milligram capsule of green tea extract three times a day instead.\n\nProanthocyanidins\n\nProanthocyanidins, a highly specialized group of bioflavonoids, are present in many plants. However, the highest concentrations are found in pine bark and grape skins and seeds. Pine bark extract and grape seed extract are powerful bioflavonoid antioxidants. They are twenty times more powerful than vitamin E as scavengers of free radicals. They work in water-soluble compartments of the body and move throughout the bloodstream.\n\nThese antioxidants are so powerful that they can inhibit the formation of one of the main carcinogens in tobacco smoke, which is benzopyrene. They also protect brain and nerve tissues and collagen from oxidation.\n\nI recommend 50\u2013200 milligrams of grape seed extract or pine bark extract per day for detoxification purposes.\n\nQuercetin\n\nQuercetin is a powerful flavonoid that is found in green and black tea, red wine, garlic, tomatoes, onions, peppers (green and cayenne), broccoli, grapes, berries, and apples. It is a very strong antioxidant that prevents free-radical damage to cells from initiating cancer. It also helps to speed up the production of detoxifying enzymes that eliminate carcinogenic toxins from the body. Quercetin also has a potent antihistamine effect.\n\nI recommend 400 or 500 milligrams twice a day.\n\nAmino Acids\n\nThe next group of nutrients for detoxification includes the amino acids.\n\nNAC (N-acetyl cysteine)\n\nNAC, also known as N-acetyl cysteine, is a stable form of the amino acid L-cysteine. NAC is easily absorbed by your body and easily converted to glutathione, so it increases the glutathione stores in your body. Approximately 60 percent of the toxins that are excreted in the bile are detoxified with the help of glutathione. That is why it is critically important to have plenty of it.\n\nGlutathione supplements are very difficult for your body to absorb. But NAC supplements are easily absorbed and are much less expensive than glutathione. NAC is able to increase the production of glutathione.\n\nHowever, too much NAC may act as a pro-oxidant and increase freeradical activity in healthy patients. During detoxification I recommend NAC, 500 milligrams, one to two times a day.\n\nIn my opinion, the best way to raise glutathione levels is to take a glutathione supplement in Appendix D that combines NAC, lipoic acid, milk thistle, quercetin, vitamin C, and L-glutamine.\n\nGlycine\n\nGlycine is a nonessential amino acid, which simply means that the body produces it. It is critically important for certain Phase Two liver detox functions. In fact, it is the main amino acid used in a vital detox pathway.\n\nPeople who suffer from excessive chemical exposure, hepatitis, arthritis, and alcoholic hepatitis, as well as many other chronic diseases, will need supplementation with glycine.\n\nGlycine actually performs more biochemical functions than any other amino acid. It is also required for the synthesis of bile salts. Glycine is also one of the amino acid components for the manufacturing of glutathione, the other two being cysteine and glutamine.\n\nGlycine is important in detoxifying many drugs and chemicals. If the body doesn't have enough glycine, then the toxins and chemicals may not be detoxified and will probably stay in the body much longer. This can create more free-radical activity and more damage.\n\nGlycine is an inexpensive supplement that can be found in most health food stores. If you have one of the conditions listed above, take approximately 500\u20131,000 milligrams of glycine, two to three times a day between meals.\n\nGlutamine\n\nGlutamine is an amino acid that is also important in the Phase Two detoxification of the liver. It is essential for anyone who drinks excessive amounts of alcohol.\n\nGlutamine supplementation will also help decrease intestinal permeability, a common condition in which the small intestines become inflamed by alcohol, anti-inflammatory medications, aspirin, food sensitivities, bacterial overgrowth, or candidiasis. That inflammation causes the small intestine to become too permeable so that toxins and incompletely digested food particles can be absorbed from the GI tract directly into the blood and go to the liver. This puts an increased workload on the liver and further depletes it of detoxifying enzymes and antioxidants. Glutamine also helps to raise levels of glutathione in the body. Glutamine, cysteine, and glycine are converted into glutathione, which is the most important antioxidant and protector of the liver.\n\nTake glutamine in a dose of 500\u20131,000 milligrams two to three times a day, usually thirty minutes before meals during detoxification. If you take one of the glutathione-boosting supplements, it is unlikely that you will need other detox supplements. (See Appendix D.)\n\nLipotropic Supplements\n\nLipotropic supplements are needed to promote the flow of fat and bile from the liver. Let's take a look at some of these.\n\nPhosphatidyl choline (or lecithin)\n\nPhosphatidyl choline (lecithin) is one of the best supplements to thin the bile so that toxins and chemicals can flow out of the liver more readily. Lecithin is composed of choline, inositol, and linoleic acid. Choline is the main nutrient in lecithin. Choline is also found in egg yolks, soybeans, grains, and nuts. By improving the flow of toxic bile from the liver during detoxification, one will be protecting the liver also.\n\nPhosphatidyl choline also helps to break down fats and helps to detoxify a fatty liver. Take 1\u20132 tablespoons of lecithin two to three times a day in water or five capsules of phosphatidyl choline one or two times a day during detoxification. You can take it in capsule form or liquid form.\n\nBeets\n\nThe last lipotropic nutrient I would like to talk about is beets. Beets contain betaine, which promotes the flow of fat and bile from the liver. Betaine also protects the liver from the toxic effects of alcohol.\n\nBetaine helps to prevent the buildup of homocysteine, which is the very toxic intermediate substance produced if you have a deficiency of the B vitamins folic acid, B12, and B6.\n\nEat beets regularly to cleanse and support the liver, especially during detoxification, and juice beets while fasting. You may also take a beet juice extract. (See Appendix D.) Dandelion root, artichokes, and radishes are also important for promoting the flow of bile; these may be juiced.\n\nHerbs for Detoxing\n\nSeveral herbs are very important for cleansing the liver. These include dandelion root, burdock root, red clover, ginger root, and nettles. You can purchase teas made from these herbs to drink for liver cleansing. You can find dandelion root tea in most health food stores.\n\nSummarizing Main Supplements\n\n  Comprehensive multivitamin\/mineral (such as Divine Health Multivitamins)\n\n  Active forms of the B vitamins (see Appendix D) to assist Phase One and Phase Two of detoxification of the liver\n\n  Glutathione-boosting supplement (combination of NAC, milk thistle, glutamine, lipoic acid, quercetin, and other ingredients; see Appendix D)\n\n  Milk thistle (present in above supplement)\n\n  Amino acids (NAC is the most important and is present in the glutathione-boosting supplement)\n\n  Lipotropics\u2014phosphatidyl choline (lecithin) and beets\n\n  Detox teas, dandelion tea\n\nSee Appendix D for ordering above supplements.\n\n* For more information on this, refer to my book _Living in Divine Health_ (Siloam, 2006).\nChapter 9\n\n\"ELIMINATE THE NEGATIVE\"\n\nSEVERAL YEARS AGO, A PETITE YOUNG WOMAN NAMED BETTY * CAME to my office. She had the worst case of toxicity I've ever seen in a cancerfree person. Her skin was ashen gray. Her long, light brown hair was thin, dull, and as brittle as straw. Dark black shadows encircled her sunken, lifeless eyes. Her body looked swollen and puffy, and she complained of feeling absolutely awful and tired all the time. Although only twenty-eight years of age, she was in quite a lot of pain from rheumatoid arthritis and looked much older than her age.\n\nI realized in just a few minutes of examining her that if she didn't begin to detoxify, she'd probably be back to see me with possibly another autoimmune disease, cancer, or some other degenerative disease.\n\nAs I questioned her about her lifestyle, Betty painted a picture of a fairly ordinary American diet. It was unhealthy, centered on pizza, Big Macs, sodas, and fries with very little fruit and vegetables. She drank little water and instead polished off an entire pot of coffee every day, which she prepared with lots of sugar and heavy cream. She was, no doubt, somewhat dehydrated. But even this awful diet couldn't totally explain her toxic state.\n\nI probed further, asking about the functioning of her GI tract and colon. As she shared her story, I began to understand why she was so ill.\n\nShe traveled often, and each time she left town she'd become a bundle of nerves. As a result, her colon would seemingly just stop. She would go for days on end without a bowel movement\u2014sometimes for an entire week.\n\nBecause of her diet of fats and refined sugar and her lack of adequate water and fiber, her food would sit in her colon while many of the dangerous toxins in the stool were reabsorbed back into her body. She was in trouble from toxicity, and if she didn't begin to have daily bowel movements, she would eventually be even sicker. This young woman desperately needed toxic relief.\n\nThis woman's toxicity wasn't due to her liver. As a matter of fact, her liver seemed surprisingly strong considering the state of her health. No, her toxicity was mainly a result of an unusually slow and poorly cared for intestinal tract.\n\nThis young woman's condition is not at all uncommon, which is why we must carefully examine the main avenue for elimination, which is the intestinal tract or small intestines and colon.\n\nFinding toxic relief is a little like the old song that tells us we have to \"eliminate the negative.\" In order for your body to efficiently eliminate its toxic buildup of chemicals, toxic fat, and other poisons, you must first get your intestinal tract in top condition. Without both a healthy, wellfunctioning liver and a healthy intestinal tract, your body will continue to labor under a dangerous burden of toxins.\n\nThe liver processes and detoxifies the toxins. However, the intestinal tract is responsible for removing the majority of the toxins. The liver excretes the toxins through the bile. If the bowel function is sluggish or if there is insufficient fiber in your diet, the toxins will usually be reabsorbed by the intestines and further burden the liver and entire body with excessive toxins.\n\nBefore you start this program of detoxification, you will need to get your colon in shape. So, let's get started.\n\nYour First Line of Defense\n\nEvery team has a first-team player who seems to dominate the game while others sit on the bench waiting for their special skills to be called upon. Your intestinal tract never sits out the game. It is definitely a powerful player in your defense against toxicity.\n\nIt's important to have a good understanding of how this amazing system works. Let's look.\n\nA Look Inside\n\nImagine that your skin suddenly turned to glass so that you could see everything going on inside of you. You would quickly see that your intestinal tract is, stated simply, a long tube. As a matter of fact, it is a continuous tube that's more than twenty feet long. It connects your entire digestive system together. Your food enters the tube on one end and exits on the other.\n\nIn between, your food undergoes a miracle of processing. The mouth starts the process and connects with the esophagus. The esophagus connects with the stomach. The stomach connects with the small intestines. The small intestines connect with the large intestines, and the large intestines connect to the rectum, and finally end at the anus. If digestion and elimination proceed smoothly and unhindered, then toxins are eliminated daily, and good health is achieved.\n\nDigestion and Toxicity\n\nPoor digestion and elimination, as in Betty's case, is one of the main causes of toxicity in your body. Digestion actually begins when your brain signals that your body needs food. For instance, it's nearing lunchtime, and you start thinking about the wonderful colorful salad and whole-grain sandwich that you packed yourself for lunch. Your brain signals your digestive tract to begin producing the necessary enzymes and components for digestion.\n\nThe next step occurs when you smell and see food. You open your lunch box and smell the delicious salad and sandwich, the fresh garlic and parsley. Your mouth begins to water. Sight and smell stimulate your salivary glands to produce saliva. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which breaks down starches. Saliva contains epidermal growth factor, which is produced in the salivary glands. It helps to stimulate the growth of cells in the liver.\n\nThe sight, smell, and taste of the food trigger the process of digestion so that the stomach is prepared when the food arrives. The digestion of food in the stomach usually takes between one and four hours. A healthy stomach has a pH between 1.5 and 3.0 due to hydrochloric acid, which is secreted by the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is strong enough to burn a hole through the carpet or to melt the iron in a nail. You can see how this powerful acid forms the first line of defense against bacteria, parasites, and germs. Its acidic pH makes it a strong sterilization system against such invaders from our food.\n\nYou've enjoyed chewing and swallowing your satisfying salad and sandwich. It has traveled to your stomach where this powerful acid breaks it down.\n\nDiluting Your Stomach Acid\n\nIt's important that stomach acid retain its full strength. However, many people dilute this acid by chewing their food only a couple of times and washing it down with a giant gulp of ice-cold soda or iced tea.\n\nCold foods and cold beverages decrease circulation in the stomach and intestines and slow down the digestive process. Cold drinks also wash out digestive enzymes. Ideally, it's best to drink your beverages about thirty minutes before eating a meal. The best beverage to consume is alkaline water at room temperature. You may drink 4 to 8 ounces of water with a meal.\n\nPoor posture also affects digestion. While eating, try to sit up straight to take the weight and the burden off the digestive tract.\n\nStress also affects digestion by shunting blood away from the GI tract to the muscles to fight or flee. As a result one typically has impaired digestion due to inadequate secretion of hydrochloric acid and pancreatic enzymes. Medications for acid reflux also affect digestion by decreasing HCL secretion. (See my book _The Bible Cure for Heartburn and Indigestion_.)\n\nThe Path Your Food Travels\n\nNow, your digested salad and sandwich leave your stomach. It exits in a semi-liquid food form called _chyme._ Then it moves into the small intestine, which measures about eighteen to twenty-three feet in the average adult. That is about four times longer than you are tall.\n\nThe small intestine is divided into three sections. The _duodenum_ is the first area of the small intestine that receives the partially digested salad and sandwich from the stomach. Then your lunch travels to the _jejunum_ , where most of the nutrients are absorbed into the blood. Your delicious and nourishing sandwich completes its visit in the small intestines in the _ileum,_ the third and final portion of the small intestines. Here the remaining nutrients from your lunch are absorbed before it moves into the large intestines.\n\nFor the nutrients from your lunch to be absorbed into your body, they must first come in contact with a sea of special cells in your intestines. These cells contain thousands of tiny fingerlike projections called _villi._ About twenty thousand villi are found on every square inch of your small intestines. These little fingers sway back and forth constantly, stirring up your now liquefied lunch to remove its nutrients.\n\nYour sandwich has now been broken down into such small particles that they can pass into the villi, where they can be taken up and absorbed by very small blood vessels called capillaries. These capillaries transport your lunch to your liver. All the nutrients from your sandwich are absorbed through the intestinal walls. Minerals are absorbed mainly in the duodenum. Carbohydrates, proteins, and water-soluble vitamins are absorbed mainly in the jejunum, and fat and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed mainly in the ileum.\n\nGetting Rid of the Waste\n\nNow your sandwich can be used to fuel your body in the many thousands of wonderful ways in which the vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients it contains can do. But if you've ever built a fire in your fireplace or driven behind a bus, you know that fuel cannot be burned without also creating smoke, or waste products. Your body's elimination is similar in that the intestine absorbs nutrients and excretes the waste.\n\nThe waste products of this process are then propelled mainly into the colon. There they usually remain for one to two days, and in some patients seven days or longer. They are then expelled by a bowel movement. The last few inches of the colon make up the rectum, which is a storage site for solid waste. The waste is then expelled through the anal opening.\n\nThe first half of the colon absorbs the fluids from this waste and recycles them into your bloodstream. The second half of your colon condenses the waste into feces. It also secretes mucus, which binds the substances together and lubricates them to protect the colon and ease its passage.\n\nThere you have it! The entire GI system of taking in the nutrients your body needs and excreting the waste.\n\nOf the two to two and one-half gallons of food and liquids taken in by the average adult each day, only about twelve ounces of waste enter into the large intestine. Feces is made up of about three-quarters water. The remainder is protein, fat, undigested food, roughage, dried digestive juices, and cells shed by the intestines along with dead bacteria.\n\nWhen this system of expulsion works quickly and efficiently, toxins are expelled without the opportunity for your body to reabsorb them. But when your diet is made up of too many refined sugars and processed foods, you can throw this amazingly efficient process into a tailspin. Toxins can actually sit in your colon for days on end where they are constantly being reabsorbed by your body. When this situation occurs over a long period of time, your body, and especially your fatty tissues, can become over burdened with toxins.\n\nNatural Diet vs. American Diet\n\nYears ago, Dr. Dennis Burkett, a famous English physician, examined the digestive differences of rural Africans who ate a natural, fiber-rich diet that was packed with fresh fruits and vegetables, complex carbohydrates, and little meat. He compared the diet of the naval officers whose diet was basically meat, white flour, and sugar, similar to the basic American diet.\n\nThe Africans had large, effortless stools approximately eighteen to thirty-six hours after they ate. In comparison, the English naval officers experienced small, difficult, compact, hard stools seventy-two to one hundred hours after eating.\n\nThe naval officers also developed hemorrhoids, anal fissures, varicose veins, diverticulitis, diverticulosis, thrombophlebitis, gallbladder disease, appendicitis, hiatal hernia, irritable bowel syndrome, obesity, high cholesterol, coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, hypoglycemia, colon polyps, and colon and rectal cancers.\n\nThe Africans only experienced these things after they converted to a British diet consisting mainly of meat, white flour, and sugar.\n\nAs you can see, what you eat makes all the difference in the world when it comes to healthy and efficient GI elimination.\n\nNot only does diet play an enormous role, but also your GI tract must face challenges from many other factors that can significantly influence how well it digests and detoxifies your food. Let's take a look at a few of them.\n\nWhat's Affecting You?\n\nThe efficiency of your GI tract is being challenged every day. One of those challenges comes from a deficiency of those incredibly powerful digestive juices.\n\nIf you're over fifty years old, you may be among the many middle-aged individuals who begin to experience a reduction in the hydrochloric acid that is so essential to digestion. When the levels of this acid become depleted, digestive problems follow.\n\nIf stress plays a major role in your life, you probably don't need me to tell you that it affects digestion. It's not unusual for stressed-out individuals to have acid-suppressing medications strewed all around their workplace and car.\n\nIf you are stressed, you are probably not only deficient in hydrochloric acid, but you may be deficient in pancreatic enzymes as well. The lack of these vital pancreatic enzymes causes poor digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. When this happens, bits of partially digested food can putrefy and travel through your GI tract, leading to bacterial overgrowth in the small intestines, food allergies, food sensitivities, and so forth.\n\nAs you can imagine, food that is not completely digested creates an onslaught of problems for your body. An enormous stream of dangerous toxins is created that can overload and overwhelm your liver. Partially digested proteins can be absorbed directly into your bloodstream, causing disturbing food allergies or sensitivities. Partially digested food particles also may lead to the overgrowth of unfriendly bacteria, which may produce endotoxins and other dangerous toxins in the GI tract.\n\nRelax . . . Breathe . . . Take a Minute\n\nDon't eat when you're stressed. Before you pick up your fork, take a brief moment to relax a bit. It's extremely important. If you tend to eat on the run or when you're upset, angry, or fearful, such negative emotions will have an effect. They will stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which will result in a decreased secretion of hydrochloric acid. This, in turn, reduces your secretions of pancreatic enzymes, making it very difficult to digest food.\n\nTherefore, when you sit down to eat, take time to thank God and to meditate on all His goodness and provision. Release any negative emotions, bless the food, and then begin to eat. Chew your food thoroughly. This is important. Each bite should be chewed twenty to thirty times to mix enough saliva thoroughly with your food.\n\nOverloading\n\nWhen your computer gets overloaded with files, programs, and unnecessary junk, what happens? It goes slower and slower until it finally stops working altogether. Your GI tract may do a similar slowing down.\n\nWhen people overeat and stuff themselves until they are full, they put an enormous strain on the digestive tract. And it's even worse if you overeat late at night before bedtime when the digestive system needs to rest.\n\nIntestinal Permeability\n\nThe small intestine functions as an organ of digestion and absorption. It also functions as a barrier to keep your body from absorbing toxic materials and large molecules of undigested food.\n\nA healthy small intestine allows absorption of some substances\u2014such as triglycerides from the digestion of fats, sugars from the digestion of carbohydrates, and amino acids and di- and tri-peptides from the digestion of proteins. But it seals out compounds that would likely cause harm, such as partially digested bits of food, toxins, and heavy metals.\n\nNevertheless, if you consume too much alcohol or if you take antiinflammatory medicines or aspirin, they can irritate and inflame the lining of your intestines. This can lead to microscopic openings and holes in the small intestine. These holes will allow partially digested foods to pass directly through the intestinal wall into the bloodstream. This is called increased intestinal permeability.\n\nIt can also cause food allergies or food sensitivities, inflammatory bowel disease such as ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, celiac disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, schizophrenia, and chronic skin problems.\n\nIncreased intestinal permeability allows undigested or partially digested food molecules, bacteria and bacterial toxins, yeast, yeast toxins, heavy metals, and food antigens as well as other toxic substances to leak into the bloodstream. These toxins are then free to go directly into the liver. There, they wreak havoc, undermining detoxification and triggering the release of free radicals, which may damage the liver as well as other organs and tissues throughout the body.\n\nThe Effects of Food Allergies\n\nA main cause of increased intestinal permeability is food allergies and sensitivities. Common food allergies include allergies to egg, dairy products, corn, wheat, peanuts, fish, shellfish, soy, etc. Gluten\u2014found in breads, crackers, pasta, all kinds of flour such as rye, barley, and wheat, gravies, and many soups, breadcrumbs, pies, and cakes\u2014is one of the most common proteins people are sensitive to and especially patients with irritable bowel syndrome.\n\nWatch for These Symptoms\n\nIncreased intestinal permeability is usually present in the following diseases: chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, migraine headaches, eczema, hives, psoriasis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, celiac disease, irritable bowel syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, schizophrenia, autism, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.\n\nIf you suspect this might be an issue for you, get a food sensitivity test. (See Appendix D.) If you are sensitive to gluten, select another form of grain for your daily diet, such as brown rice bread, millet bread, quinoa, kamut, or amaranth. Buckwheat is also gluten-free, so you can still have buckwheat pancakes.\n\nRepairing Your Intestines\n\nTo repair your small intestines, you must improve your digestion. You should also reinoculate the bowel with friendly bacteria. (We will discuss this later.) Bowel transit time must be improved. Decrease stress, especially when eating, by eating in a relaxed, peaceful atmosphere.\n\nDo this on a regular basis daily. Vegetarians usually have a healthy GI tract, but most Americans do not and are in a desperate need for repair of the GI tract.\n\nSupplements to Help Repair the GI Tract\n\nL-glutamine is an amino acid used to feed the cells of the small intestines. I recommend taking 500\u20131,000 milligrams of L-glutamine thirty minutes before eating your meals for at least three months if you have increased intestinal permeability. They can be found at any health food store. If you have Crohn's disease, colitis, celiac disease, and so forth, you may need to take this for a year or longer. To find out if you have increased intestinal permeability, see a nutritional doctor or have your doctor order Intestinal Permeability Testing. (See Appendix D.)\n\nZinc carnosine is a combination of zinc and L-carnosine and was developed in Japan to treat ulcers. It has also been found to be very effective in repairing a leaky gut and easing GI inflammation. I usually recommend one tab containing 16 milligrams of zinc and 75 milligrams of zinc carnosine two times a day between meals. (See Appendix D.)\n\nAnother nutrient that is extremely effective to the GI tract is gammaoryzanol. This is found in brown rice. Eat plenty of brown rice, brown rice bread, rice bran, or rice bran oil. Or you may take gamma-oryzanol in pill form, 100 milligrams three times a day. Again I recommend the tablet thirty minutes before meals for three months, or just eat plenty of brown rice.\n\nDGL is actually a kind of licorice that helps to heal the GI tract. It is best to take a chewable form (approximately 380 milligrams) three times a day, thirty minutes before meals.\n\nFinally, aloe vera juice soothes the lining of the stomach and intestines. It can be taken several times during the day.\n\nFor the majority of patients, L-glutamine, 1,000 milligrams, or one to two tablets thirty minutes before meals for three months, is adequate to repair the GI tract. The other supplements should be added if you are not improving. After identifying the foods you are sensitive to, then remove these foods from your diet for six weeks and rotate the other foods by choosing different foods every day for four days and then start over. Eating the same food every day such as dairy, wheat, and eggs is a major reason people develop food sensitivities. (See Appendix D for Food Sensitivity Testing.)\n\nIn addition, stop drinking alcohol, avoid aspirin, and avoid antiinflammatory medicines such as Advil. Identify all your food allergies and avoid those foods or follow a rotation diet.\n\nThe intestinal lining is one of the fastest healing tissues in your body. As a matter of fact, it can be replaced approximately every six to ten days. For more information on this topic I recommend my book _The Bible Cure for Candida and Yeast Infections._\n\nGood Bacteria, Bad Bacteria, and Yeast\n\nAbout a hundred trillion bacteria reside in the large bowel, weighing in at about three pounds. More than four hundred different species of bacteria live there. Fortunately, most of these bacteria are extremely beneficial; you wouldn't want to try to live without them. They are responsible for many different functions, such as synthesizing vitamins and breaking down toxins. They also digest fiber by changing it into short-chain fatty acids that provide the main nourishment for your colon's cells.\n\nBacteria and Your Immune System\n\nBelieve it or not, most of your entire immune system\u2014about 60 percent\u2014is located in the lining of the small intestines. Good bacteria improve your immune response. Bad bacteria, of course, do not. So there's a very delicate, extremely important balance of power that must be maintained at all times.\n\nIt's really not much different from the balance of power that exists between the branches of our government.\n\nThe US Supreme Court, the president, and the Congress all share the power in our country. The system is set up so that no one branch is more powerful than the others. This careful and delicate balance has made it possible for us to enjoy the most powerful and influential government system in the entire world. But what would happen if an evil president got into office and decided to take over the military and overthrow the other two branches? We'd have anarchy, and our form of government would be destroyed.\n\nWell, when bad bacteria and yeast overrun the balance of government in your GI tract, anarchy and chaos reign in your body, and this sets the stage for disease.\n\nThis kind of chaos can happen with repeated or prolonged use of antibiotics. Overuse of antibiotics kills the harmful bacteria, but it kills the good bacteria too. Under normal conditions, good bacterial colonies, bad bacterial colonies, and yeast colonies exist together in a balance of power. Both the yeast and bad bacteria are held in check by the good bacteria.\n\nBut when overuse of antibiotics kills both the good and bad bacteria, the yeast can start to grow so rapidly in the small and large intestines that the yeast grows out of control. Yeast overgrowth may be associated with many different diseases and symptoms such as psoriasis, eczema, irritable bowel syndrome, hives, diarrhea, bloating, gas, and other symptoms.\n\nIf you use antibiotics too often or for too long, eventually the bad bacteria in your intestines may actually become resistant to them. When this occurs, bad, or pathogenic, bacteria may also grow out of control.\n\nWhen these bacteria run rampant in your body, they can create poisons called endotoxins that can damage and destroy the protective coverings (membranes) of cells. This leads to even more leakage of food across your intestinal lining, resulting in more food allergies and sensitivities, liver toxicity, and eventually systemic disease.\n\nCounterfeit Proteins Running Amok\n\nThis overgrowth of dangerous pathogenic bacteria in your intestines can also fool your system and wreak untold damage. It does this through \"antigenic mimicry,\" which is simply when proteins from intestinal bacteria are absorbed right into the bloodstream by increased intestinal permeability. The intestinal bacteria have proteins that appear to the immune system as being very similar to human protein. That's why it's call mimicry. These bacterial proteins actually mimic or counterfeit true proteins.\n\nThat may not seem so dangerous to you, but these proteins were never meant to enter directly into your blood. Because these proteins are very similar to human protein, they may actually confuse the immune system into attacking itself. The immune system will finally recognize the proteins as counterfeit and form antibodies against them to destroy them, but because the proteins mimic human proteins, the antibodies also lead to inflammation of human tissue such as joint tissue.\n\nPartially Digested Food\n\nNot only can the bacteria mimic true proteins, they can also cause fermentation in your small intestines\u2014just the way that apple cider ferments. Have you ever bought a gallon of apple cider in the fall, only to have it ferment in your fridge? What happened to it when it did? It turned into an alcoholic beverage and released lots of gasses and other toxins in the process.\n\nThink about two to three pounds or even more of bacteria overgrowth in your small intestines fermenting and causing the partially digested food to ferment and putrefy. This putrefaction creates substances called indoles, skatols, and amines, substances that can be measured in a urine indican test.\n\nBad bacteria also can produce enzymes that can break down your bile into toxins that can promote the development of cancer. Bacterial enzymes can also inactivate your own digestive enzymes, causing impaired digestion, malabsorption, diarrhea, bloating, and gas.\n\nFinding Friendly Bacteria\n\nGood bacteria, or friendly bacteria, are the lactobacilli and bifido bacteria. These GI-friendly organisms preserve the balance of power and form the defense against the rampant overgrowth of bad bacteria and yeast. Therefore, they keep poisonous toxins at bay. Beneficial bacteria also help prevent damage to the lining of the GI tract, thus maintaining normal intestinal permeability. They also prevent the growth of bacteria that produce the dangerous enzymes that promote cancer. In addition, these friendly bacteria secrete chemicals that kill the bad, or pathogenic, bacteria.\n\nGood bacteria, called lactobacillus acidophilus, are normally found in the small intestines. Bifido bacteria are normally found in the large intestines.\n\nFoods for good bacteria, called fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), are complex sugars that are found in high amounts in Jerusalem artichokes. FOS encourages the growth of the good bacteria and discourages the growth of the harmful bacteria. I recommend good bacteria daily, either in capsule or powder form, if one desires to keep a healthy GI tract.\n\nBeneficial Bacteria\n\nIf you are taking antibiotics, or if you have any of the symptoms of increased intestinal permeability, take at least fifty to two hundred billion colony-forming units of both acidophilus and bifido bacteria every day. (See Appendix D.)\n\nIf you have diseases associated with increased intestinal permeability, you should be on these supplements a minimum of three months and preferably indefinitely. Anyone who wants to maintain a healthy GI tract should take them regularly.\n\nFOS\n\nIn addition, take at least 1,000\u20133,000 milligrams a day of FOS to feed the friendly bacteria. Take these at the same time that you take the acidophilus and bifidus. It is best to take all of these between meals. (See Appendix D.)\n\nYogurt\n\nMany people believe that they can get enough beneficial bacteria from eating yogurt. However, many yogurts that claim they have live bacteria really do not. In addition, many yogurts contain lactobacillus bulgaricus, which lives in the intestines for only about two weeks. Therefore, I strongly suggest that you not try to rely on this method alone in supplying your intestines with friendly bacteria.\n\nLactobacillus plantarum and saccharomyces boulardii\n\nWhen you take antibiotics, you should also continue using supplements of lactobacillus acidophilus and bifidus with FOS for about a month after stopping the antibiotics.\n\nIf you must take antibiotics over an extended period of time, take lactobacillus plantarum for a month also. This is one of the few lactobacilli that are not killed by antibiotics. Take one or two capsules a day. (See Appendix D.)\n\nSaccharomyces boulardii (Sacro B) is a type of yeast that is a probiotic for treating and preventing diarrhea, including traveler's diarrhea, infectious diarrhea, and diarrhea caused from antibiotics. Sacro B helps fight disease-causing pathogens in the GI tract, including bacteria and yeast. I recommend one or two capsules of Sacro B in the morning on an empty stomach.\n\nParasites That Plunder\n\nImagine having a large tick attached to your arm that continually sucks the blood out of your body. It lives there constantly, sapping your strength and injecting poisons into your skin that make you ill. On a molecular level, that's what microscopic parasites do.\n\nIf you think that the only people who get parasites are those who travel and live in exotic, third-world countries, you're wrong. Fact is, you may have parasites living inside your body right now!\n\nThere are three classes of parasites. Parasites are simply microorganisms that live off their host (you) and eventually cause damage to the host. Parasitic infections are fairly common here in the United States. In fact, the majority of the population of the world is colonized with parasites. That means you probably have had them at some time in your life and may have them right now. Let's take a look at these unwelcome visitors.\n\nThe protozoa\n\nThree main groups of parasites exist. The first are one-celled organisms called protozoa. They include amoebas, giardia, cryptosporidium, and blastocystis.\n\nGiardia thrives in many of the lakes and streams throughout the United States, and it is often blamed for small outbreaks of diarrhea. When ingested, this parasite takes up residence in the small intestine, creating damage that leads to increased intestinal permeability. In fact, giardia can so damage the small intestine that, even after it has been eradicated, it can take months to heal. I had a giardia infection after skiing on a lake. Years ago, I went waterskiing with my son, Kyle, who is an excellent \"wake boarder.\" I decided to give it a try.\n\nI got out there on this little wake board and tried to get up, but it didn't work. My wife was driving the boat, and it seemed as if I were drinking the water in the lake instead of skiing. It was embarrassing. I tried again and again until I had blisters on my hands. I finally said, \"Give me the skis!\" My son still laughs about it.\n\nAbout a week later I felt this little gurgle in my stomach. It became worse and turned into diarrhea. It would occur one day, be gone the next, and then it would return. Finally, I checked myself and found I had giardia, a microscopic parasite that lives in the small intestines. It is common in the lakes of Central Florida.\n\nI treated myself with herbs, and the condition cleared within a few weeks.\n\nIn the 1990s the parasite _cryptosporidium_ contaminated the water supply of Milwaukee, causing the largest epidemic of diarrhea in United States history. More than a hundred deaths occurred, and more than four thousand people developed diarrhea.\n\nBlastocystis is another protozoa that commonly causes diarrhea. Other symptoms of being infested with this parasite include bloating and flatulence (gas).\n\nAmoebas also cause diarrhea. They can so damage the lining of your intestines that they create leaky gut, burdening your liver.\n\nThe worms (helminths)\n\nThe second group of parasites is classified as the helminths, which are worms. These include roundworms, hook worms, thread worms, tape worms, whip worms, and pin worms.\n\nThe arthropods\n\nThe third group is the arthropods, which include ticks, mites, lice, and so on.\n\nThe Gift of Garlic\n\nIf you suspect that you may be infested with parasites from your drinking water or other means, supplementing with garlic can help.\n\nGarlic is a member of the allium family, which also includes onions, scallions, and leeks. Among these four, garlic contains the highest concentration of this powerful substance. Garlic has enormous powers to fight parasite infestations in your GI tract. It also kills bacteria, yeast, and viruses.\n\nI recommend approximately 500 milligrams of garlic, two tablets, three times a day. You may take this if you have diarrhea that has persisted longer than a few days. If diarrhea persists, see your physician and have a stool specimen from three different stools examined for ova and parasites. Also have a giardia antigen test and a stool culture. (See Appendix D for comprehensive digestive stool analysis and parasitology.)\n\nOther herbs, including oil of oregano, black walnut, artemesia, wormwood, pumpkin seed, cloves, and grapefruit seed, are beneficial for parasitic infections. Many products have a mixture of the herbs listed above.\n\nThe Curse of Constipation\n\nAs we saw earlier in this chapter, constipation is part of the price we pay in this society for our unhealthy diet. The pharmaceutical industry is making a fortune on our addiction to sugar and refined and processed foods and on our need for laxatives, antacids, and medications for bloating and gas.\n\nNormal bowel transit time is approximately twenty to thirty hours. If your diet has plenty of fiber, your stools will be soft but formed. You will also have regular bowel movements\u2014about one, two, or even three times a day.\n\nA loose stool may indicate intestinal irritation. It could be caused by a bacterial or viral infection, increased intestinal permeability, food allergies or sensitivities, parasitic infections, yeast overgrowth, malabsorption, or poor digestion.\n\nNormally, movements should occur about twenty to thirty minutes after eating. Under ideal circumstances, you should have one after every meal.\n\nLaxatives\n\nAvoid using over-the-counter chemical and herbal laxatives, for these may lead to a dependency on the laxative. Osmotic laxatives such as magnesium sulfate, magnesium citrate, magnesium glycinate, and magnesium aspartate (or magnesium malate) are much safer alternatives. Many people are actually deficient in magnesium. Osmotic laxatives simply draw water into the colon and make the stool soft. They usually do not irritate the bowels.\n\nVitamin C\n\nTaking higher doses of buffered vitamin C can also prevent constipation as well as provide antioxidant protection. I recommend 500 to 1,000 milligrams of buffered vitamin C, two to three times daily, even when off the detoxification program. Everyone should take vitamin C, but those constipated usually need more. You may purchase this at any health food store.\n\nChlorophyll drinks\n\nA chlorophyll drink such as Divine Health Green Superfood contains wheatgrass, barley grass, alfalfa, spirulina, chlorella, and blue-green algae. These powerful foods are full of phytonutrients and magnesium, which help to cleanse the bowels and prevent constipation.\n\nTake one scoop each morning. Mix it with pomegranate juice for a delicious energy drink. If you are constipated, you may drink it two times daily. However, don't drink it in the evening or too late in the afternoon, or it may give you too much energy and keep you awake. If you are still constipated, take all three supplements (magnesium, vitamin C, and Green Superfood) until the bowels are regulated.\n\nThree Main Factors\n\nAll of these supplements are very helpful for constipation, but equally important factors for regularity include the following:\n\n1. Drinking enough water\u2014at least two quarts of filtered or alkaline water a day\n\n2. Regular exercise\n\n3. A high-fiber diet with at least 30 to 35 grams of fiber per day\n\nFantastic Fiber\n\nFiber is fantastic for your healthy GI tract. It acts like a broom, sweeping the colon lining, eliminating the toxins, and binding the toxins in the bile so that they cannot be reabsorbed back into your body. All of this activity is critically important in preventing disease. High-fiber diets also reduce the level of circulating estrogens by binding them and preventing them from being reabsorbed and recirculated through the liver.\n\nMost of the chemicals that have been detoxified by the liver are contained in the bile, which is then dumped into the intestinal tract. This, as you know, is a major part of your body's detoxification process. But if your GI tract doesn't have enough fiber or is constipated, then much of that toxic bile will be reabsorbed back into your body. That's why it's so important to get plenty of fiber every day through your diet and to supplement with fiber regularly as well so that the toxins in your body will be bound and excreted. This will dramatically reduce your body's toxic burden. Let's take a look at this wonderful natural detoxifier.\n\nNature's Detoxifier\n\nMost of your fiber should come from your diet. Eat plenty of raw fruits, raw vegetables, whole grains, beans, legumes, and seeds.\n\nFiber comes in two varieties: water soluble, which means they can dissolve in water, and that which is insoluble in water. Foods high in soluble fiber include oats, oat bran, guar gum, carrots, beans, apples, ground flaxseeds, psyllium, and citrus pectin. Foods high in insoluble fiber include wheat bran, most root vegetables, celery, and the skins of fruits. Soluble fiber feeds the intestinal bacteria\u2014especially the good bacteria. It also provides nourishment to the cells of the colon.\n\nIntestinal bacteria cause soluble fiber to ferment and form shortchain fatty acids. This, in turn, nourishes the cells of the large intestine. These short-chain fatty acids help to prevent the growth of yeast and harmful bacteria. However, if you eat too much soluble fiber, such as too many beans or too much guar gum, you can develop an overgrowth of intestinal bacteria along with excessive bloating, gas, and abdominal discomfort.\n\nSoluble fiber helps to lower cholesterol, control blood sugar, and create a sensation of fullness so that you will be less likely to overeat.\n\nInsoluble fiber, on the other hand, inactivates many intestinal toxins. It also helps to prevent harmful bacteria and parasites from attaching themselves to the wall of your intestines by acting like a sweeping broom.\n\nFiber Foods\n\nSince both forms of fiber are very beneficial, I strongly recommend that you eat food that contains a mixture of soluble and insoluble fibers. Rice bran, oat bran, legumes such as beans and peas, apples, pears, and berries contain both sources of fiber.\n\nI do not recommend wheat bran since so many people are sensitive to the protein in wheat (gluten). Gluten-sensitive individuals may also need to avoid oat bran if the oats are from a mill that also processes wheat or other gluten grains. If you suffer with increased intestinal permeability and food allergies, eat plenty of other rice bran, forms of fiber such as brown rice, ground flaxseeds, etc.\n\nMicrocrystalline cellulose\n\nAnother excellent form of insoluble fiber includes microcrystalline cellulose. You can get this from a health food store or a nutritional doctor. Since many soluble fibers can produce bloating and bacterial overgrowth, I routinely use microcrystalline cellulose. Since it is an insoluble fiber and does not contain any wheat products, it tends to be well tolerated even by those with sensitive GI tracts.\n\nFlaxseed\n\nFlaxseed, freshly ground in a coffee grinder, is one of the best ways to get your daily fiber. Simply put 1 to 2 tablespoons in a coffee grinder, and then pour the ground seeds into a smoothie or sprinkle it on your oatmeal, salad, or on any other food. It is good to take this two to three times throughout the day.\n\nFlaxseeds contain lignans, which not only help to relieve hot flashes in menopausal women but also have antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral activity. Lignan also blocks the activity of the enzyme that converts other hormones into estrogen.\n\nCitrus pectin\n\nAnother very important fiber is citrus pectin. It is a water-soluble fiber that comes from the cell walls of citrus fruits. Animal studies have shown that modified citrus pectin inhibited the metastatic spread of cancer. In one study, the metastatic spread of cancer was reduced more than 80 percent  Citrus pectin also binds many heavy metals in the GI tract, including mercury, cadmium, arsenic, and lead.\n\nThe highest quality citrus pectin that I have found is PectaSol.\n\nTake fiber each morning when you get up and again before you go to bed at night. Freshly ground flaxseed mixed with Green Superfood is one of my favorite ways to start a day.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nYour amazing body is not only designed to detoxify itself but to heal itself as well. And just as you can play a significant role in helping and supporting your body's own ability to detoxify itself, you can also do the same with healing.\n\nLet's turn and take a look at how detox fasting can play an exciting and powerful role in your body's process of healing.\n\nSummarizing Main Supplements\n\n  L-glutamine, 1,000 milligrams thirty minutes before meals\n\n  Probiotic, one to two in the morning on an empty stomach (See Appendix D.)\n\n  Fiber such as ground flaxseeds, 1 to 2 tablespoons one or two times a day\n\n  Green Superfood, 1 scoop upon awakening\n\n* Fictitious character\nChapter 10\n\nFINDING HEALING THROUGH FASTING\n\nAT THE AGE OF FORTY-TWO, REV. GEORGE MALKMUS LEARNED THAT he had developed colon cancer. Having watched his mother suffer and die from cancer, he determined he would not go the same route. Dr. Malkmus, a Baptist pastor, turned to his friend, evangelist Lester Roloff. Evangelist Roloff advised him not to go the medical route of chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery for his cancer, but to change his diet to raw fruits and vegetables and drink a lot of freshly juiced carrot juice. Malkmus took his advice and changed his diet from a diet full of meat and cooked, processed food with an abundance of desserts to a diet of raw fruits and vegetables with one to two quarts of freshly juiced carrot juice a day. In less than a year his tumor had disappeared.\n\nFortunately, George Malkmus discovered his cancer at a point where he was able to reverse it with nutrition and detoxification. Through diet and detoxification his blood pressure went down, his allergies vanished, and a host of other chronic complaints simply went away. That was more than thirty years ago. Today he remains as strong and healthy as ever and completely convinced that there is toxic relief.\n\nUnfortunately, not all cancers respond as his did. Therefore I recommend that patients use a comprehensive approach and seek medical opinions from both conventional medicine and nutritional doctors.\n\nThe story of George Malkmus is not uncommon. I believe that many diseases are the direct result of an excessive buildup of these toxins. I have seen this in patients with psoriasis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis.\n\nHere are some other diseases that are often directly linked to a buildup of toxins:\n\n  Food and environmental allergies\n\n  Asthma\n\n  Headaches\n\n  Fatigue\n\n  Fibromyalgia\n\n  Chronic back pain\n\n  Eczema, chronic acne, and other skin conditions\n\n  Insomnia\n\n  Depression\n\n  Irritable bowel syndrome\n\n  Decreased sex drive\n\n  Menstrual problems\n\n  Abdominal bloating\n\n  Belching\n\n  Gas\n\n  Memory loss\n\n  Chronic diarrhea\n\n  Crohn's disease\n\n  Ulcerative colitis\n\n  Atherosclerosis\n\n  Hypertension\n\n  Obesity\n\n  Constipation\n\n  Angina\n\n  Multiple sclerosis\n\n  Coronary artery disease\n\n  Cancer\n\n  Mental illness\n\n  Diabetes\n\nNow remember, whenever you are sick or diseased, your body is signaling you that it is time to rest from work. With many diseases, it's also trying to tell you to rest from foods that are difficult to digest. So instead of drinking coffee and eating foods high in sugar and caffeine, which may help you to keep on working, take a lesson from the animals.\n\nWhen animals are sick, they go to a secluded place near a source of water. There, they rest, drink water, and fast. Likewise, when we are sick with a temporary or chronic illness, we should also rest and fast with juices to nourish our bodies and support the liver as it works hard to detoxify from our illness.\n\nFasting does not only prevent sickness. If done correctly, fasting holds amazing healing benefits to those of us who suffer illness and disease. From colds and flu to heart disease, fasting is a mighty key to healing the body.\n\nLet's turn now and look at some ways that fasting can be used to bring health and healing to a sick body.\n\nFor Colds and Flu\n\nNothing is more miserable than getting a cold or flu. But did you know that the reason we suffer so much is because we do all the wrong things when we get sick? Drinking coffee and sodas and eating ice cream and pudding can make your flu or cold worse or prolong it.\n\nWhen you come down with a cold or flu, fast by drinking plenty of water and fresh juices, and get lots of rest. This will help your system to expel toxic materials through the mucus it creates. Let your fever burn up your infection too. A fever actually mobilizes your immune system to fight infections. However, most physicians and parents are turning off the fever with Tylenol and depleting levels of glutathione, which I believe is our master antioxidant and master detoxifier. Don't rush to the doctor and take a lot of medications to halt the symptoms. Some of them are important for detoxification. However, if you have a fever over 103 degrees, you should be examined by a physician. If your fever is greater than 101 degrees and persists for longer than a few days, you should also be examined by a physician. For children, seek medical attention sooner.\n\nTake plenty of vitamin C, garlic, elderberry, and herbs such as olive leaf extract and oregano as a natural means to help your body's immune response. An infrared sauna also helps to boost the immune system.\n\nYou can overcome many infectious diseases by eliminating mucusforming foods such as dairy products, eggs, and processed grains. These grains include pancakes, cereals, doughnuts, white bread, crackers, pretzels, bagels, white rice, gravies, cakes, and pies. In addition, cut out of your diet margarine, butter, and other saturated, hydrogenated, and processed oils.\n\nThis \"Mucusless Diet Healing System\" was actually developed by Professor Arnold Ehret in the early 1900s.\n\nWhen you are sick, don't instantly turn to antibiotics. Antibiotics can provide powerful help when you are very ill with a bacterial infection. But the overuse of antibiotics can harm you and has created resistant strains of bacteria.\n\nLet your body's own immune system be your first defense against infections. Overusing antibiotics may cause yeast overgrowth in the intestinal tract, (pathogenic) bacteria overgrowth in the intestinal tract, and an increased risk of developing altered intestinal permeability, as well as an increased toxic burden on the liver.\n\nMany doctors prescribe antibiotics for colds and flus that do not even respond to antibiotics. If you have had a fever of 101 degrees for a few days, go see your doctor. But don't insist on getting an antibiotic unless he or she recommends it.\n\nFasting for Autoimmune Diseases\n\nAutoimmune diseases are simply diseases in which the immune system attacks itself. It is a process similar to a military disaster called \"friendly fire.\" A healthy immune system can tell the difference between normal cells and invader cells.\n\nHowever, in autoimmune diseases such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system gets confused. It actually produces antibodies that attack its own tissues. This \"friendly fire\" inflames the tissues. Eventually it can damage and even destroy the tissue.\n\nRheumatoid arthritis and lupus are autoimmune diseases that are often linked to altered intestinal permeability. This can happen when you take too many antibiotics that decrease the numbers of friendly bacteria or if your intestinal tract has been damaged by anti-inflammatory medications, aspirin, or food allergies.\n\nAnother explanation for autoimmune disease is altered intestinal permeability along with poor digestion and increased consumption of meats. Most Americans eat lots of meat and other animal proteins. Meat eaters in the animal kingdom, such as lions, tigers, and other carnivores, have digestive systems that secrete extremely large quantities of hydrochloric acid and enzymes. These animals also have relatively short digestive tracts.\n\nHowever, humans are not so lucky. They do not produce nearly as much hydrochloric acid or digestive enzymes. In addition, our intestinal tracts are much longer. That means we aren't nearly as well equipped as lions to digest so much meat.\n\nCombine this with the load of stress that most of us live under, stress that further reduces the amount of the digestive juices such as hydrochloric acid and pancreatic enzymes. It is no wonder we have an epidemic of bloating, gas, and indigestion! And the pharmaceutical companies are making a killing.\n\nWe eat far too much protein for the amount of hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes we have. Therefore, our stomachs and intestines can't break down the proteins into the individual amino acids as well as they should. Incompletely digested proteins called peptides are formed that can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream if you have altered intestinal permeability. Your body may form antibodies to attack these foreign substances. Once again, the body may start to attack itself; if this happens, inflammation will occur.\n\nToo much protein, poor digestion, and altered gut permeability are a recipe for autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. Such diseases are rare in countries where people eat mainly fruits, vegetables, and whole grains such as in Japan, China, and Africa. But when these same people come to the United States and adopt our diet, they begin to develop autoimmune diseases.\n\nFasting is one of the most effective therapies for treating autoimmune diseases\u2014and the earlier in the course of the disease, the better. It's extremely important to wean yourself off all medicines, under medical supervision, before you fast. Fasting allows the digestive tract to rest. It also allows the intestinal tract to heal.\n\nJuice fasting is very beneficial in autoimmune diseases. Nevertheless, some physicians have had outstanding results with water fasting. If you are going on a fast\u2014especially a water-only fast\u2014for an autoimmune disease, be sure your physician carefully monitors you.\n\nIf you have been taking Prednisone or other steroid drugs, it is extremely important to wean off these medicines slowly, under medical supervision, prior to fasting; be sure to watch for signs of adrenal suppression. They include severe weakness and fatigue, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure. It may take months to successfully wean off these medications.\n\nAfter the fast, patients with autoimmune disease should decrease consumption of all animal proteins, dairy products, and eggs. It may also be helpful to avoid wheat products too. Instead, choose brown rice bread, rice crackers, spelt pasta, and other rice products.\n\nFasting for Coronary Disease\n\nFasting is also very effective for the treatment of heart disease and peripheral vascular disease, which usually occurs in the legs. Peripheral vascular disease is simply a buildup of plaque or atherosclerosis, usually in the arteries of the lower extremities. Renowned researcher and physician Dr. Dean Ornish proved that coronary artery disease could be reversed with a vegetarian diet, stress management, and exercise.\n\nAfter only a year on this program, Dr. Ornish's patients had much less plaque in their arteries. If you have significant coronary artery disease or peripheral vascular disease (atherosclerosis in your legs), I recommend that you consider Dr. Ornish's complete program.\n\nIn addition, regular, periodic fasting will usually speed up the plaque removal process in the arteries.\n\nWhile fasting, if you have significant coronary artery disease or peripheral vascular disease, you will find that your cholesterol levels will usually become more elevated on the fast. This happens because your body is in the process of breaking down plaque that is formed in the arteries, so don't be alarmed.\n\nI always check the blood work before prescribing fasting for my patients. I'm always really encouraged when I see a dramatic elevation in cholesterol in those with coronary artery disease or peripheral vascular disease while fasting. I know that the fasting is doing its work and plaque is probably being broken down as atherosclerotic plaque is being removed while fasting.\n\nHypertension\n\nDo you have high blood pressure? One of the best ways to treat hypertension is to go on a juice fast. Before your fast, you should first attempt to get off all diuretic medications under medical supervision. Increase the amount of water you drink to at least two to three quarts of alkaline water a day. Follow the directions for the detoxification fast outlined in this book and the instructions in my book _The Bible Cure for High Blood Pressure._\n\nFasting for Psoriasis and Eczema\n\nI have found that many of my patients with both psoriasis and eczema suffer from numerous food sensitivities. They usually have increased intestinal permeability and impaired liver detoxification too.\n\nIt is critically important for those with both eczema and psoriasis to fast with juices to which they are not allergic. This is best done by choosing different juices each day over a four-day period and rotating your juices or by having food allergy testing first.\n\nIf you have eczema and psoriasis, you probably also have yeast overgrowth in your intestinal tract. If you do have yeast overgrowth, prior to fasting follow a candida diet for at least three months. For more information on this topic refer to my book _The Bible Cure for Candida and Yeast Infections._\n\nIf you find that you do not respond well to a juice fast, you can try a balanced rice protein fast. This product is called UltraClear Plus PH. (See Appendix D.)\n\nWater fasting can also be effective for psoriasis and eczema, but it must be closely monitored. If you decide to go on a water-only fast, supplement your fast with detoxifying teas such as dandelion and milk thistle tea and with a glutathione-boosting supplement. (See Appendix D.)\n\nBefore going on any fast for psoriasis and eczema, follow the program for improving intestinal permeability mentioned in chapter 5. I also recommend improving liver detoxification by taking the vitamins and nutrients outlined in chapter 9.\n\nIf you have psoriasis, you probably have significant increased intestinal permeability as well as an increased toxic burden on your liver. It is critically important to repair your GI tract and detoxify your liver. It is also extremely important to avoid foods to which you are allergic or sensitive.\n\nIf you don't know what foods you're allergic or sensitive to, have a comprehensive food allergy test taken. I have found that many of my patients with eczema and psoriasis commonly are sensitive or allergic to dairy, wheat products, eggs, tomatoes, peppers, or potatoes. This subject is discussed in more detail in my books _The Bible Cure for Candida and Yeast Infections_ and _The Bible Cure for Skin Disorders._\n\nFasting for Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis\n\nFasting is very effective for patients with both Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Again, those with these diseases usually have increased intestinal permeability, toxic overload on the liver, candida overgrowth, and numerous food allergies and sensitivities.\n\nMany of my patients with Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis are very sensitive to all dairy products, nightshades (including jalapeno peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplant), wheat products, and often to yeastcontaining products as well. These individuals are generally extremely sensitive to all forms of sugar and especially fructose. Simple sugars should therefore be totally eliminated from the diet.\n\nDue to their extreme sensitivity to sugar, these people do best on either a balanced rice protein such as UltraClear Plus PH or UltraClear Renew by Metagenics (see Appendix D) or on a water-only fast. Juice fasting with low-sugar vegetable juices and no fruits may be effective. However, juicing can aggravate the condition and lead to worsening of diarrhea. Probiotics are always recommended. (See Appendix D.)\n\nOnce your fast is over, continue eating rice products\u2014primarily brown rice, brown rice bread, and rice crackers. Slowly reintroduce a low-protein, primarily vegetarian diet. In addition, keep a good food diary to find out what foods cause food sensitivities and avoid anything that irritates your GI tract and rotate your foods.\n\nFasting for Allergies and Asthma\n\nJuice fasting is extremely helpful if you have both allergies and asthma. Your lungs, as well as your entire respiratory tract, are vitally important elimination organs for removing toxins. Fasting often removes many of the irritants and toxins that trigger airway hyperactivity.\n\nAllergies\u2014both airborne and food allergies\u2014usually dramatically improve during a fast. This is because of the close connection between allergies and intestinal permeability and liver toxicity.\n\nFasting gives the digestive tract time to rest and repair. It also helps the liver detoxify. Allergic symptoms are improved and sometimes completely disappear. However, it's important to be sure that you are not allergic or sensitive to any of the juices you'll be consuming. Keep a food diary while you're on your fast. Use it to help you avoid any juices that may trigger allergic symptoms or symptoms of asthma. You may decide to have food allergy testing.\n\nFasting for Type 2 Diabetes\n\nIf you're a type 2 diabetic, fasting is for you. It's extremely effective for type 2 diabetics. However, type 1 diabetics should not fast.\n\nMost individuals with type 2 diabetes also suffer from obesity. They usually have high insulin levels, but their cells have become resistant to the effects of insulin.\n\nType 2 diabetics may fast using vegetables that have a low glycemic index. Use a Vitamix blender so that you will retain the fiber and lower your blood sugar. Some diabetics may be able to juice low-glycemic fruits such as berries, Granny Smith apples, lemons, and limes without raising their blood sugar. They may fast using a well-balanced, high-fiber protein supplement called UltraGlycemX by Metagenics. (See Appendix D.)\n\nIt's also critically important for diabetics to follow a low-glycemic diet and an aerobic exercise program. For more information on diabetes, see _The New Bible Cure for Diabetes._\n\nFasting for Obesity\n\n\"The waistline is your lifeline. It is also your dateline,\" according to Dr. Paul Bragg. How true this statement is! Fasting is great for conquering obesity. With over two-thirds of the population of the United States either obese or overweight, we could all do a little more fasting.\n\nObese individuals seem to be able to follow a strict diet for a period of time, but then they typically splurge and binge, eating all the wrong things. For some obese people, _diet_ is a four-letter word. If you are one of these individuals, I recommend a healthy eating plan and a healthy lifestyle, outlined in my book _The Bible Cure for Weight Loss and Muscle Gain_ and _Dr. Colbert's \"I Can Do This\" Diet._\n\nFasting for too long can actually cause you to gain weight over time, as I mentioned earlier. This is because it can lower your metabolic rate and predispose you to gain even more weight. But short, frequent juice fasts\u2014about three days out of every month\u2014when followed up with a healthy eating plan can bring obesity under control quickly and easily.\n\nPeriodic short fasts help you to crucify your flesh, which is a concept I will discuss at length in the following chapters. This crucifying of your unhealthy desires is the key to gaining control over your body, control that will last a lifetime.\n\nWhen you begin to see your body as the temple of the Holy Spirit, you will gain a sense of respect for the incredible work of creative genius that your body represents. This understanding makes all the difference. Our bodies are the temple of the Holy Ghost, as we read in 1 Corinthians 3:16. The scripture goes on to say, \"If anyone defiles the temple of God, God will destroy him. For the temple of God is holy, which temple you are\" (v. 17).\n\nIt's written right into God's laws that we cannot destroy this temple without experiencing serious consequences. If we defile our bodies with sweets, fats, processed foods, and junk foods, then one day we will probably reap a harvest in the form of degenerative disease, heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, cancer, and hypertension. Whatever we sow, we will also reap.\n\nProverbs 23:21 says, \"For the drunkard and the glutton will come to poverty.\" God actually puts the drunkard and the glutton in the same category. Many of us wouldn't dream of getting drunk, but we overeat frequently.\n\nFasting for Benign Tumors\n\nUndergoing the detox fasting program outlined in this book may also reduce the size of benign tumors and cysts. These include ovarian cysts, fibrocystic breast disease, lipomas, sebaceous cysts, and even uterine fibroids.\n\nIf you have advanced cancer, you should not fast. But fasting will definitely help you to prevent cancer.\n\nWhen You Should Not Fast\n\nAlthough fasting is a healthful lifestyle that's as old as Moses, there are many times when you should not fast.\n\nDo not fast if you are pregnant or nursing. You should not fast if you are extremely debilitated or malnourished, including patients with AIDS, cancer, severe anemia, or any severe wasting states. Do not fast before or after surgery, since it could interfere with your ability to heal after surgery.\n\nIn addition, don't fast if you have cardiac arrhythmia or congestive heart failure. Don't fast if you are struggling with mental illness, including severe depression, severe anxiety, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. These conditions can actually get worse when you fast. Individuals with severe liver and kidney disease should not undergo a fast.\n\nAs you know, I try to wean patients off most of their medications prior to a fast. However, medications such as hormone replacement therapy and thyroid medications are safe to take during a fast. If you are taking aspirin, anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen or Aleve, Coumadin, diabetic medication, antidepressants, narcotics, chemotherapy medications, or diuretics, you should not fast.\n\nYou may continue taking very low doses of hypertensive medications during a fast as long as your physician closely monitors you. However, these should not include diuretics.\n\nIf you are taking Prednisone, you should be under a doctor's care to wean you off of this medication very slowly before fasting, or at least to the lowest effective dose. If you do not wean off Prednisone slowly, you could develop adrenal gland suppression with symptoms of rapid heart rate, low blood pressure, extreme fatigue, and susceptibility to infections.\n\nWhen you are being tapered off Prednisone, I also strongly recommend that you take nutritional supplements with high doses of B complex, especially pantothenic acid, vitamin C, and adrenal glandular supplements. (Refer to my book _Stress Less_.)\n\nFor any fast longer than three days, I recommend getting a checkup or physical exam by your doctor first. Have him or her do blood work and a baseline EKG. I normally perform a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP). This includes kidney function tests including creatinine and BUN, electrolytes, liver function tests, blood sugar, cholesterol, and triglycerides. Along with the CMP, I also perform a CBC, urinalysis, and EKG. These tests should be performed prior to the fast. NOTE: Patients with a history of gout need to have their uric acid level checked before starting a fast, and if it is elevated, their doctor should adjust their dose of allopurinol so that theuric acid is in the normal range. I usually check the CMP with uric acid twice a week for patients with gout.\n\nDuring the fast, I will usually perform a CMP and UA two times a week. During each office visit, tell your doctor if you are experiencing any severe weakness, fatigue, or light-headedness. Tell your doctor if you are having any irregular heartbeats. Again, if you develop an irregular heartbeat or pulse, you should be examined by your physician and should probably terminate the fast.\n\nDuring a fast, it is critically important to make sure your blood potassium level remains in the normal range. Low potassium can cause dangerous arrhythmias and death. That's why it's critically important not to take diuretics on a fast. Juice fasting, however, supplies large amounts of potassium in the fresh-squeezed juices. That's why it's very unlikely that you will develop low potassium while on the juice fast. Water fasts are more likely to cause low potassium levels. Commonly, during a fast, the uric acid level is elevated. However, this is usually no cause for concern, since this is a normal response of the body to fasting, but continue to drink adequate amounts of water, two quarts a day.\n\nIf your physician cannot wean you off your medications, then it may be safer to start a partial fast. The partial fast uses fresh-squeezed fruit and vegetable juices, fresh fruit, veggies, brown rice, and other cleansing foods listed earlier in this book. Eat one or two meals a day of these cleansing foods, and then have one or two meals consisting of freshly squeezed juice.\n\nChildren under the age of eighteen should not follow a strict juice fast unless a physician closely monitors them.\n\nYou may experience improved health by fasting with juice on your first fast. However, usually you will have to fast repeatedly to detoxify the body and achieve vibrant health.\n\nFasting is a healthy, biblical way to cleanse your body and soul. As you've seen, it is a wonderfully natural method of healing. But don't wait until you've become ill to begin fasting. Juice fasting is far better and more effective when you begin this lifestyle while you're still healthy. Every drink you take will be a drink to good future health!\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nI trust that you've discovered that one of the less-heralded wonders of your physical body is that it is an amazing, natural detoxifier. God created your body to quickly, cleanly, and efficiently deal with any toxin it may encounter. But in the toxic world in which we live, it takes more than a passive approach to health care to live long, healthy, active, disease-free lives. It takes wisdom.\n\nI have presented the wisdom I've gained as a medical doctor. As you do your best to apply these truths, you will reap the wonderful reward of renewed energy, vitality, and health.\n\nThe power of better health through detoxification is yours. I encourage you to pursue your own good health aggressively by looking carefully at your diet and lifestyle. Your own healthy future is in your hands!\n\nThis discussion on fasting and detoxification would be incomplete if we left out the most important aspect of fasting and purification\u2014fasting for the soul and spirit. For you see, the work of fasting doesn't stop with the physical body\u2014fasting cleanses the total person. The greatest, most powerful work of fasting is its powerful ability to cleanse the soul. Let's look.\n[SECTION III  \nDETOXING YOUR WHOLE PERSON](..\/Text\/Md_ISBN9781616385996_epub_toc_r1.html#d7e178313)\nChapter 11\n\nSPIRITUAL FASTING\u2014WHAT IT'S ALL ABOUT\n\nNOT ONLY IS FASTING A POWER METHOD OF CLEANSING AND HEALING the physical body, but it is also a tool for cleansing the soul. Fasting is a key to genuine and deep spirituality. Throughout the ages, those who sought to know God and desired to enter into deeper spiritual realms and giftings employed fasting as a powerful and essential tool. Found throughout the Bible, fasting was considered a key part of entering into and maintaining a powerful and spiritually dynamic walk with God.\n\nTwo words are used in the Old Testament for _fasting._ One means \"to cover the mouth,\" and the other one means \"to humble oneself.\" In the New Testament, the word for _fasting_ literally means \"not eating.\" The actual definition for _fasting_ is \"to abstain from food either partially or completely.\"\n\nTo perform a biblical fast you must voluntarily abstain from food for a period of time\u2014either partially or completely\u2014for a spiritual purpose. During a spiritual fast, you deny yourself one of the most basic elements of survival, one that is loved and cherished by your body\u2014food.\n\nJust why would any one of us even want to consider denying our body the cookies, cakes, ice cream, hamburgers, and pizza it so much enjoys? The reason is that fasting, when accomplished through the direction and enabling of the Holy Spirit, has the power to break the gripping control of our lower nature.\n\nOur fleshly appetite can be a ravenous animal, overpowering the spiritual man within us. When this happens, it \"feels\" impossible to say no to a craving for sweets, fast food\u2014or even sex, gossip, or slander. These strong cravings and desires are a part of our lower, baser, or more animal-like nature. The Bible calls this appetite the \"flesh.\"\n\nWhen the Spirit of God leads us to pray, but the flesh demands one more television program, we can find ourselves in the middle of an internal battle for control. Or when the bathroom scale tells us that we need to lose weight, but we find it woefully impossible not to reach for one more slice of chocolate cake or bowl of ice cream, then we are encountering this powerful grip of our flesh. It has gained prominence over our mind, will, spirit, and emotions.\n\nOne way to break the power of your flesh and bring it under submission to your spirit and mind is to fast. Do you have an out-of-control temper that flares up at all the worst moments, damaging relationships with those you love? Fasting can bring that \"flesh\" under control.\n\nFasting feeds your spirit man while starving your natural man. It can soften your heart and cleanse your body to make you more receptive to God's plans. Fasting can sensitize your spirit to discern the voice and internal promptings of God's Spirit.\n\nGaining Control\n\nThe Bible has much to say about our desires for foods that harm us rather than improve our health. For instance, Proverbs 23:1\u20133 says, \"When thou sittest to eat with a ruler, consider diligently what is before thee: and put a knife to thy throat, if thou be a man given to appetite. Be not desirous of his dainties: for they are deceitful meat\" (kjv).\n\nIn this passage, God warns us against gluttony and tells us not to be controlled by our cravings for pastries and other tempting foods that do not nourish our bodies. Verse 3 cautions not to lust after the king's \"dainties.\" These \"dainties\" are delicacies, meaning they are probably high-sugar foods.\n\nThe term _flesh_ in the Bible speaks about the cravings and desires of our bodies that we must conquer. These desires include the following:\n\n1. Laziness and lethargy that keeps us from exercising\n\n2. Cravings for sweets, processed starches, and fats that cause us to eat too much of all the wrong foods so that we end up piling on the extra pounds and never properly nourishing our bodies\n\n3. Out-of-control emotions such as anger and rage that can send us into a frenzy in traffic or cause us to say hurtful things to our loved ones, which we later regret\n\nMany more things come under the category of \"flesh.\" Flesh can involve our thoughts, emotions, desires for inappropriate sex, compulsion to binge out on sweets, inability to stop ourselves from gossiping, and much, much more. \"Flesh\" is nothing more than our needs, wants, and cravings in their undisciplined state. This concept of the \"flesh\" will be important to us as I complete our discussion about detoxification.\n\nOur flesh is ignorant. _Ignorant_ is defined in Webster's dictionary as \"lacking knowledge.\" Hosea 4:6 says, \"My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge.\" If your flesh rules you, you will actually be drawn to the very foods that will eventually destroy you.\n\nThe Destructive Power of Uncontrolled Desires\n\nIt has been said that the quickest way to a man's heart is through his stomach. It was because of appetite that Eve, and later Adam, fell into sin by eating the forbidden fruit. Uncontrolled appetite for food plunged the entire human race into sin, opening the door to all of the disastrous consequences that followed, such as abuse, murder, theft, and so forth. (See Genesis 3:6.)\n\nMany generations later, Abraham's grandson Esau was also unable to gain control over his appetite for food. Esau sold his birthright, which entitled him to a position of great honor and importance, for no more than a single meal\u2014and only a bowl of soup at that! Because of this, Esau lost the cultural privilege and blessing that came with being the firstborn. Instead, Jacob, Esau's younger brother, received this prestigious title and position.\n\nLater, Jacob\u2014not Esau\u2014was renamed Israel, and his twelve sons became the twelve founding tribes of a great nation. If appetite had not controlled Esau, the title and position of the blessing of Abraham and Isaac would have been his. Esau's descendants would have become the great chosen nation, rather than the offspring of Jacob.\n\nYears later, when Israel's descendants wandered around in the hot, arid, Middle Eastern desert wilderness, the entire nation encountered the same struggle. When they were unable to get food, God supernaturally sent them manna from heaven to eat. But instead of appreciating this incredible miracle, they complained that they didn't like it. You see, it didn't satisfy their fleshly cravings. Numbers 21:5 says, \"And the people spoke against God and against Moses: 'Why have you brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? For there is no food and no water, and our soul loathes this worthless bread.'\"\n\nIn other words, the Israelites hated the manna, so they griped and complained and grumbled against Moses. In verses 6\u20137, we see the disaster that followed:\n\nSo the LORD sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people; and many of the people of Israel died. Therefore the people came to Moses, and said, \"We have sinned, for we have spoken against the LORD and against you; pray to the LORD that He take away the serpents from us.\" So Moses prayed for the people.\n\nIn this particular instance Moses prayed, but God didn't remove the snakes. Instead, He had Moses make a bronze serpent and put it on a pole. If the snake bit anyone, they simply had to use their faith and look at the bronze serpent and they lived. This serpent on a pole was also a type and shadow of Jesus. But this wasn't the first time that such a thing occurred. Their uncontrolled appetites had gotten them into big trouble before. Let's look.\n\nNow the mixed multitude who were among them yielded to intense craving; so the children of Israel also wept again and said: \"Who will give us meat to eat? We remember the fish which we ate freely in Egypt, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the onions, and the garlic; but now our whole being is dried up; there is nothing at all except this manna before our eyes!\"\n\n\u2014NUMBERS 11:4\u20136\n\nAs you can see, the Israelites caved in to their uncontrolled appetites and mumbled, groaned, and complained loudly that they wanted to enjoy the same food they had in Egypt. Here's what happened next:\n\nNow a wind went out from the LORD, and it brought quail from the sea and left them fluttering near the camp . . . . And the people stayed up all that day, all night, and all the next day, and gathered the quail (he who gathered least gathered ten homers [a homer was about 10 \u00bd bushels; ten homers, 105 bushels]); and they spread them out for themselves all around about the camp. But while the meat was still between their teeth, before it was chewed, the wrath of the LORD was aroused against the people, and the Lord struck the people with a very great plague.\n\n\u2014NUMBERS 11:31\u201333\n\nWhether or not these birds were diseased, we don't really know. We do know that out-of-control fleshly cravings got these people into big trouble.\n\nWe must be very careful not to dismiss these stories as irrelevant. These accounts are extremely relevant to our own lives, for we are made of the same stuff of which these ancient wanderers were made. The uncontrolled appetite of our lower natures is just as dangerous to our own health and well-being as it was to theirs.\n\nFleshly Cravings\n\nLet's investigate the lower nature a little further. Just what does it crave? These verses in 1 John spell it out:\n\nDo not love the world or the things in the world. If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him. For all that is in the world\u2014the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life\u2014is not of the Father but is of the world.\n\n\u20141 JOHN 2:15\u201316\n\nWhat the Bible calls \"the lust of the flesh\" includes the following cravings:\n\n  Desiring excessive amounts of the wrong foods such as sweets, fats, and meats; a glutton (Prov. 23:1\u20133)\n\n  Sex outside of marriage\n\n  Impure and ungodly desires\n\n  Thinking about and desiring inappropriate sex\n\n  Compulsive or obsessive desire for things other than God\n\n  Anger and angry outbursts when you don't get your own way\n\n  Creating strife by undermining people, criticizing, and gossiping\n\n  Sedition or rebellion, or simply demanding that those over you do it your way, or else you'll find a way to get what you want regardless\n\n  Murders, which can include destroying those who get in your way, abortions\n\n  Drunkenness and reveling (Gal. 5:19\u201321)\n\nWhat the Bible calls \"the lust of the eyes\" is really nothing more than an uncontrolled desire for sex outside of marriage or a longing for what belongs to other people, such as positions, power, riches, beauty, possessions, and strength. The lust of the eyes causes us to lift ourselves above others and feel smug and self-righteous.\n\nFasting to Control the Lower Nature\n\nSince we are all born with the same lower nature, what can we do? Fasting is a powerful tool to subdue the strength of our flesh. Fasting can help us control the lower nature's cravings, bringing our flesh under subjection to our minds and spirits.\n\nThe key to our spirituality is yielding to the Holy Spirit. Our fleshly, carnal nature opposes God's Spirit and cannot yield. Romans 8:7\u20138 says, \"Because the carnal mind is enmity against God; for it is not subject to the law of God, nor indeed can be. So then, those who are in the flesh cannot please God.\" This means that it is impossible to walk in the power of the Holy Spirit and live in the fleshly, carnal nature.\n\nThe Bible encourages us to walk in the presence and power of the Spirit as an anecdote for living in the flesh. In Galatians 5:16\u201317 Paul says, \"I say then: Walk in the Spirit, and you shall not fulfill the lust of the flesh. For the flesh lusts against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh; and these are contrary to one another, so that you do not do the things that you wish.\"\n\nAs long as our fleshly, carnal nature controls us, we will be unable to do the will of the Holy Spirit because it is in direct opposition to His will.\n\nThe carnal, unrenewed mind of the flesh is controlled and dominated by the thinking and reasoning of our intellects. Emotions also control and dominate this lower nature, which means that your feelings and desires control you. In addition to that, the carnal nature is also controlled by the five senses of taste, smell, sight, feeling, and hearing.\n\nBut we are not without hope, for the power of God is released through the Holy Spirit who works in us. Ephesians 3:20 tells us, \"Now to Him who is able to do exceedingly abundantly above all that we ask or think, according to the power that works in us . . . \" That power at work in us is the power of the Holy Spirit. However, it cannot be released in us if we are walking in the flesh.\n\nThe promise of Acts 1:8, that we will be divinely empowered by the Holy Spirit to become witnesses of God's power and love, cannot be realized by the lower, carnal nature. Jesus taught that we must crucify the flesh by taking up our own cross, just as He took up His cross. If we don't, we will be unable to yield to the Holy Spirit's power and will be fully controlled by the power of the flesh.\n\nIt's only as we live our lives in vital connection with the living Christ that we become able to crucify the lusts of the flesh and live and walk in the higher nature of the Holy Spirit within.\n\nThis process of crucifying the flesh must be accomplished daily through prayer, renewing the mind by regularly reading the Word of God, and by watching every word that comes out of our mouths. All of these things are like the hammers, pickaxes, drills, and machinery that operate at the rock quarry of your hardened flesh. In this effort, fasting is the dynamite that makes all of the other efforts easier and more effective.\n\nAbiding in the Word of God\n\nThe Word of God says, \"Walk in the Spirit, and you shall not fulfill the lust of the flesh\" (Gal. 5:16). This verse suggests that what you focus upon will empower your thoughts. If you focus upon the Spirit of God through prayer and fill your mind with the Word of God, your thoughts will be filled with the power of God to resist negative, poisonous emotions and attitudes.\n\nOur minds must be renewed so that we will be able to walk in the Spirit and not fulfill the desires of the flesh. This renewing of the mind occurs as our thoughts are filled with the powerful, living Word of God. But if our minds are always thinking upon negatives such as jealousy, envy, strife, unforgiveness, or what makes us angry, or upon things we don't have but want, on someone who has hurt us or caused us harm, and on what we dislike, then our minds and thoughts are carnal or inspired by our lower nature. When we fill our minds with God's words and thoughts through the Bible and prayer, we feed and strengthen our higher nature, which was designed to serve God.\n\nThis is the secret to overcoming temptation\u2014even the temptation of deadly emotions.\n\nAbiding in Christlike Speech\n\nOften our mouths get us into more trouble than anything else. They may well be our greatest weapons of destruction. In fact, James 3:6 says, \"And the tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity. The tongue is so set among our members that it defiles the whole body, and sets on fire the course of nature; and it is set on fire by hell.\" What we say often releases the destructive power of our lower natures into the atmosphere or into individual lives and relationships. How often have we all wished we could take back some of the things we've said?\n\nWhat you say has enormous spiritual, emotional, and physical power. Proverbs 18:21 says, \"Death and life are in the power of the tongue.\" Your words actually have the power to heal or kill, to strengthen or wound, to unite or divide. Controlling your words is extremely important. Here are some scriptures about the tongue to recite every time you are tempted to slip and say something you know you'll regret:\n\n  \"Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks\" (Matt. 12:34).\n\n  \"For every idle word men may speak, they will give account of it in the day of judgment\" (Matt. 12:36).\n\n  \"Let no corrupt word proceed out of your mouth\" (Eph. 4:29).\n\nPaul talked about his victory over the carnal nature in 1 Corinthians 9:25\u201327. Paul said he \"disciplined\" his body and made it his slave. He accomplished this in part through fasting. The apostle tells us in Romans 13:14 to make no provision for the flesh to gratify its desires. In Colossians 3:5 Paul tells us to \"mortify\" our members (kjv). In 1 Corinthians 9:27 Paul says to bring the body into subjection.\n\nWe are to crucify the flesh according to Galatians 2:20 and Romans 6:6. In 1 Peter 2:11 we are told to abstain from fleshly lust. We must decide: Is the body the master, or is the Holy Spirit the master? The body makes a wonderful servant but a very poor master. In Romans 8:5\u20136 Paul reminds us, \"Those who are dominated by the sinful nature think about sinful things, but those who are controlled by the Holy Spirit think about things that please the spirit. So letting your sinful nature control your mind leads to death. But letting the Spirit control your mind leads to life and peace\" (NLT).\n\nFasting brings the carnal nature into subjection so that the body becomes the servant and the Spirit becomes the master, allowing us to walk in the power of the Holy Spirit.\n\nIn addition to helping us conquer the seemingly insurmountable power of the flesh, fasting has many other powerful spiritual applications.\n\nThe Why of Spiritual Fasting\n\nSo why should we fast? What does denying ourselves our favorite foods actually do for us?\n\nBuilds godly character\n\nFor starters, fasting builds character. By enabling us to surrender our lives to God in greater measure, we find more control over our tongues, our minds, our attitudes, our emotions, our bodies, and all our fleshly desires. Fasting also helps us to submit our spirits to God completely so that He can use them for His purposes.\n\nIt really is possible to be led by the Spirit of God and not ruled by fleshly desires. However, even though many Christians have invited the power of the Holy Spirit into their lives, they continue to be led about by the insatiable appetites of the flesh. They live their lives pursuing whatever gratifies the cravings of the lower nature or their own selfish motives instead of the purposes of God. Many are good people who actually would like to live on a much higher plane of existence, but they just don't know how.\n\nFasting allows us to die to the appetites of the lower nature, to the lusts of the flesh. It gives us the ability to build up character and integrity by allowing the Spirit of God to operate through us. The only real way to build godly character and genuine integrity into our inner man is by spending time in the presence of God.\n\nLooses chains of bondage\n\nDo you struggle with addictions or addictive behaviors? Sometimes addictions can even show up in our personalities rather than through debilitating behaviors such as alcoholism. For instance, perhaps you've never been an alcoholic, but when you get into a room filled with people, you have an obsessive need to be constantly talking or running everything and everyone in sight. An exaggerated need to control others or to control circumstances and situations can cause as much bondage as drug addiction.\n\nBondages come in all shapes, colors, types, and sizes. So don't be too quick to dismiss the notion that you may have bondages in your own life. Most of us growing up and living in this very imperfect world end up with some bondages. Those who do not are by far the very rare exception\u2014if they even exist at all.\n\nDo you have bondages in your life? Or do you have close loved ones who are bound by addictive personalities and behaviors? Fasting is critically important if you have children who need to be set free from drugs and alcohol, homosexuality, pornography, or who have been caught up in the throes of rebellion. Fasting can be extremely helpful when you are praying for a loved one's salvation. Is there strife in your home or workplace? Fasting can begin to break any spiritual stronghold so that peace and civility can return.\n\nIsaiah 58:6 says that fasting is to \"loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free, and that you break every yoke.\"\n\nHumbles ourselves\n\nAlthough the lower nature can seem amazingly powerful, fasting humbles it. Humbling the flesh is required if we want to live a clean, godly life.\n\nMatthew 18:4 says, \"Therefore whoever humbles himself as this little child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven.\" First Peter 5:6 says, \"Therefore humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God, that He may exalt you in due time.\" James 4:10 says, \"Humble yourselves in the sight of the Lord, and He will lift you up.\" Matthew 23:12 says, \"And whoever exalts himself will be humbled, and he who humbles himself will be exalted.\"\n\nOne of the key reasons that fasting gets God's attention is that it is a key to humility. Fasting humbles our flesh, which finds favor with God. James 4:6 says, \"God resists the proud, but gives grace to the humble.\" In other words, the humility that can be obtained through spiritual fasting opens the door to God's grace and favor.\n\nGod doesn't make us humble. He has left that responsibility up to us. We humble ourselves before God with fasting and prayer, as individuals and even as a nation.\n\nFasting for Spiritual Healing, Glory, and Refreshing\n\nAmerica needs to be healed. Our children need to be healed from the spirits of rebellion, drugs, alcohol, revelry, homosexuality, sexual lusts, and perversion. Our land needs to be healed from the shedding of innocent blood because of the millions of abortions occurring every year. Our culture needs to be healed from the self-centeredness and selfishness that have consumed us, causing us to constantly crave more things, more money, and more power. We are a people desperately in need of spiritual healing.\n\nAs we have seen, fasting is a powerful tool for spiritual healing, whether for a nation as a whole, for cities, for families, or for individuals.\n\nWe are promised in God's Word that if we fast and pray as a group that an awesome spiritual healing can take place. Let's look:\n\nIf My people who are called by My name will humble themselves, and pray and seek My face, and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal their land.\n\n\u20142 CHRONICLES 7:14\n\nAgain we see that attitude and motive are as important as fasting itself. Even though our culture rewards pride, God does the exact opposite. He rewards the self-imposed humility obtained through fasting. Humbling ourselves helps us to shift our focus away from the pleasures, concerns, and demands of our lives here on earth and to focus upon the things above\u2014God and His priorities.\n\nSuch humble fasting has created a force that has won wars, stayed judgment, and saved cities and countries. Humble fasting before God is awesomely powerful and can turn an entire nation around.\n\nFinding the Presence of God\n\nHave you ever desired to experience God's presence? Fasting can bring the healing and refreshing presence of God into an individual life and into the life of a family or even a nation. Too many of us let natural things absorb our time and energy when we could be enjoying the glorious realm of God's Spirit.\n\nAfter Moses fasted for forty days, he was swept up into an entirely new place in God's Spirit. He received the Ten Commandments and became the lawgiver of Israel. After Jesus had fasted for forty days, the Holy Spirit empowered His life, and His ministry of healing and preaching was launched.\n\nYou too can receive the touch of God's glory upon your own life, just as Jesus and Moses did, through fasting and prayer. The kind of prayer that simply makes long lists of requests to God is not enough. You must enter into the realm of the Holy Spirit through worship, reading God's Word, and listening to God's voice as well as making requests.\n\nMoses experienced the same hunger for more of God that you may be experiencing right now. He prayed that God might reveal Himself to him, although no man could actually look at God and live. His request is found in Exodus 33. The Lord then instructed him:\n\nAnd the LORD said, \"Here is a place by Me, and you shall stand on the rock. So it shall be, while My glory passes by, that I will put you in the cleft of the rock, and will cover you with My hand while I pass by. Then I will take away My hand, and you shall see My back; but My face shall not be seen.\"\n\n\u2014EXODUS 33:21\u201323\n\nIn other words, Moses got a glance of the glory of the back of God. Exodus 34:29\u201332 says:\n\nNow it was so, when Moses came down from Mount Sinai (and the two tablets of the Testimony were in Moses' hand when he came down from the mountain), that Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone while he talked with Him. So when Aaron and all the children of Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were afraid to come near him. Then Moses called to them, and Aaron and all the rulers of the congregation returned to him; and Moses talked with them. Afterward all the children of Israel came near, and he gave them as commandments all that the LORD had spoken with him on Mount Sinai.\n\nMoses's encounter with God was so powerful that he actually shone with God's glory, and the people, blinded by the light that was on him, shrank back in fear. Moses's dynamic experience with God went much further than merely impacting his own life. The touch of God he received dramatically impacted the entire nation.\n\nThe radiant glow shining on his face was so bright that Moses covered his face with a veil to keep from blinding those around him. Verse 33 says, \"And when Moses had finished speaking with them, he put a veil on his face.\"\n\nFasting allowed Moses to enter such a depth of God's presence that the very glory of God came upon him and radiated to everyone nearby. Fasting created such a sense of God's power and presence upon him that God's glory overflowed.\n\nFasting enables us to touch the world around us with God's love and power. Fasting can be a tool to access God's power to affect our children, our extended families, our cities, and even the world. Acts 1:8 says, \"But you shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be witnesses to Me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth.\"\n\nIn fact, it was with fasting that the apostles in the first century sent out their missionaries to proclaim the message of Christ. Acts 13:2\u20133 says, \"As they ministered to the Lord and fasted, the Holy Spirit said, 'Now separate to Me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them.' Then, having fasted and prayed, and laid hands on them, they sent them away.\"\n\nFasting Delivers Us From Error\n\nWhen you are making critical decisions such as choosing your mate, changing a job, deciding to move, or other major life-impacting decisions, you need God's divine guidance to be sure you are not holding onto opinions or other judgments that are in error.\n\nThe problem with error is that when we're in it, we think we're right. That's why we need divine guidance for life's major decisions.\n\nThe Bible promises that the Holy Spirit is ready and willing to provide that guidance when you ask. John 16:13\u201314 says, \"However, when He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth; for He will not speak on His own authority, but whatever He hears He will speak; and He will tell you things to come.\"\n\nThe apostle Paul received this kind of guidance in Acts 9 after meeting Jesus Christ on the road to Damascus. Before he became a believer, the apostle actually was very hostile to the church of Jesus Christ. A wave of persecution swept through the early church, and Paul was one of its leaders. While Paul was erroneously following his own best judgment, Jesus Christ appeared to him, and he fell to the earth.\n\nBlinded by the light of the risen Savior, the Lord told him to visit a particular house. He had to be led by hand for three days, during which time he fasted, neither eating nor drinking.\n\nPaul genuinely believed that he was serving God by persecuting Christians until he heard Christ's voice saying, \"Why are you persecuting Me?\"\n\nBut when Paul asked, \"Who are You, Lord?,\" the reply was, \"I am Jesus.\"\n\nFasting will free you from your own misjudgments and allow the light of Christ's truth to shine clearly.\n\nThere are times in all of our lives when we are being led around by our own misjudgments and desires, and we don't even know it. Regular fasting can protect us from the blindness of our own opinions and desires.\n\nFasting will help us to be led by the Spirit instead of being led by faulty judgments. Paul was a good man, but his faulty judgments caused him to actually fight against God instead of fighting for Him. It's tragic that we humans can be so blind\u2014but we can! That's why spiritual fasting is so very important.\n\nFasting for Healing\n\nFasting is also a powerful tool for healing and restoration. Here's what the Bible says about it:\n\nThen your light shall break forth like the morning, your healing shall spring forth speedily, and your righteousness shall go before you; the glory of the LORD shall be your rear guard.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:8\n\nNot only does fasting break the chains of wickedness, lift heavy burdens, and free the oppressed, but it also brings back your health.\n\nThe When of Spiritual Fasting\n\nIt's important to fast for the right motive, but I'll bet you didn't know that it's equally important NOT to fast at certain times. The disciples of Jesus learned this truth. The disciples of John and of the Pharisees were fasting. Then they came and said to Him, \"Why do the disciples of John and of the Pharisees fast, but Your disciples do not fast?\"\n\nAnd Jesus said to them, \"Can the friends of the bridegroom fast while the bridegroom is with them? As long as they have the bridegroom with them they cannot fast. But the days will come when the bridegroom will be taken away from them, and then they will fast in those days.\"\n\n\u2014MARK 2:18\u201320\n\nWhen Jesus was walking with them through the hills of Galilee, teaching them and praying with them, fasting was inappropriate. It was neither the time nor the season to fast.\n\nRather, His presence brought a season of rejoicing and feasting. However, after Jesus ascended into heaven, the disciples were expected to fast.\n\nIn Mark 2:20, Jesus said, \"They will fast in those days.\"\n\nStill, we don't actually read about the disciples fasting until the Book of Acts. In Acts 13:1\u20133 the church fasted together as they were guided by the Holy Spirit or had a need.\n\nAfter the followers of Christ began fasting, they had rich teaching provided by the Master from which to draw. Jesus had taught them all about motives and even about appearance during times of fasting. In Matthew 6:17\u201318, Jesus said, \"But you, when you fast, anoint your head and wash your face, so that you do not appear to men to be fasting, but to your Father who is in the secret place; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you openly.\"\n\nJesus did not say \"if\" you fast but \"when\" you fast. He assumes that fasting will be a normal part of spiritual life once He, the Bridegroom, is gone.\n\nSo then, when should we fast? Always fast as the Holy Spirit leads. In other words, just as Jesus was led into the wilderness to fast and pray, we should also be led by the Spirit into times and seasons of fasting. The New Testament never lays down strict rules regarding fasting; therefore, we should never impose strict rules upon others or ourselves.\n\nRegularly Scheduled Visits\n\nEven though most spiritual leaders were called to a fasted lifestyle, throughout time many have been called to fast for regularly scheduled times. Let's investigate.\n\nWe know that the Jewish leaders fasted regularly, usually twice a week. The Bible mentions their regular fasts in Luke 18:11\u201312.\n\nThe Pharisee stood and prayed thus with himself, \"God, I thank You that I am not like other men\u2014extortioners, unjust, adulterers, or even as this tax collector. I fast twice a week; I give tithes of all that I possess.\"\n\nThe _Didache_ was a Christian manual on the practices of the church that was written in the second century. The _Didache_ actually ordered regular weekly fasts on both Wednesdays and Fridays. The writers of this document said, \"Let not your fast be with hypocrites, for they fast on Mondays and Thursdays, but do your fast on Wednesdays and Fridays.\" By ordering regular fasts, the _Didache_ was doing just as it criticized the Pharisees for doing\u2014it was promoting legalism.\n\nLater the Roman Catholic Church set aside Fridays as its fast day. No Catholic Christian was permitted to eat meat on Fridays. Even Martin Luther, the leader of the Protestant movement, promoted fasting. However, he insisted that fasting be voluntary and private.\n\nJohn Wesley, on the other hand, recommended that Christians fast on the two week days that were mentioned in the _Didache_ \u2014Wednesdays and Fridays. Wesley refused to ordain an individual in the Methodist ministry if he didn't fast on those days.\n\nOther great men of God fasted regularly also, men such as Andrew Murray, Charles Finney, Charles Spurgeon, and John G. Lake.\n\nA commitment to regular fasting is another powerful way to enjoy the benefits of a fasted lifestyle. For today's disciples who regularly minister to hurting individuals, fasting is a mighty tool of spiritual empowerment.\n\nAs we've seen, fasting is very important in spiritual life. But we've also seen that not all fasting is helpful. Legalistic fasting earned the Pharisee in Luke no brownie points with God. The reasons for which we should take up spiritual fasting are always totally selfless.\n\nAs we've seen, God is most concerned with our motives for fasting. Jesus too was far more concerned with the motives behind fasting than with how long or how often we fast. Motive is everything when it comes to spiritual fasting.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nDo you desire to experience the mighty power and supernatural presence of God in your life? I trust that by now you have realized that it may require more from you than a simple prayer. To go deeper into spiritual things you may have to humble yourself by combining fasting with your prayer. Do you desire for God to change seemingly insurmountable circumstances in a loved one's life or in your family or workplace? Fasting can empower your prayers and break the strongest bondage and oppression.\n\nSpiritual fasting is a mighty key that, when accomplished with the right motives, produces powerfully dynamic results.\n\nLet's turn now and look at how fasting was used in just these very ways by great men and women throughout history.\nChapter 12\n\nSPIRITUAL FASTING THROUGHOUT THE BIBLE\n\nTHE BIBLE SAYS THAT WHEN WE FAST OR STOP EATING FOR SPIRITUAL purposes, then God will feed us something better than food. Isaiah 58:14 says He will feed us \"with the heritage of Jacob.\" What that means is that fasting will give us a place among other great spiritual men and women throughout history.\n\nThis is an incredible promise, for many great men and women have rocked nations and shaken kingdoms. Walking in their footsteps is a genuine privilege.\n\nLet's turn now and look at some of these spiritual giants and examine their powerful spiritual fasts. They are named for the great spiritual leaders who used them to make their world better and to rise above the human, fleshly condition.\n\nJesus Himself employed fasting to conquer Satan.\n\nLet's investigate the fast of Jesus. The story begins when John the Baptist baptized Jesus. In Luke 3:21\u201322, the Bible states, \"Jesus also was baptized; and while He prayed, the heaven was opened. And the Holy Spirit descended in bodily form like a dove upon Him, and a voice came from heaven which said, 'You are My beloved Son; in You I am well pleased.'\"\n\nThis is the first of two major experiences Jesus had before entering public ministry. In this experience, the Holy Spirit descended upon Him in a visible form. If Kodak cameras had been available back then, no doubt someone would have snapped pictures of this powerful phenomenon. Even so, this incredible sign from heaven did not launch Christ's ministry. After the Holy Spirit came down upon Him, He was led by the Spirit into the wilderness to fast and pray (Matt. 4:1).\n\nFor forty days Christ ate nothing. After this extended fast, Luke 4:14 says, \"Then Jesus returned in the power of the Spirit to Galilee, and the news of Him went out through all the surrounding region.\"\n\nLater, Jesus would sit among the people and teach three disciplines in the Sermon on the Mount. They include prayer, giving, and fasting\u2014and He placed all three on the same level. Many believers feel it is their duty to pray and give but seldom feel the same need to fast. But Jesus didn't say, \"If you fast . . . \" He said, \"When you fast . . . \" (See Matthew 6:17\u201318.)\n\nJesus didn't begin His ministry until He had fasted for forty days. Jesus was first baptized. Then the Holy Spirit descended on Him, and afterward He was full of the Spirit. The Holy Spirit led Him into the desert, and after His fast, He returned in the power of the Holy Spirit. This was when His mighty ministry was launched, a ministry of great miracles, signs, and wonders. All of this took place as a result of fasting.\n\nInterestingly, Jesus told us that we too would do these works and even greater works because He went to the Father. (See John 14:12.) I truly believe that we will see these greater works as we learn and practice the great spiritual discipline of fasting.\n\nIf Jesus Christ felt the need to fast, how much more should we? An individual, a group of people, or an entire nation can accomplish fasting. When the Jews came together each year on the Day of Atonement for a day of corporate fasting, the results were powerful. Let's take a look.\n\nCorporate Fasting for Forgiveness of Sins\n\nHistorically, God's people were commanded to fast once a year. On the Day of Atonement, all Israel came before God in corporate fasting and repentance. (See Leviticus 16:29\u201334; 23:26\u201332.)\n\nThe Day of Atonement was considered the single most sacred day of the entire religious year, a day in which everyone in the entire nation stopped everything he was doing, refused to eat, and sought God's forgiveness for all the sins committed that year.\n\nLeviticus 16:29 tells us:\n\nThis shall be a statue forever to you: In the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month, you shall afflict your souls, and do no work at all.\n\nIt goes on to say, \"For on that day the priest shall make atonement for you, to cleanse you, that you may be clean from all your sins before the LORD. It is a sabbath of solemn rest for you, and you shall afflict your souls. It is a statute forever\" (vv. 30\u201331).\n\nSince the day this statute was given, for the past thirty-five hundred years, Jews have honored and observed Yom Kippur, or the Day of Atonement, as a solemn day of fasting. This fast day was mentioned in the New Testament. As Paul journeyed to Rome, \"much time had been spent, and sailing was now dangerous because the Fast [which was the Day of Atonement] was already over\" (Acts 27:9).\n\nThe Day of Atonement usually fell at the end of September or the beginning of October. The fasting of this special day was part of the humility and repentance necessary for atonement to be given by God. On this day, the high priest actually laid hands on a goat and spoke out the people's sins. When he was through, he released the goat into the desert or the wilderness. The blood of another goat was then sprinkled in the holy of holies in a solemn act. Through this ceremony, the sins of the people were cleansed.\n\nThe Day of Atonement was always on a Sabbath day. During Jesus's lifetime, the Jews observed about twenty-two different spiritual fasts, including the Day of Atonement fast.\n\nNot only was fasting used to cleanse the sins of an entire nation, corporate fasting was used by the Jews also to seek protection and deliverance when their enemies tried to destroy them.\n\nThe Esther Fast\u2014for Protection, Deliverance, and Divine Favor\n\nEsther was a beautiful, young Hebrew girl living in Persia during Israel's captivity. This lovely woman was chosen as queen over all the other young women in the entire nation. The prime minister of Persia was Haman, an evil man who hated the Jews.\n\nHaman succeeded in passing a law of genocide to kill all the Jews. Therefore, Queen Esther decided to risk going before the king to try and save her people. According to the laws, if anyone, even the queen, requested an uninvited audience with the king, that person could be killed.\n\nFaced with the danger to her people and the danger to Esther herself, the queen called a fast. The Bible says:\n\nGo, gather all the Jews who are present in Shushan, and fast for me; neither eat nor drink for three days, night or day. My maids and I will fast likewise. And so I will go to the king, which is against the law; and if I perish, I perish!\n\n\u2014ESTHER 4:16\n\nEsther went before the king dressed, not in sackcloth and ashes, but with her royal robes. She invited Haman and the king to a banquet she had prepared, and the king accepted. However, later that night the king could not sleep. He had his royal diary brought in, and as the diary was being read, he learned that Esther's cousin Mordecai had saved his life. The king's heart had already been turned toward Esther because of the people's corporate fast.\n\nWhen Haman entered the court to speak with the king about another matter, the king asked Haman this question: \"'What shall be done for the man whom the king delights to honor?' Now Haman thought in his heart, 'Whom would the king delight to honor more than me?'\" (Esther 6:6).\n\nHaman answered the king with these words:\n\nLet a royal robe be brought which the king has worn, and a horse on which the king has ridden, which has a royal crest placed on its head. Then let this robe and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the king's most noble princes, that he may array the man whom the king delights to honor. Then parade him on horseback through the city square, and proclaim before him: \"Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delights to honor!\"\n\n\u2014ESTHER 6:8\u20139\n\nJust before this happened, Haman had prepared gallows to hang Mordecai. But instead of hanging him, Haman was forced to parade him with great tribute throughout the city. Then Esther informed the king that Haman had issued the decree to have the Jewish people exterminated. The king entered as Haman was reaching for the queen to beg for mercy. It looked to the king as if Haman was attempting to assault his wife sexually. The story ends with Haman being hanged on the gallows that were prepared for Mordecai.\n\nThe three days of corporate fasting called by Esther turned the situation completely around in a mighty display of supernatural favor and spiritual power.\n\nThe three-day Esther fast is for protection, deliverance, and divine favor, and it reveals the power of corporate fasting to move the hand of God mightily and to change the hearts of men. This fast opens up even those whose hearts are bitterly hardened against God and can help turn hurting individuals back to God.\n\nLet's turn now and look at the fast of another great leader whose spiritual fast significantly impacted a nation's history.\n\nThe Ezra Fast\u2014for Direction and Protection\n\nFor centuries the Jews was held in captivity by the nation of Persia. When freedom finally came, Ezra, a priest, was given permission by Cyrus, the king of Persia, to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the magnificent Jerusalem temple.\n\nThe trip to Jerusalem was very dangerous. Ezra needed protection to lead the great caravan of thousands of defenseless Jews back to their home city. He was ashamed to ask the king for an escort of soldiers because he had bragged about God's protection for all who worship Him. Many of the travelers actually had become wealthy in captivity, and so Ezra was responsible for safely transporting their treasures and other belongings as well.\n\nEzra 8:21 says, \"I proclaimed a fast there at the river of Ahava, that we might humble ourselves before our God, to seek from Him the right way for us and our little ones and all our possessions.\" They fasted for the protection, security, and direction from God.\n\nThe journeyers returned to Israel in safety with all of their possessions intact. Once again, the Bible reports powerful spiritual results were obtained through fasting.\n\nAlthough corporate fasting was common, individual fasts were even more so. Elijah was another spiritual giant of the Bible who understood the power of fasting for affecting the outcome of great spiritual battles. The Elijah fast is undertaken during times of intense spiritual conflict.\n\nThe Elijah Fast\u2014to Combat Spiritual Enemies\n\nElijah had just won the greatest victory of his life over four hundred fifty prophets of Baal. He actually had called fire down from heaven and then had all of those demonically inspired prophets of Baal killed. Queen Jezebel, who had given these prophets a place of authority, responded in an angry frenzy, threatening to murder Elijah by the very next day.\n\nThrown into a state of terror, depression, and despondency, Elijah ran for his life. He didn't stop running until he was about a day's journey away in the wilderness, where he sat down to rest under a juniper tree. It seems clear that Elijah realized that he lacked what it took to battle what was coming against him. In 1 Kings 19:5\u20138, we read:\n\nThen as he lay and slept under a broom [juniper] tree, suddenly an angel touched him, and said to him, \"Arise and eat.\" Then he looked, and there by his head was a cake baked on coals, and a jar of water. So he ate and drank, and lay down again. And the angel of the LORD came back the second time, and touched him, and said, \"Arise and eat, because the journey is too great for you.\" So he arose, and ate and drank; and he went in the strength of that food forty days and forty nights as far as Horeb, the mountain of God.\n\nIn this account, Jezebel represents the evil forces that can come against God's own. The Bible says, \"For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this age, against spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places\" (Eph. 6:12). Confronted with the rage of evil forces, Elijah responded with fasting.\n\nElijah didn't eat or drink, and the power of the terror, despondency, and depression that had assailed his mind and overwhelmed his emotions was broken.\n\nWe all have faced overwhelming situations that terrify us, paralyze us, and place us in emotional and mental bondage. There are even times in which we feel as if the very forces of hell are raining down on us.\n\nNonetheless, we don't have to be become paralyzed or bound by a yoke of anxiety, depression, and fear. Just as with Elijah, God has provided fasting as a powerful weapon to combat the spiritual forces that attack our minds and emotions.\n\nIsaiah 58:6 says, \"Is this not the fast I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free, and that you break every yoke?\" Yokes are devices for joining two oxen together. When you are yoked with depression, you become bound or united to it as a heavy burden that you must carry.\n\nYokes of bondage include negative attitudes such as depression, despondency, fear, and anxiety. But don't go on a forty-day fast as Elijah did without a special word from God, no matter how heavy your yoke. Even then, your physician must closely monitor such a lengthy fast. Also, never go on a fast without drinking adequate amounts of water on a daily basis.\n\nBoth Elijah and Moses went on a supernatural fast in which they ingested neither food nor water. Jesus, however, went on a forty-day fast and drank water but ate no food.\n\nInterestingly, on the Mount of Transfiguration, Elijah and Moses\u2014the two men who had fasted for forty days without food or water\u2014were there with Jesus. (See Matthew 17:2\u20133.) All three who stood on the Mount together had undergone a forty-day fast.\n\nFasting finds great favor in God's sight because of its ability to break the control of the flesh. Daniel was another great spiritual leader whose fasting brought about powerful results. Let's take a look at the Daniel fast for overcoming the flesh.\n\nThe Daniel Fast\u2014to Overcome the Flesh\n\nDaniel and three other Hebrew youths\u2014Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego\u2014were Jews in captivity, but in the kingdom of Babylon. They were greatly favored for their purity, and they were well educated and extremely gifted both mentally and spiritually.\n\nWhen these four young men were captured and taken into the king's palace to educate them in the ways of the Chaldeans, Daniel 1:5 states, \"The king appointed for them a daily provision of the king's delicacies and of the wine which he drank.\" He planned to keep them on his own rich diet of meats, fats, sugary pastries, and wine for three years. At the end of the three years they would be presented to the king.\n\nHowever, verse 8 says, \"But Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself with the portion of the king's delicacies, nor with the wine which he drank.\" In other words, Daniel rejected the rich, temptingly delicious meats, wine, and pastries of the royal court, perhaps because they did not meet the requirements of Jewish dietary laws or because these youths may have taken vows against drinking alcohol.\n\nSo Daniel made a request of the prince of the eunuchs. Verse 12 says, \"Please test your servants for ten days, and let them give us vegetables to eat and water to drink.\" The King James version uses the word _pulse._ \"Pulse\" consisted of vegetables and grains, wheat, barley, rye, peas, beans, and lentils.\n\nDaniel and the three other Hebrew youths lived a fasted life for three years on the vegetarian diet of pulse while learning and studying in the king's court, and God honored their partial fast. We're told in verse 15, \"At the end of ten days their features appeared better and fatter in flesh than all the young men who ate the portion of the king's delicacies.\"\n\nGod tremendously favored their decision to fast and granted them favor, wisdom, and insight far above anyone around them. In verses 18\u201320 we read:\n\nAt the end of the days, when the king had said that they should be brought in, the chief of the eunuchs brought them in before Nebuchadnezzar. Then the king interviewed them, and among them all none was found like Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah; therefore they served before the king. And in all matters of wisdom and understanding about which the king examined them, he found them ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers who were in all his realm.\n\nDaniel knew what was healthy to eat, and he purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself. The Daniel fast eliminates rich foods such as meats, pastries, cakes, pies, cookies, alcohol, and any other food that is tempting to the flesh.\n\nToday, people are so bound to their flesh that they often cannot go one meal without eating some form of meat, something sweet, fatty, or some other type of rich food. We must crucify our flesh daily and take up our cross and follow Christ. (See Matthew 16:24.) What better way to crucify our flesh than to follow Daniel's fasted lifestyle?\n\nThe Second Daniel Fast\u2014for Spiritual Breakthroughs\n\nWe find a second fast of Daniel in which he took in nothing but water. Let's look.\n\nDaniel 9:3 says, \"Then I set my face toward the Lord God to make request by prayer and supplications, with fasting, sackcloth, and ashes.\" When the Jews fasted with sackcloth and ashes, it was never a partial fast, but a total fast with complete abstinence from food.\n\nAgain, during a season of special prayer when Daniel desperately needed revelation from God, he fasted. Daniel 10:2\u20133 says, \"In those days I, Daniel, was mourning three full weeks. I ate no pleasant food, no meat or wine came into my mouth, nor did I anoint myself at all, till three whole weeks were fulfilled.\"\n\nMany scholars believe that this was a partial fast or a diet. However, some scholars believe it was a total fast. During this time of fasting, Daniel had great visions from heaven, along with an incredible angelic visitation.\n\nThis time of fasting reveals some astonishing insights into the spiritual realm and how it works. Once again, we see fasting as a dynamic agent of powerful spiritual warfare. It seems that the great ruling angel, Gabriel, was attempting to get a message to Daniel from the moment Daniel started praying. However, the account paints a picture of a great spiritual struggle encountered by this angelic being that was broken as Daniel fasted.\n\nThe mighty, shining heavenly ruler spoke to Daniel. \"From the first day that you set your heart to understand, and to humble yourself before your God, your words were heard; and I have come because of your words. But the prince of the kingdom of Persia withstood me twenty-one days\" (Dan. 10:12\u201313).\n\nThe angel spoke of powerful, spiritual demonic princes and great, high-ranking angels sent to withstand these beings. The fascinating thing about this passage is the place it gives to fasting and prayer. It was because of Daniel's three-week fast that the great angel was able to breakthrough the dark opposition and meet with Daniel to provide the mighty revelation he was seeking.\n\nThis astonishing passage suggests that fasting is extremely important when we need a breakthrough. In addition to that, it also suggests that we must never give up when we are seeking God.\n\nThroughout the Bible, those who believed in God and wanted to develop spiritually sought God through the discipline of fasting. The disciples of Jesus were among them also.\n\nThe Disciples' Fast\u2014for Empowered Ministry\n\nWhen the disciples who traveled with Jesus were sent out to begin ministering on their own, they encountered some unexpected resistance to the healing power of God. When the disciples were powerless to heal a young boy, the child's father approached Jesus.\n\nThe father's request is recorded in Matthew 17:15.\n\nLord, have mercy on my son, for he is an epileptic and suffers severely; for he often falls into the fire and often into the water.\n\nApparently the father didn't understand that his son was actually gripped by a demonic force. Although most cases of epilepsy have physical causes, this particular case did not.\n\nIn Matthew 17:16, we see that the father had taken his son to the disciples, but they were powerless to respond. Many of our own youth, teens, and young adults are bound with alcohol, drugs, nicotine, sexual desire, a spirit of revelry and partying, homosexuality, satanism, witchcraft, palm reading, and other dangerous strongholds. Unfortunately, some of these young people are Christians, but they are still bound with fear, anger, bitterness, resentment, unforgiveness, jealousy, strife, envy, and many other deadly emotions.\n\nHow can our youth be bound with these strongholds and yet profess to know Christ? Here's how. They may have had their sins forgiven, and they may have professed Christ as their Savior, but they have never had the spiritual chains of wickedness broken off of them. Isaiah 58:6 says, \"Is this not the fast that I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free, and that you break every yoke?\"\n\nThe disciples' fast breaks yokes, or breaks mental, spiritual, and emotional bondages, and sets people free. If you are a mother or father with a son or daughter in rebellion, bound with homosexuality, sexual perversion, sexual desire, drugs, alcohol, or any other stronghold, Jesus Christ can set them free by applying the principles of the fast of the disciples.\n\nIn Matthew 17:17\u201321, it's clear that Jesus expected the disciples to exercise enough faith to heal the demonized boy. He rebuked them by saying:\n\n\"O faithless and perverse generation, how long shall I be with you? How long shall I bear with you? Bring him here to Me.\" And Jesus rebuked the demon, and it came out of him; and the child was cured from that very hour.\n\nThen the disciples came to Jesus privately and said, \"Why could we not cast it out?\"\n\nSo Jesus said to them, \"Because of your unbelief; for assuredly, I say to you, if you have faith as a mustard seed, you will say to this mountain, 'Move from here to there,' and it will move; and nothing will be impossible for you. However, this kind does not go out except by prayer and fasting.\"\n\nThis boy's seizures were the result of a demonic stronghold that required fasting and prayer to break. Although demonic strongholds are created by sin, it doesn't necessarily follow that everyone who sins is bound by evil forces. But if sin seems impossible to resist, causing an individual to repeatedly fall back into destructive behaviors, then a stronghold may be involved. Strongholds include alcoholism, drug addition, sexual addictions, compulsive lying, stealing, or any other strongly compulsive behavior.\n\nTo overcome a stronghold, first you must recognize it for what it is\u2014a powerful way in which dark forces have attempted to control you. Next, it is important to avoid people and situations that link you to that stronghold. For example, if you are an alcoholic, stay away from bars and avoid your old drinking buddies.\n\nIt's also important to watch what you say. Your words hold great power. Try to speak words that will bring faith and life, not depression and hopelessness. In other words, when you are tempted, don't say, \"This thing is bigger than me. I'll never get free.\" Instead, speak the powerful Word of God: \" _If the Son of God has set me free, then I am free indeed!_ \" (John 8:36).\n\nJoin your faith together with the faith of other believers. Have them pray for you and with you. Visit and share your feelings with those who will help you to stay focused and strong.\n\nIf you have never asked Christ to come into your life, I encourage you to do so. There is great freedom in the power and fellowship of the Holy Spirit. Salvation is no farther away than the whisper of a prayer. Why not invite Jesus Christ into your heart this very minute? Simply bow your head and pray this prayer:\n\nDear Jesus, I repent for all of my sins. I repent for the sins that have brought bondage and fear into my life and into the lives of others. I thank You for dying on a cross for me so that I might be free. I receive Your forgiveness right now. Jesus, come into my heart, for I give my life to You. In Jesus's name, amen.\n\nIf you have just prayed this prayer, freedom and release are yours. Christ has forgiven your sins and entered your heart. Accept it by faith, which is nothing more than choosing to believe God. And by the way, welcome to the family!\n\nContinue to build up your faith through Bible reading, praying, and speaking the Word of God. Now, if you have received Christ, prayed, and done everything else we've discussed and still continue to struggle against a stronghold, you may need to do some fasting to break its power over you.\n\nInterestingly, when Jesus encountered those who were demon possessed, He never attempted to heal them. Rather, He cast out the demon. Another example of Jesus's dealings with demonic strongholds can be seen in Mark 5:1\u201316.\n\nIn Mark 5:8\u20139, Christ spoke to the stronghold. He said:\n\n\"Come out of the man, unclean spirit!\" Then He asked him, \"What is your name?\" And he answered, saying, \"My name is Legion; for we are many.\"\n\nUnfortunately, today we treat most addictions and diseases with drugs, when the actual cause may be a satanic stronghold. An individual receiving such treatments will never be truly healed until the stronghold is dealt with. This usually requires prayer and fasting.\n\nThe Bible describes the disciples' fast to break strongholds in Isaiah 58:6, where God gives us the reasons for fasting. As we read earlier, it says, \"Is this not the fast that I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free, and that you break every yoke?\"\n\nOther great ministers in the Bible fasted. For instance, Moses fasted for forty days, as recorded in Exodus 24:18. Interestingly, Moses fasted for forty days at least two other times. (See Exodus 34:28; Deuteronomy 9:18.)\n\nI strongly discourage you from ever fasting without drinking water. Water is absolutely essential for life, and we can only live about four days without water. Moses and Elijah had a supernatural fast, since they consumed neither food nor water. In addition, never fast beyond three days without being under the care of a nutritional physician.\n\nSome other great ministers who fasted in the Bible include King David, the great prophet Samuel, the apostle Paul, and John the Baptist.\n\nLiving a Fasted Life\n\nMany great ministers with special callings in the Bible actually went beyond fasting. They lived a fasted lifestyle.\n\nJohn the Baptist was one of these individuals who lived his entire life in a partially fasted state. We see this lifestyle described in Matthew 3:4.\n\nAnd his food was locusts and wild honey.\n\nJohn the Baptist was a Nazirite. He was called to a Nazirite vow and a fasted life before he was even born. That call is recorded in Luke. For he will be great in the sight of the Lord, and shall drink neither wine nor strong drink. He will also be filled with the Holy Spirit, even from his mother's womb.\n\n\u2014LUKE 1:15\n\nJohn the Baptist lived a fasted life that included eating locusts and wild honey for his protein. Otherwise, he was a total vegetarian, most likely supplementing his diet of honey-coated bugs with fruits, vegetables, and some grains.\n\nAnother well-known Nazirite was Samson. He kept a lifelong fast from wine and alcoholic beverages and from touching anything that had died. Therefore, Samson was probably a vegetarian too. In addition to that, Samson vowed never to cut his hair. (See Judges 13:4\u20135.)\n\nThese faithful men lived in a deeper level of devotion and separation to God than most people today even understand. Instead of feeding his flesh, John the Baptist hungered for the things of God. Jesus said in Matthew 5:6, \"Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be filled.\"\n\nBy living fasted lives, John the Baptist and Samson were empowered to speak a word of prophecy and deliverance to their generations. John the Baptist stormed the countryside, preparing the crowds for the coming of Christ.\n\nThe fasted lives of these individuals signaled that they were born for a great and special purpose. Their lives were not their own but were to be lived in complete devotion to God.\n\nAre you interested in going on a spiritual fast? Do you seek to influence your nation, city, workplace, or family? Would you like to break through the strength of your flesh or the power of a particular bondage? I trust you've discovered some powerful insights into fasting through this list of biblical spiritual fasts. I encourage you to select the fast that most suits your particular spiritual goals. Appendix B is a practical fasting workbook that will help you to get focused and to begin.\n\nIn Conclusion\n\nI trust that you've discovered that fasting is a powerful tool for health, cleansing, corporate strength, and spiritual empowerment. The Bible gives fasting an ancient position of honor, a place beside other dynamic principles for health and spiritual growth.\n\nFasting is a privilege, and it is a biblical key to cleansing that will bless your life with the gift of health, healing, renewed vitality, longevity, and deeper spirituality.\n\nAs you begin to undergo periodic juice fasts for detoxification, I encourage you to first commit that time to God for spiritual cleansing and renewal. Once you become accustomed to fasting for two or three days, you may choose to increase that time a little. Learn to devote increasing portions of that time to Bible reading, praying, and journaling for personal and spiritual growth. At times you may even choose to commit your fast times to even higher purposes, such as fasting for issues of national cleansing and healing.\n\nAs you develop a life of fasting and prayer, you will find that God will feed you with the heritage of Jacob. You will walk in the footsteps of great men and women who have gone before us\u2014men and women who increased in purity of body, mind, and spirit, and who touched heaven with their prayers and nations with their passion.\nA PERSONAL NOTE\n\nFrom Don Colbert\n\nGOD DESIRES TO HEAL YOU OF DISEASE. HIS WORD IS FULL OF PROMises that confirm His love for you and His desire to give you His abundant life. His desire includes more than physical health for you; He wants to make you whole in your mind and spirit as well through a personal relationship with His Son, Jesus Christ.\n\nIf you haven't met my best friend, Jesus, I would like to take this opportunity to introduce Him to you. It is very simple. If you are ready to let Him come into your life and become your best friend, all you need to do is sincerely pray this prayer:\n\nLord Jesus, I want to know You as my Savior and Lord. I believe You are the Son of God and that You died for my sins. I also believe You were raised from the dead and now sit at the right hand of the Father praying for me. I ask You to forgive me for my sins and change my heart so that I can be Your child and live with You eternally. Thank You for Your peace. Help me to walk with You so that I can begin to know You as my best friend and my Lord. Amen.\n\nIf you have prayed this prayer, you have just made the most important decision of your life. I rejoice with you in your decision and your new relationship with Jesus. Please contact my publisher at pray4me@ charismamedia.com so that we can send you some materials that will help you become established in your relationship with the Lord. We look forward to hearing from you.\nAppendix A\n\nOTHER SOLUTIONS FOR TOXIC RELIEF\n\nWHILE IT'S VITALLY IMPORTANT TO DETOXIFY YOUR BODY, THERE are other measures you can take to live free from the effects of this toxic planet. Here are some additional helpful solutions to help you stay healthy.\n\nOil spills\n\nIf you smell gas or see smoke from oil burns, stay indoors. Also set your air conditioner to recycle the indoor air so that the outdoor air doesn't filter into the house. Avoid physical exertion that puts extra demands on your lungs and heart.\n\nFollow local and state public health guidelines for consumption of seafood and water. Stay up to date on local and state public health guidelines on water activities, such as swimming, boating, and fishing.\n\nExtended contact with oil dispersants can cause rashes, dry skin, and eye irritations. If you experience prolonged exposure to oil dispersants, see your doctor immediately.\n\nNuclear radiation\n\nWhen exposed to nuclear radiation, pay attention to three principles: time, distance, and shielding.\n\nWhen it comes to time, know that the amount of exposure increases and decreases depending on how much time you spend near the source. If radioactive material gets inside your body, you aren't able to move away from it, so the time spent near the material is constant until it decays or the body eliminates it naturally.\n\nConcerning distance, your exposure is less the farther away from the source you are. Alpha and beta particles aren't strong enough to travel far, but gamma rays can travel long distances and create the need to be especially careful of exposure distance. As a general rule, doubling your distance from the radioactive source will reduce its exposure power by a factor of four.\n\nIn general, the greater the shield you have from a radioactive source, the less exposure you have to it. The shield absorbs the radiation between you and the source, and the amount of shielding required depends on the amount of energy given off by the rays. A thin material, such as paper, is strong enough to shield against alpha particles. Heavy clothing is sufficient for beta particles. But a much heavier, dense shield, such as lead, is necessary for protection against powerful gamma rays.\n\nSupplements to take if exposed to nuclear radiation include potassium iodide (KI) and a glutathione booster such as Max GXL (see Appendix D). Adults should take 130 milligrams of potassium iodide (KI) or 1 tab. Children ages three to eighteen should take 65 milligrams of KI unless they are 150 pounds or more, in which case they can take the adult dosage of 130 milligrams. A one-time dose is usually all that is needed to protect the thyroid gland.\n\nAir pollution\n\nAvoid heavy smog and gasoline fumes. If you are waiting for a taxi at the airport and the air outside is full of fumes from traffic and buses, then go inside to wait. Don't stand around at a bus station in fume-filled areas behind the buses. Never sit in heavy traffic with your window open, and if you are following a motorist whose car emits a cloud of nauseating fumes, take another route, if necessary, to get away from those dangerous emissions, which are high in carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and many other chemical pollutants, or roll up your windows and drive a safe distance away from the vehicle and recycle the air in your car.\n\nNever jog or run alongside a busy highway where your lungs can be absorbing high amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and other toxins.\n\nOther Solutions for Toxic Relief\n\nSick building syndrome\n\nYou can minimize sick building syndrome in your home by choosing less toxic carpets or installing hardwood floors or tile floors. Use less toxic paints. Never buy or use furniture made of pressed wood or particleboard. Instead, choose hardwood or metal furniture. Select drapes made of cotton instead of fabrics that have been treated with formaldehyde.\n\nPlants have a wonderful practical use, as well as creating an attractive environment. Plants actually take in carbon dioxide and many other dangerous gasses and give off clean, pure oxygen. If you suspect that the office building in which you work is sick, surround your workplace with plants. Spider plants, philodendrons, Boston ferns, and English ivy are all easy-to-grow, hardy indoor plants. Best yet, they tend to be excellent natural air purifiers.\n\nBacteria, mold, and yeast\n\nMinimize your exposure to mold spores and dust mites by keeping the heating and air conditioning ducts in your home clean. Set up a schedule for periodic cleaning, and stick with it.\n\nIn addition, lower the relative humidity in your home to less than 50 percent. This will discourage the growth of mold and dust mites. Take special note of the rooms in your home that tend to be most damp, such as the bathroom and laundry room.\n\nIf you live in a very humid climate, you may want to consider purchasing a dehumidifier for your home.\n\nUse an air purifier such as a hepa filter or ionizer air filter to remove chemicals and toxins in the air. Open the windows and doors in your home during the day in order to get fresh air. It is also a good idea to open the windows or doors in your office in order to get fresh air and to dilute some of the toxic air. It is even better to have a ceiling fan on with a window open since there is even a better exchange for outside air. However, be sure and dust the top of the fan periodically.\n\nPurchase some air-purifying plants such as spider plants, English ivy, or Boston ferns, to name a few.\n\nPesticide pollution\n\nOne of the most important ways you can reduce your exposure to pesticides is to stop having your home sprayed. Try more natural methods of bug control, such as sprinkling cupboards and closets with boric acid.\n\nAvoid the use of air fresheners or air deodorizers. Try more natural air fresheners, such as a pot of fragrant flowers on your dining room table. Better yet, open your windows on cool mornings and evenings to air out your home. If you have a window that catches a regular breeze, try planting fragrant flowers such as jasmine nearby. Aromatic plants can refresh your home with a lovely, natural scent while at the same time providing natural air purifiers and fresh oxygen.\n\nAsk everyone to take their shoes off before coming inside from outdoors. This is a major way that pesticides are brought in. House dust can accumulate large amounts of pesticides that have been tracked in from outside, and vacuuming every day just tends to send them into the air, making the situation even worse. It's much simpler to cultivate the habit of having everyone remove their shoes.\n\nSecondhand smoke\n\nDo not allow smoking in your home. Avoid areas where secondhand smoke is present.\n\nToxins in our water\n\nA shower filter such as a charcoal or KDF shower filter is effective in removing chlorine and, thus, in preventing the formation of trihalomethanes or THM. These can be found on the Web.\nAppendix B\n\nYOUR FASTING JOURNAL\n\nTHIS SPECIAL FASTING JOURNAL WILL HELP YOU GROW AND DEVELOP as a total person\u2014body, mind, and spirit\u2014as you learn to fast. Set aside time for reflecting, journaling, prayer, and Bible reading during your fast period. Before long, you will begin to touch the dynamic benefits of fasting for the cleansing and healing of the heart, mind, body, and spirit.\n\nEach day's journal page includes a place for you to record your prayers, prayer requests, thoughts, and insights. Since you will want to repeat times of fasting, I recommend you use this appendix as your guide to track your fasting journey in your own personal journal or notebook.\n\nThis program calls for repeated periods of two or three fasts. Each time you fast, come back to the journal and take up where you left off. If you fast for longer periods, then work through the daily journal pages throughout the term of your fast.\n\nBefore You Begin . . .\n\nBefore you begin this time of fasting, prayer, personal reflection, and spiritual growth, here are some considerations that will help you to prepare your heart.\n\nDuring your fast, meditate on Scripture throughout the day, read the Bible, and ask the Holy Spirit, your Teacher, to give you divine revelation.\n\nListen to Bible teaching tapes while you're driving, at work, or at home to help you stay focused on God's Word.\n\nPray as often as possible, or do as Scripture says and pray without ceasing. Set aside certain specific times for prayer and journaling. Here are some pointers that will also help:\n\n\u2022 Take time to be quiet before the Lord, and listen to the voice of the Spirit.\n\n\u2022 Record in your journal what the Holy Spirit is revealing to you.\n\n\u2022 Write down prayer requests.\n\n\u2022 Write down revelation and insights given to you during the fast.\n\n\u2022 Write down praise reports.\n\n\u2022 Write down any dreams, and pray for the interpretation of them.\n\nBefore you start, it's important to set the boundaries of your fast. Determine what type of fast you will go on. Check the boxes below that identify fast or fasts you will be implementing.\n\n  A partial fast, as in Daniel\n\n  A water fast (do not go over three days unless followed by a doctor)\n\n  A fruit and vegetable juice fast (as discussed in this book)\n\n  A fast with a powdered protein supplement (such as UltraClear Plus or UltraGlycemX)\n\n  A word fast (a refusal to speak any words that hurt, injure, or cause fear, doubt, anger, strife, shame, or guilt)\n\n  A fast from media, TV, Internet, and radio in order to listen to the Bible on tape or listen to teaching tapes instead\n\n  A fast from harsh, critical words at home (This fast will help you as a mother or father to use language that is courteous, kind, and uplifting to children. It will help you as a husband or wife to speak only encouraging, uplifting words to your spouse.)\n\n  A fast from gossip (Are you surrounded by gossip, criticism, and negativity at work or with a social group? This fast helps you gain control over such deadly, toxic social environments. Simply refuse to gossip about anyone and refuse to listen to any gossip.)\n\nNow that you've set your parameters, it's time to get started. I pray that these special days of cleansing and healing will be some of the most rewarding days of your entire life. I pray that you will experience renewed health, energy, and vitality. In addition, I pray that your soul and spirit will be refreshed and renewed as well.\n\nRemember, if you plan to fast on a regular basis, instead of writing in these journal pages, you may want to use them as a guide to track your fasting journey in your own personal journal or notebook. Now, let's get started.\nDay One\n\nPrerequisites to Fasting\n\nYou will not fast as you do this day, to make your voice  \nheard on high. Is it a fast that I have chosen?\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:4\n\n1. What are your purposes for fasting?\n\n  To set free a child on drugs or alcohol\n\n  To set free a child in rebellion\n\n  For the salvation of a child, friend, or family member\n\n  To break a spirit of strife over a home business or church\n\n  To break an addictive relationship\n\n  Other ____________________________________________\n\n2. Are you fasting for divine guidance and revelation for yourself or a loved one?\n\n  In deciding who to marry\n\n  In deciding what job or what field of study to choose\n\n  In deciding where to move\n\n  For deciding what type of work God would have you to do\n\n  For promotion in your job, as Joseph was promoted from Potiphar's house to second in command of all of Egypt behind Pharaoh\n\n  For wisdom to understand the need for that promotion\n\n  Other ____________________________________________\n\n3. Commitment: Write a statement of commitment to God about why you are fasting and what you hope will be accomplished during this special time.\n\n4. Dedication: Write a prayer of dedication, devoting this fast time to God and to His purposes in your life.\n\nDay Two\n\nRepentance and Reconciliation\n\nYou shall cry, and He will say, \"Here I am.\" If you  \ntake away the yoke from your midst, the pointing of the  \nfinger, and speaking wickedness.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:9\n\nFasting is a way to help you to enter into God's presence where you can minister to Him through praise, worship, and thanksgiving. Here are some steps to follow to help you enter into God's presence.\n\n1. First, identify and confess all sin before the fast and repent. Also, do so during the fast. Write a list of any sin you may have in your life.\n\n2. Now, write a prayer confessing and repenting to God for those sins.\n\n3. Ask the Holy Spirit to identify any strongholds such as anger, fear, hatred, envy, jealousy, bitterness, unforgiveness, rejection, shame, guilt, blame, abandonment, grief, or inadequacies that are separating you from God. Ask the Holy Spirit to help you forgive yourself and anyone else who has wronged you and to break the stronghold.\n\n4. The Holy Spirit may prompt you to seek reconciliation and restoration from someone who has wronged you. Ask God to show you any person or people to whom you must go and seek reconciliation. What are their names?\n\n5. Write out a prayer from your heart asking God for help to truly forgive and bless ALL others.\n\nDay Three\n\nA promise of refreshing\n\nThe LORD will guide you continually, and satisfy your  \nsoul in drought, and strengthen your bones; you shall  \nbe like a watered garden, and like a spring of water,  \nwhose waters do not fail.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:11\n\nThe Bible promises mental, physical, and spiritual refreshing during fasting.\n\n1. Write about your need for refreshing.\n\n2. Write a prayer asking God to refresh specific areas in your life.\n\nDay Four\n\nReleasing Burdens\n\nIs this not the fast that I have chosen: to loose the bonds  \nof wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens?\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:6\n\nFasting will also set you free from burdens.\n\n1. This means a fast will enable you to be set free from burdens such as:\n\n  Financial burdens\n\n  The stresses of everyday life\n\n  Chronic illness of yourself or a loved one\n\n  Legal problems, including lawsuits, bankruptcies, foreclosures, or incarceration\n\n  The burden of taxes\n\n  Dealing with difficult neighbors, coworkers, or family members\n\n2. Write here or in your journal about your circumstances.\n\n3. Write out a prayer asking for God's help and giving your burdens to God. Thank Him for it.\n\nDay Five\n\nFasting for Healing\n\nYour healing shall spring forth speedily.\n\n\u2014Isaiah 58:8\n\nOne of these burdens is sickness. You may also fast for a longstanding or recurrent illness of yourself or a loved one.\n\n1. List the loved ones and their needs for which you're fasting.\n\n2. Write out a prayer asking God to heal your loved ones.\n\nDay Six\n\nA Release of God's Power\n\nAnd your righteousness shall go before you. The glory  \nof the LORD shall be your rear guard.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:8\n\nFasting helps to release the power of the Holy Spirit in one's life.\n\n1. Do you want to see God's power released in your life? Write about it.\n\n2. Write a prayer asking God for more power in your life to lead more to the Lord.\n\nDay Seven\n\nProtection and Safety\n\n. . . to loose the bonds of wickedness.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:6\n\nFasting will provide you with protection, safety, and deliverance.\n\n1. What circumstances do you need God's help with?\n\n  Protection and deliverance from domestic violence\n\n  Safety from physical harm\n\n  Protection of your home, your finances, and your business\n\n  For safety and protection of your children in school, day care, or any other public place\n\n2. The Book of Esther shows divine protection of the children of Israel by the fast of Esther and Mordecai. Read through the Book of Esther today.\n\n3. When you are fasting, you should be communing with God during the fast. This is how you will receive God's protection and His deliverance. Psalm 91:1\u20133 gives other promises you can claim for yourself during this period of fasting.\n\n4. Write a prayer thanking God for His protection.\n\nDay Eight\n\nExpecting the Benefits of Fasting\n\nThen you shall call, and the LORD will answer; you shall  \ncry, and He will say, \"Here I am.\"\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:9\n\n1. While you are fasting, you should also be expecting. Expect God to do wonderful things in your life while you are on your fast. Study the list of benefits of fasting from the Bible.\n\n  Fasting builds character and integrity. \"But I discipline my body and bring it into subjection, lest, when I have preached to others, I myself should become disqualified\" (1 Cor. 9:27). Fasting helps to break the carnal nature, which allows us to be led by the Spirit and, therefore, to walk in integrity.\n\n  Fasting brings the flesh under subjection. Isaiah 58:6 says fasting will loose the bands of wickedness.\n\n  So many people are controlled by the lusts of the flesh. Romans 13:14 warns us to make no provision for the flesh to gratify its desires. In 1 Peter 2:11, we are instructed to abstain from the passions of the flesh.\n\n  Fasting allows us to loose the bands of wickedness, which are the strongholds of the flesh.\n\n  Fasting enables us to seek the presence of God. Isaiah 58:9, 11 says, \"Then you shall call, and the LORD will answer. You shall cry, and He will say, 'Here I am.' . . . The LORD will guide you continually, and satisfy your soul in drought, and strengthen your bones. You shall be like a watered garden, and like a spring of water, whose waters do not fail.\"\n\n  Fasting enables you to preach with power and authority. Read Acts 1:8 and Acts 13:3.\n\n  Fasting will allow spiritual revival\u2014first in your own family, and then in your church, in your city, and eventually in the whole nation. Read 2 Chronicles 7:14.\n\n2. Write out a prayer thanking God for all of the many benefits He is giving to you during your fast.\n\nDay Nine\n\nBeing Led by the Spirit During Fasting\n\nThe Lord will guide you continually.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:11\n\nTo realize all of the benefits of fasting, you must be led by the Spirit during this special time. Spend some time reading about fasting and about the Spirit of God in the Bible.\n\n1. Fasting should be led by the Spirit to receive spiritual benefits. Luke 4:1\u20132 explains how Jesus fasted. He was led by the Spirit and was full of the Spirit.\n\n2. Jesus endorsed fasting in Matthew 6:1\u201318 and actually said, \"When you fast . . . \" He did not say, \"If you fast . . . \" However, when you fast at the Spirit's leading, do it with specific purposes in mind.\n\nWhat Spirit-led purposes do you have for fasting today?\n\n3. The church fasted as the Spirit guided them or as they had need. Read Acts 13:1\u20133.\n\n4. The Spirit led Jesus into the wilderness. The Lord also led Moses. In Exodus 24:12, the Lord told him to come up into the mountain. There Moses remained with God for forty days and forty nights without food or water. Read about these accounts.\n\nDescribe how you feel God led you to start fasting.\n\nYou should fast when a need or situation in life calls for it. If you have a great need to hear from the Lord for direction and guidance, or any of the other above reasons, the Spirit will usually lead one on a fast.\n\n5. Write out a prayer of thanks to God for leading you to fast.\n\nDay Ten\n\nYour Motivation for Fasting\n\nIndeed you fast for strife and debate.\n\n\u2014ISAIAH 58:4\n\n1. Spend some time reflecting about your own motives for fasting. Are your motives pure? Reflect on the questions below.\n\n  The Pharisees demonstrated spiritual pride when they fasted. Are your motives to impress others?\n\n  Fasting is worthless if it becomes a ritual or routine. Has fasting become just a routine part of your life?\n\n  Fasting can cause self-righteousness, which exalts a person in his own eyes and in the eyes of others. Do you fast to gain the approval of those who see you fasting?\n\n  Will you get personal gain or benefit from fasting, or is it for the Lord's benefit?\n\n  We should fast for the benefit of others, not merely for ourselves. Will your fast benefit others?\n\n2. Write a prayer asking God to forgive you for any wrong motives for fasting and to fill your heart and mind with motives that are pure.\n\nAppendix C\n\nTIPS FOR HEALTHY EATING\n\nIN CHAPTER 6 WE DISCUSSED THE IMPORTANCE OF CHOOSING ORGANIC fruits and vegetables to avoid the toxic chemicals used as pesticides and fertilizers on most foods grown commercially. I realize that it may be difficult to change to a totally organic diet for the purposes of the detoxification diet, as the cost of organic vegetables and products may be a bit expensive for your budget. I recommend that you begin by selecting just a few organic foods. As you can progress toward more organically grown foods, you will be on your way to a healthy diet.\n\nThe technical definition of _organic foods_ is \"food products that are grown with the addition of only animal or vegetable fertilizers to the soil, such as manure, bone meal, and compost.\" Organic foods are produced without the use of artificial pesticides and chemical fertilizers, and they are minimally processed. This means that they contain no hydrogenated fats, artificial additives, preservatives, or genetically modified organisms, also known as GMOs.\n\nHelpful Tips for Grocery Shopping\n\nIncluding the following foods in your diet will help you to eliminate harmful foods and begin to nourish your body more naturally. The following categories of real foods should be a part of your family's daily diet:\n\n  Fresh organic fruits\n\n  Fresh organic vegetables\n\n  Leafy greens for salads\n\n  Whole-grain breads such as Ezekiel bread or spouted bread, spelt, millet, or brown rice bread (minimize wheat)\n\n  Water\u2014consume plenty of filtered or bottled water\n\n  Freshly squeezed juices\n\n  Rice, almond, and coconut milk\n\n  Nuts (such as almonds, walnuts, and Macadamia nuts) and seeds (such as pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, or flax seeds)\n\n  Fresh herbs whenever possible\n\n  Herbal teas such as milk thistle tea, asparagus tea, green tea, white tea, black tea, chamomile tea, and others\n\n  Organically farmed eggs, known as pastured eggs\n\n  Fish such as wild salmon, sardines, and tongal tuna\n\n  Free-range or organically raised chicken\n\nProducts to Avoid\n\nOf course, along with adding foods that can be nourishing to your body, you should avoid foods that can have harmful effects. The following is a partial list of foods that should generally be avoided when on this program:\n\n  Coffee\n\n  Dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt, cream)\n\n  Sugar\n\n  Wheat products including wheat pasta, crackers, wheat bread, pretzels, and bagels\n\n  White rice\n\n  Salt\n\n  Alcohol\n\n  Artificial food additives\n\n  Fried foods\n\n  Artificial sweeteners such as aspartame\n\n  Hydrogenated and partially hydrogenated, or trans fats\n\n  Carbonated beverages\n\n  Processed foods\n\n  Corn products\n\nYou can wean yourself from unhealthy eating habits by consciously substituting harmful food products that have been old favorites of yours with similar healthy ones. Check the chart below to see which foods you need to replace in your diet, and choose healthy alternatives. Give yourself a chance\u2014you may actually like them!\n\nHEALTHY SUBSTIT UTIONS\n\nOld Favorite | Healthy Substitute  \n---|---  \nWheat bread | Millet, brown rice (gluten free), spelt, or other wheat-free breads  \nWheat pasta | Pasta made from spelt, rice, millet, or other wheat-free pasta  \nWhole milk | Rice, almond, or sesame milk  \nButter, sugar, desserts | Nut butter, hummus, tahini, and guacamole stevia or fresh fruits  \nSugary cereals | Muesli with fresh fruit, millet cereal, or rice cereal\n\nHealthy Guidelines for Food Preparation\n\nDo not cut or prepare fruits or vegetables before you are ready to eat them. You may be tempted to slice up that melon or carrot sticks just for the convenience of being able to grab them from the refrigerator. However, fruits and vegetables lose their nutrients when they are cut and stored. It is best to prepare them when you know they will be immediately eaten.\n\nDo not cook food too far in advance. Though busy homemakers like to prepare meals in advance, they need to understand that reheating food and leftovers depletes the food of valuable vitamins, minerals, and nutrients.\n\nFruits and vegetables should be eaten unpeeled whenever possible because many vitamins and minerals are actually concentrated just beneath their skin. The outer layer of organic fruits and vegetables should be safe to eat. However, if you have not purchased organic items, it is imperative that you wash these fruits and vegetables carefully. (See Chapter 6 for information on washing fruits and vegetables.)\n\nAs we have discussed, it is best to use fresh, organically grown fruits and vegetables. However, if fresh products are not available, choose frozen fruits and vegetables, as their nutritional value is similar. Always avoid canned fruits and vegetables.\n\nHelpful Appliances and Kitchen Essentials\n\nAppliances that are beneficial in meal preparation are listed below. Although your kitchen does not have to be equipped with these appliances in order to pursue healthful eating, they can be helpful time savers in the kitchen. These appliances allow you to prepare your meals more easily so you can get on with your life and spend more quality time with your family.\n\n  Steamer: Lightly steaming vegetables keeps important vitamins and minerals from being lost, thus making your vegetables better tasting and better for you.\n\n  Blender: A blender is extremely helpful when making soups and smoothies.\n\n  Juicer: A juicer can be well worth your investment. By juicing fruits and vegetables, you are consuming all the nutrients of the items you are juicing and eliminating preservatives and artificial ingredients. My favorite is the Vitamix blender.\n\n  Stainless steel or porcelain cookware is best. Do _not_ use aluminum cookware. The residue from aluminum cookware or aluminum foil can be transferred to our bodies as toxic minerals. Therefore, it is best to avoid using aluminum cookware.\n\nTips for Choosing the Most Beneficial Cooking Process\n\nA healthy rule of thumb for eating healthily is to eat as close to nature as possible, choosing living foods. (See Appendix D for information on _The Seven Pillars of Health_.) Raw fruits and vegetables are best. However, after choosing a good portion of your diet from raw foods, there are healthy ways to prepare foods. I recommend that you try the following:\n\n  _Steaming_ is a wonderful way to cook vegetables. Lightly steaming your vegetables causes very little loss of nutrients.\n\n  _Stir-frying_ is a good method of cooking because the food is briefly cooked at a low temperature so that it retains most of its nutrients. Try stir-frying using a small quantity of vegetable stock or water rather than oil. If oil is essential to the meal preparation, use a small amount of extra-virgin olive oil.\n\n  _Boiling_ is not an ideal method for cooking vegetables. However, if you must boil vegetables, bring the water to a boil first, and then add your vegetables for a brief time. Do not allow them to soak in the water. Drain them immediately and serve them.\n\n  _Grilling_ is an acceptable means of food preparation. You can still enjoy the flavor of grilled meats and vegetables if you prepare them safely. When grilling your free-range meats, simply avoid charring the meat and vegetables. Charred meat contains a chemical called benzopyrene, which is a highly carcinogenic substance.\nAppendix D\n\nPRODUCT INFORMATION\n\nTHROUGHOUT THIS BOOK YOU MAY HAVE NOTICED THAT VARIOUS products have been mentioned. For your convenience, here's a listing of these products and how to purchase them:\n\nDivine Health Products\n\n(For ordering call 407-331-7007 and press 2 for the Orders  \nDepartment, or visit our website at www.drcolbert.com)\n\n  Active form of B complex - Divine Health Living Energy (B complex)\n\n  Divine Health Fiber Formula\n\n  Divine Health Living Green Tea with ECGC\n\n  Divine Health Milk Thistle\n\n  Divine Health Probiotic\n\n\u2022 Contains 22 billion CFU (colony-forming units)  \nof lactobacillus acidophilus, bifidobacterium, and saccharomyces\n\n  Grape Seed and Pine Bark Extract\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Living OPC\n\n  Multivitamins\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Multivitamin (120 count and 240 count)\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Living Multivitamin Powder\n\n  Phosphatidylcholine\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Phosphochol (capsules)\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Phosphochol (liquid)\n\n  Phytonutrient Drinks\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Green Superfood\n\n\u2022 Divine Health Organic Living Fruit and Veggie Powder\n\nOther Supplements Available at the Divine Health Wellness Center\n\n(For ordering call 407-331-7007 and press 2 for the Orders Department)\n\n  Beet Extract\n\n  Beta TCP\n\n  Glutathione-Boosting Supplements\n\n  Cellgevity\u2014Dr. Colbert's favorite antioxidant and detox \u2022 formula\n\n  Max GXL\n\n  Max One\n\n  Probiotic Formulas\n\n  Probiomax DF (100 billion CFU)\n\n  PRObiotic 225 (225 billion CFU)\n\n  Saccharomycin DF (5 billion CFU)\n\n  Theralac (50 billion CFU)\n\nSupplements from Metagenics\n\n(For ordering call 800-692-9400; use ordering code W7741)\n\n  Detox Formulas\n\n  UltraClear Plus pH\n\n  UltraClear Renew\n\n  Fasting Supplement for Type 2 Diabetes\n\n  UltraGlycemX\n\n  Zinc Carnosine\n\n  Zinlori\n\n  **Juicer**\n\n  Vitamix blender\n\n(For ordering visit www.vitamix.com, use ordering code 06-006584)\n\nInfrared Saunas\n\n  Infrared Lamp Sauna\n\n(For ordering call 888-330-6456 or visit www.drlwilson.com)\n\n  TheraSauna\n\n(For ordering call 888-729-7727 or visit www.therasauna.com)\n\nTo Find a Biological Dentist\n\n  International Academy of Oral Medicine & Toxicology\n\n(Call 863-420-6373 or visit www.iaomt.org)\n\n  International College of Integrative Medicine\n\n(Call 866-464-5226 or visit www.icimed.com)\n\nFood Sensitivity Testing\n\n  ALCAT\n\n(Visit www.alcat.com)\n\n  Sage Medical Lab\n\n(Visit www.sagemedlab.com)\n\nTo Find a Nutritional Doctor\n\n  American Academy for Anti-Aging Medicine\n\n(Call 888-997-0112 or visit www.worldhealth.net)\n\nGI Tract Testing\n\n  Genova Diagnostics\n\n  Comprehensive Digestive Stool Analysis with Parasitology\n\n  Intestinal Permeability Testing\n\n(Visit www.gdx.net)\n\n_The Seven Pillars of Health_ Audio Series\n\n(Call 407-331-7007 or visit www.drcolbert.com)\nNOTES\n\nIntroduction\n\n. Elizabeth Fraz\u00e3o, \"High Costs of Poor Eating Patterns in the United States,\" chapter 1, Environmental Protection Agency, <http:\/\/www.ers.usda.gov\/publications\/aib750\/aib750a.pdf> (accessed September 9, 2011).\n\nChapter 1  \nOur Toxic Earth\n\n. Maureen Hoch, \"New Estimate Puts Gulf Oil Leak at 205 Million Gallons,\" _PBS NewsHour,_ August 2, 2010, <http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/newshour\/rundown\/2010\/08\/new-estimate-puts-oil-leak-at-49-million-barrels.html> (accessed July 23, 2011).\n\n. Bryan Walsh, \"Assessing the Health Effects of the Oil Spill,\" _TIME,_ June 25, 2010, <http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/health\/article\/0,8599,1999479,00.html>(accessed June 20, 2011).\n\n. Shari Roan, \"Possible Health Effects of Nuclear Crisis,\" _Los Angeles Times_ , March 16, 2011, <http:\/\/articles.latimes.com\/2011\/mar\/16\/health\/la-he-japan-quake-radiation-20110316> (accessed June 6, 2011).\n\n. VOA News, \"Two Japanese Workers Exceed Radiation Exposure Limits,\" June 3, 2011, <http:\/\/www.voanews.com\/english\/news\/asia\/east-pacific\/Two-Japanese-Workers-Exceed-Radiation-Exposure-Limits-123102673.html> (accessed June 7, 2011).\n\n. Majirox News, \"Fukushima Evacuation Zone Areas Uninhabitable, PM to Apologize,\" August 21, 2011, <http:\/\/www.majiroxnews.com\/2011\/08\/21\/fukushima-evacuation-zone-areas-uninhabitable-pm-to-apologize\/> (accessed August 24, 2011).\n\n. Jacqueline Krohn, _Natural Detoxification_ (Vancouver, BC: Hartley & Marks Publishers, Inc., 1996).\n\n. C. C. Patterson, \"Contaminated and Natural Lead Environments of Man,\" _Archives of Environmental Health_ 11 (1965): 344.\n\n. E. Cranton, _By-Passing By-Pass_ (Troutdale, VA: Medex Publishers, 1996), 97.\n\n. Richard Knox, \"How Will the Gulf Oil Spill Affect Human Health?\" _NPR,_ June 23, 2010, <http:\/\/www.npr.org\/templates\/story\/story.php?storyId=128008826>(accessed June 20, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Bryan Walsh, \"What Is the Health Impact of the Spill?\" _TIME_ , August 16, 2010, <http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/health\/article\/0,8599,2010953,00.html>(accessed June 6, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Bryan Walsh, \"Assessing the Health Effects of the Oil Spill.\"\n\n. Neil Katz, \u00dcRadiation Exposure: What's the Danger for Japan and America?\" _CBSNews.com_ , March 15, 2011, <http:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/8301-504763_162-20043313-10391704.html> (accessed June 20, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Mehul Srivastava and Simeon Bennett, \"Radiation Contamination Risk Growing as Japan Nuclear Crisis Deepens: Q&A,\" _Bloomberg News_ , March 16, 2011, <http:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/2011-03-16\/radiation-contamination-risk-growing-as-japan-nuclear-crisis-deepens-q-a.html> (accessed June 20, 2011.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. _BBC News,_ \"Japan 'Unprepared' for Fukushima Nuclear Disaster,\" June 7, 2011, <http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-pacific-13678627>(accessed June 7, 2011).\n\n. Deborah Dupre, \"Children Sickness Linked to Fukushima Radiation,\" Examiner.com, June 19, 2011, <http:\/\/www.examiner.com\/human-rights-in-national\/children-sickness-linked-to-fukushima-radiation> (accessed June 20, 2011).\n\n. _The Japan Times,_ \"Radioactive Strontium Detected 62 Km From Fukushima No. 1 Plant,\" June 10, 2011, <http:\/\/search.japantimes.co.jp\/cgi-bin\/nn20110610a2.html> (accessed June 20, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Environmental Protection Agency, \"2009 Toxics Release Inventory: National Analysis Overview,\" <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/tri\/tridata\/tri09\/nationalanalysis\/overview\/2009TRINAOverviewfinal.pdf> (accessed July 23, 2011).\n\n. Joseph Mercola with Rachael Droege, \"How to Avoid the Top 10 Most Common Toxins,\" Mercola.com, February 19, 2005, <http:\/\/articles.mercola.com\/sites\/articles\/archive\/2005\/02\/19\/common-toxins.aspx> (accessed May 16, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. _Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine,_ 12th edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.\n\n. Joanna Zelman, \"Power Plant Air Pollution Kills 13,000 People Per Year, Coal-Fired Are Most Hazardous: ALA Report,\" _Huffington Post,_ March 15, 2011, <http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/2011\/03\/14\/power-plant-air-pollution-coal-kills_n_833385.html> (accessed June 6, 2011).\n\n. ScienceDaily.com, \"Prenatal Pesticide Exposure Tied to Lower IQ in Children, Study Finds,\" April 22, 2011, <http:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2011\/04\/110421082519.htm> (accessed May 16, 2011).\n\n. Alice Park, \"Study: A Link Between Pesticides and ADHD,\"TIME.com, May 17, 2010, <http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/health\/article\/0,8599,1989564,00.html>(accessed May 16, 2011).\n\n. 22nd Annual Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health.\n\n. Rebecca Sutton, \"CDC: Americans Carry Body Burden of Toxic Sunscreen Chemical,\" Environmental Working Group, March 25, 2008, <http:\/\/www.ewg.org\/analysis\/toxicsunscreen> (accessed June 14, 2011).\n\n. Karl Tupper, \"At Long Last: EPA Releases Pesticide Use Statistics,\" Pesticide Action Network, Ground Truth blog, February 22, 2011, <http:\/\/www.panna.org\/blog\/long-last-epa-releases-pesticide-use-statistics> (accessed June 10, 2011).\n\n. Environmental Protection Agency, \"Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage Report,\" 2006 and 2007 Usage, page 11.\n\n. G. T. Sterling et al, \"Health effects of phenoxy herbicides,\" _Scandinavian Journal of Work Environmental Health_ 12 (1986): 161\u2013173.\n\n. Panna.org, \"POPs Residues in U.S. Diets,\" December 4, 2000, <http:\/\/www.panna.org\/legacy\/panups\/panup_20001204.dv.html> (accessed October 20, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Rachel Carson, _Silent Spring_ (Boston MA: Houghton, Mifflin, 1962).\n\n. Krohn, _Natural Detoxification._\n\n. John Lee et al., _What Your Doctor May Not Tell You About Premenopause_ (New York: Waner Books, 1999).\n\n. Made available by the Environmental Working Group at <http:\/\/www.foodnews.org>.\n\n. Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, \"Playing Chicken: Avoiding Arsenic in Your Meat,\" April 2006, <http:\/\/www.iatp.org\/files\/421_2_80529.pdf.>\n\n. J. B. Weston and E. Richter, _The Israeli Breast Cancer Anomaly_ (New York: Academy of Sciences, 1990), 269\u2013279.\n\n. J. Beasley et al., \"The Kellogg Report: The Impact of Nutrition, Environment and Lifestyle on the Health of Americans,\" New York Institute of Health Policy and Practice, The Baird College Center, 1989.\n\n. Joseph Mercola and Rachael Droege, \"How to Avoid the Top 10 Most Common Toxins.\"\n\n. Theo Colborn, _Our Stolen Future_ (New York: Penguin Group, 1997), 150\u2013 152.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Joseph Mercola and Dietrich Klinghardt, \"Mercury Toxicity and Systemic Elimination Agents,\" Mercola.com, <http:\/\/www.mercola.com\/article\/mercury\/mercury_elimination.htm> (accessed June 1, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Environmental Protection Agency, \"What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish,\" <http:\/\/water.epa.gov\/scitech\/swguidance\/fishshellfish\/outreach\/advice_index.cfm> (accessed July 25, 2011).\n\n. Joseph Mercola and Rachael Droege, \"How to Avoid the Top 10 Most Common Toxins.\"\n\nChapter 3  \nOvernourished While Starving?\n\n. Fraz\u00e3o, \"High Costs of Poor Eating Patterns in the United States.\"\n\n. Don Colbert, _What You Don't Know May Be Killing You_ (Lake Mary, FL: Siloam Press, 2000), 108.\n\n. Joseph Mercola, \"12 Food Additives to Avoid,\" Mercola.com, June 24, 2008, <http:\/\/articles.mercola.com\/sites\/articles\/archive\/2008\/06\/24\/12-food-additives-to-avoid.aspx> (accessed June 8, 2011).\n\n. C. H. Barrows, \"Nutritional Aging: The Time Has Come to Move From Laboratory Research to Clinical Studied,\" _Geriatrics_ 32 (1977): 39.\n\n. Paul Bragg, _The Miracle of Fasting_ (Santa Barbara, CA: Health Science, 1983).\n\n. C. Ruckner et al., _The Seventh-Day Adventist Diet_ (New York: Random House, 1991).\n\n. B. Jensen, _Tissue Cleansing Through Bowel Management_ (Escondido, CA: Bernard Jensen Enterprises, 1981).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Joseph Mercola, \"Nine Hidden Toxins Lurking in Your Food,\" Mercola.com, September 1, 2009, <http:\/\/articles.mercola.com\/sites\/articles\/archive\/2009\/09\/01\/9-hidden-toxins-lurking-in-your-food.aspx> (accessed June 7, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\nChapter 5  \nThe Joy of Juice\n\n. J. Selhub et al., _American Medical Association_ 270 (1993): 2693\u20132726.\n\n. R. G. Ziegler, \"A Review of Epidemiologic Evidence That Carotenoids Reduce the Risk of Cancer,\" _Journal of Nutrition_ 119 (1989): 116\u2013122.\n\n. E. Giovannucci et al., \"Tomatoes, Lycopene and Prostate Cancer,\" _Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine_ 218 (1998): 129\u2013139.\n\n. G. S. Omenn et al., \"Risk Factors for Lung Cancer and for Intervention Effects in CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial,\" _Journal of the National Cancer Institute_ 88, no. 21 (November 6, 1996): 1550\u20131559.\n\n. K. A. Steinmetz et al. \"Vegetables, Fruit and Cancer. II. Mechanisms,\" _Cancer Causes & Control_ 2 (1991): 427\u2013442.\n\n. American Cancer Society, _Nutrition and Prevention_ (New York: American Cancer Society, 1984).\n\n. D. Ahn et al., \"The Effects of Dietary Ellagic Acid on Rat Hepatic and Esophageal Mucosal Cytochrome P450 and Phase II Enzymes,\" _Carcinogenesis_ 17 (1996): 821\u2013828.\n\n. S. A. Glynn et al., \"Folate and Cancer: A Review of the Literature,\" _New England Journal of Medicine_ (1998): 1176\u20131178.\n\nChapter 6  \nDr. C's Detox Fast\n\n. Elson Haas, _Staying Healthy With Nutrition_ (Berleley, CA: Celestial Arts Pub., 1992).\n\nChapter 7  \nYour Champion Prizefighter\n\n. L. J. Chun, M. J. Tong, R. W. Busuttil, and J. R. Hiatt, \"Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity and Acute Liver Failure,\" _Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology_ 43, no. 4 (April 2009): 342\u2013349.\n\nChapter 8  \nA Nutritional Program for a Healthy Liver\n\n. Mark Hyman, \"Glutathione: The Mother of All Antioxidants,\" _Huffington Post,_ April 10, 2010, <http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/dr-mark-hyman\/glutathione-the-mother-of_b_530494.html> (accessed May 31, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Thomas E. Levy, _GSH: Master Defender Against Disease, Toxins, and Aging_ (Henderson, NV: LivOn Books, 2008), 10\u201311.\n\n. Frank D. Gilliland et al., \"Glutathione S-Transferases M1 and P1 Prevent Aggravation of Allergic Responses by Secondhand Smoke,\" _American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine_ 174 (2006): 1335\u20131341; I. Rahman and W. MacNee, \"Oxidative Stress and Regulation of Glutathione in Lung Inflammation,\" _European Respiratory Journal_ (September 2000): 534\u2013554; C. Duong et al., \"Glutathione Peroxidase-1 Protects Against Cigarette Smoke-Induced Lung Inflammation in Mice,\" _American Journal of Physiology: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology_ (September 2010): L425\u2013433.\n\n. E. Lubos, J. Loscalzo, and D. E. Handy, \"Glutathione Peroxidase-1 in Health and Disease: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Opportunities,\" _Antioxidants and Redox Signaling_ (April 10, 2011).\n\n. _Life Extension,_ \"Heavy Metal Toxicity,\" <http:\/\/www.lef.org\/protocols\/prtcl-156d.shtml> (accessed May 31, 2011).\n\n. J. E. Biaglow et al., \"Factors Involved in Depletion of Glutathione From A549 Human Lung Carcinoma Cells: Implications for Radiotherapy,\" _International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics_ (August 1984): 1221\u20131227.\n\nChapter 9  \n\"Eliminate the Negative\"\n\n. Don Colbert, _The Bible Cure for Heartburn and Indigestion_ (Lake Mary: FL Siloam, 1999), 3.\n\n. D. Burkett and H. Trowell, _Western Diseases and Their Emergence and Prevention_ (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Colbert, _The Bible Cure for Heartburn and Indigestion,_ 4.\n\n. K. J. Pienta et al., \"Inhibition of Spontaneous Metastasis in Rat Prostate Cancer Model by Oral Administration of Modified Citrus Pectin,\" _Journal of the Nutritional Cancer Institute_ 87 (1995): 348\u2013353.\n\nChapter 10  \nFinding Healing Through Fasting\n\n. George H. Malkmus, _Why Christians Get Sick_ (Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image Publishers, 1995), 19, 103.\n\n. Arnold Ehret, _Mucusless Diet and Healing System_ (Beaumont, CA: Ehret Literature, 1972).\n\n. Dean Ornish et al., \"Can Lifestyle Changes Reverse Coronary Heart Disease?\" _Lancet_ 336 (1990): 129\u2013133.\n\n. Bragg, _The Miracle of Fasting._\n\n. H. L. Steward, _Sugar Busters_ (New York: Ballantine Books, 1998)\n\nChapter 11  \nSpiritual Fasting\u2014What It's All About\n\n. J. B. Lightfoot, _The Apostolic Fathers,_ edited and completed by J. R. Harner (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books Press, 1956).\n\nAppendix A  \nOther Solutions for Toxic Relief\n\n. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \"What to Expect From the Oil Spill and How to Protect Your Health,\" <http:\/\/www.bt.cdc.gov\/gulfoilspill2010\/what_to_expect.asp> (accessed June 1, 2011).\n\n. Environmental Protection Agency, \"Radiation Protection Basics,\" <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/radiation\/understand\/protection_basics.html>(accessed June 1, 2011).\nDON COLBERT, MD, WAS BORN IN TUPELO, MISSISSIPPI. HE ATTENDED Oral Roberts School of Medicine in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he received a bachelor of science degree in biology in addition to his degree in medicine. Dr. Colbert completed his internship and residency with Florida Hospital in Orlando, Florida. He is board certified in family practice and anti-aging medicine and has received extensive training in nutritional medicine.\n\nTo have Dr. Don and Mary Colbert hold a health seminar at your church or town, for other speaking engagements, or if you would like more information about Divine Health Nutritional Products _,_ you may contact:\n\n**DON COL BERT, MD**  \n1908 Boothe Circle  \nLongwood, FL 32750  \nTelephone: 407-331-7007  \nWebsite: www.drcolbert.com.\n\nDISCLAIMER: Dr. Colbert and the staff of Divine Health Wellness Center are prohibited from addressing a patient's medical condition by phone, facsimile, or e-mail. Please refer questions related to your medical condition to your own primary care physician.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nDAVID\n\n**EDDINGS**\n\n**THE HIDDEN CITY**\n\n_The Tamuli Book Three_\n\n**FOR DR BRUCE GRAY**\n\nfor his enthusiasm and his technical advice -  \nand for keeping our favorite author (and wife) alive\n\n**AND FOR NANCY GRAY, R.N.**\n\nwho takes care of everybody else,  \nand neglects to take care of herself.\n\nShape up, Nancy.\n\n# CONTENTS\n\nCover\n\nTitle Page\n\n_Prologue_\n\nPART ONE: Berit\n\n_Chapter 1_\n\n_Chapter 2_\n\n_Chapter 3_\n\n_Chapter 4_\n\n_Chapter 5_\n\n_Chapter 6_\n\n_Chapter 7_\n\n_Chapter 8_\n\n_Chapter 9_\n\n_Chapter 10_\n\nPART TWO: Natayos\n\n_Chapter 11_\n\n_Chapter 12_\n\n_Chapter 13_\n\n_Chapter 14_\n\n_Chapter 15_\n\n_Chapter 16_\n\n_Chapter 17_\n\n_Chapter 18_\n\n_Chapter 19_\n\nPART THREE: Cyrga\n\n_Chapter 20_\n\n_Chapter 21_\n\n_Chapter 22_\n\n_Chapter 23_\n\n_Chapter 24_\n\n_Chapter 25_\n\n_Chapter 26_\n\n_Chapter 27_\n\n_Chapter 28_\n\n_Chapter 29_\n\n_Chapter 30_\n\n_Chapter 31_\n\n_Chapter 32_\n\n_Chapter 33_\n\n_Epilogue_\n\nAbout the Author\n\nCopyright\n\nAbout the Publisher\n\n# _Prologue_\n\nProfessor Itagne of the Foreign Affairs Department of the University of Matherion sat on the platform reviewing his notes. It was early in the evening of a fine spring day, and the windows of the auditorium where the faculty of the college of Political Science had gathered were open to admit the smell of flowers and grass and the faintly distracting sound of bird-song.\n\nProfessor Emeritus Gintana of the International Trade Department stood at the lectern droning on interminably about twenty-seventh century tariff regulations. Gintana was a wispy, white-haired, and slightly vague academic customarily referred to as 'that dear old man'. Itagne was not really listening to him.\n\nThis was not going to go well, he concluded wryly, crumpling up and discarding yet another sheet of notes. Word of his subject had been broadcast across the campus, and academics from as far away as Applied Mathematics and Contemporary Alchemy packed the hall, their eyes bright with anticipation. The entire faculty of the Contemporary History Department filled the front rows, their black academic robes making them look like a flock of crows. Contemporary History was here in force to ensure all the fireworks anyone could hope for.\n\nItagne idly considered a feigned collapse. How in the name of God \u2013 any God \u2013 was he going to get through the next hour without making a total ass of himself? He had all the facts, of course, but what rational man would _believe_ the facts? A straightforward account of what had really happened during the recent turmoil would sound like the ravings of a lunatic. If he stuck to straight truth, the hacks from Contemporary History would not have to say a word. He could destroy his own reputation with no help from them at all.\n\nItagne took one more brief glance at his carefully prepared notes. Then he bleakly folded them and thrust them back into the voluminous sleeve of his academic robe. What was going to happen here tonight would more closely resemble a tavern brawl than reasoned discourse. Contemporary History had obviously showed up to shout him down. Itagne squared his shoulders. Well, if they wanted a fight, he'd give them one.\n\nA breeze had come up. The curtains at the tall windows rustled and billowed, and the golden tongues of flame flickering in the oil lamps wavered and danced. It was a beautiful spring evening \u2013 everywhere but here inside this auditorium.\n\nThere was a polite spattering of applause, and old professor Gintana, flustered and confused by this acknowledgement of his existence, bowed awkwardly, clutched his notes in both hands, and tottered back to his seat. Then the Dean of the College of Political Science rose to announce the evening's main event. 'Colleagues,' he began, 'before Professor Itagne favors us with his remarks, I would like to take this opportunity to introduce some visitors of note. I'm sure you will all join with me in welcoming Patriarch Emban, First Secretary of the Church of Chyrellos, Sir Bevier, the Cyrinic Knight from Arcium and Sir Ulath of the Genidian Order located in Thalesia.'\n\nThere was more polite applause as Itagne hurried across the platform to greet his Elene friends. 'Thank God you're here,' he said fervently. 'The whole Contemporary History Department's turned out \u2013 except for the few who are probably outside boiling the tar and bringing up bags of feathers.'\n\n'You didn't think your brother was going to hang you out to dry, did you, Itagne?' Emban smiled. 'He thought you might get lonesome here, so he sent us to keep you company.'\n\nItagne felt better as he returned to his seat. If nothing else, Bevier and Ulath could head off any _physical_ attacks.\n\n'And now, colleagues and distinguished guests,' the Dean continued, 'Professor Itagne of the Foreign Affairs Department will respond to a recent paper published by the Department of Contemporary History under the title, \"The Cyrga Affair: An Examination of the Recent Crisis\". Professor Itagne.'\n\nItagne rose, strode purposefully to the lectern and assumed his most offensively civilized expression. 'Dean Altus, distinguished colleagues, faculty wives, honored guests-' He paused. 'Did I leave anybody out?'\n\nThere was a titter of nervous laughter. Tension was high in the hall. 'I'm particularly pleased to see so many of our colleagues from Contemporary History here with us this evening,' Itagne continued, throwing the first punch. 'Since I'll be discussing something near and dear to their hearts, it's much better that they're present to hear what I say with their own ears rather than being forced to rely on garbled second-hand accounts.' He smiled benignly down at the scowling hacks in the front row. 'Can you hear me, gentlemen?' he asked. 'Am I going too fast for any of you?'\n\n'This is outrageous!' a portly, sweating professor protested loudly.\n\n'It's going to get worse, Quinsal,' Itagne told him. 'If the truth bothers you, you'd better leave now.' He looked out over the assemblage. 'It's been said that the quest for truth is the noblest occupation of man, but there be dragons lurking in the dark forests of ignorance. And the names of these dragons are \"Incompetence\" and \"Political Bias\" and \"Deliberate Distortion\" and \"Sheer, Wrongheaded Stupidity\". Our gallant friends here in Contemporary History bravely sallied forth to do battle with these dragons in their recently published \"Cyrga Affair\". It is with the deepest regret that I must inform you that the dragons won.'\n\nThere was more laughter, and dark scowls from the front row.\n\nIt's never been any secret at this institution that the Contemporary History Department is a political entity rather than an academic one,' Itagne continued. Tt has been sponsored from its very inception by the Prime Minister, and its only reasons for existence have been to gloss over his blunders and to conceal as best they might his absolute incompetence. To be sure, Prime Minister Subat and his accomplice, Interior Minister Kol-ata, have never been interested in the truth, but _please,_ gentlemen, this is a university. Shouldn't we at least _pretend_ to be telling the truth?'\n\n'Rubbish!' a burly academic in the front row bellowed.\n\n'Yes,' Itagne replied, holding up a yellow-bound copy of 'The Cyrga Affair', I noticed that myself. But if you knew it was rubbish, Professor Pessalt, why did you publish it?'\n\nThe laughter in the hall was even louder this time, and it drowned out Pessalt's spluttered attempt to answer.\n\n'Let us push on with this great work that we are in,' Itagne suggested. 'We all know Pondia Subat for the scheming incompetent he really is, but the only thing that most baffles me about your \"Cyrga Affair\" is its consistent attempt to elevate the Styric renegade Zalasta to near sainthood. How in the name of God could _anyone_ \u2013 even someone as severely limited as the Prime Minister \u2013 revere this scoundrel?'\n\n'How _dare_ you speak so of the greatest man of this century?' one of the hacks screamed at him.\n\n'If Zalasta's the best this century can manage, colleague, I think we're in deep trouble. But we digress. The crisis which Contemporary History chooses to call \"The Cyrga Affair\" has been brewing for several years.'\n\n'Yes,' someone shouted with heavy sarcasm, 'we noticed that!'\n\n'I'm so happy for you,' Itagne murmured, drawing another loud laugh from the audience. To whom did our idiot Prime Minister turn for aid? To Zalasta, of course. And what was Zalasta's answer to the crisis? He urged us to send for the Pandion Knight, Prince Sparhawk of Elenia. Why would the name of an Elene nobleman leap to Zalasta's lips in answer to the question \u2013 almost before it was asked \u2013 _particularly_ in view of the sorry record of the Elenes in their relations with the Styrics? To be sure, Prince Sparhawk's exploits are legendary, but what was it about the man that made Zalasta pine so for his company? And why was it that Zalasta neglected to tell us that Sparhawk is Anakha, the instrument of the Bhelliom? Did the fact somehow slip his mind? Did he think that the spirit which creates whole universes was somehow irrelevant? I find no mention at all about Bhelliom in this recently published heap of bird-droppings. Did you omit the most momentous event of the past eon deliberately? Were you so caught up in trying to give your adored Pondia Subat credit for policy decisions he had no part in that you decided not to mention Bhelliom at all?'\n\n'Balderdash!' a deep voice roared.\n\n'I'm pleased to meet you, Professor Balderdash. My name's Itagne. It was good of you to introduce yourself. Thanks awfully, old boy.'\n\nThe laughter was tumultuous this time.\n\n'Fast on his feet, isn't he?' Itagne heard Ulath murmur to Bevier.\n\nItagne looked up. 'Colleagues,' he said, 'I submit that it was _not_ Prince Sparhawk that Zalasta so yearned for, but the Bhelliom. Bhelliom is the source of ultimate power, and Zalasta has been trying to get his hands on it for three centuries \u2013 for reasons too disgusting to mention. He has been willing to go to any lengths. He has betrayed his faith, his people, and his personal integrity \u2013 such as it was \u2013 to gain what the Trolls call \"The Flower-Gem\".'\n\nThat tears it!' the corpulent Quinsal declared, rising to his feet. 'This man is mad! Now he's talking about Trolls! This is an academic affair, Itagne, not the children's hour. You've picked the wrong forum for fairytales and ghost stories.'\n\n'Why don't you let me do this, Itagne?' Ulath said, rising to his feet and coming to the podium. I can settle this question in just a moment or two.'\n\n'Feel free,' Itagne said gratefully.\n\nUlath set one huge hand on each side of the lectern. 'Professor Itagne has requested me to brief you gentlemen on a few matters,' he said. I take it that you're having some difficulties with the notion of Trolls.'\n\n'None at all, Sir Knight,' Quinsal retorted. 'Trolls are an Elene myth and nothing else. There's no difficulty in that at all.'\n\n'What an amazing thing. I spent five years compiling a Trollish grammar. Are you saying that I was wasting my time?'\n\n'I think you're as mad as Itagne is.'\n\n'Then you probably shouldn't irritate me, should you? Particularly in view of the fact that I'm so much bigger than you are.' Ulath squinted at the ceiling. 'Logic tells us that no one can prove a negative. Are you sure you wouldn't like to amend your statement?'\n\n'No, Sir Ulath. I'll stand by what I just said. There's no such thing as a Troll.'\n\n'Did you hear that, Bhlokw?' Ulath raised his voice slightly. This fellow says that you don't exist.'\n\nThere was a hideous roar in the corridor outside the auditorium, and the double doors at the rear splintered and crashed inward.\n\n'Stay calm!' Bevier hissed as Itagne jumped. 'It's an illusion. Ulath's amusing himself.'\n\n'Would you like to turn around and tell me what you see at the back of the hall, Quinsal?' Ulath asked. 'Exactly what would you call my friend Bhlokw there?'\n\nThe creature hulking in the doorway was huge, and its bestial face was contorted with rage. It stretched its paws forth hungrily. 'Who has said this, U-Lat?' it demanded in a hideous voice. I will cause hurt to it! I will rip it to pieces and eat it!'\n\n'Can that Troll actually speak Tamul?' Itagne whispered.\n\n'Of course not,' Bevier smiled. 'Ulath's getting carried away.'\n\nThe hideous apparition in the doorway continued to bellow horribly graphic descriptions of its plans for the faculty of the Contemporary History Department.\n\n'Were there any other questions about Trolls?' Ulath asked mildly, but none of the assembled academics heard him over all the shouts, screams and the tipping over of chairs.\n\nIt took the better part of a quarter of an hour to restore order once Ulath had dismissed his illusion, and when Itagne reapproached the lectern, the entire audience was huddled closely together near the front of the auditorium. 'I'm touched by your eagerness to hear my every word, gentlemen,' Itagne smiled, 'but I can speak loudly enough to be heard at the back of the hall, so you needn't draw so close. I trust that the visit of Sir Ulath's friend has cleared up the little misunderstanding about Trolls?' He looked at Quinsal, who was still cowering on the floor, gibbering in terror. 'Splendid,' Itagne said. 'Briefly then, Prince Sparhawk came to Tamuli. Elenes are sometimes a devious people, so Sparhawk's wife, Queen Ehlana, proposed a state visit to Matherion and concealed her husband and his friends in her entourage. Upon their arrival, they almost immediately uncovered some facts which we had somehow overlooked. First, Emperor Sarabian actually has a mind; and second, the government led by Pondia Subat was in league with our enemies.'\n\n'Treason!' a thin, balding professor shrieked, leaping to his feet.\n\n'Really, Dalash?' Itagne asked. 'Against whom?'\n\n'Why \u2013 uh -' Dalash floundered.\n\n'You still don't understand, do you gentlemen?' Itagne asked the faculty of Contemporary History. 'The previous government has been overthrown \u2013 by Emperor Sarabian himself. Tamuli is now an Elene-style monarchy, and Emperor Sarabian rules by decree. The previous government \u2013 and its Prime Minister \u2013 are no longer relevant.'\n\n'The Prime Minister cannot be removed from office!' Dalash screamed. 'He holds his position for life!'\n\n'Even if that were true, it suggests a rather simple solution to the problem, doesn't it?'\n\n'You wouldn't _dare!'_\n\n'Not me, old boy. That's the Emperor's decision. Don't cross him, gentlemen. If you do, he'll decorate the city gates with your heads. Let's press on here. I'd like to cover a bit more ground before our customary recess. It was the aborted coup-attempt that finally brought things to a head. Pondia Subat was a party to the entire conspiracy and he fully intended to stand around wringing his hands while the drunken mob murdered all of his political enemies, evidently including the Emperor himself. If Professor Dalash wants to scream \"treason\" he might take a look at that. We discovered much in the aftermath of that failed coup, not only concerning the treason of the Prime Minister, but of the Minister of the Interior as well. Most important, however, was the discovery that it had been _Zalasta_ who had engineered the entire plot, _and_ that he was secretly allied with Ekatas, High Priest of Cyrgon, the God of the supposedly extinct Cyrgai.\n\n'At this point Prince Sparhawk had no choice but to retrieve Bhelliom from its hiding place and to send to Chyrellos for reinforcements. He enlisted other allies as well, not the least of which were the Delphae \u2013 who _do_ in fact exist in all their glowing horror.'\n\n'This is absurd!' Contemporary History's reigning bully-boy, the crude and muscular Professor Pessalt sneered. 'Are we supposed to believe this nonsense?'\n\n'You've already seen a Troll this evening, Pessalt,' Itagne reminded him. 'Would you like a personal visitation by a Shining One as well? I can arrange it, if you'd like \u2013 but outside, please. We'd never get rid of the stink if you were dissolved into a puddle of slime right here in front of the platform.'\n\nDean Altus cleared his throat meaningfully.\n\n'Yes sir,' Itagne assured him. 'I'll just be a few more minutes.' He turned back to the audience. 'Now then,' he continued quickly, 'since the subject of the Trolls has come up again, we might as well go into that and clear it away once and for all. As you've noticed, the Trolls are real. They were lured to Tamuli from their home range in northern Thalesia by Cyrgon, who posed as one of their Gods. The _real_ Troll-Gods have been imprisoned for eons, and Prince Sparhawk offered them an exchange \u2013 their freedom in return for their aid. He then led a sizeable force to northern Atan, where the misguided Trolls had been stirring up turmoil in hopes of forcing the Atans to return to defend their homeland \u2013 which would have left us effectively defenseless, since the Atans comprise the bulk of our army. Sparhawk's move _seemed_ to play right into the hands of our enemies, but when Cyrgon and Zalasta unleashed the Trolls, Sparhawk called forth their Gods to reclaim them. In desperation, Cyrgon reached back in time and produced a huge army of his Cyrgai. Then the Trolls, true to their nature, ate them.'\n\n'You don't really expect us to swallow this, do you, Itagne?' Professor Sarafawn, Chairman of the Department of Contemporary History and brother-in-law of the Prime Minister, demanded scornfully.\n\n'You might as well, Sarafawn,' Itagne told him. 'Your wife's brother isn't dictating official history any more. From now on, the Emperor wants us to give our students the plain, unvarnished truth. I'll be publishing a factual account in the next month or so. You'd better reserve a copy, Sarafawn, because you're going to be required to teach it to all your students in the future \u2013 assuming that you _have_ a future at this institution. Next year's budget's going to be a little tight, I understand, so a number of departments will probably have to be dropped.' He paused. 'Are you any good with tools, Sarafawn? There's a very nice little vocational school at Jura, I hear. You'd just _love_ Daconia.'\n\nThe Dean cleared his throat again, a bit more urgently this time.\n\n'Sorry, Dean Altus,' Itagne apologized. 'I'm running past time, gentlemen, so I'll just briefly sum up one more development. Despite their crushing defeat, Cyrgon and Zalasta were by no means powerless. In a bold stroke, Zalasta's natural son, one Scarpa, crept into the imperial compound and abducted Queen Ehlana, leaving behind a demand that Sparhawk give up the Bhelliom in exchange for the safe return of his wife.\n\n'Following the recess Dean Altus has been so patiently awaiting, I will take up Prince Sparhawk's reaction to this new development.'\n\n# [PART ONE  \nBerit](..\/Text\/9780007368051_epub_toc_r1.htm#pt01)\n\n# _Chapter 1_\n\nA chill haze was rising from the meadow, and thin clouds had drifted in from the west to obscure the cold, brittle sky. There were no shadows, and the frozen ground was iron-hard and unyielding. Winter was inexorably tightening its grip on the North Cape.\n\nSparhawk's army, girt in steel and leather and thousands strong, was lined up along a broad front in the frost-covered grass of the meadow near the ruins of Tzada. Sir Berit sat his horse in the center of the bulky, armored Church Knights watching the ghastly feast taking place a few hundred yards to the front. Berit was a young and idealistic knight, and he was having some difficulty with the behavior of their new allies.\n\nThe screams were remote, mere rumors of agony, and those who were screaming were not actually people -not really. They were no more than shades, the scarce-remembered reflections of long-dead men. Besides, they were enemies \u2013 members of a cruel and savage race that worshipped an unspeakable God.\n\nBut they steamed. That was the part of the horror Sir Berit could not shrug off. Though he told himself that these Cyrgai were dead \u2013 phantoms raised by Cyrgon's magic \u2013 the fact that steam rose from their eviscerated bodies as the ravening Trolls fed on them brought all of Berit's defenses crashing down around his ears.\n\nTrouble?' Sparhawk asked sympathetically. Sparhawk's black armor was frost-touched, and his battered face was bleak.\n\nBerit felt a sudden embarrassment. 'It's nothing, Sir Sparhawk,' he lied quickly. 'It's just -' He groped for a word.\n\n'I know. I'm stumbling over that part myself. The Trolls aren't being deliberately cruel, you know. To them we're just food. They're only following their nature.'\n\nThat's part of the problem, Sparhawk. The notion of being eaten makes my blood run cold.'\n\n'Would it help if I said, \"better them than us\"?'\n\n'Not very much.' Berit laughed weakly. 'Maybe I'm not cut out for this kind of work. Everybody else seems to be taking it in stride.'\n\n_'Nobody's_ taking it in stride, Berit. We all feel the same way about what's happening. Try to hold on. We've met these armies out of the past before. As soon as the Trolls kill the Cyrgai generals, the rest should vanish, and that'll put an end to it.' Sparhawk frowned. 'Let's go find Ulath,' he suggested. I just thought of something, and I want to ask him about it.'\n\n'All right,' Berit agreed quickly. The two black-armored Pandions turned their horses and rode through the frosty grass along the front of the massed army.\n\nThey found Ulath, Tynian and Bevier a hundred yards or so down the line. 'I've got a question for you, Ulath,' Sparhawk said as he reined Faran in.\n\n'For _me?_ Oh, Sparhawk, you shouldn't have!' Ulath removed his conical helmet and absently polished the glossy black Ogre-horns on the sleeve of his green surcoat. 'What's the problem?'\n\n'Every time we've come up against these antiques before, the dead all shriveled up after we killed the leaders. How are the Trolls going to react to that?'\n\n'How should I know?'\n\n'You're supposed to be the expert on Trolls.'\n\n'Be reasonable, Sparhawk. It's never happened before. Nobody can predict what's going to happen in a totally new situation.'\n\n'Make a guess,' Sparhawk snapped irritably.\n\nThe two of them glared at each other.\n\n'Why badger Ulath about it, Sparhawk?' Bevier suggested gently. 'Why not just warn the Troll-Gods that it's going to happen and let _them_ deal with the problem?'\n\nSparhawk rubbed reflectively at the side of his face, his hand making a kind of sandy sound on his unshaven cheek. 'Sorry, Ulath,' he apologized. 'The noise from the banquet hall out there's distracting me.'\n\n'I know just how you feel,' Ulath replied wryly. 'I'm glad you brought it up, though. The Trolls won't be satisfied with dried rations when there's all this fresh meat no more than a quarter-mile away.' He put his Ogre-horned helmet back on. 'The Troll-Gods will honor their commitment to Aphrael, but I think we'd better warn them about this. I definitely want them to have a firm grip on their Trolls when supper turns stale. I'd hate to end up being the dessert course.'\n\n_'Ehlana?'_ Sephrenia gasped.\n\n'Keep your voice down!' Aphrael muttered. She looked around. They were some distance to the rear of the army, but they were not alone. She reached out and touched Chiel's bowed white neck, and Sephrenia's palfrey obediently ambled off a little way from Kalten and Xanetia to crop at the frozen grass. I can't get too many details,' the Child Goddess said. 'Melidere's been badly hurt, and Mirtai's so enraged that they've had to chain her up.'\n\n'Who did it?'\n\n'I don't _know,_ Sephrenia! Nobody's talking to Danae. All I can get is the word \"hostage\". Somebody's managed to get into the castle, seize Ehlana and Alean and spirit them out. Sarabian's beside himself. He's flooded the halls with guards, so Danae can't get out of her room to find out what's really happening.'\n\n'We must tell Sparhawk!'\n\n'Absolutely not! Sparhawk bursts into flames when Ehlana's in danger. He's got to get this army safely back to Matherion before we can let him catch on fire.'\n\n'But-'\n\n'No, Sephrenia. He'll find out soon enough, but let's get everyone to safety before he does. We've only got a week or so left until the sun goes down permanently and everything \u2013 and everyone \u2013 up here turns to solid ice.'\n\n'You're probably right,' Sephrenia conceded. She thought a moment, staring off at the frost-silvered forest beyond the meadow. 'That word \"hostage\" explains everything, I think. Is there any way you can pinpoint your mother's exact location?'\n\nAphrael shook her head. 'Not without putting her in danger. If I start moving around and poking my nose into things, Cyrgon will feel me nudging at the edges of his scheme, and he might do something to Mother before he stops to think. Our main concern right now is keeping Sparhawk from going crazy when he finds out what's happened.' She suddenly gasped and her dark eyes went very wide.\n\n'What is it?' Sephrenia asked in alarm. 'What's happening?'\n\n'I don't _know!'_ Aphrael cried. 'It's something monstrous!' She cast her eyes about wildly for a moment and then steadied herself, her pale brow furrowing in concentration. Then her eyes narrowed in anger. 'Somebody's using one of the forbidden spells, Sephrenia,' she said in a voice that was as hard as the frozen ground.\n\n'Are you sure?'\n\n'Absolutely. The very air stinks of it.'\n\nDjarian the necromancer was a cadaverous-looking Styric with sunken eyes, a thin, almost skeletal frame, and a stale, mildewed odor about him. Like the other Styric captives, he was in chains and under the close watch of Church Knights well-versed in countering Styric spells.\n\nA cold, oppressive twilight was settling over the encampment near the ruins of Tzada when Sparhawk and the others finally got around to questioning the prisoners. The Troll-Gods had taken their creatures firmly in hand when the feeding orgy had come suddenly to an end, and the Trolls were now gathered around a huge bonfire several miles out in the meadow holding what appeared to be religious observances of some sort.\n\n'Just go through the motions, Bevier,' Sparhawk quietly advised the olive-skinned Cyrinic Knight as Djarian was dragged before them. 'Keep asking him irrelevant questions until Xanetia signals that she's picked him clean.'\n\nBevier nodded. I can crag it out for as long as you want, Sparhawk. Let's get started.'\n\nSir Bevier's gleaming white surcoat, made ruddy by the flickering firelight, gave him a decidedly ecclesiastical appearance, and he heightened that impression by prefacing his interrogation with a lengthy prayer. Then he got down to business.\n\nDjarian replied to the questions tersely in a hollow voice that seemed almost to come echoing up out of a vault. Bevier appeared to take no note of the prisoner's sullen behavior. His whole manner seemed excessively correct, even fussy, and he heightened that impression by wearing fingerless wool gloves such as scribes and scholars wear in cold weather. He doubled back frequently, rephrasing questions he had previously asked and then triumphantly pointing out inconsistencies in the prisoner's replies.\n\nThe one exception to Djarian's terse brevity was a sudden outburst of vituperation, a lengthy denunciation of Zalasta \u2013 and Cyrgon \u2013 for abandoning him here on this inhospitable field.\n\n'Bevier sounds exactly like a lawyer,' Kalten muttered quietly to Sparhawk. 'I _hate_ lawyers.'\n\n'He's doing it on purpose,' Sparhawk replied. 'Lawyers like to spring trick questions on people, and Djarian knows it. Bevier's forcing him to think very hard about the things he's supposed to conceal, and that's all Xanetia really needs. We always seem to underestimate Bevier.'\n\n'It's all that praying,' Kalten said sagely. 'It's hard to take a man seriously when he's praying all the time.'\n\n'We're Knights of the Church, Kalten \u2013 members of religious orders.'\n\n'What's that got to do with it?'\n\n'In his own mind he is more dead than alive,' Xanetia reported later when they had gathered around one of the large fires the Atans had built to hold back the bitter chill. The Anarae's face reflected the glow of the fire, as did her unbleached wool robe.\n\n'Were we right?' Tynian asked her. 'Is Cyrgon augmenting Djarian's spells so that he can raise whole armies?'\n\n'He is,' she replied.\n\n'Was that outburst against Zalasta genuine?' Vanion asked her.\n\n'Indeed, my Lord. Djarian and his fellows are increasingly discontent with the leadership of Zalasta. They have all come to expect no true comradeship from their leader. There is no longer common cause among them, and each doth seek to wring best advantage to himself from their dubious alliance. Overlaying all is the secret desire of each to gain sole possession of Bhelliom.'\n\n'Dissension among your enemies is always good,' Vanion noted, 'but I don't think we should discount the possibility that they'll all fall in line again after what happened here today. Could you get anything specific about what they might try next, Anarae?'\n\n'Nay, Lord Vanion. They were in no wise prepared for what hath come to pass. One thing did stand out in the mind of this Djarian, however, and it doth perhaps pose some danger. The outcasts who surround Zalasta do all fear Cyzada of Esos, for he alone is versed in Zemoch magic, and he alone doth plunge his hand through that door to the nether world which Azash opened. Horrors beyond imagining lie within his reach. It is Djarian's thought that since all their plans have thus far gone awry, Cyrgon in desperation might command Cyzada to use his unspeakable art to raise creatures of darkness to confront and confound us.'\n\nVanion nodded gravely.\n\n'How did Stragen's plan affect them?' Talen asked curiously.\n\n'They are discomfited out of all measure,' Xanetia replied. 'They did rely heavily on those who now are dead.'\n\n'Stragen will be happy to hear that. What were they going to do with all those spies and informers?'\n\n'Since they had no force capable of facing the Atans, Zalasta and his cohorts thought to use the hidden employees of the Ministry of the Interior to assassinate diverse Tamul officials in the subject kingdoms of the empire, hoping thereby to disrupt the governments.'\n\n'You might want to make a note of that, Sparhawk,' Kalten said.\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'Emperor Sarabian had some qualms when he approved Stragen's plan. He'll probably feel much better when he finds out that all Stragen really did was beat our enemies to the well. They'd have killed our people if Stragen hadn't killed theirs first.'\n\nThat's very shaky moral ground, Kalten,' Bevier said disapprovingly.\n\n'I know,' Kalten admitted. That's why you have to run across the top of it so fast.'\n\nThe sky was cloudy the following morning, thick roiling clouds that streamed in from the west, all seethe and confusion. Because it was late autumn and they were far to the north, it seemed almost that the sun was rising in the south, turning the sky above Bhelliom's escarpment a fiery orange and reaching feebly out with ruddy, low-lying light to paint the surging underbellies of the swift-scudding cloud with a brush of flame.\n\nThe campfires seemed wan and weak and very tiny against the overpowering chill here on the roof of the world, and the knights and their friends all wore fur cloaks and huddled close to the fires.\n\nThere were low rumbles off to the south, and flickers of pale, ghastly light.\n\nThunder?' Kalten asked Ulath incredulously. 'Isn't it the wrong time of year for thunderstorms?'\n\n'It happens,' Ulath shrugged. I was in a thunderstorm north of Heid once that touched off a blizzard. That's a very unusual sort of experience.'\n\n'Whose turn is it to do the cooking?' Kalten asked him absently.\n\n'Yours,' Ulath replied promptly.\n\n'You're not paying attention, Kalten,' Tynian laughed. 'You know better than to ask that question.'\n\nKalten grumbled and started to stir up the fire.\n\n'I think we'd better get back to the coast today, sparhawk,' Vanion said gravely. The weather's held off so far, but I don't think we'll be able to count on that much longer.'\n\nSparhawk nodded.\n\nThe thunder grew louder, and the fire-red clouds overhead blanched with shuddering flickers of lightning.\n\nThen there was a sudden, rhythmic booming sound.\n\n'Is it another earthquake?' Kring cried out in alarm.\n\n'No,' Khalad replied. 'It's too regular. It sounds almost like somebody beating a very big drum.' He stared at the top of Bhelliom's wall. 'What's that?' he asked, pointing.\n\nIt was like a hilltop rearing up out of the forest beyond the knife-like edge of the top of the cliff \u2013 very much like a hilltop, except that it was moving.\n\nThe sun was behind it, so they could not see any details, but as it rose higher and higher they could make out the fact that it was a kind of flattened dome with two pointed protuberances flaring out from either side like huge wings. And still it swelled upward. As they could see more of it, they realized that it was not a dome. It seemed to be some enormous, inverted triangle instead, wide at the top, pointed at the bottom and with those odd winglike protuberances jutting out from its sides. The pointed bottom seemed to be set in some massive column. Since the light was behind it, it was as black as night, and it rose and swelled like some vast darkness.\n\nThen it stopped.\n\nAnd then its eyes opened.\n\nLike two thin, fiery gashes at first, the blazing eyes opened wider and wider, cruelly slanted like cats' eyes and all ablaze with fire more incandescent than the sun itself. The imagination shuddered back from the realization of the enormity of the thing. What had appeared to be huge wings were the creature's ears.\n\nAnd then it opened its mouth and roared, and they knew that what they had heard before had not been thunder.\n\nIt roared again, and its fangs were flickers of lightning that dripped flame like blood.\n\n'Kl\u00e6l!' Aphrael shrieked.\n\nAnd then, like two rounded, bulky mountains, the shoulders rose above the sharp line of the cliff, and, fanning out from the shoulders like black sails, two jointed, batlike wings.\n\n'What is it?' Talen cried.\n\n'It's Kl\u00e6l!' Aphrael shrieked again.\n\n'What's a Kl\u00e6l?'\n\n'Not _what,_ you dolt! _Who!_ Azash and the other Elder Gods cast him out! Some idiot has returned him!'\n\nThe enormity atop the escarpment continued to rise, revealing vast arms with many-fingered hands. The trunk was huge, and flashes of lightning seethed beneath its skin, illuminating ghastly details with their surging flickers.\n\nAnd then that monstrous presence rose to its full height, towering eighty, a hundred feet above the top of the escarpment.\n\nSparhawk's spirit shrivelled. How could they possibly \u2013 ? 'Blue Rose!' he said sharply. 'Do something!'\n\n'There is no need, Anakha.' Vanion's usurped voice was very calm as Bhelliom once again spoke through his lips. 'Kl\u00e6l hath but momentarily escaped Cyrgon's grasp. Cyrgon will not risk his creature in a direct confrontation with me.'\n\n'That thing belongs to Cyrgon?'\n\n'For the moment. In time that will change, and Cyrgon will belong to Kl\u00e6l.'\n\n'What is it _doing?'_ Betuana cried.\n\nThe monstrosity atop the cliff had raised one huge fist and was striking at the ground with incandescent fire, hammering at the earth with lightning. The face of the escarpment shuddered and began to crack away, falling, tumbling, roaring down to smash into the forest at the foot of the cliff. More and more of the sheer face crumbled and sheared away and fell in a huge thundering landslide.\n\n'Kl\u00e6l was ever uncertain of the strength of his wings,' Bhelliom observed calmly. 'He would come to join battle with me, but he fears the height of the wall. Thus he prepares a stair for himself.'\n\nThen with a booming like that of the earthquake which had spawned it, a mile or more of the escarpment toppled ponderously outward and crashed into the forest, piling rubble higher and higher against the foot of the cliff.\n\nThe enormous being continued to savage the top of the cliff, spilling more and more rubble down to form a steep causeway reaching up and up to the top of the wall.\n\nAnd then the thing called Kl\u00e6l vanished, and a shrieking wind swept the face of the escarpment, whipping away the boiling clouds of dust the landslide had raised.\n\nThere was another sound as well. Sparhawk turned quickly. The Trolls had fallen to their faces, moaning in terror.\n\n'We've always known about him,' Aphrael said pensively. 'We used to frighten ourselves by telling stories about him. There's a certain perverse pleasure in making one's own flesh crawl. I don't think I ever really admitted to myself that he actually existed.'\n\n'Exactly what is he?' Bevier asked her.\n\n'Evil.' She shrugged. 'We're supposed to be the essence of good \u2013 at least that's what we tell ourselves. Kl\u00e6l is the opposite. He's our way of explaining the existence of evil. If we didn't have Kl\u00e6l, we'd have to accept the responsibility for evil ourselves, and we're a little too fond of ourselves to do that.'\n\nThen this Kl\u00e6l is the King of Hell?' Bevier asked.\n\n'Well, sort of. Hell isn't a place, though. It's a state of mind. The story has it that when the Elder Gods \u2013 Azash and the others \u2013 emerged, they found Kl\u00e6l already here. They wanted the world for themselves, and he was in their way. After several of them had tried individually to get rid of him and got themselves obliterated, they banded together and cast him out.'\n\n'Where did he come from? Originally, I mean?' Bevier pressed. Bevier was very much caught up in first causes.\n\n'How in the world should I know? I wasn't there. Ask Bhelliom.'\n\n'I'm not so much interested in where this Kl\u00e6l came from as I am in what kinds of things it can do,' Sparhawk said. He took Bhelliom out of the pouch at his waist. 'Blue Rose,' he said, I do think we must talk concerning Kl\u00e6l.'\n\n'It might be well, Anakha,' the jewel responded, once again taking control of Vanion.\n\n'Where did he \u2013 or it \u2013 originate?'\n\n'Kl\u00e6l did not originate, Anakha. Even as I, Kl\u00e6l hath always been.'\n\n'What is it \u2013 he?'\n\n'Necessary. I would not offend thee, Anakha, but the necessity of Kl\u00e6l is beyond thine ability to comprehend. The Child Goddess hath explained Kl\u00e6l sufficiently -within her capabilities.'\n\n'Well, _really!'_ Aphrael spluttered.\n\nA faint smile touched Vanion's lips. 'Be not wroth with me, Aphrael. I do love thee still \u2013 despite thy limitations. Thou art young, and age shall bring thee wisdom and understanding.'\n\nThis is not going well, Blue Rose,' Sephrenia warned the stone.\n\n'Ah, well,' Bhelliom sighed. 'Let us then to work. Kl\u00e6l _was,_ in fact, cast out by the Elder Gods, as Aphrael hath told thee \u2013 although the spirit of Kl\u00e6l, even as my spirit, doth linger in the very rocks of this world \u2013 as in all others which I have made. Moreover, what the Elder Gods could do, they could also undo, and the spell which hath returned Kl\u00e6l was implicit in the spell which did cast Kl\u00e6l out. Clearly, some mortal conversant with the spells of the Elder Gods hath reversed the spell of casting out, and Kl\u00e6l hath returned.'\n\n'Can he \u2013 or it \u2013 be destroyed?'\n\n'It is not \"he\" of which we speak, nor do we speak of some \"it\". We speak of Kl\u00e6l. But nay, Anakha, Kl\u00e6l cannot be destroyed \u2013 no more than can I. Kl\u00e6l is eternal.'\n\nSparhawk's heart sank. 'I think we're in trouble,' he muttered to his friends.\n\n'The fault is in some measure mine. So caught up was I in the birth of this latest child of mine that mine attention did stray from needful duties. It is my wont to cast Kl\u00e6l out at a certain point in the making of a new world. This particular child did so delight me, however, that I delayed the casting out. Then it was that I did encounter the red dust which did imprison me, and the duty to cast Kl\u00e6l out did devolve upon the Elder Gods. The casting-out was made imperfect by reason of _their_ imperfection, and thus it was possible for Kl\u00e6l to be returned.'\n\n'By Cyrgon?' Sparhawk asked bleakly.\n\n'The spell of casting out \u2013 and returning \u2013 is Styric. Cyrgon could not utter it.'\n\n'Cyzada then,' Sephrenia guessed. 'He might very well have known the spell. I don't think he'd have used it willingly, though.'\n\n'Cyrgon probably forced him to use it, little mother,' Kalten said. 'Things haven't been going very well for Cyrgon and Zalasta lately.'\n\n'But to call Kl\u00e6l!' Aphrael shuddered.\n\n'Desperate people do desperate things,' Kalten shrugged. 'So do desperate Gods, I suppose.'\n\n'What do we do, Blue Rose?' Sparhawk asked. 'About Kl\u00e6l, I mean to say?'\n\n'Thou canst do nothing, Anakha. Thou didst well when thou didst meet Azash, and doubtless will do well again in thy dispute with Cyrgon. Thou wouldst be powerless against Kl\u00e6l, however.'\n\n'We're doomed then.' Sparhawk suddenly felt totally crushed.\n\n'Doomed? Of course thou art not doomed. Why art thou so easily downcast and made disconsolate, my friend? I did not make thee to confront Kl\u00e6l. That is _my_ duty. Kl\u00e6l will trouble us in some measure, as is Kl\u00e6l's wont. Then, as is our custom, Kl\u00e6l and I will meet.'\n\n'And thou wilt once more banish him?'\n\n'That is never certain, Anakha. I do assure thee, however, that I will strive to mine utmost to cast Kl\u00e6l out \u2013 even as Kl\u00e6l will strive to cast _me_ out. The contest between us doth lie in the future, and as I have oft told thee, the future is concealed. I will approach the contest with confidence, however, for doubt doth weaken resolve, and timorous uncertainty doth weigh down the spirit. Battle should be joined with a light heart and joyous demeanor.'\n\n'You can be very sententious sometimes, World-Maker,' Aphrael said with just a hint of spitefulness.\n\n'Be nice,' Bhelliom chided mildly.\n\n'Anakha!' It was Ghworg, the God of Kill. The huge presence came across the frosty meadow, plowing a dark path through the silver-sheathed grass.\n\n'I will hear the words of Ghworg,' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'Have _you_ summoned Kl\u00e6l? Is it your thought that Kl\u00e6l will aid us in causing hurt to Cyrgon? It is not good if you have. Let Kl\u00e6l go back.'\n\n'It was not my doing, Ghworg. Neither was it the Flower-Gem's doing. It is our thought that it was Cyrgon who summoned Kl\u00e6l to cause hurt to us.'\n\n'Can the Flower-Gem cause hurt to Kl\u00e6l?'\n\n'That is not certain. The might of Kl\u00e6l is even as the might of the Flower-Gem.'\n\nThe God of Kill squatted on the frozen turf, scratching at his shaggy face with one huge paw. 'Cyrgon is as nothing, Anakha,' he rumbled in an almost colloquial form of speech. 'We can cause hurt to Cyrgon tomorrow \u2013 or some time by-and-by. We must cause hurt to Kl\u00e6l now. We cannot wait for by-and-by.'\n\nSparhawk dropped to one knee on the frozen turf. 'Your words are wise, Ghworg.'\n\nGhworg's lips pulled back in a hideous approximation of a grin. 'The word you use is not common among us, Anakha. If Khwaj said, \"Ghworg is wise\", I would cause hurt to him.'\n\n'I did not say it to cause you anger, Ghworg.'\n\n'You are not a Troll, Anakha. You do not know our ways. We must cause hurt to Kl\u00e6l so that he will go away. How can we do this?'\n\n'We cannot cause hurt to him. Only the Flower-Gem can make him go away.'\n\nGhworg smashed his fist against the frozen ground with a hideous snarl.\n\nSparhawk held up one hand. 'Cyrgon has called Kl\u00e6l,' he said. 'Kl\u00e6l has joined Cyrgon to cause hurt to us. Let us cause hurt to Cyrgon now, not by-and-by. If we cause hurt to Cyrgon, he will fear to aid Kl\u00e6l when the Flower-Gem goes to cause hurt to Kl\u00e6l and make him go away.'\n\nGhworg puzzled his way through that. 'Your words are good, Anakha,' he said finally. 'How might we best cause hurt to Cyrgon now?'\n\nSparhawk considered it. 'The mind of Cyrgon is not like your mind, Ghworg, nor is it like mine. Our minds are direct. Cyrgon's is guileful. He threw your children against our friends here in the lands of winter to make us come here to fight them. But your children were not his main force.\n\n'Cyrgon's main force will come from the lands of the sun to attack our friends in the city that shines.'\n\n'I have seen that place. The Child Goddess spoke first with us there.'\n\nSparhawk frowned, trying to remember the details of Vanion's map. 'There are high places here and to the south,' he said.\n\nGhworg nodded.\n\n'Then, even further south, the high places grow low and then they become flat.'\n\n'I see it,' Ghworg said. 'You describe it well, Anakha.' That startled Sparhawk. Evidently Ghworg could visualize the entire continent.\n\n'In the middle of that flat place is another high place that the man-things call the Tamul Mountains.'\n\nGhworg nodded in agreement.\n\n'The main force of Cyrgon's children will pass that high place to reach the city that shines. The high place will be cool, so your children will not suffer from the sun there.'\n\n'I see which way your thought goes, Anakha,' Ghworg said. 'We will take our children to that high place and wait there for Cyrgon's children. Our children will not eat Aphrael's children. They will eat Cyrgon's children instead.'\n\n'That will cause hurt to Cyrgon and his servants, Ghworg.'\n\n'Then we will do it.' Ghworg turned and pointed toward the landslide. 'Our children will climb Kl\u00e6l's stairway. Then Ghnomb will make time stop. Our children will be in the high place before the sun goes to sleep this night.' He stood up abruptly. 'Good hunting,' he growled, turned and went back to join his fellows and the still terrified Trolls.\n\n'We still have to proceed as if things were normal,' Vanion told them as they gathered near the fire a couple of hours past noon. The sun, Sparhawk noted, was already going down. 'Kl\u00e6l can probably appear at any time and any place. We can't plan for him \u2013 any more than we can plan for a blizzard or a hurricane. If you can't plan for something, about the only thing you can do is take a few precautions and then ignore it.'\n\n'Well spoken,' Queen Betuana approved. Betuana and Vanion were getting along well.\n\n'What do we do then, friend Vanion?' Tikume asked.\n\n'We're soldiers, friend Tikume,' Vanion replied. 'We do what soldiers do. We get ready to fight armies, not Gods. Scarpa's coming up out of the jungles of Arjuna, and I'd expect another thrust to come out of Cynesga. The Trolls will probably hamper Scarpa, but they can only move out a short way from those mountains in southern Tamul Proper because of the climate. After the initial shock of encountering Trolls, Scarpa will probably try to go around them.' Vanion consulted his map. 'We'll have to have forces in place to respond either to Scarpa or to an army coming out of Cynesga. I'd say that Samar would be the best location.'\n\n'Sarna,' Betuana disagreed.\n\n'Both,' Ulath countered. 'Forces in Samar could cover everything from the southern edge of the Atan Mountains to the Sea of Arjuna _and_ be in position to strike eastward to the southern Tamul Mountains if Scarpa evades the Trolls. Forces in Sarna could block the invasion route through the Atan mountains.'\n\n'His point's well taken,' Bevier said. 'It divides our forces, but we don't have much choice.'\n\n'We could put the knights and the Peloi in Samar and the Atan infantry in Sarna,' Tynian added. 'The lower valley of the River Sarna's ideal for mounted operations, and the mountains around Sarna itself are natural for Atans.'\n\n'Both positions are defensive,' Engessa objected. 'Wars aren't won from defensive positions.'\n\nSparhawk and Vanion exchanged a long look. 'Invade Cynesga?' Sparhawk asked dubiously.\n\n'Not yet,' Vanion decided. 'Let's wait until the Church Knights get here from Eosia before we do that. When Komier and the others cross into Cynesga from the west, _that's_ when we'll want to come at the place from the east. We'll put Cyrgon in a vice. With that sort of force coming at him from both sides, he can raise every Cyrgai who's ever lived, and he'll still lose.'\n\n'Right up until the moment he unleashes Kl\u00e6l,' Aphrael added moodily.\n\n'No, Divine One,' Sparhawk told her. 'Bhelliom _wants_ Cyrgon to send Kl\u00e6l against us. If we do it this way, we'll force the issue in a place and time that _we_ choose. We'll pick the spot, Cyrgon will unleash Kl\u00e6l, and I'll unleash Bhelliom. Then all we have to do is sit back and watch.'\n\n'We'll go to the top of the wall the same way the Trolls went, Vanion-Preceptor,' Engessa said the following morning. 'We can climb as well as they can.'\n\n'It might take _us_ a little longer,' Tikume added. 'We'll have to push boulders out of the way to get our horses up that slope.'\n\n'We will help you, Tikume-Domi,' Engessa promised.\n\n'That's it, then,' Tynian summed up. The Atans and the Peloi will go south from here to take up positions in Sarna and Samar. We'll take the knights back to the coast, and Sorgi will ferry us back to Matherion. We'll go overland from there.'\n\n'It's the ferrying that concerns me,' Sparhawk said. 'Sorgi's going to have to make at least a half-dozen trips.'\n\nKhalad sighed and rolled his eyes upward.\n\n'I gather you're going to embarrass me in public again,' Sparhawk said. 'What am I overlooking?'\n\n'The rafts, Sparhawk,' Khalad said in a weary voice. 'Sorgi's gathering up the rafts to take them south to the timber markets. He's going to lash them all together into a long log-boom. Put the knights in the ships, the horses on the boom, and we can all make it to Matherion in one trip.'\n\n'I forgot about the rafts,' Sparhawk admitted sheepishly.\n\nThat log-boom won't move very fast,' Ulath pointed out.\n\nXanetia had been listening to their plans intently. She looked at Khalad and spoke diffidently, almost shyly. 'Might a steady wind behind thy logs assist thee, young Master?' Xanetia asked Khalad.\n\n'It would indeed, Anarae,' Khalad said enthusiastically. 'We can weave rough sails out of tree-limbs.'\n\n'Won't Cyrgon \u2013 or Kl\u00e6l \u2013 feel you raising a breeze, dear sister?' Sephrenia asked.\n\n'Cyrgon cannot detect Delphaeic magic, Sephrenia,' Xanetia replied. 'Anakha can ask Bhelliom whether Kl\u00e6l is similarly unaware.'\n\n'How did you manage that?' Aphrael asked curiously.\n\nXanetia looked slightly embarrassed. 'It was to hide from thee and thy kindred, Divine Aphrael. When Eda-emus did curse us, he did so arrange his curse that our magic would be hidden from our enemies \u2013 for thus did we view thee at that time. Doth that offend thee, Divine One?'\n\n'Not under _these_ circumstances, Anarae,' Flute replied, swarming up into Xanetia's arms and kissing her soundly.\n\n# _Chapter 2_\n\nThe log-boom Captain Sorgi's sailors had constructed from the rafts was a quarter of a mile long and a hundred feet wide. Most of it was taken up by the huge corral. It wallowed and wobbled its way south under threatening skies, and it was frequently raked by stinging sleet-squalls. The weather was bitterly cold, and the young knights who manned the raft were bundled to the ears in furs and spent most of their time huddled in the dubious shelter of the flapping tents.\n\n'It's all in attention to detail, Berit,' Khalad said as he tied off the rope holding the starboard end of one of their makeshift sails in place. 'That's all that work really is \u2013 details.' He squinted along the ice-covered line of what was really much more like a snow-fence than a sail. 'Sparhawk looks at the grand plan and leaves the details to others. It's a good thing, really, because he's a hopeless incompetent when it comes to little things and real work.'\n\n'Khalad!' Berit was actually shocked.\n\n'Have you ever seen him try to use tools? That was something our father used to tell us over and over: \"Don't _ever_ let Sparhawk pick up a tool.\" Kalten's fairly good with his hands, but Sparhawk's hopeless. If you hand him anything associated with honest work, he'll hurt himself with it.' Khalad's head came up sharply, and he swore.\n\n'What's wrong?'\n\n'Didn't you feel it? The port-side tow-ropes just went slack. Let's go wake up those sailors. We don't want this big cow turning broadside on us again.' The two fur-clad young men started across the icy collection of lashed-together rafts, skirting the huge corral where the horses huddled together in the bitterly cold breeze coming from astern.\n\nThe idea of making a log-boom out of the rafts was very good in theory, but the problems of steering proved to be far more complex than either Sorgi or Khalad had anticipated. Khalad's thickly woven fences of evergreen boughs acted well enough as sails, moving the sheer dead weight of the boom steadily southward ahead of Xanetia's breeze. Sorgi's ships were supposed to provide steerageway by towing the boom, and that was where the problems cropped up. No two ships ever move at exactly the same rate of speed, even when propelled by the same wind. Thus, the fifty ships ahead and the twenty-five strung out along each side of the boom had to be almost constantly fine-tuned to keep the huge raft moving in the right general direction. As long as everybody paid very close attention, all went well. Two days south of Bhelliom's wall, however, a number of things had gone wrong all at once, and the log-boom had swung round sideways. No amount of effort had been able to straighten it out, and so they had been obliged to take it apart and reassemble it \u2013 back-breaking labor in the bitter cold. Nobody wanted to go through that again.\n\nWhen they reached the port side of the boom, Berit took a dented brass horn out from under his fur cape and blew a flat, off-key blast at the port-side tow-boats while Khalad picked up a yellow flag and began to wave it vigorously. The pre-arranged signals were simple. The yellow flag told the ships to crowd on more sail to keep the towing hawsers taut; the blue flag told them to put out the sea-anchors to slack off on the ropes; and the red flag told them to cast off all lines and get out of the way.\n\nThe tow-ropes went tight again as Khalad's crisp signal trickled down through the ranks to the sailors who actually did the work aboard the ships.\n\n'How do you keep track of everything?' Berit asked his friend. 'And how do you know so quickly that something's wrong?'\n\n'Pain,' Khalad replied wryly. 'I don't really want to spend several days taking this beast apart and putting it back together again with the spray freezing on me, so I'm paying very close attention to the things my body's telling me. You can feel things change in your legs and the soles of your feet. When one of the hawsers goes slack, it changes the feel of how the boom moves.'\n\n'Is there _anything_ you don't know how to do?'\n\n'I don't dance very well.' Khalad squinted up into the first stinging pellets of another sleet-squall. 'It's time to feed and water the horses,' he said. 'Let's go tell the novices to stop sitting around admiring their titles and get to work.'\n\n'You really dislike the aristocracy, don't you?' Berit asked as they started forward along the edge of the corral toward the wind-whipped tents of the apprentice knights.\n\n'No, I don't dislike them. I just don't have any patience with them, and I can't understand how they can be so blind to what's going on around them. A title must be a very heavy thing to carry if the weight makes you ignore everything else.'\n\n'You're going to be a knight yourself, you know.'\n\n'It wasn't my idea. Sparhawk gets silly sometimes. He thinks that making knights of my brothers and me is a way of honoring our father. I'm sure that Father's laughing at him right now.'\n\nThey reached the tents, and Khalad raised his voice. 'All right, gentlemen!' he shouted. 'It's time to feed and water the animals! Let's get at it!' Then he critically surveyed the corral. Five thousand horses leave a great deal of evidence that they have been present. 'I think it's time for another lesson in the virtue of humility for our novices,' he said quietly to Berit. Then he raised his voice again. 'And after you've finished with that, you'd better break out the scoop-shovels and wheel-barrows again. We wouldn't want to let the work pile up on us, would we, gentlemen?'\n\nBerit was not yet fully adept at some of the subtler forms of magic. That part of the Pandion training was the study of a lifetime. He _was_ far enough along, however, to recognize 'tampering' when he encountered it. The log-boom _seemed_ to be lumbering southward at a crawl, but the turning of the seasons was giving some things away. It should have taken them much longer to escape the bitter cold of the far north, for one thing, and the days should not have become so much longer in such a short time, for another.\n\nHowever it was managed, and whoever managed it, they arrived at a sandy beach a few miles north of Matherion late one golden autumn afternoon long before they should have and began wading the horses ashore from the wobbly collection of rafts.\n\n'Short trip,' Khalad observed laconically as the two watched the novices unloading the horses.\n\n'You noticed,' Berit laughed.\n\n'They weren't particularly subtle about it. When the spray stopped freezing in my beard between one minute and the next, I started having suspicions.' He paused. 'Is magic very hard to learn?' he asked.\n\n'The magic itself isn't too hard. The hard part is learning the Styric language. Styric doesn't have any regular verbs. They're _all_ irregular \u2013 and there are nine tenses.'\n\n'Berit, please speak plain Elenic'\n\n'You know what a verb is, don't you?'\n\n'Sort of, but what's a tense?'\n\nSomehow that made Berit feel better. Khalad did _not_ know everything. 'We'll work on it,' he assured his friend. 'Maybe Sephrenia can make some suggestions.'\n\nThe sun was going down in a blaze of color when they rode through the opalescent gates into fire-domed Matherion, and it was dusk when they reached the imperial compound.\n\n'What's wrong with everybody?' Khalad muttered as they rode through the gate.\n\n'I didn't follow that,' Berit confessed.\n\n'Use your eyes, man! Those gate-guards were looking at Sparhawk as if they expected him to explode \u2013 or maybe turn into a dragon. Something's going on, Berit.'\n\nThe Church Knights rode off across the twilight-dim lawn to their barracks while the rest of them clattered across the drawbridge into Ehlana's castle. They dismounted in the torch-lit courtyard and trooped inside.\n\n'It's even worse here,' Khalad murmured. 'Let's stay close to Sparhawk in case we have to restrain him. The knights at the drawbridge seemed to be actually afraid of him.'\n\nThey went up the stairs to the royal apartment. Mirtai was not in her customary place at the door, and that made Berit even more edgy. Khalad was right. Something here was definitely not the way it should be.\n\nEmperor Sarabian, dressed in his favorite purple doublet and hose, was nervously pacing the blue-carpeted floor of the sitting-room as they entered, and he seemed to shrink back as Sparhawk and Vanion approached him.\n\n'Your Majesty,' Sparhawk greeted him, inclining his head. 'It's good to see you again.' He looked around. 'Where's Ehlana?' he asked, laying his helmet on the table.\n\n'Uh \u2013 in a minute, Sparhawk. How did things go on the North Cape?'\n\n'More or less the way we'd planned. Cyrgon doesn't command the Trolls any more, but we've got another problem that might be even worse.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'We'll tell you about it when Ehlana joins us. It's not such a pretty story that we'd want to go through it twice.'\n\nThe Emperor gave Foreign Minister Oscagne a helpless look.\n\n'Let's go speak with Baroness Melidere, Prince sparhawk,' Oscagne suggested. 'Something's happened here. She was present, so she'll be able to answer your questions better than we would.'\n\n'All right.' Sparhawk's gaze was level, and his voice was steady, despite the fact that Sarabian's nervousness and Oscagne's evasive answer fairly screamed out the fact that something was terribly wrong.\n\nBaroness Melidere sat propped up in her bed. She wore a fetching blue dressing-gown, but the sizeable bandage on her left shoulder was a clear indication that something serious had happened. Her face was pale, but her eyes were cool and rock-steady. Stragen sat at her bedside in his white satin doublet, his face filled with concern.\n\n'Well,' Melidere said, 'finally.' Her voice was crisp and businesslike. She flicked a withering glance at the Emperor and his advisers. I see that these brave gentlemen have decided to let _me_ tell you about what happened here, Prince Sparhawk. I'll try to be brief. One night a couple of weeks ago, the Queen, Alean, and I were getting ready for bed. There was a knock on the door, and four men we thought were Peloi came in. Their heads were shaved and they wore Peloi clothing, but they weren't Peloi. One of them was Krager. The other three were Elron, Baron Parok, and Scarpa.'\n\nSparhawk did not move, and his face did not change expression. 'And?' he asked, his voice still unemotional.\n\n'You've decided to be sensible, I see,' Melidere said coolly. 'Good. We exchanged a few insults, and then Scarpa told Elron to kill me \u2013 just to prove to the Queen that he was serious. Elron lunged at me, and I deflected his thrust with my wrist. I fell down and smeared the blood around to make it appear that I'd been killed. Ehlana threw herself over me, pretending to be hysterical, but she'd seen what I'd done.' The Baroness took a ruby ring out from under her pillow. This is for you, Prince Sparhawk. Your wife hid it in my bodice. She also said, \"Tell Sparhawk that I'm all right, and tell him that I forbid him to give up Bhelliom, no matter what they threaten to do to me.\" Those were her exact words. Then she covered me with a blanket.'\n\nSparhawk took the ring and slipped it onto his finger. I see,' he said in a calm voice. 'What happened then, Baroness?'\n\n'Scarpa told your wife that he and his friends were taking her and Alean as hostages. He said that you were so foolishly attached to her that you'd give him anything for her safe return. He obviously intends to exchange her for the Bhelliom. Krager had a note already prepared. He cut off a lock of Ehlana's hair to include in the note. I gather that there'll be other notes, and each one will have some of her hair in it to prove that it's authentic. Then they took Ehlana and Alean and left.'\n\n'Thank you, Baroness,' Sparhawk said, his voice still steady. 'You've shown amazing courage in this unfortunate business. May I have the note?'\n\nMelidere reached under her pillow again, took out a folded and sealed piece of parchment, and handed it to him.\n\nBerit had loved his Queen from the moment he had first seen her sitting on her throne encased in crystal, although he had never mentioned the fact to her. There would be other loves in his life, of course, but she would always be the first. So it was that when Sparhawk broke the seal, unfolded the parchment, and gently removed the thick lock of pale blonde hair, Berit's mind suddenly filled with flames. His grip tightened round the haft of his war-axe.\n\nKhalad took him by the arm, and Berit was dimly startled by just how strong his friend's grip was. 'That's not going to do anybody any good at all, Berit,' he said in a crisp voice. 'Now why don't you just give me the axe before you do something foolish with it?'\n\nBerit drew in a deep, trembling breath, pushing away his sudden, irrational fury. 'Sorry, Khalad,' he said. I sort of lost my grip there for a moment. I'll be all right now.' He looked at his friend. 'Sparhawk's going to let you kill Krager, isn't he?'\n\n'So he says.'\n\n'Would you like some help?'\n\nKhalad flashed him a quick grin. 'It's always nice to have company when you're doing something that takes several days,' he said.\n\nSparhawk quickly read the note, his free hand still gently holding the lock of Ehlana's pale hair. Berit could see the muscles rippling along his friend's jaw as he read. He handed the note to Vanion. 'You'd better read this to them,' he said bleakly.\n\nVanion nodded and took the note. He cleared his throat.\n\n' \"Well now, Sparhawk,' \" he read aloud. \"'I gather that your temper-tantrum's over. I hope you didn't kill _too_ many of the people who were supposed to be guarding your wife.\n\n' \"The situation here is painfully obvious, I'm afraid. We've taken Ehlana hostage. You _will_ behave yourself, won't you, old boy? The tiresomely obvious part of all of this is that you can have her back in exchange for Bhelliom and the rings. We'll give you a few days to rant and rave and try to find some way out of this. Then, when you've come to your senses and realize that you have no choice but to do exactly as you're told, I'll drop you another note with some rather precise instructions. Do be a good boy and follow the instructions to the letter. I'd really rather not be forced to kill your wife, so don't try to be creative.\n\n' \"Be well, Sparhawk, and keep an eye out for my next note. You'll know it's from me because I'll decorate it with another lock of Ehlana's hair. Pay very close attention, because if our correspondence continues for _too_ long, your wife will run out of hair, and I'll have to start using fingers.\"\n\n'And it's signed \"Krager\",' Vanion concluded.\n\nKalten smashed his fist into the wall, his face rigid with fury.\n\n'That's enough of that!' Vanion snapped.\n\n'What are we going to do?' Kalten demanded. 'We have to do _something!'_\n\n'We're _not_ going to jump eight feet into the air and come down running, for a start,' Vanion told him.\n\n'Where's Mirtai?' Kring's voice had a note of sudden alarm.\n\n'She's perfectly all right, Domi,' Sarabian assured him. 'She was a little upset when she found out what happened.'\n\n'A _little?'_ Oscagne murmured. 'It took twelve men to subdue her. She's in her room, Domi Kring \u2013 chained to the bed, actually. There are some guards there as well to keep her from doing herself any injury.'\n\nKring abruptly turned and left Melidere's bedroom.\n\n'We're tiring you, aren't we, Baroness?' Sarabian said then.\n\n'Not in the least, your Majesty,' she replied in a cool voice. She looked around at them. 'It's a bit cramped in here. Why don't we adjourn to the sitting-room? I'd imagine we'll be most of the night at this, so we might as well be comfortable.' She threw back her blankets and started to get out of bed.\n\nStragen gently restrained her. Then he picked her up.\n\n'I can walk, Stragen,' she protested.\n\n'Not while I'm around, you can't.' Stragen's customary expression of civilized urbanity was gone as he looked around at the others, and it had been replaced with one of cold, tightly suppressed rage. 'One thing, gentlemen,' he told them. 'When we catch up with these people, Elron's mine. I'll be very put out with anybody who accidentally kills him.'\n\nBaroness Melidere's eyes were quite content, and there was a faint smile on her face as she laid her head on Stragen's shoulder.\n\nCaalador was waiting for them in the sitting-room. His knees and elbows were muddy, and there were cobwebs in his hair. 'I found it, your Majesty,' he reported to the Emperor. 'It comes out in the basement of that barracks the Church Knights have been using.' He looked appraisingly at Sparhawk. 'I'd heard you were back,' he said. 'We've managed to pick up a little information for you.'\n\n'I appreciate that, Caalador,' Sparhawk replied quietly. The big Pandion's almost inhuman calm had them all more than a little on edge.\n\n'Stragen was a bit distracted after what happened to the Baroness here,' Caalador reported, 'so I was left more or less to my own devices. I took some fairly direct steps. The ideas were all mine, so don't blame him for them.'\n\n'You don't have to do that, Caalador,' Stragen said, carefully tucking a blanket round Melidere's shoulders. 'You didn't do anything I didn't approve of.'\n\n'I take it that there were a few atrocities,' Ulath surmised.\n\n'Let me start at the beginning,' Caalador said, brushing his hands through his hair, trying to dislodge the cobwebs. 'One of the men we'd been planning to kill during the Harvest Festival managed to evade my cut-throats, and he sent me a message offering to exchange information for his life. I agreed to that, and he told me something I didn't know about. We knew that there were tunnels under the lawns here in the imperial compound, but what we _didn't_ know is that the ground under the whole city's honeycombed with more tunnels. That's how Krager and his friends got into the imperial grounds, and that's how they took the Queen and her maid out.'\n\n'Prithee, good Master Caalador, stay a moment,' Xanetia said. I have seen into the memories of the Minister of the Interior, and he had no knowledge of such tunnels.'\n\n'That wouldn't be hard to explain, Anarae,' Patriarch Emban told her. 'Ambitious underlings quite often conceal things from their superiors. Teovin, Director of the Secret Police, probably had his eye on Kolata's position.'\n\n'That's most likely it, your Grace,' Caalador agreed. 'Anyway, my informant knew the location of _some_ of the tunnels, and I put men down there to look around for more while I questioned various members of the Secret Police who were in custody. My methods were fairly direct, and the ones who survived the questioning were more than happy to co-operate.\n\n'The tunnels were very busy on the night the Queen was abducted. The diplomats who were forted up in the Cynesgan Embassy knew about the scheme, and they realized that we'd kick down their walls as soon as we found out that the Queen was gone. They tried to escape through the tunnels, but I already had men down in those rat-holes. There were a number of noisy encounters, and we either rounded up or killed just about the entire embassy staff. The Ambassador himself survived, and I let him watch while I interrogated several under-secretaries. I'm very fond of Queen Ehlana, so I was quite firm with them.' He looked at Sephrenia. I don't think I need to go into too much detail,' he added.\n\n'Thank you,' Sephrenia murmured.\n\n'The Ambassador didn't really know all that much,' Caalador continued apologetically, 'but he _did_ tell me that Scarpa and his friends were going south from here \u2013 which may or may not have been a ruse. His Majesty ordered the ports of Micae and Saranth sealed, and he put Atan patrols on the road from Tosa to the coast, just to be on the safe side. Nothing's turned up yet, so Scarpa either got away ahead of us, or he's gone down a hole someplace nearby.'\n\nThe door opened, and Kring rejoined them, his face gloomy.\n\n'Did you unchain her?' Tynian asked him.\n\n'That wouldn't be a good idea right now, friend Tynian. She feels personally responsible for the Queen's abduction. She wants to kill herself. I took everything with any kind of sharp edge out of the room, but I don't think it's really safe to unshackle her just yet.'\n\n'Did you get that spoon of hers away from her?' Talen asked.\n\nKring's eyes went wide. 'Oh, God!' he exclaimed, bolting for the door.\n\n'If he'd only yell at us or bang his fist against the wall or something,' Berit murmured to Khalad the next morning when they gathered once again in the blue-draped sitting-room. 'All he does is sit there.'\n\n'Sparhawk keeps his feelings to himself,' Khalad replied.\n\n'It's his _wife_ we're talking about, Khalad! He sits there like a lump. Doesn't he have any feelings at all?'\n\n'Of course he does, but he's not going to take them out and wave them around for us to look at. Right now it's more important for him to think than to feel. He's listening and putting things together. He's saving up his feelings for when he gets his hands on Scarpa.'\n\nSparhawk sat in his chair with his daughter in his lap. He seemed to be studying the floor, and he was absently stroking Princess Danae's cat.\n\nLord Vanion was telling the Emperor and the others about Kl\u00e6l and about their strategic disposition of forces: the Trolls to the Tamul mountains in south-central Tamul Proper, the Atans to Sarna, and Tikume's Peloi to Samar.\n\nFlute was sitting quietly on Sephrenia's lap. Berit noticed something that hadn't occurred to him before. He glanced first at Princess Danae and then at the Child Goddess. They appeared to be about the same age, and their bearing and manner seemed very much alike for some reason.\n\nThe presence of the Child Goddess was having a peculiar effect on Emperor Sarabian. The brilliant, erratic ruler of the continent seemed dumbfounded by her presence and he sat gazing wide-eyed at her. His face was pale, and he was obviously not hearing a word Lord Vanion was saying.\n\nAphrael finally twisted round and returned his gaze. Then she slowly crossed her eyes at him.\n\nThe Emperor started back violently.\n\n'Didn't your mother ever tell you that it's not polite to stare, Sarabian?' she asked him.\n\n'Mind your manners,' Sephrenia chided.\n\n'He's supposed to be listening. If I want adoration, I'll get myself a puppy '\n\n'Forgive me, Goddess Aphrael,' the Emperor apologized. 'I seldom have divine visitors.' He looked at her rather closely. 'I hope you don't mind my saying so, but you rather resemble Prince Sparhawk's daughter. Have you ever met her Royal Highness?'\n\nSparhawk's head came up sharply, and there was a strange, almost wild look in his eyes.\n\n'Now that you mention it, I don't think I have,' Flute said. She looked across the room at the Princess. Berit noticed that Sephrenia's eyes were also just a bit wild as Flute slid down out of her lap and went across the room to Sparhawk's chair. 'Hullo, Danae,' the Child Goddess said in an offhand sort of way.\n\n'Hullo, Aphrael,' the Princess replied in almost exactly the same tone. 'Are you going to do something to get my mother back home?'\n\n'I'm working on it. Try to keep your father from getting too excited about this. He's no good to any of us when he flies all to pieces and we have to gather him up and put him back together again.'\n\n'I know. I'll do what I can with him. Would you like to hold my cat?'\n\nFlute glanced at Mmrr, whose eyes were filled with a look of absolute horror. 'I don't think she likes me,' she declined.\n\n'I'll take care of my father,' Danae assured the little Goddess. 'You deal with these others.'\n\n'All right.' Aphrael paused. 'I think we'll get on well together,' she said. 'You wouldn't mind if I stopped by from time to time, would you?'\n\n'Any time, Aphrael.'\n\nSomething very peculiar was going on. Berit saw nothing unusual in the conversation between the two little girls, but Sparhawk's face \u2013 and Sephrenia's \u2013 clearly showed that they were both very disturbed. Berit kept his expression casual and looked around. Everyone else had faintly indulgent smiles on their faces as they watched the exchange \u2013 all except Lord Vanion and Anarae Xanetia. _Their_ faces were no less strained than Sparhawk's and Sephrenia's. Evidently something titanic had just happened, but for the life of him, Berit could not fathom out what it might have been.\n\n'I don't think we should discount the possibility,' Oscagne said gravely. 'Baroness Melidere has demonstrated again and again the fact that she has a very penetrating mind.'\n\nThank you, your Excellency,' Melidere said sweetly.\n\n'I wasn't really being complimentary, Baroness,' he replied coolly. 'Your intelligence is a resource to be exploited in this situation. You've seen Scarpa and we haven't. Do you really believe he's mad?'\n\n'Yes, your Excellency, quite mad. It wasn't only _his_ behavior that convinced me of it. Krager and the others treated him the way you'd treat a live cobra. They're terrified of him.'\n\n'That dovetails rather neatly with some of the reports I got from the thieves of Arjuna,' Caalador agreed. 'There's always a certain amount of exaggeration involved when people talk about madmen, but every report that came in mentioned it.'\n\n'If you're trying to make Sparhawk and me feel better, you're going at it in a strange way, Caalador,' Kalten accused. 'You're suggesting that the women we love are the prisoners of a crazy man. He could do _anything.'_\n\n'It might not be as bad as it looks, Sir Kalten,' Oscagne said. 'If Scarpa's mad, couldn't this abduction have been _his_ idea alone? If that's the case, our solution becomes almost too simple. Prince Sparhawk simply follows the instructions he receives to the letter, and when Scarpa appears with Queen Ehlana and Alean, his Highness simply hands over the Bhelliom. We all know what'll happen to Scarpa as soon as he touches it.'\n\n'You're equating insanity with feeble-mindedness, Oscagne,' Sarabian disagreed, 'and that's simply not the way it works. Zalasta knows that the rings would protect him if he ever managed to get his hands on Bhelliom, and if he knows, then we have to assume that Scarpa does, too. He'll demand the rings before he even tries to touch the jewel.'\n\n'We have three possibilities then,' Patriarch Emban summed it all up. 'Either Cyrgon instructed Zalasta to arrange for the abduction, or Zalasta came up with the notion on his own, or Scarpa's so crazy that he thinks he can just pick up Bhelliom and start giving it commands with no instruction or preparation at all.'\n\n'There's one more possibility, your Grace,' Ulath said. 'Kl\u00e6l could already be in charge, and this could be his way to force Bhelliom to come to _him_ for their customary contest.'\n\n'What difference does it make at this point?' Sparhawk asked suddenly. 'We won't know whose idea it is until we see who shows up to make the exchange.'\n\n'We _should_ have some plans in place, Prince Sparhawk,' Oscagne pointed out. 'We should try to think our way through each situation so that we'll know what to do.'\n\n'I already know what I'm going to do, your Excellency,' Sparhawk told him bleakly.\n\n'At the moment, we can't do anything,' Vanion said, moving in rather quickly. 'All we can do is wait for Krager's next note.'\n\n'Truly,' Ulath agreed. 'Krager's going to give Sparhawk instructions. Those instructions might give us some clues about whose idea this _really_ is,'\n\n* * *\n\n'You noticed it, too, didn't you?' Berit said to Khalad that evening when the two of them were getting ready for bed.\n\n'Noticed what?'\n\n'Don't play the innocent with me, Khalad. You see everything that's going on around you. _Nothing_ gets by you. Sparhawk and Sephrenia were behaving very peculiarly when Flute and Danae were talking to each other.'\n\n'Yes,' Khalad admitted calmly. 'So what?'\n\n'Aren't you curious about why?'\n\n'Has it occurred to you that \"why\" might not be any of our business?'\n\nBerit stepped round that. 'Did you notice how much the two little girls resemble each other?'\n\nKhalad shrugged. 'You're the expert on girls.'\n\nBerit suddenly blushed and silently cursed himself for blushing.\n\n'It isn't a secret, you know,' Khalad told him. 'Empress Elysoun's fairly obvious. She doesn't hide her feelings any more than she hides \u2013 well, you know.'\n\n'She's a good girl,' Berit quickly came to her defense. 'It's just that her people don't pay any attention to our kind of morality. They can't even comprehend the notion of fidelity.'\n\n'I'm not throwing rocks at her. If the way she behaves doesn't bother her husband, it certainly doesn't bother me. I'm a country boy, remember? We're more realistic about things like that. I just wouldn't get _too_ attached to her, Berit. Her attention may wander in time.'\n\n'It already has,' Berit replied. 'She doesn't want to discontinue _our_ friendship, though. She wants to be friendly to me _and_ to him \u2013 and to the half-dozen or so others she neglected to mention earlier.'\n\n'The world needs more friendliness, Berit,' Khalad grinned. There wouldn't be so many wars if people were friendlier.'\n\nKrager's next note arrived two days later, and it was authenticated by another lock of Ehlana's hair. The thought of the sodden drunkard violating his Queen's pale blonde hair enraged Berit for some obscure reason. Vanion once again read the note to them while Sparhawk sat somewhat apart, gently holding the lock of his wife's hair in his fingers.\n\n' \"Sparhawk, old boy,\"' the note began. ' \"You don't mind if I call you that, do you? I always admired the way Martel sort of tossed that off when everything was going his way. It was possibly the _only_ thing about him that I admired.\n\n' \"Enough of these fond reminiscences. You're going to be making a trip, Sparhawk. We want you to take your squire and travel by the customary overland route to Beresa in southeastern Arjuna. You'll be watched, so don't take any side-trips, don't have Kalten and the other baboons trailing along behind you, don't have Sephrenia disguised as a mouse or a flea hidden in your pocket, and most _definitely_ don't use Bhelliom for anything at all \u2013 not even for building campfires. I know we can depend on your absolute co-operation, old boy, since you'll never see Ehlana alive again if you misbehave.\n\n' \"It's always a pleasure to talk with you, Sparhawk, particularly in view of the fact that it's _your_ hands that are chained _this_ time. Now stop wasting time. Take Khalad and the Bhelliom and go to Beresa. You'll receive further instructions there. Fondly, Krager\".'\n\n# _Chapter 3_\n\nThey talked and talked and talked, and every 'maybe' or 'possibly' or 'probably' or 'on the other hand' set Sparhawk's teeth on edge. It was all pure speculation, useless guessing that circled and circled and never got to the point. He sat slightly apart from them holding the lock of pale hair. The hair felt strangely alive, coiling round his fingers in a soft caress.\n\nIt was his fault, of course. He should never have permitted Ehlana to come to Tamuli. It went further than that, though. Ehlana had been in danger all her life, and it had all been because of him \u2013 because of the fact that he was Anakha. Xanetia had said that Anakha was invincible, but she was wrong. Anakha was as vulnerable as _any_ married man. By marrying Ehlana, he had immediately put her at risk, a risk that would last for as long as she lived.\n\nHe should never have married her. He loved her, of course, but was it an act of love to put her in danger? He silently cursed the weakness that had led him to even consider the ridiculous notion when she had first raised it. He was a soldier, and soldiers should never marry \u2013 particularly not scarred, battered old veterans with too many years and too many battles behind them and too many enemies still about. Was he some selfish old fool? Some disgusting, half-senile lecher eager to take advantage of a foolish young girl's infatuation? Ehlana had extravagantly declared that she would die if he refused her, but he knew better than that. People die from a sword in the belly, or from old age, but they do not die from love. He should have laughed in her face and rejected her absurd command. Then he could have arranged a proper marriage for her, a marriage to some handsome young nobleman with good manners and a safe occupation. If he had, she would still be safely back in Cimmura instead of in the hands of madmen, degenerate sorcerers and alien Gods to whom her life meant nothing at all.\n\nAnd still they talked on and on and on. Why were they wasting all their breath? There wasn't any choice in the matter. Sparhawk would obey the instructions because Ehlana's life depended on it. The others were certain to argue with him about it, and the arguments would only irritate him. The best thing would probably be just to take the Bhelliom and Khalad and slip out of Matherion without giving them the chance to drive him mad with their meaningless babble.\n\nIt was the touch of a springlike breeze on his cheek and a soft nuzzling on his hand that roused him from his gloomy reverie.\n\n'It was not mine intent to disturb thy thought, Sir Knight,' the white deer apologized, 'but my mistress would have words with thee.'\n\nSparhawk jerked his head round in astonishment. He no longer sat in the blue-draped room in Matherion, and the voices of the others had faded away to be replaced by the sound of the gentle lapping of waves upon a golden strand. His chair now sat on the marble floor of Aphrael's temple on the small verdant island that rose gem-like from the sea. The breeze was soft under the rainbow-colored sky, and the ancient oaks around the alabaster temple rustled softly.\n\n'Thou hast forgotten me,' the gentle white hind reproached him, her liquid eyes touched with sorrow.\n\n'Never,' he replied. 'I shall remember thee always, dear creature, for I do love thee, even as I did when first we met.' The extravagant expression came to his lips unbidden.\n\nThe white deer sighed happily and laid her snowy head in his lap. He stroked her arched white neck and looked around.\n\nThe Child Goddess Aphrael, gowned in white and surrounded by a glowing nimbus, sat calmly on a branch of one of the nearby oaks. She lifted her many-chambered pipes and blew an almost mocking little trill.\n\n'What are you up to now, Aphrael?' he called up to her, deliberately forcing away the flowery words that jumped to his lips.\n\n'I thought you might want to talk,' she replied, lowering the pipes. 'Did you want some more time for self-mortification? Would you like a whip so that you can flog yourself with it? Take as much time as you want, Father. This particular instant will last for as long as I want it to.' She reached out with one grass-stained little foot, placed it on nothing at all and calmly walked down a non-existent stairway to the alabaster floor of her temple. She sank down on it, crossed her feet at the ankles and lifted her pipes again. 'Will it disturb your sour musings if I play?'\n\n'Just what do you think you're doing?' he demanded.\n\nShe shrugged. 'You seem to have this obscure need for penance of some kind, and there's no time for it. I wouldn't be much of a Goddess if I couldn't satisfy both needs at the same time, now would I?' She raised her pipes. 'Do you have any favorites you'd like to hear?'\n\n'You're actually serious, aren't you?'\n\n'Yes.' She breathed another little trill into the pipes.\n\nHe glared at her for a moment, and then he gave up. 'Can we talk about this?' he asked her.\n\n'You've come to your senses? Already? Amazing.'\n\nHe looked around at the island. 'Where is this place?' he asked curiously.\n\nThe Child Goddess shrugged. 'Wherever I want it to be. I carry it with me everyplace I go. Were you serious about what you were just thinking, Sparhawk? Were you really going to snatch up Bhelliom, grab Khalad by the scruff of the neck, leap onto Faran's back and try to ride off in three directions at the same time?'\n\n'All Vanion and the others are doing is talking, Aphrael, and the talk isn't going anywhere.'\n\n'Did you speak with Bhelliom about this notion of yours?'\n\n'The decision is _mine,_ Aphrael. Ehlana's _my_ wife.'\n\n'How brave you are, Sparhawk. You're making a decision that involves the Bhelliom without even consulting it. Don't be misled by its seeming politeness, Father. That's just a reflection of its archaic speech. It _won't_ do something it knows is wrong, no matter how sorry you're feeling for yourself, and if you grow _too_ insistent, it might just decide to create a new sun \u2013 about six inches from your heart.'\n\n'I have the rings, Aphrael. I'm still the one giving the orders.'\n\nShe laughed at him. 'Do you _really_ think the rings mean anything, Sparhawk? They have no control over Bhelliom at all. That was just a subterfuge that concealed the fact that it has an awareness \u2013 and a will and purpose of its own. It can ignore the rings any time it wants to.'\n\n'Then why did it need me?'\n\n'Because you're a necessity, Sparhawk \u2013 like wind or tide or rain. You're as necessary as Kl\u00e6l is \u2013 or Bhelliom \u2013 or me, for that matter. Someday we'll have to come back here and have a long talk about necessity, but we're a little pressed for time right now.'\n\n'And was that little virtuoso performance of yours yesterday another necessity as well? Would the world have come to an end if you hadn't held that public conversation with yourself?'\n\n'What I did yesterday was useful, Father, not necessary. I am who I am, and I can't change that. When I'm going through one of these transitions, there are usually people around who know both of the little girls, and they start noticing the similarities. I always make it a point to have the girls meet each other in public. It puts off tiresome questions and lays unwanted suspicions to rest.'\n\n'You terrified Mmrr, you know.'\n\nShe nodded. 'I'll make it up to her. That's always been a problem. Animals can see right through my disguises. They don't look at us in the way that we look at each other.'\n\nHe sighed. 'What am I going to do, Aphrael?'\n\n'I was hoping that a visit here would bring you back to your senses. A stopover in reality usually has that effect.'\n\nHe looked up at her private, rainbow-colored sky. _'This_ is your notion of reality?'\n\n'Don't you like my reality?'\n\n'It's lovely,' he told her, absently stroking the white deer's neck, 'but it's a dream.'\n\n'Are you really sure about that, Sparhawk? Are you so certain that _this_ isn't reality and that other place isn't the dream?'\n\n'Don't do that. It makes my head hurt. What should I do?'\n\n'I'd say that your first step ought to be to have a long conversation with Bhelliom. All of your moping around and contemplating arbitrary decisions has it more than a little worried.'\n\n'All right. Then what?'\n\n'I haven't gotten that far yet.' She grinned at him. 'I'm a-workin' on it though, Dorlin',' she added.\n\n'They're going to be all right, Kalten,' Sparhawk said, gently laying his hand on his suffering friend's shoulder.\n\nKalten looked up, his eyes filled with hopeless misery. 'Are you sure, Sparhawk?'\n\nThey will be if we can just keep our heads. Ehlana was in much more danger when I came back from Rendor, and we took care of that, didn't we?'\n\n'I suppose you're right.' Kalten straightened up in his chair and jerked down his blue doublet. His face was bleak. 'I think I'm going to find some people and hurt them,' he declared.\n\n'Would you mind if I came along?'\n\n'You can help if you like.' Kalten rubbed at the side of his face. 'I've been thinking,' he said. 'You know that if you follow those orders in Krager's note, he'll be able to keep you plodding from one end of Tamuli to the other for the next year or more, don't you?'\n\n'Do I have any choice? They're going to be watching me.'\n\n'Let them. Do you remember how we met Berit?'\n\n'He was a novice in the Chapterhouse in Cimmura,' Sparhawk shrugged.\n\n'Not when, _I_ first saw him, he wasn't. I was coming back from exile in Lamorkand, and I stopped at a roadside tavern outside of Cimmura. Berit was there with Kurik, and he was wearing your armor. I've known you since we were children, and even, _I_ couldn't tell that he wasn't you. If, _I_ couldn't tell, Krager's spies certainly won't be able to. If somebody has to plod around Tamuli, let Berit do it. You and I have better things to do.'\n\nSparhawk was startled. 'That's the best idea I've heard yet.' He looked around at the others. 'Could I have your attention, please?' he said.\n\nThey all looked sharply at him, their faces apprehensive.\n\n'It's time to get to work,' he told them. 'Kalten here just reminded me that we've used Sir Berit as a decoy in the past. Berit and I are nearly the same size, and my armor fits him \u2013 more or less \u2013 and with his visor down, nobody can really tell that he isn't me. If we can prevail on him to masquerade as a broken-down old campaigner again, we might just be able to prepare a few surprises for Krager and his friends.'\n\n'You don't even have to ask, Sparhawk,' Berit said.\n\n'Get some details before you volunteer like that, Berit,' Khalad told his friend in a pained voice.\n\n'Your father used to say almost exactly the same thing,' Berit recalled.\n\n'Why didn't you listen to him?'\n\n'It's an interesting plan, Prince Sparhawk,' Oscagne said a bit dubiously, 'but isn't it extremely dangerous?'\n\n'I'm not afraid, your Excellency,' Berit protested.\n\n'I wasn't talking about _your_ danger, young sir. I'm talking about the danger to Queen Ehlana. The moment someone penetrates your disguise \u2013 well...' Oscagne spread his hands.\n\n'Then we'll just have to make sure that his disguise is foolproof,' Sephrenia said.\n\n'He can't keep his visor down forever, Sephrenia,' Sarabian objected.\n\n'I don't think he'll have to,' Sephrenia replied. She looked speculatively at Xanetia. 'Do we trust each other enough to co-operate, Anarae?' she asked. 'I'm talking about something a little deeper than we've gone so far.'\n\n'I will listen most attentively to thy proposal, my sister.'\n\n'Delphaeic magic is directed primarily inward, isn't it?'\n\nXanetia nodded.\n\n'That's probably why no one can hear or feel it. Styric magic is just the reverse. We alter things around us, so our magic reaches out. Neither form will work by itself in this particular situation, but if we were to combine them...' She left it hanging in the air between them.\n\n'Interesting notion,' Aphrael mused.\n\n'I'm not sure I follow,' Vanion said.\n\n'The Anarae and I are going to have to experiment a bit,' Sephrenia told him, 'but if what I've got in mind works, we'll be able to make Berit look so much like Sparhawk that they'll be able to use each other for shaving mirrors.'\n\n'As long as each of us knows exactly what the other's doing, it's not too difficult, Sparhawk,' Sephrenia assured him later when he and Berit joined her, Vanion and the Anarae in the room she shared with Vanion.\n\n'Will it really work?' he asked her dubiously.\n\n'They haven't actually tried it yet, Sparhawk,' Vanion told him, 'so we're not entirely positive.'\n\n'That doesn't sound too promising. This isn't much of a face, but it's the only one I've got.'\n\n'There will be no danger to thee or to young Sir Berit, Anakha,' Xanetia said. 'In times past it hath oft been necessary for my people to leave our valley and to go abroad amongst others. This hath been our means of disguising our true identity.'\n\n'It works sort of like this, Sparhawk,' Sephrenia explained. 'Xanetia casts a Delphaeic spell that would normally imprint your features on her own face, but just as she releases _her_ spell, _I_ release a Styric one that deflects the spell to Berit instead.'\n\n'Won't every Styric in Matherion feel it when you release your spell?' Sparhawk asked.\n\n'That's the beauty of it, Sparhawk,' Aphrael told him. 'The spell itself originates with Xanetia, and others can't feel or hear a Delphaeic spell. Cyrgon himself could be in the next room and he wouldn't hear a thing.'\n\n'You're sure it's going to work?'\n\n'There's one way to find out.'\n\nSparhawk, of course, did not feel a thing. He _was_ only the model, after all. It was a bit disconcerting to watch Berit's appearance gradually change, however.\n\nWhen the combined spell had been completed, sparhawk carefully inspected his young friend. 'Do I really look like that from the side?' he asked Vanion, feeling a bit deflated.\n\n'I can't tell the two of you apart.'\n\n'That nose is really crooked, isn't it?'\n\n'We thought you knew.'\n\n'I've never looked at myself from the side this way before.' Sparhawk looked critically at Berit's eyes. 'You should probably try to squint just a little,' he suggested. 'My eyes aren't as good as they used to be. 'That's one of the things you have to look forward to as you get older.'\n\n'I'll try to remember that.' Even Berit's voice was different.\n\n'Do I really sound like that?' Sparhawk was crestfallen.\n\nVanion nodded.\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'Seeing and hearing yourself as others do definitely lowers your opinion of yourself,' he admitted. He looked at Berit again. 'I didn't feel anything, did you?'\n\nBerit nodded, swallowing hard.\n\n'What was it like?'\n\n'I'd really rather not talk about it.' Berit gently explored his new face with cringing fingertips, wincing as he did.\n\n'I _still_ can't tell them apart,' Kalten marveled, staring first at Berit and then at Sparhawk.\n\n'That was sort of the idea,' Sparhawk told him.\n\n'Which one are you?'\n\n'Try to be serious, Kalten.'\n\n'Now that we know how it's done, we can make some other changes as well,' Sephrenia told them. 'We'll give you all different faces so that you'll be able to move around freely \u2013 _and_ we'll put men wearing _your_ faces here in the palace. I think we can all expect to be watched, even after the Harvest Festival, and this should nullify that particular problem.'\n\n'We can make more detailed plans later,' Vanion said. 'Let's get Berit and Khalad on their way first. What's the customary route when someone wants to go overland from here to Beresa?' He unrolled a map and spread it out on the table.\n\n'Most travelers go by sea,' Oscagne replied, but those who don't usually cross the peninsula to Micae and then take a ship across the gulf to the mainland.'\n\n'There don't seem to be any roads over there,' Vanion frowned, looking at the map.\n\n'It's a relatively uninhabited region, Lord Vanion,' Oscagne shrugged, 'salt marshes and the like. What few tracks there are wouldn't show up on the map.'\n\n'Do the best you can,' Vanion told the two young men. 'Once you get past the Tamul Mountains, you'll hit that road that skirts the western side of the jungle.'\n\n'I'd make a special point of staying out of those mountains, Berit,' Ulath advised. 'There are Trolls there now.'\n\nBerit nodded.\n\n'You'd better have a talk with Faran, Sparhawk,' Khalad suggested. 'I don't think he'll be fooled just because Berit's wearing your face, and Berit's going to have to ride him if this is going to be convincing.'\n\n'I'd forgotten that,' Sparhawk admitted.\n\n'I thought you might have.'\n\n'All right then,' Vanion continued his instructions to the two young men, 'follow that road down to Lydros, then take the road round the southern tip of Arjuna to Beresa. That's the logical route, and they'll probably be expecting you to go that way.'\n\nThat's going to take quite a while, Lord Vanion,' Khalad said.\n\n'I know. Evidently Krager and his friends want it to. If they were in a hurry, they'd have instructed Sparhawk to go by sea.'\n\n'Give Berit your wife's ring, Sparhawk,' Flute instructed.\n\n'What?'\n\n'Zalasta can sense the ring, and if he can, Cyrgon can, too \u2013 and Kl\u00e6l will _definitely_ feel it. If you don't give Berit the ring, changing his face was just a waste of time.'\n\n'You're putting Berit and Khalad in a great deal of danger,' Sephrenia said critically.\n\n'That's what we get paid for, little mother,' Khalad shrugged.\n\n'I'll watch over them,' Aphrael assured her sister. She looked critically at Berit. 'Call me,' she told him.\n\n'Ma'am?'\n\n'Use the spell, Berit,' she explained with exaggerated patience. 'I want to be sure you're doing it right.'\n\n'Oh.' Berit carefully enunciated the spell of summoning, his hands moving in the intricate accompanying gestures.\n\n'You mispronounced _\"Kajerasticon\"_ ,' she corrected him.\n\nSephrenia was trying without much success to suppress a laugh.\n\n'What's so funny?' Talen asked her.\n\n'Sir Berit's pronunciations raised some questions about his meaning,' Stragen explained.\n\n'What did he say?' Talen asked curiously.\n\n'Just never mind what he said,' Flute told him primly. 'We're not here to repeat off-color jokes about the differences between boys and girls. Practice on that one, Berit. Now try the secret summoning.'\n\n'What's that?' Itagne murmured to Vanion.\n\n'It's used to pass messages, your Excellency,' Vanion replied. 'It summons the awareness of the Child Goddess, but not her presence. We can give her a message to carry to someone else by using that spell.'\n\n'Isn't that just a little demeaning for the Child Goddess? Do you really make her run errands and carry messages that way?'\n\n'I'm not offended, Itagne.' Aphrael smiled. 'After all, we live only to serve those we love, don't we?'\n\nBerit's pronunciation of the second spell raised no objections.\n\n'You'll probably want to use that one most of the time anyway, Berit,' Vanion instructed. 'Krager warned Sparhawk about using magic, so don't be too obvious about things. If you get any further instructions along the road, make some show of following them, but pass the word on to Aphrael.'\n\n'There's no real point in decking him out in Sparhawk's armor now, is there, Lord Vanion?' Khalad asked.\n\n'Good point,' Vanion agreed. 'A mail-shirt should do, Berit. We _want_ them to see your face now.'\n\n'Yes, my Lord.'\n\n'Now you'd better get some sleep,' Vanion continued. 'You'll be starting early tomorrow morning.'\n\n'Not _too_ early, though,' Caalador amended. 'We purely wouldn't want th' spies t' oversleep therselfs an' miss seein' y' leave. Gittin' a new face don't mean shucks iffn y' don't git no chance t' show it off, now does it?'\n\nIt was chill and damp in the courtyard the following morning, and a thin autumn mist lay over the gleaming city. Sparhawk led Faran out of the stables. 'Just be careful,' he cautioned the two young men in mail-shirts and travelers' cloaks.\n\n'You've said that already, my Lord,' Khalad reminded him. 'Berit and I aren't deaf, you know.'\n\n'You'd better forget that name, Khalad,' Sparhawk said critically. 'Start thinking of our young friend here as me. A slip of the tongue in the wrong place could give this all away.'\n\n'I'll keep that in mind.'\n\n'Do you need money?'\n\n'I thought you'd never ask.'\n\n'You're as bad as your father was.' Sparhawk pulled a purse from under his belt and handed it to his squire. Then he firmly took Faran by the chin and looked straight into the big roan's eyes. I want you to go with Berit, Faran,' he said. 'Behave exactly as you would if he were me.'\n\nFaran flicked his ears and looked away.\n\n'Pay attention,' Sparhawk said sharply. 'This is important.'\n\nFaran sighed.\n\n'He knows what you're talking about, Sparhawk,' Khalad said. 'He's not stupid \u2013 just bad-tempered.'\n\nSparhawk handed the reins to Berit. Then he remembered something. 'We'll need a password,' he said. 'The rest of us are going to have different faces, so you won't recognize us if we have to contact you. Pick something ordinary.'\n\nThey all considered it.\n\n'How about \"ramshorn\"?' Berit suggested. 'It shouldn't be too hard to work it into an ordinary conversation, and we've used it before.'\n\nSparhawk suddenly remembered Ulesim, most-favored-disciple-of-holy-Arasham, standing atop a pile of rubble with Kurik's crossbow bolt sticking out of his forehead and the word _Ramshorn_ still on his lips. 'Very good, Berit \u2013 ah \u2013 Sir Sparhawk, that is. It's a word we all remember. You'd better get started.'\n\nThey nodded and swung up into their saddles.\n\n'Good luck,' Sparhawk said.\n\n'You too, my Lord,' Khalad replied. And then the pair turned and rode slowly toward the drawbridge.\n\n'All we've really got to work with is the name Beresa,' Sarabian mused, somewhat later. 'Krager's note said that Sparhawk would receive further instructions there.'\n\n'That could be a ruse, your Majesty,' Itagne pointed out. 'Actually, the exchange could take place at any time \u2013 and any place. That _might_ have been the reason for the instructions to go overland.'\n\n'That's true,' Caalador agreed. 'Scarpa and Zalasta might just be waiting on the beach on the west side of the Gulf of Micae wanting to make the trade right there, for all we know.'\n\n'We're going to an awful lot of trouble here,' Talen said. 'Why doesn't Sparhawk just have Bhelliom go rescue the Queen? It could pick her up and have her back here before Scarpa even knew she was gone.'\n\n'No,' Aphrael said, shaking her head. 'Bhelliom can't do that any more than I can.'\n\n'Why not?'\n\n'Because we don't know where she _is -_ and we can't go looking for her, because they'll be able to sense us moving around.'\n\n'Oh. I didn't know that.'\n\nAphrael rolled her eyes upward. 'Men!' she sighed.\n\n'It was very resourceful of Ehlana to slip her ring to Melidere,' Sephrenia said, 'but locating her would be much easier if she still had it with her.'\n\n'I sort of doubt that, dear,' Vanion disagreed. 'Zalasta of all people knows that the rings can be traced. If Ehlana had still been wearing it, the first thing Scarpa would have done would have been to send Krager or Elron off in the opposite direction with it.'\n\n'You're assuming that Zalasta's involved in this,' she disagreed. There is the possibility that Scarpa's acting on his own, you know.'\n\n'It's always better to assume the worst,' he shrugged. 'Our situation is much more perilous if Zalasta and Cyrgon are involved. If it's only Scarpa, he'll be relatively easy to dispose of.'\n\n'But _only_ after Ehlana and Alean are safe,' Sparhawk amended.\n\n'That goes without saying, Sparhawk,' Vanion said.\n\n'Everything hinges on the moment of the exchange then, doesn't it?' Sarabian noted. 'We can make some preparations, but we won't be able to do anything at all significant until the moment that Scarpa actually produces Ehlana.'\n\n'And that means that we have to stay close to Berit and Khalad,' Tynian added.\n\n'No.' Aphrael was shaking her head. 'You'll give everything away if you all start hovering over those two. Let _me_ do the staying close. I don't wear armor, so no one will be able to smell me from a thousand paces off. Itagne's right. The exchange could come at any time. I'll let Sparhawk know the very instant Scarpa shows up with Ehlana and Alean. Then Bhelliom can set him down \u2013 with knife \u2013 right on top of them. Then we'll have the ladies back, and we'll be more or less in charge of things again.'\n\n'And that brings us right back to a purely military situation,' Patriarch Emban mused. I think we'll want to send word to Komier and Bergsten. We're going to need the Church Knights in Cynesga and Arjuna, not in Edom or Astel \u2013 or here in Matherion. Let's have them ride southeast after they come down out of the mountains of Zemoch. We'll have the Atans in Sarna, the eastern Peloi and the Church Knights we've already got in Samar, the Trolls in the Tamul Mountains and Komier and Bergsten on the western side of the Desert of Cynesga. We'll be able to squeeze the land of the Cyrgai like a lemon at that point.'\n\n'And see what kind of seeds come popping out,' Kalten added bleakly.\n\nPatriarch Emban, First Secretary of the Church of Chyrellos, was a man who absolutely adored lists. The fat little churchman automatically drew up a list when any subject was being discussed. There is a certain point in most discussions when things have all been settled, and the participants start going back over the various points. Inevitably, that was the point at which Emban pulled out his list. 'All right then,' he said in a tone that clearly said that he was summing up, 'Sparhawk will take ship for Beresa, along with Milord Stragen and young master Talen, right?'\n\n'It puts him in place in case Berit and Khalad do, in fact, have to ride all the way down there, your Grace,' Vanion said. 'And Stragen and Talen have contacts in Beresa, so they'll probably be able to find out just who else is in town.'\n\nEmban checked that off his list. 'Next. Sir Kalten, Sir Bevier and Master Caalador will sail south on a different ship and go into the jungles of Arjuna.'\n\nCaalador nodded. 'I've got a friend in Delo who has contacts with the robber bands in those jungles,' he said. 'We'll join one of those bands, so we'll be able to keep an eye on Natayos and pass the word if Scarpa's army starts to move.'\n\n'Right.' Emban checked _that_ off. 'Next. Sir Ulath and Sir Tynian will go to the Tamul Mountains to stay in touch with the Trolls.' He frowned. 'Why is Tynian going there?' he asked. 'He doesn't speak Trollish.'\n\n'Tynian and I get along well,' Ulath rumbled, 'and I'll get terribly lonely if there's no one around to talk with but Trolls. You have no idea of how depressing it is to be alone with Trolls, your Grace.'\n\n'Whatever makes you happy, Sir Ulath.' Emban shrugged. 'Now then, Sephrenia and Anarae Xanetia will go to Delphaeus to advise Anari Cedon about all these recent developments and to explain what we're doing.'\n\n_'And_ to see what we can do to make peace between Styricum and the Delphae,' Sephrenia added.\n\nEmban checked off another item. He said, 'Lord Vanion, Queen Betuana, Ambassador Itagne and Domi Kring will take the five thousand knights and go to Western Tamul Proper to join with the forces they have in place in Sarna and Samar.'\n\n'Where _is_ Domi Kring?' Betuana asked, looking around for the little man.\n\n'He's standing guard over Mirtai,' Princess Danae said. 'He's still about half afraid she might try to kill herself.'\n\n'We could have a problem there,' Bevier observed. 'Under those circumstances, Kring might not be willing to leave Matherion.'\n\n'We can get along without him if we have to,' Vanion said. I can deal with Tikume directly. Having Kring around would make it easier, but I can make do without him if he really thinks that Mirtai might do something foolish.'\n\nEmban nodded. 'Emperor Sarabian, Foreign Minister Oscagne and I will stay here in Matherion to hold down the fort, and the Child Goddess will keep us all in touch with each other. Have I left anything out?'\n\n'What do you want me to do, Emban?' Danae asked sweetly.\n\n'You'll stay here in Matherion with us, your Royal Highness,' Emban replied, 'to brighten our gloomy days and nights with the sunshine of your smile.'\n\n'Are you making fun of me, your Grace?'\n\n'Of course not, Princess.'\n\nTo say that Mirtai was unhappy would have been the grossest of understatements. She was in chains when Kring brought her into the council chamber with a hopeless kind of look on his face. 'Nothing I say even reaches her,' the Domi told them. 'I think she's even forgotten that we're betrothed.'\n\nThe golden Atan giantess would not look at any of them, but sank instead to the floor in abject misery.\n\n'She has failed her owner.' Betuana shrugged. 'She must either avenge or die.'\n\n'Not quite, your Majesty,' Sparhawk's daughter said firmly. She slipped down from the chair in the corner from which she had been watching the proceedings. She deposited Rollo in one corner of the chair and Mmrr in the other and crossed the room to Mirtai with a businesslike look on her small face. 'Atana Mirtai,' she said crisply, 'get up off the floor.'\n\nMirtai looked sullenly at her, then slowly rose, her chains clinking.\n\n'In my mother's absence, I am the queen,' Danae declared.\n\nSparhawk blinked.\n\n'You're not Ehlana,' Mirtai said.\n\n'Im not pretending to be. I'm stating a legal fact. Sarabian, isn't that the way it works? Isn't my mother's power mine while she's away?'\n\n'Well \u2013 technically, I suppose.'\n\n'Technically my foot. I'm Queen Ehlana's heir. I'm assuming her position until she returns. That means that I temporarily own everything that's hers \u2013 her throne, her crown, her jewels, _and_ her personal slave.'\n\n'I'd hate to have to argue against her in a court of law,' Emban admitted.\n\nThank you, your Grace,' Danae said. 'All right, Atana Mirtai, you heard them. You're _my_ property now.'\n\nMirtai scowled at her.\n\n'Don't do that,' Danae snapped. 'Pay attention. I am your owner, and I forbid you to kill yourself. I _also_ forbid you to run off. I need you here. You're going to stay here with Melidere and me, and you're going to guard us. You failed my mother. Don't fail me.'\n\nMirtai stiffened, and then she broke her chains with an angry wrench of her arms. 'It shall be as you say, your Majesty,' she snapped, her eyes blazing.\n\nDanae looked around at the rest of them with a smug little smile. 'See,' she said. 'Now that wasn't so hard, was it?'\n\n# _Chapter 4_\n\nIt was a small, single-masted coastal freighter with a leaky bottom and patched sails. It definitely did _not_ skim the waves. Berit and Khalad wore their mail-shirts and travelers' cloaks and they stood in the bow looking out across the leaden expanse of the Gulf of Micae as the wretched vessel wallowed along. 'Is that coast up ahead?' Berit asked hopefully.\n\nKhalad looked out across the choppy water. 'No, just a cloud-bank. We're not moving very fast, my Lord. We won't make the coast today, I'm afraid.' He looked aft and lowered his voice. 'Stay alert after the sun goes down,' he instructed. 'The crew of this tub is made up of waterfront sweepings, and the captain isn't much better. I think we should take turns sleeping tonight.'\n\nBerit glanced back along the deck at the assortment of ruffians loitering there. 'I wish I had my axe,' he muttered.\n\n'Don't say things like that out loud, Berit,' Khalad muttered. _'Sparhawk_ doesn't use a war-axe. Krager knows that, and one of these sailors may be working for him.'\n\n'Still? After the Harvest Festival?'\n\n'Nobody's ever figured out a way to kill _all_ the rats, my Lord, and it only takes one. Let's both behave as if we're being watched and every word we say is being overheard \u2013 just to be on the safe side.'\n\n'I'll be a lot happier once we get ashore. Did we really have to make this leg of the trip by sea?'\n\n'It's the custom.' Khalad shrugged. 'Don't worry. We can hold off these sailors if we have to.'\n\n'That's not what's bothering me, Khalad. This scow waddles through the water like a whale with a sprained back. It's making me queasy.'\n\n'Eat a piece of dry bread.'\n\n'I'd rather not. This is _really_ miserable, Khalad.'\n\n'But we're having an _adventure,_ my Lord,' Khalad said brightly. 'Doesn't the excitement make up for the discomfort?'\n\n'No. Not really.'\n\n'You're the one who wanted to be a knight.'\n\n'Yes, I know \u2013 and right now I'm trying to remember why.'\n\nPatriarch Emban was very displeased. 'This is really outrageous, Vanion,' he protested as he waddled along with the others toward the chapel in the west wing. 'If Dolmant ever finds out that I've permitted the practice of witchcraft in a consecrated place of worship, he'll have me defrocked.'\n\n'It's the safest place, Emban,' Vanion replied, 'The pretense of \"sacred rites\" gives us an excuse to chase all the Tamuls out of the west wing. Besides, the chapel's probably never really been consecrated anyway. This is an imitation castle built to make Elenes feel at home. The people who built it couldn't have known the rite of consecration.'\n\n'You don't _know_ that it hasn't been consecrated.'\n\n'And you don't know that it has. If it bothers you all that much, Emban, you can re-consecrate it after we finish.'\n\nEmban's face blanched. 'Do you know what's involved in that, Vanion?' he protested. 'The hours of praying \u2013 the prostration before the altar \u2013 the fasting?' His chubby face went pale. 'Good God, the fasting!'\n\nSephrenia, Flute, and Xanetia had slipped into the chapel several hours earlier, and they were sitting unobtrusively in one corner listening to a choir of Church Knights singing hymns.\n\nEmban and Vanion were still arguing when they joined the ladies. 'What's the problem?' Sephrenia asked.\n\n'Patriarch Emban and Lord Vanion are having a disagreement about whether or not the chapel's been consecrated, little mother,' Kalten explained.\n\n'It hasn't,' Flute told him with a little shrug.\n\n'How can you tell?' Emban demanded.\n\nShe gave him a long-suffering look. 'Who am I, your Grace?' she asked him.\n\nHe blinked. 'Oh. I keep forgetting that for some reason. Is there actually a way you can tell whether or not a place has been consecrated?'\n\n'Well of _course_ there is. Believe me, Emban, this chapel's never been consecrated to your Elene God.' She paused. 'There _was_ a spot not far from here that was consecrated to a tree about eighteen thousand years ago, though.'\n\n'A _tree?_\n\n'It was a very nice tree \u2013 an oak. It's always an oak for some reason. Nobody ever seems to want to worship an elm. Lots of people used to worship trees. They're predictable, for one thing.'\n\n'How could anybody in his right mind worship a tree?'\n\n'Who ever said that religious people were in their right minds? Sometimes you humans confuse us a great deal, you know.'\n\nSince there was an exchange of features involved in most cases here, Sephrenia and Xanetia had experimented a bit to alter the spell which had imprinted Sparhawk's face on Berit. No exchange was necessary for Sparhawk, however, so they modified him first. He sat beside his old friend, Sir Endrik, a veteran with whom he, Kalten and Martel had endured their novitiates. Xanetia approached them with the color draining from her features and that soft radiance suffusing her face. She examined Endrik meticulously, and then her voice rose as she began to intone the Delphaeic spell in her oddly accented, archaic Tamul. Sephrenia stood at her side simultaneously casting the Styric spell.\n\nSparhawk felt nothing whatsoever as Xanetia released her spell. Then at the crucial instant, Sephrenia extended her hand, interposing it between Sir Endrik's face and Xanetia's and simultaneously releasing the Styric spell. Sparhawk _definitely_ felt that. His features seemed to somehow soften like melting wax, and he could actually feel his face changing, almost as wet clay is changed and molded by the potter's hand. The straightening of his broken nose was a bit painful, and the lengthening of his jaw made his teeth ache as they shifted in the bone.\n\n'What do you think?' Sephrenia asked Vanion when the process had been completed.\n\n'I don't think you could get them any closer,' Vanion replied, examining the two men closely. 'How does it feel to be twins, Endrik?'\n\n'I didn't feel a thing, my Lord,' Endrik replied, staring curiously at Sparhawk.\n\n'I did,' Sparhawk told him, gingerly touching his re-shaped nose. 'Does the ache go away eventually, Anarae?' he asked.\n\n'Thou wilt notice it less as time doth accustom thee to the alteration, Anakha. I did warn thee that some discomfort is involved, did I not?'\n\n'You did indeed.' Sparhawk shrugged. 'It's not unbearable.'\n\n'Do I really look like that?' Endrik asked.\n\n'Yes,' Vanion replied.\n\n'I should take better care of myself. The years aren't being good to me.'\n\n'Nobody stays young and beautiful forever, Endrik,' Kalten laughed.\n\n'Is that all that needs to be done to these two, Anarae?' Vanion asked.\n\n'The process is complete, Lord Vanion,' Xanetia replied.\n\n'We need to talk, Sparhawk,' the Preceptor said. 'Let's go into the vestry where we'll be out of the way while the ladies modify the others.'\n\nSparhawk nodded, stood up and followed his friend to the small door to the left of the altar.\n\nVanion led the way inside and closed the door behind them. 'You've made all the arrangements with Sorgi?' he asked.\n\nSparhawk sat down. 'I talked with him yesterday,' he replied. 'I told him that I had some friends that had to go to Beresa without attracting attention. He's had the usual desertions, and he's holding three berths open. Stragen, Talen and I'll merge with the crew. We should be able to slip into Beresa without being noticed.'\n\n'I imagine that cost you. Sorgi's prices are a little steep sometimes.'\n\nSparhawk massaged the side of his aching jaw. 'It wasn't all that bad,' he said. 'Sorgi owes me a couple of favors, and I gave him time to pick up a cargo to cover most of the cost.'\n\n'You'll be going directly to the harbor from here?'\n\nSparhawk nodded. 'We'll use that tunnel Caalador found under the barracks. I told Sorgi that his three new crew members would report to him about midnight.'\n\n'You'll sail tomorrow then?'\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'The day after. We have to load Sorgi's cargo tomorrow.'\n\n'Honest work, Sparhawk?' Vanion smiled.\n\n'You're starting to sound like Khalad.'\n\n'He _does_ have opinions, doesn't he?'\n\n'So did his father.'\n\n'Quit rubbing your face like that, Sparhawk. You'll make your skin raw.' Vanion paused. 'What was it like?'\n\n'Very strange.'\n\n'Painful?'\n\n'The nose was. It feels almost as if somebody broke it again. Be glad you don't have to go through it.'\n\n'There wouldn't be much point in that. I won't be sneaking down alleys the way the rest of you will.' Vanion looked sympathetically at his friend. 'We'll get her back, Sparhawk,' he said.\n\n'Of course. Was that all?' Sparhawk's tone was deliberately unemotional. The important thing here was _not_ to feel.\n\n'Just be careful, and try to keep a handle on your temper.'\n\nSparhawk nodded. 'Let's go see how the others are coming.'\n\nThe alterations were confusing; there was no question about that. It was hard to tell exactly who was talking, and sometimes Sparhawk was startled by just who answered his questions. They said their goodbyes and quietly left the chapel with the main body of the Church Knights. They went out into the torch-lit courtyard, crossed the drawbridge, and proceeded across the night-shrouded lawn to the barracks of the knights, where Sparhawk, Stragen and Talen changed into tar-smeared sailor's smocks while the others also donned the mis-matched clothing of commoners. Then they all went down to the cellar.\n\nCaalador, who now wore the blocky face of a middle-aged Deiran knight, led the way into a damp, cobweb-draped tunnel with a smoky torch. When they had gone about a mile, he stopped and raised the torch. 'This yere's yer exit, Sporhawk,' he said, pointing at a steep, narrow stairway. 'You'll come out in an alley \u2013 which it is ez don't smell none too sweet, but is good an' dork.' He paused. 'Sorry, Stragen,' he apologized. 'I wanted to give you something to remember me by.'\n\n'You're too kind,' Stragen murmured.\n\n'Good luck, Sparhawk,' Caalador said then.\n\n'Thanks, Caalador.' The two shook hands, and then Caalador lifted his torch and led the rest of the party off down the musty-smelling passageway toward their assorted destinations, leaving Sparhawk, Talen, and Stragen alone in the dark.\n\n'They won't be in any danger, Vanion,' Flute assured the Preceptor as the ladies were packing. 'Ill be going along, after all, and I can take care of them.'\n\n_'Ten_ knights then,' he amended his suggestion downward.\n\n'They'd just be in our way, love,' Sephrenia told him. 'I do want _you_ to be careful, though. A body of armed men is far more likely to be attacked than a small party of travelers.'\n\n'But it isn't safe for ladies to travel alone,' he protested. 'There are always robbers and the like lurking in the forest.'\n\n'We won't be in one place long enough to attract robbers or anybody else,' Flute told him. 'We'll be in Delphaeus in two days. I could do it in one, but I'll have to stop and have a long talk with Edaemus before I go into his valley. He might just take a bit of convincing.'\n\n'When art thou leaving Matherion, Lord Vanion?' Xanetia asked.\n\n'About the end of the week, Anarae,' he replied. 'We've got to spend some time on our equipment, and there's always the business of organizing the supply train.'\n\n'Take warm clothing,' Sephrenia instructed. 'The weather could change at any time.'\n\n'Yes, love. How long will you be at Delphaeus?'\n\n'We can't be sure. Aphrael will keep you advised. We have a great deal to discuss with Anari Cedon. The fact that Cyrgon has summoned Kl\u00e6l complicates matters.'\n\n'Truly,' Xanetia agreed. 'We may be obliged to entreat Edaemus to return.'\n\n'Would he do that?'\n\nFlute smiled roguishly. 'I'll coax him, Vanion,' she said, 'and you know how good I am at that. If I really want something, I almost always get it.'\n\n'You there! Look lively!' Sorgi's bull-necked bo'sun bellowed, popping his whip at Stragen's heels.\n\nStragen, who now wore the braids and sweeping mustaches of a blond Genidian Knight, dropped the bale he was carrying across the deck and reached for his dagger.\n\n'No!' Sparhawk hissed at him. 'Pick up that bale!'\n\nStragen glared at him for a moment, then bent and lifted the bale again. 'This wasn't part of the agreement,' he muttered.\n\n'He's not really going to hit you with that whip,' Talen assured the fuming Thalesian. 'Sailors all complain about it, but the whip's just for show. A bo'sun who really hits his men with his whip usually gets thrown over the side some night during the voyage.'\n\n'Maybe,' Stragen growled darkly, 'but I'll tell you this right now. If that cretin so much as _touches_ me with that whip of his, he won't live long enough to go swimming. I'll have his guts in a pile on the deck before he can even blink.'\n\n'You new men!' the bo'sun shouted. 'Do your talking on your own time! You're here to work, not to discuss the weather!' And he cracked his whip again.\n\n* * *\n\n'She _could_ do it, Khalad,' Berit insisted.\n\n'I think you've been out in the sun too long,' Khalad replied. They were riding south along a lonely beach under an overcast sky. The beach was backed by an uninviting salt marsh where dry reeds clattered against each other in the stiff onshore breeze. Khalad rose in his stirrups and looked around. Then he settled back in his saddle again. 'It's a ridiculous idea, my Lord.'\n\n'Try to keep an open mind, Khalad. Aphrael's a Goddess. She can do _anything.'_\n\nI'm sure she can, but why would she _want_ to?'\n\n'Well \u2013' Berit struggled with it. 'She _could_ have a reason, couldn't she? Something that you and I wouldn't even understand?'\n\n'Is this what all that Styric training does to a man? You're starting to see Gods under every bush. It was only a coincidence. The two of them look a little bit alike, but that's all.'\n\n'You can be as skeptical as you want, Khalad, but I still think that something very strange is going on.'\n\n'And _I_ think that what you're suggesting is an absurdity.'\n\n'Absurd or not, their mannerisms are the same, their expressions are identical, and they've both got that same air of smug superiority about them.'\n\n'Of course they do. Aphrael's a Goddess, and Danae's a Crown Princess. They _are_ superior \u2013 at least in their own minds \u2013 and I think you're overlooking the fact that we saw them both in the same room and at the same time. They even _talked_ to each other, for God's sake.'\n\n'Khalad, that doesn't mean anything. Aphrael's a Goddess. She can probably be in a dozen different places all at the same time if she really wants to be.'\n\n'That still brings us right back to the question of why? What would be the purpose of it? Not even a God does things without any reason.'\n\n'We don't _know_ that, Khalad. Maybe she's doing it just to amuse herself.'\n\n'Are you really all that desperate to witness miracles, Berit?'\n\n'She _could_ do it,' Berit insisted.\n\n'All right. So what?'\n\n'Aren't you the least bit curious about it?'\n\n'Not particularly,' Khalad shrugged.\n\nUlath and Tynian wore bits and pieces of the uniforms of one of the few units of the Tamul army that accepted volunteers from the Elene kingdoms of western Daresia. The faces they had borrowed were those of grizzled, middle-aged knights, the faces of hard-bitten veterans. The vessel aboard which they sailed was one of those battered, ill-maintained ships that ply coastal waters. The small amount of money they had paid for their passage bought them exactly that \u2013 passage, and nothing else. They had brought their own food and drink and their patched blankets, and they ate and slept on the deck. Their destination was a small coastal village some twenty-five leagues east of the foothills of the Tamul mountains. They lounged on the deck in the daytime, drinking cheap wine and rolling dice for pennies.\n\nThe sky was overcast when the ship's longboat deposited them on the rickety wharf of the village. The day was cool, and the Tamul Mountains were little more than a low smudge on the horizon.\n\n'What was that horse-trader's name again?' Tynian asked.\n\n'Sablis,' Ulath grunted.\n\n'I hope Oscagne was right,' Tynian said. 'If this Sablis has gone out of business, we'll have to walk to those mountains.'\n\nUlath stepped across the wharf to speak to a pinch-faced fellow who was mending a fish net. 'Tell me, friend,' he said politely in Tamul, 'where can we find Sablis the horse-trader?'\n\n'What if I don't feel like telling you?' the scrawny net-mender replied in a whining, nasal voice that identified him as one of those mean-spirited men who would rather die than be helpful, or even polite. Tynian had encountered his kind before, small men, usually, with an inflated notion of their own worth, men who delighted in irritating others just for the fun of it. 'Let me,' he murmured, laying one gently restraining hand on his Thalesian companion's arm. Ulath's bunched muscles clearly spoke of impending violence.\n\n'Nice net,' Tynian noted casually, picking up one edge of it. Then he drew his dagger and began cutting the strings.\n\n'What are you _doing?'_ the pinch-faced fisherman screamed.\n\n'I'm showing you what,' Tynian explained. 'You said, \"what if I don't feel like telling you?\" _This_ is what. Think it over. My friend and I aren't in any hurry, so take your time.' He took a fistful of net and sawed through it with his knife.\n\n_'Stop!'_ the fellow shrieked in horror.\n\n'Ah \u2013 where was it you said we might find Sablis?' Ulath asked innocently.\n\n'His corrals are on the eastern edge of town.' The words came tumbling out. Then the scrawny fellow gathered up his net in both arms and held it to his chest, almost like a mother shielding a child from harm.\n\n'Have a pleasant day, neighbor,' Tynian said, sheathing his dagger. 'I can't _begin_ to tell you how much we've appreciated your help here. You've been absolutely splendid about the whole affair.' And the two knights turned and walked along the wharf toward the shabby-looking village.\n\n* * *\n\nTheir camp was neat and orderly with a place for everything and everything exactly where it belonged. Berit had noticed that Khalad always set up camp in exactly the same way. He seemed to have some concept of the ideal camp etched in his mind and, since it was perfect, he never altered it. Khalad was very rigid in some ways.\n\n'How far did we come today?' Berit asked as they washed up their supper dishes.\n\n'Ten leagues,' Khalad shrugged, 'the same as always. Ten leagues is standard on level terrain.'\n\n'This is going to take _forever,'_ Berit complained.\n\n'No. It might seem like it, though.' Khalad looked around and then lowered his voice until it was hardly more than a whisper. 'We're not really in any hurry, Berit,' he said. 'We might even want to slow down a bit.'\n\n'What?'\n\n'Keep your voice down. Sparhawk and the others have a long way to go, and we want to be sure they're in place before Krager \u2013 or whoever it is \u2013 makes contact with us. We don't know when or where that's going to happen, so the best way to delay it is to slow down.' Khalad looked out into the darkness beyond the circle of firelight. 'How good are you at magic?'\n\n'Not very,' Berit admitted, scrubbing diligently. 'I've still got a lot to learn. What did you want me to do?'\n\n'Could you make one of our horses limp \u2013 without actually hurting him?'\n\nBerit probed through his memory. Then he shook his head. I don't think I know any spells that would do that.'\n\n'That's too bad. A lame horse would give us a good reason to slow down.'\n\nIt came without warning: a cold, prickling kind of sensation that seemed to be centered at the back of Berit's neck. 'That's good enough,' he said in a louder voice. 'I'm not getting paid enough to scrub holes in tin plates,' He rinsed off the dish he'd been washing, shook most of the water off it and stowed it back into the pack.\n\n'You felt it, too?' Khalad's whisper came out from between motionless lips. That startled Berit. How could Khalad have known?\n\nBerit buckled the straps on the pack and gave his friend a curt nod. 'Let's build up the fire a bit and then get some sleep.' He said it loudly enough to be heard out beyond the circle of firelight. The two of them walked toward their pile of firewood. Berit was murmuring the spell and concealing the movements of his hands at the same time.\n\n'Who is it?' Again, Khalad's lips did not move.\n\n'I'm still working on that,' Berit whispered back. He released the spell so slowly that it seemed almost to dribble out of the ends of his fingers.\n\nThe sense of it came washing back to him. It was something on the order of recognizing an accent \u2013 except that it was done when nobody was talking. 'It's a Styric,' he said quietly.\n\n'Zalasta?'\n\n'No, I don't believe so. I think I'd recognize him. It's somebody I've never been around before.'\n\n'Not too much wood, my Lord,' Khalad said aloud. 'This pile has to get us through breakfast too, you know.'\n\n'Good thinking,' Berit approved. He reached out again, very cautiously. 'He's moving away,' he muttered. 'How did you know we were being watched?'\n\n'I could feel it,' Khalad shrugged. 'I always know when somebody's watching me. How noisy is it when you get in touch with Aphrael?'\n\n'That's one of the good spells. It doesn't make a sound.'\n\n'You'd better tell her about this. Let her know that we _are_ being watched and that it's a Styric who's doing the watching.' Khalad knelt and began to carefully stack his armload of broken-off limbs on their campfire. 'Your disguise seems to be working,' he noted.\n\n'How did you arrive at that?'\n\n'They wouldn't waste a Styric on us if they knew who you really are.'\n\n'Unless they don't have anybody left _except_ Styrics. Stragen's celebration of the Harvest Festival might have been more effective than we thought.'\n\n'We could probably argue about that all night. Just tell Aphrael about our visitor out there. She'll pass it on to the others, and we'll let _them_ get the headache from trying to sort it out with logic.'\n\n'Aren't you curious about it?'\n\n'Not so curious that I'm going to lose any sleep over it. That's one of the advantages of being a peasant, my Lord. We're not _required_ to come up with the answers to these earth-shaking questions. You aristocrats get the pleasure of doing that.'\n\n'Thanks,' Berit said sourly.\n\n'No charge, my Lord,' Khalad grinned.\n\nSparhawk had never actually worked for a living before, and he discovered that he did not like it very much. He quickly grew to hate Captain Sorgi's thick-necked bo'sun. The man was crude, stupid, and spitefully cruel. He fawned outrageously whenever Sorgi appeared on the quarterdeck, but when the captain returned below decks, the bo'sun's natural character re-asserted itself. He seemed to take particular delight in tormenting the newest members of the crew, assigning them the most tedious, exhausting and demeaning tasks aboard ship. Sparhawk found himself quite suddenly in full agreement with Khalad's class prejudices, and sometimes at night he found himself contemplating murder.\n\n'Every man hates his employer, Fron,' Stragen told him, using Sparhawk's assumed name. 'It's a very natural part of the scheme of things.'\n\n'I could stand him if he didn't deliberately go out of his way to be offensive,' Sparhawk growled, scrubbing at the deck with his block of pumice-stone.\n\n'He's _paid_ to be offensive, my friend. Angry men work harder. Part of your problem is that you always look him right in the eye. He wouldn't single you out the way he does if you'd keep your eyes lowered. If you don't, this is going to be a very long voyage for you.'\n\n'Or a short one for him,' Sparhawk said darkly.\n\nHe considered it that night as he tried, without much success, to sleep in his hammock. He fervently wished that he could get his hands on the idiot who had decided that humans could sleep in hammocks. The roll of the ship made it swing from side to side, and Sparhawk continually felt that he was right on the verge of being thrown out.\n\n'Anakha.' The voice was only a whisper in his mind.\n\nSparhawk was stunned. 'Blue Rose?' he said.\n\n'Prithee, Anakha, do not speak aloud. Thy voice is as the thunder in mine ears. Speak silently in the halls of thine awareness. I will hear thee.'\n\n'How is this possible?' Sparhawk framed the thought. 'Thou art confined.'\n\n'Who hath power to confine _me,_ Anakha? When thou art alone and thy mind is clear of other distraction, we may speak thus.'\n\n'I did not know that.'\n\n'Until now, it was not needful for thee to know.'\n\n'I see. But now it is?'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'How dost thou penetrate the barrier of the gold?'\n\n'It is no barrier to me, Anakha. Others may not sense _me_ within the confines of thine excellent receptacle. I, however, may reach out to thee in this manner. This is particularly true when we are so close.'\n\nSparhawk laid his hand on the leather pouch hanging on a thong about his neck and felt the square outline of the box. 'And should it prove needful, may I speak so with thee?'\n\n'Even as thou dost now, Anakha.'\n\n'This is good to know.'\n\n'I sense thy disquiet, Anakha, and I share thine anxiety for the safety of thy mate.'\n\n'Thou art kind to say so, Blue Rose.'\n\n'Expend thou all thine efforts to securing thy Queen's release, Anakha. _I_ will keep watch over our enemies whilst thou art so occupied.' The jewel under sparhawk's hand paused. 'Hear me well, my friend,' Bhelliom continued, 'should it come to pass that no other course be open to thee, fear not to surrender me up to obtain thy mate's freedom.'\n\n'That I will not do \u2013 for she hath forbidden it.'\n\n'Do not be untranquil if it should come to pass, Anakha. I _will_ not submit to Cyrgon, even though mine own child, whom I love even as thou lovest thine, be endangered by my refusal. Be comforted in the knowledge that I will not permit my child \u2013 nor thee and all thy kind \u2013 to be enslaved by Cyrgon \u2013 or worse yet, by Kl\u00e6l. Thou hast my promise that this will never happen. Should it appear that our task doth verge on failure, I give thee my solemn vow that I shall destroy this child of mine and all who dwell here to prevent such mischance.'\n\n'Is that supposed to make me feel better?'\n\n# _Chapter 5_\n\nShe was always tired, hovering at times on the verge of exhaustion, and she was nearly always wet and dirty. Her clothes were ripped and tattered, and her hair was a ruin. Those things were unimportant, however. She willingly submitted to discomfort and indignities to keep the madman who was their captor from hurting the terrified Alean.\n\nThe realization that Scarpa was mad had come to her slowly. She had known from the first moment she had seen him that he was ruthless and driven, but the evidence of his insanity had become gradually more and more overwhelming as the endless days of her captivity ground on.\n\nHe was cruel, but Ehlana had encountered cruel men before. After she and Alean had been hurried through the dank tunnels under the streets of Matherion to the outskirts of the city, they had been roughly shoved into the saddles of waiting horses, bound securely in place, and literally dragged at breakneck speed down the road leading to the port of Micae on the southwestern coast of the peninsula, seventy-five leagues away. A normal man does not mistreat the animals upon which he is totally dependent. That was the first evidence of Scarpa's madness. He drove the horses, flogging them savagely until the poor beasts were staggering with exhaustion, and his only words during those dreadful four days were, 'Faster! Faster!'\n\nEhlana shuddered as she recalled the horror of that endless ride. They had \u2013\n\nHer horse stumbled in the muddy path, and she was jolted forward, bringing her attention back into the immediate present. The cord which tightly bound her wrists to the saddlebow dug into her flesh, and the bleeding started again. She tried to ease into a different position so that the cord would no longer cut into the already open wounds.\n\n'What are you doing?' Scarpa demanded. His voice was harsh, and _it_ came out almost as a scream. Scarpa almost always screamed when he was talking to her.\n\n'I'm just trying to keep the cord from cutting deeper into my wrists, Lord Scarpa,' she replied meekly. She had been instructed early in her captivity to address him so and she had quickly found that failure to do so resulted in savage mistreatment of Alean _and_ the withholding of food and water.\n\n'You're not here to be comfortable, woman!' he raged at her. 'You're here to obey! I see what you're doing there! If you don't stop trying to loosen those cords, I'll use wire!' His eyes bulged, and she saw again that strange, bluish cast to the whites of those eyes and the abnormally large pupils.\n\n'Yes, Lord Scarpa,' she said in her most submissive tone.\n\nHe glared at her, his face filled with suspicion and his mad eyes looking hungrily for some excuse to punish or humiliate his prisoners further.\n\nShe lowered her gaze to stare fixedly at the rough, muddy track that wound deeper and deeper into the rank, vine-choked forest of the southeast coast of Daresia.\n\nThe ship they had boarded at the port of Micae had been a sleek, black-hulled corsair that could not have been built for any honest purpose. She and Alean had been unceremoniously dragged below decks and confined in a cramped compartment that smelled of the bilges and was totally dark. After they had been two hours at sea, the compartment door had opened and Krager had entered with two swarthy sailors, one carrying what appeared to be a decent meal, and the other, two pails of hot water, some soap and a wad of rags for use as towels. Ehlana had resisted an impulse to embrace the fellow.\n\n'I'm really sorry about all this, Ehlana,' Krager had apologized, squinting at her nearsightedly, 'but I have no control of the situation. Be very careful of what you say to Scarpa. You've probably noticed that he's not entirely rational.' He had looked around nervously, then laid a handful of cheap tallow candles on the rough table and left, chaining the door shut behind him.\n\nThey had been five days at sea and had reached Anan, a port city on the edge of the jungles of the southeast coast some time after midnight. Then she and Alean had been hustled into a closed carriage with the pouchy-eyed Baron Parok at the reins. During the transfer from the ship to the carriage, Ehlana had discreetly looked at each of her captors, seeking some weakness. Krager, despite his habitual drunkenness, was too shrewd, and Parok was Scarpa's long-time confederate, a man evidently untroubled by his friend's madness. Then she had coolly appraised Elron. She had noticed that under no circumstances would the foppish Astellian poet look her in the eye. His apparent murder of Melidere had evidently filled him with remorse. Elron was a poseur rather than a man of action, and he clearly had no stomach for blood. She had recalled moreover, how vain he had been about his long curls when she had first met him and had wondered what form of duress Scarpa had used to force him to shave his head in order to pose as one of Kring's Peloi. She had surmised that the violation of his hair had raised certain strong resentments in him. Elron was clearly reluctant to participate in this affair, and that made _him_ the weak link. She kept that fact firmly in mind now. The time might come when she could use it to her advantage.\n\nThe carriage had carried them from the waterfront to a large house on the outskirts of Anan. It had been there that Scarpa had spoken with a gaunt Styric with the lumpy features characteristic of the men of his race. The Styric's name was Keska, and his eyes had the look of one hopelessly damned.\n\n'I don't care about the discomfort!' Scarpa had half-shouted to the gaunt man at one point. _'Time_ is important, Keska, time! Just do it! As long as it doesn't kill us, we can endure it!'\n\nThe next morning the significance of that command had become all too obvious. Keska was evidently one of those outcast Styric magicians, but not a very good one. He could, with a great deal of clearly exhausting effort, compress the miles that lay between them and Scarpa's intended destination, but only a few miles each time, and the compression was accompanied by a horrid kind of wrenching agony. It seemed almost as if the clumsy magician were jerking them up and hurling them blindly forward with every ounce of his strength, and Ehlana could never be certain after each hideous, bruising jump that she was still intact. She felt torn and battered, but did what she could to conceal her pain from Alean. The gentle girl with the large eyes wept almost continuously now, overcome by her pain and fear and the misery of their circumstances.\n\nEhlana drew her mind into the present and looked about warily. It was approaching evening again. The overcast sky was gradually darkening, and the time of day Ehlana dreaded the most would soon be upon them.\n\nScarpa looked with some scorn at Keska, who slumped in his saddle like a wilted flower, obviously near exhaustion. 'This is far enough,' he said. 'Set up some kind of camp and get the women down off those horses,' His brittle eyes grew bright as he looked Ehlana full in the face. 'It's time for the bedraggled Queen of the Elenes to beg for her supper again. I _do_ hope she'll be more convincing this time. It really distresses me to have to refuse her when her pleas aren't sufficiently sincere.'\n\n'Ehlana,' Krager whispered, touching her shoulder. The fire had died down to embers, and Ehlana could hear the sound of snores coming from the other side of their rude camp.\n\n'What?' she replied shortly.\n\n'Keep your voice down.' He was still wearing the black leather Peloi jerkin, his shaved head was sparsely stubbled, and his wine-reeking breath was nearly overpowering. 'I'm doing you a favor. Don't put me in danger. I assume you realize by now that Scarpa's completely insane?'\n\n'Really?' she replied saidonically. 'What an amazing thing.'\n\n'Please don't make this any more difficult. I seem to have made a small error in judgment here. If I'd fully realized how deranged that half-Styric bastard is, I'd have never agreed to take part in this ridiculous adventure.'\n\n'What _is_ this strange fascination you have with lunatics, Krager?'\n\nHe shrugged. 'Maybe it's a character defect. Scarpa actually believes that he can outwit his father \u2013 and even Cyrgon. He doesn't really believe that Sparhawk will surrender Bhelliom in exchange for your return, but he's managed to about half-convince the others. I'm sure you realize by now how he feels about women.'\n\n'He's demonstrated it often enough,' she said bitterly. 'Does he share Baron Harparin's fondness for little boys instead?'\n\n'Scarpa isn't fond of anything except himself. _He_ is his only passion. I've seen him spend hours trimming that beard of his. It gives him the opportunity to adore his reflection in the mirror. You haven't had the opportunity to see his delightful personality in full flower. The details of this trip are keeping what he chooses to call his mind occupied. Wait until we get to Natayos and you hear him start raving. He makes Martel and Annias seem like the very souls of sanity by comparison. I don't dare stay too long, so listen closely. Scarpa believes that Sparhawk will bring Bhelliom with him when he comes, right enough, but he _doesn't_ believe he'll bring it to trade for you. Scarpa's absolutely certain that your husband's coming in order to have it out with Cyrgon, _and_ he believes that they'll destroy each other in the course of the argument.'\n\n'Sparhawk has Bhelliom, you fool, and Bhelliom eats Gods for breakfast.'\n\n'I'm not here to argue about that. Maybe Sparhawk will win, and maybe he won't. That's really beside the point. What's important to us is what Scarpa believes. He's convinced himself that Sparhawk and Cyrgon will fight a war of mutual extinction. Then he thinks that Bhelliom will be left lying around free for the taking.'\n\n'What about Zalasta?'\n\n'I get the strong feeling that Scarpa doesn't expect Zalasta to be around when the fight's over. Scarpa's more than willing to kill anybody who gets in his way.'\n\n'He'd kill his own father?'\n\nKrager shrugged. 'Blood ties don't mean anything to Scarpa. When he was younger, he decided that his mother and his half-sisters knew things about him that he didn't want them to share with the authorities, so he killed them. He hated them anyway, so that may not mean all that much. If Sparhawk and Cyrgon _do_ kill each other, and if Zalasta's broken out in a sudden rash of mortality during the festivities, Scarpa _might_ just be the only one left around to take possession of the Bhelliom. He's got an army in these jungles, and if he has the Bhelliom as well, he might be able to pull it off. He'll march on Matherion, take the city and slaughter the government. Then he'll crown himself emperor. I'm personally betting against it, though, so for God's sake keep your temper under control. You're not really important to _his_ plans, but you're vital to Zalasta's \u2013 and mine. If you do anything at all to set Scarpa off, he'll kill you as quickly as he ordered Elron to kill your lady-in-waiting. Zalasta and I believe that Sparhawk _will_ trade Bhelliom for you, but only if you're alive. Don't enrage that maniac. If he kills you, all our plans will collapse.'\n\n'Why are you telling me this, Krager? There's something else too, isn't there?'\n\n'Of course. If things go against us, I'd like to have you available to speak out in my behalf when the trials start.'\n\n'That wouldn't do any good, I'm afraid,' she told him sweetly. There won't be any trial for you, Krager. sparhawk's already given you to Khalad and Khalad's already made up his mind.'\n\n'Khalad?' Krager's voice sounded a little weak.\n\n'Kurik's oldest son. He seems to feel that you had some part in his father's death, and he feels obliged to do something about it. I suppose you could try to talk him out of it, but I'd advise you to talk fast if you do. Khalad's a very abrupt young man, and he'll probably have you hanging from a meat-hook before you get out three words.'\n\nKrager didn't answer, but slipped away instead, his shaved scalp pale in the darkness. It wasn't much of a victory, Ehlana privately conceded, but in her situation victories of any kind were very hard to come by.\n\n* * *\n\n'They actually do that?' Scarpa's harsh voice was hungry.\n\n'It's an old custom, Lord Scarpa,' Ehlana replied in a meek voice, keeping her eyes downcast as they plodded along the muddy path. 'Emperor Sarabian is planning to discontinue the practice, however.'\n\n'It will be reinstituted immediately following my coronation.' Scarpa's eyes were very bright. 'It is a proper form of respect.' Scarpa had an old purple velvet cloak, shiny with wear, that he had dramatically pulled over one shoulder in a grotesque imitation of an imperial mantle, and he struck absurd poses with each pronouncement.\n\n'As you say, Lord Scarpa.' It was tedious to go over the same things again and again, but it kept Scarpa's mind occupied, and when his attention was firmly fixed on the ceremonies and practices of the imperial court in Matherion he was not thinking of ways to make life unbearable for his captives.\n\n'Describe it again,' he commanded. 'I'll need to know precisely how it's supposed to be done \u2013 so that I can punish those who fail to perform it properly.'\n\nEhlana sighed. 'At the approach of the imperial person, the members of the court kneel \u2013'\n\n'On both knees?'\n\n'Yes, Lord Scarpa.'\n\n'Excellent! Excellent!' His face was exalted. 'Go on.'\n\n'Then, as the emperor passes, they lean forward, put the palms of their hands on the floor and touch their foreheads to the tiles.'\n\n'Capital!' He suddenly giggled, a high-pitched, almost girlish sound that startled her. She gave him a quick, sidelong glance. His face was grotesquely distorted into an expression of unholy exaltation. And then his eyes grew wide and his expression became one of near-religious ecstasy. 'And the Tamuls who rule the world shall be ruled by me',' He intoned in a resonant, declamatory voice. 'All power shall be mine! The governance of the world shall be in _my_ hands, and disobedience will be death!'\n\nEhlana shuddered as he raved on.\n\nAnd he came to her again as humid night settled over their muddy forest encampment, drawn to her by a hunger, a greed, that was beyond his ability to control. It was revolting, but Ehlana realized that her knowledge of the particulars of traditional court ceremonies gave her an enormous power over him. His hunger was insatiable, and only she could satisfy it. She grasped that power firmly, drawing strength and confidence from it, actually relishing it even as Krager and the others withdrew with expressions of frightened revulsion.\n\n'Nine wives, you say!' Scarpa's voice was almost pleading. 'Why not ninety? Why not nine hundred?'\n\n'It is the custom, Lord Scarpa. The reason for it should be obvious.'\n\n'Oh, of course, of course.' He brooded darkly over it. 'I shall have nine thousand!' he proclaimed. 'And each shall be more desirable than the last! And when I have finished with them, they shall be given to my loyal soldiers! Let no woman dare to believe that my favor in any way empowers her! All women are only whores! I shall _buy_ them and throw them away when I tire of them!' His mad eyes bulged, and he stared into the campfire. The flickering flames reflected in those eyes seemed to seethe like the madness that lay behind them.\n\nHe leaned toward her, laying a confiding hand on her arm. I have seen that which others are too stupid to see,' he told her. 'Others look, but they do not see \u2013 but, _I_ see. Oh, yes, I see. I see very well. They are all in it together, you know \u2013 all of them. They watch me. They have always watched me. I can never get away from their eyes \u2013 watching, watching, watching \u2013 and talking \u2013 talking behind their hands, breathing their cinnamon-scented breath into each other's faces. All foul and corrupt \u2013 scheming, plotting against me, trying to bring me down. Their eyes \u2013 all soft and hidden and veiled with the lashes that hide the daggers of their hatred, watching, watching, watching.' His voice sank lower and lower. 'And talking, talking behind their hands so that I can't hear what they're saying. Whispering. I hear it always. I hear the hissing susurration of their endless whispering. Their eyes following me wherever I go \u2013 and their laughing and whispering. I hear the hiss, hiss of their whispering \u2013 endless whisper \u2013 always my name \u2013 Ssscar-pa, Ssscar-pa, Ssscar-pa, again and again, hissing in my ears. Flaunting their rounded limbs and rolling their soot-lined eyes. Plotting, scheming with the endless hissing whispers, always seeking ways to hurt me. Ssscar-pa, Ssscar-pa, trying to humiliate me.' His blue-tinged eyeballs were starting from his face, and his lips and beard were flecked with foam. 'I was nothing. They made me nothing. They called me Selga's bastard and gave me pennies to lead them to the beds of my mother and my sisters and cuffed me and spat on me and laughed at me when I cried and they lusted after my mother and my sisters and all around me the hissing in my ears \u2013 and I smell the sound \u2013 that sweet cloying sound of rotten flesh and stale lust all purple and writhing with the liquid hiss of their whispers and \u2013'\n\nThen his mad eyes filled with terror, and he cringed back from her and fell, grovelling in the mud. 'Please, Mother!' he wailed. I didn't do it! Silbie did it! Please-pleaseplease don't lock me in there again! Please not in the dark! Pleasepleaseplease not in the dark! Not in the dark!' And he scrambled to his feet and fled back into the forest with his 'Pleasepleaseplease' echoing back in a long, dying fall.\n\nEhlana was suddenly overcome with a wrenching, unbearable pity, and she bowed her head and wept.\n\nZalasta was waiting for them in Natayos. The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries had seen a flowering of Arjuni civilization, a flowering financed largely by the burgeoning slave-trade. An ill-advised slave-raid into southern Atan, however, coupled with a number of gross policy blunders by the Tamul administrators of that region had unleashed an uncontrolled Atan punitive expedition. Natayos had been a virtual gem of a city with stately buildings and broad avenues. It was now a forgotten ruin buried in the jungle, its tumbled buildings snarled in ropelike vines, its stately halls now the home of chattering monkeys and brightly colored tropical birds, and its darker recesses inhabited by snakes and the scurrying rats which were their prey.\n\nBut now humans had returned to Natayos. Scarpa's army was quartered there, and Arjunis, Cynesgans, and rag-tag battalions of Elenes had cleared the quarter near the ancient city's northern gate of vines, trees, monkeys and reptiles in order to make it semi-habitable.\n\nZalasta stood leaning on his staff at the half-fallen gate, his silvery-bearded face drawn with fatigue and a look of hopeless pain in his eyes. His first reaction when his son arrived with the captives was one of rage. He snarled at Scarpa in Styric, a language that seemed eminently suited for reprimand and one which Ehlana did not understand. She took no small measure of satisfaction, however, in the look of sullen apprehension that crossed Scarpa's face. For all his blustering and airs of pre-eminent superiority, Scarpa still appeared to stand in a certain awe and fear of the ancient Styric who had incidentally sired him.\n\nOnce, and only once, apparently stung by something Zalasta said to him in a tone loaded with contempt, Scarpa drew himself up and snarled a reply. Zalasta's reaction was immediate and savage. He sent his son reeling with a heavy blow of his staff, then leveled its polished length at him, muttered a few words, and unleashed a fiery spot of light from the tip of the staff. The burning spot struck the still-staggering Scarpa in the belly, and he doubled over sharply, clawing at his stomach and shrieking in agony. He fell onto the muddy earth, kicking and convulsing as Zalasta's spell burned into him. His father, the deadly staff still leveled, watched his writhing son coldly for several endless minutes.\n\n_'Now_ do you understand?' he demanded in a deadly voice, speaking in Tamul this time.\n\n'Yes! Yes! Father!' Scarpa shrieked. 'Stop! I beg you!'\n\nZalasta let him writhe and squirm for a while longer. Then he lifted the staff. 'You are _not_ master here,' he declared. 'You are no more than a brain-sick incompetent. Any one of a dozen others here could command this army, so do not try my patience further. Next time, son or no son, I will let the spell follow its natural course. Pain is like a disease, Scarpa. After a few days \u2013 or weeks \u2013 the body begins to deteriorate. A man can die from pain. Don't force me to prove that to you.' And he turned his back on his pale-faced, sweating son. 'My apologies, your Majesty,' he said to Ehlana. 'This was _not_ what I intended.'\n\n'And what _did_ you intend, Zalasta?' she asked coldly.\n\n'The dispute is between your husband and myself, Ehlana. It was never in my mind to cause you such discomfort. This cretin I must unfortunately acknowledge took it upon himself to mistreat you. I promise you that he will not live to see the sunset of the day in which he does it again.'\n\n'I see. The humiliation and pain were not your idea, but the captivity was. Where's the difference, Zalasta?'\n\nHe sighed and passed a weary hand over his eyes. 'It is necessary,' he told her.\n\n'For what reason? Sephrenia will never submit to you, you know. Even if Bhelliom and the rings fall into your hands, you cannot compel her love.'\n\n'There are other considerations as well, Queen Ehlana,' he said sorrowfully. 'Please bring your maid and come with me. I'll see you to your quarters.'\n\n'Some dungeon, I suppose?'\n\nHe sighed. 'No, Ehlana, the quarters are clean and comfortable. I've seen to that myself. Your ordeal is at an end, I promise you.'\n\n'My ordeal, as you call it, will not be at an end until I'm reunited with my husband and my daughter.'\n\n'That, we may pray, will be very soon. It is, however, in the hands of Prince Sparhawk. All he must do is follow instructions. Your quarters are not far. Follow me, please,' He led them to a nearby building and unlocked the door.\n\nTheir prison was very nearly luxurious, an apartment of sorts, complete with several bedrooms, a dining hall, a large sitting-room, and even a kitchen. The building had evidently been the palace of some nobleman, and, although the upper stories had long since collapsed, the ground-floor rooms, their ceilings supported by great arches, were still intact. The furnishings in the rooms were ornate, though mis-matched, and there were rugs on the floors and drapes to cover the windows \u2013 windows, Ehlana noticed, which had recently been fitted with stout iron bars.\n\nThe fireplaces were cavernous, and they were all filled with blazing logs, not so much to ward off the minimal chill of the Arjuni winter but to dry out rooms saturated with over a millennium of dank humidity. There were beds and fresh linen and clothing of an Arjuni cut, but most important of all, there was a fair-sized room with a large marble bathtub set into the floor. Ehlana's eyes fixed longingly on that ultimate luxury. It so completely seized her attention that she scarcely heard Zalasta's apologies. After a few vague replies from her, the Styric realized that his continued presence was no longer appreciated, so he politely excused himself and left.\n\n'Alean, dear,' Ehlana said in an almost dreamy voice, 'that's quite a large tub \u2013 certainly large enough for the two of us, wouldn't you say?'\n\nAlean was also gazing at the tub with undisguised longing. 'Easily, your Majesty,' she replied.\n\n'How long do you think it might take us to heat enough water to fill it?'\n\n'There are plenty of large pots and kettles in that kitchen, my Queen,' the gentle girl said, 'and all the fireplaces are going. It shouldn't take very long at all.'\n\n'Wonderful,' Ehlana said enthusiastically. 'Why don't we get started?'\n\n'Just exactly who is this Kl\u00e6l, Zalasta?' Ehlana asked the Styric several days later when he came by to call. Zalasta came to their prison often, as if his visits in some way lessened his guilt, and he always talked, long, rambling, sometimes disconnected talk that often revealed far more than he probably intended for her to know.\n\n'Kl\u00e6l is an eternal being,' he replied. Ehlana noted almost absently that the heavily accented Elenic which had so irritated her when they had first met in Sarsos was gone now. Another of his ruses, she concluded. 'Kl\u00e6l is far more eternal than the Gods of this world,' he continued. 'He's in some way connected to Bhelliom. They're contending principles, or something along those lines. I was a bit distraught when Cyrgon explained the relationship to me, so I didn't fully understand.'\n\n'Yes, I can imagine,' she murmured. Her relationship with Zalasta was peculiar. The circumstances made ranting and denunciation largely a waste of time, so Ehlana was civil to him. He appeared to be grateful for that, and his gratitude made him more open with her. That civility, which cost her nothing, enabled her to pick up much information from the Styric's rambling conversation.\n\n'Anyway,' Zalasta continued, 'Cyzada was terrified when Cyrgon commanded him to summon Kl\u00e6l, and he tried very hard to talk the God out of the notion. Cyrgon was implacable, though, and he was filled with rage when Sparhawk neatly plucked the Trolls right out of his grasp. We'd never even considered the possibility that Sparhawk might release the Troll-Gods from their confinement.'\n\n'That was Sir Ulath's idea,' Ehlana told him. 'Ulath knows a great deal about Trolls.'\n\n'Evidently so. At any rate, Cyrgon forced Cyzada to summon Kl\u00e6l, but Kl\u00e6l no sooner appeared than he went in search of Bhelliom. That took Cyrgon aback. It had been his intention to hold Kl\u00e6l in reserve \u2013 hiding, so to speak \u2013 and to unleash him by surprise. That went out the window when Kl\u00e6l rushed off to the North Cape to confront Bhelliom. Sparhawk knows that Kl\u00e6l is here now \u2013 although I have no idea what he can do about it. That was what made the summoning of Kl\u00e6l such idiocy in the first place. Kl\u00e6l can't be controlled. I tried to explain that to Cyrgon, but he wouldn't listen. Our goal is to gain possession of Bhelliom, and Kl\u00e6l and Bhelliom are eternal enemies. As soon as Cyrgon takes Bhelliom in his hands, Kl\u00e6l will attack _him,_ and I'm fairly certain that Kl\u00e6l is infinitely more powerful than he is.' Zalasta glanced around cautiously. 'The Cyrgai are in many ways a reflection of their God, I'm afraid. Cyrgon abhors any kind of intelligence. He's frighteningly stupid sometimes.'\n\n'I hate to point this out, Zalasta,' she said insincerely, 'but you have this tendency to ally yourself with defectives. Annias was clever enough, I suppose, but his obsession with the Archprelacy distorted his judgment, and Martel's drive for revenge made _his_ thinking just as distorted. From what I gather, Otha was as stupid as a stump, and Azash was so elemental that all he had on his mind were his desires. Coherent thought was beyond him.'\n\n'You know everything, don't you, Ehlana?' he said. 'How on earth did you find all of this out?'\n\n'I'm not really at liberty to discuss it,' she replied.\n\n'No matter, I suppose,' he said absently. A sudden hunger crossed his face. 'How is Sephrenia?' he asked.\n\n'Well enough. She was very upset when she first found out about you, though \u2013 and your attempt on Aphrael's life was really ill-conceived, you know. That was the one thing that convinced her of your treachery.'\n\n'I lost my head,' he confessed. 'That cursed Delphaeic woman destroyed three hundred years of patient labor with a toss of her head.'\n\n'I suppose it's none of my business, but why didn't you just accept the fact that Sephrenia was wholly committed to Aphrael and let it go at that? There's no way you can ever compete with the Child Goddess, you know.'\n\n'Could _you_ have ever accepted the idea that Sparhawk was committed to another, Ehlana?' His tone was accusing.\n\n'No,' she admitted, 'I suppose I couldn't have. We do strange things for love, don't we, Zalasta? I was at least direct about it, though. Things might have worked out differently for you if you hadn't tried deceit and deception. Aphrael's not completely unreasonable, you know.'\n\n'Perhaps not,' he replied. Then he sighed deeply. 'But we'll never know, will we?'\n\n'No. It's far too late now.'\n\n'The glazier cracked the pane when he was setting it into the frame, my Queen,' Alean said quietly, pointing at the defective triangle of bubbled glass in the lower corner of the window. 'He was very clumsy.'\n\n'How did you come to know so much about this, Alean?' Ehlana asked her.\n\n'My father was apprenticed to a glazier when he was young,' the doe-eyed girl replied. 'He used to repair windows in our village.' She touched the tip of the glowing poker to the bead of lead that held the cracked pane in place. 'I'll have to be very careful,' she said, frowning in concentration, 'but if I do it right, I can fix it so that we can take out this little section of glass and put it back in again. That way, we'll be able to hear what they're talking about out there in the street, and then we'll be able to put the glass back in again so that they'll never know what we've done. I thought you might want to be able to listen to them, and they always seem to gather just outside this window.'\n\n'You're an absolute treasure, Alean!' Ehlana exclaimed, impulsively embracing the girl.\n\n'Be careful, my Lady!' Alean cried in alarm. 'The hot iron!'\n\nAlean was right. The window with the small defective pane was at the corner of the building, and Zalasta, Scarpa and the others were quartered in the attached structure. It appeared that whenever they wanted to discuss something out of the hearing of the soldiers, they habitually drifted to the walled-in cul-de-sac just outside the window. The small panes of cheap glass leaded into the window-frame were only semi-transparent at best, and so, with minimal caution, Alean's modification of the cracked pane permitted Ehlana to listen and even marginally observe without being seen.\n\nOn the day following her conversation with Zalasta, she saw the white-robed Styric approaching with a look of bleakest melancholy on his face and with Scarpa and Krager close behind him. 'You've got to snap out of this, Father,' Scarpa said urgently. 'The soldiers are beginning to notice.'\n\n'Let them,' Zalasta replied shortly.\n\n'No, Father,' Scarpa said in his rich, theatrical voice, 'we can't do that. These men are animals. They function below the level of thought. If you walk around through these streets with the face of a little boy whose dog just died, they're going to think that something's wrong and they'll start deserting by the regiment. I've spent too much time and effort gathering this army to have you drive them away by feeling sorry for yourself.'\n\n'You'd never understand, Scarpa,' Zalasta retorted. 'You can't even begin to comprehend the meaning of love. You don't love anything.'\n\n'Oh, yes I do, Zalasta,' Scarpa snapped. 'I love _me._ That's the only kind of love that makes any sense.'\n\nEhlana just happened to be watching Krager. The drunkard's eyes were narrowed, shrewd. He casually moved his ever-present tankard around behind him and poured most of the wine out. Then he raised the tankard and drank off the dregs noisily. Then he belched. 'Parn'me,' he slurred, reaching out his hand to the wall to steady himself as he weaved back and forth on his feet.\n\nScarpa gave him a quick, irritated glance, obviously dismissing him. Ehlana, however, rather quickly reassessed Krager. He was not always nearly as drunk as he appeared to be.\n\n'It's all been for nothing, Scarpa,' Zalasta groaned. 'I've allied myself with the diseased, the degenerate and the insane for nothing. I had thought that once Aphrael was gone, Sephrenia might turn to me. But she won't. She'd die before she'll have anything to do with me.'\n\nScarpa's eyes narrowed. 'Let her die then,' he said bluntly. 'Can't you get it through your head that one woman's the same as any other? Women are a commodity \u2013 like bales of hay or barrels of wine. Look at Krager here. How much affection do you think he has for an empty wine barrel? It's the new ones, the full ones, that he loves, right, Krager?'\n\nKrager smirked at him owlishly and then belched again. 'Parn'me,' he said.\n\n'I can't really see any reason for this obsession of yours anyway,' Scarpa continued to grind on his father's most sensitive spot. 'Sephrenia's only damaged goods now. Vanion's had her \u2013 dozens of times. Are you so poor-spirited that you'd take the leavings of an Elene?'\n\nZalasta suddenly smashed his fist against the stone wall with a snarl of frustration.\n\n'He's probably so used to having her that he doesn't even waste his time murmuring endearments to her any more,' Scarpa went on. 'He just takes what he wants from her, rolls over and starts to snore. You know how Elenes are when they're in rut. And she's probably no better. He's made an Elene out of her, Father. She's not a Styric any more. She's become an Elene \u2013 or even worse, a mongrel. I'm really surprised to see you wasting all this pure emotion on a mongrel.' He sneered. 'She's no better than my mother or my sisters, and you know what _they_ were.'\n\nZalasta's face twisted, and he threw back his head and actually howled. 'I'd rather see her dead!'\n\nScarpa's pale, bearded face grew sly. 'Why don't you kill her then, Father?' he asked in an insinuating whisper. 'Once a decent woman's been bedded by an Elene, she can never be trusted again, you know. Even if you _did_ persuade her to marry you, she'd never be faithful.' He laid an insincere hand on his father's arm. 'Kill her, Father,' he advised. 'At least your memories of her will be pure; _she_ never will be.'\n\nZalasta howled again and clawed at his beard with his long fingernails. Then he turned quickly and ran off down the street.\n\nKrager straightened, and his seeming drunkenness slid away. 'You took an awful chance there, you know,' he said in a cautious tone.\n\nScarpa looked sharply at him. 'Very good, Krager,' he murmured. 'You played the part of a drunkard almost to perfection.'\n\n'I've had lots of practice,' Krager shrugged. 'You're lucky he didn't obliterate you, Scarpa \u2013 or tie your guts in knots again.'\n\n'He couldn't,' Scarpa smirked. 'I'm a fair magician myself, you know, and I'm skilled enough to know that you have to have a clear head to work the spells. I kept him in a state of rage. He couldn't have worked up enough magic to break a spider-web. Let's hope that he _does_ kill Sephrenia. That should _really_ scatter Sparhawk's wits, not to mention the fact that as soon as the desire of his life is no more than a pile of dead meat, Zalasta's very likely to conveniently cut his own throat.'\n\n'You really hate him, don't you?'\n\n'Wouldn't you, Krager? He could have taken me with him when I was a child, but he'd come to visit for a while, and he'd show me what it meant to be a Styric, and then he'd go off alone, leaving me behind to be tormented by whores. If he doesn't have the stomach to cut his own throat, I'd be more than happy to lend him a hand.' Scarpa's eyes were very bright, and he was smiling broadly. 'Where's your wine barrel, Krager?' he asked. 'Right now I feel like getting drunk.' And he began to laugh, a cackling, insane laugh empty of any mirth or humanity.\n\n'It's no use!' Ehlana said, flinging the comb across the room. 'Look at what they've done to my hair!' She buried her face in her hands and wept.\n\n'It's not hopeless, my Lady,' Alean said in her soft voice. 'There's a style they wear in Cammoria.' She lifted the mass of blonde hair on the right side of Ehlana's head and brought it over across the top. 'You see,' she said. 'It covers all the bare places, and it really looks quite chic'\n\nEhlana looked hopefully into her mirror. 'It doesn't look _too_ bad, does it?' she conceded.\n\n'And if we set a flower just behind your right ear, it would really look very stunning.'\n\n'Alean, you're wonderful!' the Queen exclaimed happily. 'What would I ever do without you?'\n\nIt took them the better part of an hour, but at last the unsightly bare places were covered, and Ehlana felt that some measure of her dignity had been restored.\n\nThat evening, however, Krager came to call. He stood swaying in the doorway, his eyes bleary and a drunken smirk on his face. 'Harvest-time again, Ehlana,' he announced, drawing his dagger. 'It seems that I'll need just a bit more of your hair.'\n\n# _Chapter 6_\n\nThe sky remained overcast, but as luck had it, it had not yet rained. The stiff wind coming in off the Gulf of Micae was raw, however, and they rode with their cloaks wrapped tightly about them. Despite Khalad's belief that it was to their advantage to move slowly, Berit was consumed with impatience. He knew that what they were doing was only a small part of the overall strategy, but the confrontation they all knew was coming loomed ahead, and he desperately wanted to get on with it. 'How can you be so patient?' he asked Khalad about mid-afternoon one day when the onshore wind was particularly chill and damp.\n\n'I'm a farmer, Sparhawk,' Khalad replied, scratching at his short black beard. 'Waiting for things to grow teaches you not to expect changes overnight.'\n\n'I suppose I've never really thought about what it must be like just sitting still waiting for things to sprout.'\n\n'There's not much sitting still when you're a farmer,' Khalad told him. 'There are always more things to do than there are hours in the day, and if you get bored, you can always keep a close watch on the sky. A whole year's work can be lost in a dry-spell or a sudden hailstorm.'\n\n'I hadn't thought about that either.' Berit mulled it over. 'That's what makes you so good at predicting the weather, isn't it?'\n\n'It helps.'\n\n'There's more to it than that, though. You always seem to know about everything that's going on around you. When we were on that log-boom, you knew instantly when there was the slightest change in the way it was moving.'\n\n'It's called \"paying attention\", my Lord. The world around you is screaming at you all the time, but most people can't seem to hear it. That really baffles me. I can't understand how you can miss so many things.'\n\nBerit was just slightly offended by that. 'All right, what's the world screaming at you right now that I can't hear?'\n\n'It's telling me that we're going to need some fairly substantial shelter tonight. We've got bad weather coming.'\n\n'How did you arrive at that?'\n\nKhalad pointed. 'You see those seagulls?' he asked.\n\n'Yes. What's that got to do with it?'\n\nKhalad sighed. 'What do seagulls eat, my Lord?'\n\n'Just about everything \u2013 fish mostly, I suppose.'\n\n'Then why are they flying inland? They aren't going to find very many fish on dry land, are they? They've seen something they don't like out there in the gulf and they're running away from it. Just about the only thing that frightens a seagull is wind \u2013 and the high seas that go with it. There's a storm out to sea, and it's coming this way. _That's_ what the world's screaming at me right now.'\n\n'It's just common sense then, isn't it?'\n\n'Most things are, Sparhawk \u2013 common sense and experience.' Khalad smiled slightly. I can still feel Krager's Styric out there watching us. If he isn't paying any more attention than you were just now, he's probably going to spend a very miserable night.'\n\nBerit grinned just a bit viciously. 'Somehow that information fails to disquiet me,' he said.\n\nIt was more than a village, but not quite a town. It had three streets, for one thing, and at least six buildings of more than one story, for another. The streets were muddy, and pigs roamed freely. The buildings were made primarily of wood and they were roofed with thatch. There was an inn on what purported to be the main street. It was a substantial-looking building, and there were a pair of rickety wagons with dispirited mules in their traces out front. Ulath reined in the weary old horse he had bought in the fishing village. 'What do you think?' he said to his friend.\n\n'I thought you'd never ask,' Tynian replied.\n\n'Let's go ahead and take a room as well,' Ulath suggested. The afternoon's wearing on anyway, and I'm getting tired of sleeping on the ground. Besides, I'm a little overdue for a bath.'\n\nTynian looked toward the starkly outlined peaks of the Tamul Mountains lying some leagues to the west. 'I'd really hate to keep the Trolls waiting, Ulath,' he said with mock seriousness.\n\n'It's not as if we had a definite appointment with them. Trolls wouldn't notice anyway. They've got a very imprecise notion of time.'\n\nThey rode on into the innyard, tied their horses to a rail outside the stable and went on into the inn.\n\n'We need a room,' Ulath told the innkeeper in heavily accented Tamul.\n\nThe innkeeper was a small, furtive-looking man. He gave them a quick, appraising glance, noting the bits and pieces of army uniform that made up most of their dress. His expression hardened with distaste. Soldiers are frequently unwelcome in rural communities for any number of very good reasons. 'Well,' he replied in a whining, sing-song sort of voice, 'I don't know. It's our busy season -'\n\n'Late autumn?' Tynian broke in skeptically. _'That's_ your busy season?'\n\n'Well \u2013 there are all the wagoneers who can come by at any time, you know.'\n\nUlath looked beyond the innkeeper's shoulder into the low, smoky taproom. 'I count three,' he said flatly.\n\nThere are bound to be more along shortly,' the fellow replied just a bit too quickly.\n\n'Of _course_ there are,' Tynian said sarcastically. 'But we're here _now,_ and we've got money. Are you going to gamble a sure thing against the remote possibility that some wagon might stop here along about midnight?'\n\n'He doesn't want to do business with a couple of pensioned-off veterans, Corporal,' Ulath said. 'Let's go talk with the local commissioner. I'm sure he'll be very interested in the way this fellow treats his Imperial Majesty's soldiers.'\n\n'I'm his Imperial Majesty's loyal subject,' the innkeeper said quickly, 'and I'll be honored to have brave veterans of his army under my roof.'\n\n'How much?' Tynian cut him off.\n\n'A half-crown?'\n\n'He doesn't seem very certain, does he, Sergeant?' Tynian asked his friend. I think you misunderstood,' he said then to the nervous innkeeper. 'We don't want to _buy_ the room. We just want to rent it for one night.'\n\nUlath was staring hard at the now-frightened little Tamul. 'Eight pence,' he countered with a note of finality.\n\n_'Eight?'_ the innkeeper objected in a shrill voice.\n\n'Take it or leave it \u2013 and don't be all day about it. We'll need a little daylight to find the Commissioner.'\n\n'You're a hard man, Sergeant.'\n\n'Nobody ever promised you that life would be easy, did they?' Ulath counted out some coins and jingled them in his hand. 'Do you want these or not?'\n\nAfter a moment of agonized indecision, the innkeeper reluctantly took the coins.\n\n'You took all the fun out of that, you know,' Tynian complained as the two went back out to the stable to see to their horses.\n\n'I'm thirsty,' Ulath shrugged. 'Besides, a couple of ex-soldiers would know in advance exactly how much they were willing to pay, wouldn't they?' He scratched at his face. 'I wonder if Sir Gerda would mind if I shaved off his beard,' he mused. This thing itches.'\n\n'It's not _really_ his face, Ulath. It's still yours. You've just been modified to look like him.'\n\n'Yes, but when the ladies switch our faces back, they'll use _this_ one as a model for Gerda, and when they're done, he'll be standing there with a naked face. He might object.'\n\nThey unsaddled their horses, put them into stalls and went on into the taproom. Tamul drinking establishments were arranged differently from those owned by Elenes. The tables were much lower, for one thing, and here the room was heated by a porcelain stove rather than a fireplace. The stove smoked as badly as a fireplace, though. Wine was served in delicate little cups and ale in cheap tin tankards. The smell was much the same, however.\n\nThey were just starting on their second tankard of ale when an officious-looking Tamul in a food-spotted wool mantle came into the room and walked directly to their table. 'I'll have a look at your release papers, if you don't mind,' he told them in a loftily superior tone.\n\n'And if we do?' Ulath asked.\n\nThe official blinked. 'What?'\n\n'You said if we don't mind. What if we _do_ mind?'\n\n'I have the authority to demand to see those documents.'\n\n'Why did you ask, then?' Ulath reached inside his red uniform jacket and took out a dog-eared sheet of paper. 'In our old regiment, men in authority never asked.'\n\nThe Tamul read through the documents Oscagne had provided them as a part of their disguise. These seem to be in order,' he said in a more conciliatory tone. 'Sorry I was so abrupt. We've been told to keep our eyes out for deserters \u2013 all the turmoil, you understand. I guess the army looks a lot less attractive when there's fighting in the wind.' He looked at them a bit wistfully. 'I see you were stationed in Matherion.'\n\nTynian nodded. 'It was good duty \u2013 a lot of inspections and polishing, though. Sit down, Commissioner.'\n\nThe Tamul smiled faintly. 'Deputy-Commissioner, I'm afraid, Corporal. This backwater doesn't rate a full Commissioner.' He slid into a chair. 'Where are you men bound?'\n\n'Home,' Ulath said, 'back to Verel in Daconia.'\n\n'You'll forgive my saying so, Sergeant, but you don't look all that much like a Dacite.'\n\nUlath shrugged. I take after my mother's family. She was an Astel before she married my father. Tell me, Deputy-Commissioner, would we save very much time if we went straight on across the Tamul Mountains to reach Sopal? We thought we'd catch a ferry or some trading ship there, go across the Sea of Arjun to Tiana and then ride on down to Saras. It's only a short way from there to Verel.'\n\n'I'd advise staying out of the Tamul Mountains, my friends.'\n\n'Bad weather?' Tynian asked him.\n\n'That's always possible at this time of year, Corporal, but there have been some disturbing reports coming out of those mountains. It seems that the bears up there have been breeding like rabbits. Every traveler who's come through here in the past few weeks reports sighting the brutes. Fortunately they all run away.'\n\n'Bears, you say?'\n\nThe Tamul smiled. 'I'm translating. The ignorant peasants around here use the word \"monster\", but we all know what a large, shaggy creature who lives alone in the mountains is, don't we?'\n\n'Peasants are an excitable lot, aren't they?' Ulath laughed, draining his tankard. 'We were out on a training exercise once, and this peasant came running up to us claiming that he was being chased by a pack of wolves. When we went out to take a look, it turned out to be one lone fox. The size and number of any wild animal a peasant sees seems to grow with each passing hour.'\n\n'Or each tankard of ale,' Tynian added.\n\nThey talked with the now-polite official for a while longer, and then the man wished them a good journey and left.\n\n'Well, it's nice to know that the Trolls made it this far south,' Ulath said. 'I'd hate to have to go looking for them.'\n\n'Their Gods were guiding them, Ulath,' Tynian pointed out.\n\n'You've never talked with the Troll-Gods, I see,' Ulath laughed. 'Their sense of direction is a little vague \u2013 probably because their compass only has two directions on it.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'North and not-north. It makes finding places a little difficult.'\n\nThe storm was one of those short, savage gales that seem to come out of nowhere in the late autumn. Khalad had dismissed the possibility of finding any kind of shelter in the salt marshes and had turned instead to the beach. At the head of a shallow inlet he had found the mountain of driftwood he'd been seeking. A couple of hours of fairly intense labor had produced a snug, even cozy little shelter on the leeward side of the pile. The gale struck just as the last light was fading. The wind screamed through the huge pile of driftwood. The surf crashed and thundered against the beach, and the rain sheeted horizontally across the ground in the driving wind.\n\nKhalad and Berit, however, were warm and dry. They sat with their backs against the huge, bleached-white log that formed the rear wall of their shelter and their feet stretched out toward their crackling fire.\n\n'You always amaze me, Khalad,' Berit said. 'How did you know that there'd be boards mixed in amongst all this driftwood?'\n\n'There always are,' Khalad shrugged. 'Any time you find one of these big heaps of driftwood, you're going to find sawed lumber as well. Men make ships out of boards, and ships get wrecked. The boards float around until the wind and currents and tides push them to the same sheltered places where the sticks and the logs have been accumulating.' He reached up and patted the ceiling. 'Finding this hatch-cover all in one piece was a stroke of luck, though, I'll grant you that.' He rose to his feet and went to the front of the shelter. 'It's really blowing out there,' he noted. He extended his hands toward the fire. 'Cold, too. The rain's probably going to turn to sleet before midnight.'\n\n'Yes,' Berit agreed pleasantly. 'I certainly pity anybody caught out in the open on a night like this.' He grinned.\n\n'Me too,' Khalad grinned back. He lowered his voice, although there was no real need. 'Can you get any sense of what he's thinking?'\n\n'Nothing specific,' Berit replied. 'He's seriously uncomfortable, though.'\n\n'What a shame.'\n\n'There's something else, though. He's going to come and talk with us. He has a message of some kind for us.'\n\n'Is he likely to come in here tonight?'\n\nBerit shook his head. 'He has orders not to make contact until tomorrow morning. He's very much afraid of whoever told him what to do and when to do it, so he'll obey those orders to the letter. How's that ham coming?'\n\nKhalad drew his dagger and used its point to lift the lid of the iron pot half-buried in embers at the edge of the fire. The steam that came boiling out smelled positively delicious. 'It's ready. As soon as the beans are done, we can eat.'\n\n'If our friend out there is down-wind of us, that smell should add to his misery just a bit.' Berit chuckled.\n\n'I sort of doubt it, Sparhawk. He's a Styric, and he's not allowed to eat pork.'\n\n'Oh, yes. I'd forgotten about that. He's a renegade, though. Maybe he's discarded his dietary prejudices.'\n\n'We'll find out in the morning. When he comes to us tomorrow, I'll offer him a piece. Why don't you saw off a few slices of that loaf of bread? I'll toast them on the pot-lid here.'\n\nThe wind had abated somewhat the following morning, and the rain had slacked off to a few fitful spatters stuttering on the hatch-cover roof. They had more of the ham and beans for breakfast and began to get things ready to pack. 'What do you think?' Berit asked.\n\n'Let's make him come to us. Sitting tight until the last of the rain passes wouldn't be all that unusual.' Khalad looked speculatively at his friend. 'Would you be offended by a bit of advice, my Lord?' he asked.\n\n'Of course not.'\n\n'You _look_ like Sparhawk, but you don't _sound_ very much like him, and your mannerisms aren't quite right. When the Styric comes, make your face colder and harder. Keep your eyes narrow. Sparhawk squints. You'll also want to keep your voice low and level. Sparhawk's voice gets very quiet when he's angry \u2013 and he calls people \"neighbor\" a lot. He can put all sorts of meaning into that one word.'\n\n'That's right, he does call just about everybody \"neighbor\", doesn't he? I'd almost forgotten that. You've got my permission to correct me any time I start to lose my grip on the real Sparhawk, Khalad.'\n\n_'Permission?'_\n\n'Poor choice of words there, I suppose.'\n\n'You might say that, yes.'\n\n'The climate got a little too warm for us back in Matherion,' Caalador said, leaning back in his chair. He looked directly at the hard-faced man seated across from him. 'I'm sure you take my meaning, Orden.'\n\nThe hard-faced man laughed. 'Oh, yes,' he replied. 'I've left a few places about one jump ahead of the law a time or two myself.' Orden was an Elene from Vardenaise who ran a seedy tavern on the waterfront in Delo. He was a burly ruffian who prospered here because Elene criminals felt comfortable in the familiar surroundings of an Elene tavern _and_ because Orden was willing to buy things from them \u2013 at about a tenth of their real value \u2013 without asking questions.\n\n'What we really need is a new line of work.' Caalador gestured at Kalten and Bevier, disguised with new faces and rough, mismatched clothing. 'A fairly high personage in the Ministry of the Interior was in charge of the group of policemen who stopped by to ask us some embarrassing questions.' He grinned at Bevier, who wore the face of one of his brother Cyrinics, an evil-looking knight who had lost an eye in a skirmish in Rendor and covered the empty socket with a black patch. 'My one-eyed friend there didn't care for the fellow's attitude, so he lopped his head off with that funny-looking hatchet of his.'\n\nOrden looked at the weapon Bevier had laid on the table beside his ale-tankard. That's a lochaber axe, isn't it?' he asked.\n\nBevier grunted. Kalten felt that Bevier's flair for dramatics was pushing him a little far. The black eye-patch was probably enough, but Bevier's participation in amateur theatricals as a student made him seem to want to go to extremes. His intent was obviously to appear dangerously competent. What he was achieving, however, was the appearance of a homicidal maniac.\n\n'Doesn't a lochaber usually have a longer handle?' Orden asked.\n\n'It wouldn't fit under my tunic,' Bevier growled, 'so I sawed a couple of feet off the handle. It works well enough \u2013 if you keep chopping with it. The screaming and the blood don't bother me all that much, so it suits me just fine.'\n\nOrden shuddered and looked slightly sick. 'That's the meanest-looking weapon I've ever seen,' he confessed.\n\n'Maybe that's why I like it so much,' Bevier told him.\n\nOrden looked at Caalador. 'What line were you and your friends thinking of taking up, Ezek?' he asked.\n\n'We thought we might try our hand at highway robbery or something along those lines,' Caalador said. 'You know, fresh air, exercise, wholesome food, no policemen in the neighborhood \u2013 that sort of thing. We've got some fairly substantial prices on our heads, and now that the Emperor's disbanded Interior, all the policing is being done by the Atans. Did you know that you can't bribe an Aran?'\n\nOrden nodded glumly. 'Oh, yes,' he said. 'It's shocking.' He squinted speculatively at 'Ezek', who appeared to be a middle-aged Deiran. 'Why don't you describe Caalador to me, Ezek? I'm not doubting your word, mind. It's just that things are a little topsy-turvy right now, what with all the policemen we used to bribe either in jail or dead, so we _all_ have to be careful.'\n\n'No offense taken at all, Orden,' Caalador assured him. 'I wouldn't trust a man who wasn't careful these days. Caalador's a Cammorian, and he's got curly hair and a red face. He's sort of blocky \u2013 you know, big shoulders, thick neck, and a little stout around the middle.'\n\nOrden's eyes narrowed shrewdly. 'What did he tell you? Repeat his exact words.'\n\n'Wal, sir,' Caalador replied, exaggerating the dialect just a bit, 'Ol' Caalador, he tole us t' come down yere t' Delo an' look up a feller name o' Orden \u2013 on accounta this yere Orden, he's th' one ez knows whut's whut in the shadowy world o' crime herebouts.'\n\nOrden relaxed and laughed. 'That's Caalador, all right,' he said. 'I knew you were telling me the truth before you'd said three words.'\n\n'He certainly mangles the language,' Caalador agreed. 'He's not as stupid as he sounds, though.'\n\nKalten covered a smile with his hand.\n\n'Not by a dang sight, he ain't,' Orden agreed, imitating the dialect. 'I think you'll find that highway robbery isn't very profitable around here, Ezek, mainly because there aren't that many highways. It's _safe_ enough out in the jungle \u2013 not even the Atans can find anybody in all that underbrush \u2013 but pickings are slim. Three men alone in the bush won't be able to make ends meet. I think you'll have to join one of the bands out there. They make a fair living robbing isolated estates and raiding various towns and villages. That takes quite a number of men, so there are always job openings.' He sat back and tapped one finger thoughtfully against his chin. 'Do you want to go a _long_ way from town?' he asked.\n\n'The further out the better,' Caalador replied.\n\n'Narstil's operating down by the ruins of Natayos. I can _guarantee_ that the police won't bother you _there._ A fellow named Scarpa's got an army stationed in the ruins. He's a crazy revolutionary who wants to overthrow the Tamul government. Narstil has quite a few dealings with him. There's some risk involved, but there's a lot of profit to be made in that neighborhood.'\n\n'I think you've found just what we're looking for, Orden,' Caalador said eagerly.\n\nKalten carefully let out a long sigh of relief. Orden had come up with the exact answer they'd been looking for without even being prompted. If they joined this particular band of robbers, they'd be close enough to Natayos to smell the smoke from the chimneys, and that was a better stroke of luck than they'd even dared to hope for.\n\n'I'll tell you what, Ezek,' Orden said, 'why don't I write a letter to Narstil introducing you and your friends?'\n\n'We'd definitely appreciate it, Orden.'\n\n'But before I waste all that ink and paper, why don't we have a talk about how much you're going to pay me to write that letter?'\n\nThe Styric was wet and muddy and very nearly blue with the cold. He was shivering so violently that his voice quavered as he hailed their camp. 'I have a message for you,' he called. 'Don't get excited and do something foolish.' He spoke in Elenic, and that made Berit quite thankful, since his own Styric was not all that good. It was the one major flaw in his disguise.\n\n'Come on in, neighbor,' he called out to the miserable-looking fellow at the upper end of the beach. 'Just keep your hands out in plain sight.'\n\n'Don't order me around, Elene,' the Styric snapped. 'I'm the one who's giving the orders here.'\n\n'Deliver your message from right there then, neighbor,' Berit said coldly. 'Take your time, if you want. I'm warm and dry in here, so waiting while you make up your mind won't be all that unpleasant for me.'\n\n'It's a _written_ message,' the man said in Styric. At least Berit _thought_ that was what he said.\n\n'Friend,' Khalad said, stepping in quickly, 'we've got a slightly touchy situation here. There are all sorts of chances for misunderstandings, so don't make me nervous by talking in a language I don't understand. Sir Sparhawk here understands Styric, but _I_ don't, and _my_ knife in your belly will kill you just as quick as his will. I'll be very sorry afterward, of course, but you'll still be dead.'\n\n'Can I come in?' the Styric asked, speaking in Elenic.\n\n'Come ahead, neighbor,' Berit told him.\n\nThe lumpy-faced messenger approached the front of their shelter, looking longingly at the fire.\n\n'You _really_ look uncomfortable, old boy,' Berit noted. 'Couldn't you think of a spell to keep the rain off?'\n\nThe Styric ignored that. 'I'm instructed to give you this,' he said, reaching inside his homespun smock and drawing out an oilskin-covered packet.\n\nTell me what you're going to do before you stick your hand inside your clothes like that, neighbor,' Berit cautioned him in a low voice and squinting at him as he said it. 'As my friend just pointed out, we've got some wonderful opportunities for misunderstandings here. Startling me when I'm this close to you isn't a good way to keep your guts on the inside.'\n\nThe Styric swallowed hard and stepped back as soon as Berit took the packet.\n\n'Would you care for a slice of ham while my Lord Sparhawk reads his mail, friend?' Khalad offered. 'It's nice and greasy, so it'll lubricate your innards.'\n\nThe Styric shuddered, and his face took on a faintly nauseated look.\n\n'There's nothing quite like a few gobs of oozy pork-fat to slick up a man's gullet,' Khalad told him cheerfully. 'It must come from all the garbage and half-rotten swill that pigs eat.'\n\nThe Styric made a retching sound.\n\n'You've delivered your message, neighbor,' Berit said coldly. 'I'm sure you have someplace important to go, and we certainly wouldn't want to keep you.'\n\n'Are you sure you understand the message?'\n\n'I've read it. Elenes read very well. We're not illiterates like you Styrics. The message didn't make me very happy, so it's not going to pay you to stay around.'\n\nThe Styric messenger backed away, his face apprehensive. Then he turned and fled.\n\n'What does it say?' Khalad asked.\n\nBerit gently held the identifying lock of the Queen's hair in his hand. 'It says that there's been a change of plans. We're supposed to go on down past the Tamul Mountains and then turn west. They want us to go to Sopal now.'\n\n'You'd better get word to Aphrael.'\n\nThere was a sudden, familiar little trill of pipes. The two young men spun around quickly.\n\nThe Child Goddess sat cross-legged on Khalad's blankets, breathing a plaintive Styric melody into her many-chambered pipes. 'Why are you staring at me?' she asked them. 'I _told_ you I was going to look after you, didn't I?'\n\n'Is this really wise, Divine One?' Berit asked her. 'That Styric's no more than a few hundred yards away, you know, and he can probably sense your presence.'\n\n'Not right now, he can't,' Aphrael smiled. 'Right now he's too busy concentrating on keeping his stomach from turning inside out. All that talk about pork-fat was really cruel, Khalad.'\n\n'Yes. I know.'\n\n'Did you have to be so graphic?'\n\n'I didn't know you were around. What do you want us to do?'\n\n'Go to Sopal the way they told you to. I'll get word to the others.' She paused. 'What _did_ you do to that ham, Khalad?' she asked curiously. 'You've actually managed to make it smell almost edible.'\n\n'It's probably the cloves,' he shrugged. 'Nobody's really all that fond of the taste of pork, when you get right down to it, but my mother taught me that almost anything can be made edible \u2013 if you use enough spices. You might want to keep that in mind the next time you're thinking about serving up a goat.'\n\nShe stuck her tongue out at him, and then she vanished.\n\n# _Chapter 7_\n\nIt was snowing in the mountains of Zemoch, a dry, brittle snow that settled like a cloud of feathers in the dead calm air. It was bitterly cold, and a huge cloud of steam hung like a low-lying fog over the horses of the army of the Knights of the Church as they plodded forward, their hooves sending the powdery snow swirling into the air again. The preceptors of the militant orders rode in the lead, dressed in full armor and bundled in furs. Preceptor Abriel of the Cyrinic Knights, still vigorous despite his advanced age, rode with Darellon, the Alcione Preceptor, and with Sir Heldin, a scarred old veteran who was filling in as leader of the Pandions during Sparhawk's absence. Patriarch Bergsten rode somewhat apart. The huge Churchman was muffled to the ears in fur, and his Ogre-horned helmet made him look very warlike, an appearance offset to some degree by the small, black-bound prayer book he was reading. Preceptor Komier of the Genidians was off ahead with the scouts.\n\n'I don't think I'll ever be warm again,' Abriel groaned, pulling his fur cloak tighter about him. 'Old age thins the blood. Don't ever get old, Darellon.'\n\n'The alternative isn't very attractive, Lord Abriel.' Darellon was a slender Deiran who appeared to have been swallowed up by his massive armor. He lowered his voice. 'You didn't really have to come along, my friend,' he said. 'Sarathi would have understood.'\n\n'Oh, no, Darellon. This is probably my last campaign. I wouldn't miss it for the world.' Abriel peered ahead. 'What's Komier doing out there?'\n\n'Lord Komier said that he wanted to take a look at the ruins of Zemoch,' Sir Heldin replied in his rumbling basso. 'I guess Thalesians take a certain pleasure in viewing the wreckage after a war's over.'\n\n'They're a barbaric people,' Abriel muttered sourly. He glanced quickly at Bergsten, who seemed totally immersed in his prayer book. 'You don't necessarily have to repeat that, gentlemen,' he said to Darellon and Heldin.\n\n'I wouldn't dream of it, Abriel,' Bergsten said, not looking up from his prayer book.\n\n'You've got unwholesomely sharp ears, your Grace.'\n\n'It comes from listening to confessions. People tend to shout the sins of others from the rooftops, but you can barely hear them when they're describing their own.' Bergsten looked up and pointed. 'Komier's coming back.'\n\nThe Preceptor of the Genidian Knights was in high spirits as he reined in his horse, swirling up a huge billow of the dustlike snow. 'Sparhawk doesn't leave very much standing when he destroys a place,' he announced cheerfully. 'I didn't entirely believe Ulath when he told me that our broken-nosed friend blew the lid off the Temple of Azash, but I do now. You've never _seen_ such a wreck. I doubt if there's a habitable building left in the whole city.'\n\n'You really enjoy that sort of thing, don't you, Komier?' Abriel accused.\n\n'That's enough of that, gentlemen!' Bergsten cut in quickly. 'We're not going to resurrect _that_ worn-out old dispute again. We make war in different ways. Arcians like to build forts and castles, and Thalesians like to knock them down. It's all part of making war, and that's what we get paid for.'\n\n'We, your Grace?' Heldin rumbled mildly.\n\n'You know what I mean, Heldin. I don't personally get involved in that any more, of course, but \u2013'\n\n'Why did you bring your axe along then, Bergsten?' Komier asked him.\n\nBergsten gave him a flat stare. 'For old times' sake \u2013 _and_ because you Thalesian brigands pay closer attention to a man who's got an axe in his hands.'\n\n'Knights, your Grace,' Komier mildly corrected his countryman. 'We're called knights now. We _used_ to be brigands, but now we're behaving ourselves.'\n\n'The Church appreciates your efforts to mend your ways, my son, even though she knows that you're lying in your teeth.'\n\nAbriel carefully covered a smile. Bergsten was a former Genidian Knight himself, and sometimes his cassock slipped a bit. 'Who's got the map?' he asked, more to head off the impending argument than out of any real curiosity.\n\nHeldin unbuckled one of his saddle-bags, his black armor clinking. 'What did you want to know, my Lord?' he asked, taking out his map.\n\n'The usual. How far? How long? What sort of unpleasantness up ahead?'\n\n'It's just over a hundred leagues to the Astellian border, my Lord,' Heldin replied, consulting his map, 'and nine hundred leagues from there to Matherion.'\n\n'A hundred days at least,' Bergsten grunted sourly.\n\n'That's if we don't run into any trouble, your Grace,' Darellon added.\n\n'Take a look back over your shoulder, Darellon. There are a hundred thousand Church Knights behind us. There's _no_ trouble that we can't deal with. What sort of terrain's up ahead, Heldin?'\n\n'There's some sort of divide about three days east of here, your Grace. All the rivers on this side of it run down into the Gulf of Merjuk. On the other side, they run off into the Astel Marshes. I'd imagine that we'll be going downhill after we cross that divide \u2013 unless Otha fixed it so that water runs uphill here in Zemoch.'\n\nA Genidian Knight rode forward. 'A messenger from Emsat just caught up with us, Lord Komier,' he reported. 'He says he has important news for you.'\n\nKomier nodded, wheeled his horse and rode back toward the army. The rest of them pushed on as it started to snow a little harder.\n\nKomier was laughing uproariously when he returned with the travel-stained messenger who had chased them down.\n\n'What's so funny?' Bergsten asked him.\n\n'We have good news from home, your Grace,' Komier said gaily. 'Tell our beloved Patriarch what you just told me,' he instructed the messenger.\n\n'Yes, my Lord,' the blond-braided Thalesian said. 'It happened a few weeks back, your Grace. One morning the palace servants couldn't find a trace of the Prince Regent anywhere at all. The guards tore the place apart for two straight days, but the little weasel seemed to have vanished entirely.'\n\n'Mind your manners, man,' Bergsten snapped. 'Avin's the Prince Regent, after all \u2013 even if he _is_ a little weasel.'\n\n'Sorry, your Grace. Anyway, the whole capital was mystified. Avin Wargunsson never went anywhere without taking a brass band along to blow fanfares announcing his coming. Then one of the servants happened to notice a full wine barrel in Avin's study. That seemed odd, because Avin didn't have much stomach for wine, so they got to looking at the barrel a little more closely. It was clear that it had been opened, because quite a bit of wine had been spilled on the floor. Well, your Grace, they'd all worked up quite a thirst looking for Avin, so they decided to open the barrel, but when they tried to pry it open, they found out that it had been nailed shut. Now _nobody_ nails a wine barrel shut in Thalesia, so everybody got suspicious right away. They took some pliers and pulled out the nails and lifted the lid \u2013 and there was Avin, stone dead and floating face down in the barrel.'\n\n'You're not serious!'\n\n'Yes, your Grace. Somebody in Emsat's got a very warped sense of humor, I guess. He went to all the trouble of rolling that wine barrel into Avin's study just so that he could stuff him in and nail down the lid. Avin seems to have struggled a bit. He had splinters under his fingernails, and there were claw-marks on the underside of the lid. It made an awful mess. I guess the wine drained out of him for a half an hour after they fished him out of the barrel. The palace servants tried to clean him up for the funeral, but you know how hard wine-stains are to get out. He was very purple when they laid him out on the bier in the Cathedral of Emsat for his funeral.' The messenger rubbed at the side of his face reflectively. 'It was the strangest funeral I've ever attended. The Primate of Emsat kept trying to keep from laughing while he was reading the burial service, but he wasn't having much luck, and that got the whole congregation to laughing too. There was Avin lying on that bier, no bigger than a half-grown goat and as purple as a ripe plum, and there was the whole congregation, roaring with laughter.'\n\n'At least everybody noticed him,' Komier said. 'That was always important to Avin.'\n\n'Oh, they noticed him all right, Lord Komier. Every eye in the Cathedral was on him. Then, after they put him in the royal crypt, the whole city had a huge party, and we all drank toasts to the memory of Avin Wargunsson. It's hard to find something to laugh about in Thalesia when winter's coming on, but Avin managed to brighten up the whole season.'\n\n'What kind of wine was it?' Patriarch Bergsten asked gravely.\n\n'Arcian red, your Grace.'\n\n'Any idea of what year?'\n\n'Year before last, I believe it was.'\n\n'A vintage year,' Bergsten sighed. 'There was no way to save it, I suppose?'\n\n'Not after Avin had been soaking in it for two days, your Grace.'\n\nBergsten sighed again. 'What a waste,' he mourned. And then he collapsed over his saddlebow, howling with laughter.\n\nIt was cold in the Tamul Mountains as Ulath and Tynian rode up into the foothills. The Tamul Mountains were one of those geographic anomalies which crop up here and there, a cluster of worn-down, weary-looking peaks with no evident connection to neighboring and more jagged peaks forested by fir and spruce and pine. The gentler slopes of the Tamul Mountains were covered with hardwoods which had been stripped of their leaves by the onset of winter.\n\nThe two knights rode carefully, staying in the open and making enough noise to announce their presence. 'It's very unwise to startle a Troll,' Ulath explained.\n\n'Are you sure they're out there?' Tynian asked as they wound deeper into the mountains.\n\nUlath nodded. 'I've seen tracks \u2013 or places where they've tried to brush out their traces \u2013 and fresh dirt where they've buried their droppings. Trolls take pains to conceal their presence from humans. It's easier to catch supper if it doesn't know you're around.'\n\n'The Troll-Gods promised Aphrael that their creatures wouldn't eat humans any more.'\n\n'It may take a few generations for that notion to sift down into the minds of some of the stupider Trolls \u2013 and a Troll can be fearfully stupid when he sets his mind to it. We'd better stay alert. As soon as we get up out of these foothills, I'll perform the ceremony that calls the Troll-Gods. We should be safe after that. It's these foothills that are dangerous.'\n\n'Why not just perform the ceremony now?'\n\nUlath shook his head. 'Bad manners. You're not supposed to call on the Troll-Gods until you're up higher \u2013 up in _real_ Troll country.'\n\nThis isn't Troll country, Ulath.'\n\n'It is now. Let's find a place to camp for the night.'\n\nThey built their camp on a kind of stair-stepped bench so that they had a solid cliff to their backs and a steep drop to the front. They took turns standing watch, and as the first faint light of dawn began to wash the darkness out of the overcast sky, Tynian shook Ulath awake. There's something moving around in the brush at the foot of the cliff,' he whispered.\n\nUlath sat up, his hand going to his axe. He cocked his head to listen. Troll,' he said after a moment.\n\n'How can you tell?'\n\n'Whatever's making all the noise is doing it on purpose. A deer wouldn't crash around like that, and the bears have all denned up for the winter. The Troll wants us to know he's there.'\n\n'What do we do?'\n\n'Let's build up the fire a bit \u2013 let him know that we're awake. We've got a touchy situation here, so let's not move too fast.' He pushed his blankets aside and rose to his feet as Tynian piled more limbs on the fire.\n\n'Should we invite him in to get warm?' Tynian asked.\n\n'He isn't cold.'\n\n'It's freezing, Ulath.'\n\nThat's why he's got fur. Trolls build fires for light, not heat. Why don't you go ahead and get started with breakfast? He's not going to do anything until full daylight.'\n\n'It's not my turn.'\n\n'I have to keep watch.'\n\n'I can keep watch as well as you can.'\n\n'You wouldn't know what to look for, Tynian.' Ulath's tone was reasonable. It usually was when he was talking his way out of doing the cooking.\n\nThe light grew gradually stronger. It was a process that is always strange. A man can be looking directly at a dark patch in the surrounding forest and suddenly realize that he can see trees and rocks and bushes where there had been only darkness before.\n\nTynian brought Ulath a plate of steaming ham and a chunk of leathery-crusted bread. 'Leave the ham on the spit,' Ulath told him.\n\nTynian grunted, picked up his own plate, and joined his friend at the front edge of the rocky shelf. They sat and kept watch on the birch forest that ran down the steep slope beneath them as they ate. 'There he is,' Ulath said gravely, 'right beside that big rock.'\n\n'Oh, yes,' Tynian replied. 'I see him now. He blends right in, doesn't he?'\n\n'That's what being a Troll is all about, Tynian. He's a part of the forest.'\n\n'Sephrenia says that we're distantly related to them.'\n\n'She's probably right. There aren't really all that many differences between us and the Trolls. They're bigger, and they have a different diet is about all.'\n\n'How long is this likely to take?'\n\n'I have no idea. As far as I know, this has never happened before.'\n\n'What'll he do next?'\n\n'As soon as he's sure we know he's there, he'll probably try to communicate in some way.'\n\n'Does he know that you speak Trollish?'\n\n'He might. The Troll-Gods are acquainted with me, and they know that I run in the same pack with Sparhawk.'\n\n'That's an odd way to put it.'\n\n'I'm trying to think like a Troll. If I can get it right, I might be able to anticipate what he's going to do next.'\n\nThen the Troll shouted up the hill to them.\n\n'What did he say?' Tynian asked nervously.\n\n'He wants to know what he's supposed to do. He's very confused.'\n\n_'He's_ confused? What about _me?'_\n\n'He's been told to meet us and take us to the Troll-Gods. He doesn't have any idea of our customs or the proper courtesies. We'll have to guide him through this. Put your sword back in its sheath. Let's not make things any worse than they already are.' Ulath stood up, being careful not to move too fast. He raised his voice and called to the creature below in Trollish. 'Come to this child of Khwaj which we have made. We will take eat together and talk of what we must do.'\n\n'What did you tell him?'\n\n'I invited him to join us for breakfast.'\n\n'You did _what?_ You want a Troll that's no more than a few feet from you to start eating?'\n\n'It's a precaution. It would be discourteous of him to kill us after he's taken food from us.'\n\n'Discourteous? That's a _Troll_ out there, Ulath.'\n\n'Just because he's a Troll doesn't mean that he has bad manners. Oh, I almost forgot. When he comes into camp, he'll want to sniff us. It's polite to sniff him as well. He won't smell very nice, but do it anyway. Trolls do that so that they'll recognize each other if they ever meet again.'\n\n'I think you're losing your mind.'\n\n'Just follow my lead, and let me do the talking.'\n\n'What else _can_ I do, you clot? I don't speak Trollish, remember?'\n\n'You _don't?_ What an amazing thing. I thought every educated man spoke Trollish.'\n\nThe Troll approached cautiously, moving smoothly up through the birch forest. He used his arms a great deal as he moved, grasping trees to pull himself along, moving with his whole body. He was about eight and a half feet tall and had glossy brown fur. His face was simian to a degree, though he did not have the protruding muzzle of most apes, and there was a glimmer of intelligence in his deep-sunk eyes. He came up onto the bench where the camp lay and then squatted, resting his forearms on his knees and keeping his paws in plain sight. 'I have no club,' he half-growled.\n\nUlath made some show of setting his axe aside and held out his empty hands. 'I have no club,' he repeated the customary greeting. 'Undo your sword-belt, Tynian,' he muttered. 'Lay it aside.'\n\nTynian started to object, but decided against it.\n\n'The child of Khwaj you have made is good,' the Troll said, pointing at their fire. 'Khwaj will be pleased.'\n\n'It is good to please the Gods,' Ulath replied.\n\nThe Troll suddenly banged his fist on the ground. 'This is not how it should be!' he declared in an unhappy voice.\n\n'No,' Ulath agreed, dropping down into a squat much like the Troll's, 'it is not. The Gods have their reasons for it, though. They have said we must not kill each other. They have also said we must not eat each other.'\n\n'I have heard them say it. Could we have misunderstood them?'\n\n'I think we have not.'\n\n'Could it be that their minds are sick?'\n\n'It is possible. We must still do as they tell us, though.'\n\n'What are you two talking about?' Tynian asked nervously.\n\n'We're discussing philosophy,' Ulath shrugged.\n\nTynian stared at him.\n\n'It's fairly complex. It has to do with whether or not we're morally obliged to obey the Gods if they've gone crazy. I'm saying that we are. Of course my position's a little tainted by self-interest in this particular situation.'\n\n'Can it not speak?' the Troll asked, pointing at Tynian. 'Are those bird-noises the only sounds it can make?'\n\n'The bird-noises pass for speech among those of our kind. Will you take some of our eat with us?'\n\nThe Troll looked appraisingly at their horses. 'Those?' he asked.\n\n'No.' Ulath shook his head. 'Those are the beasts which carry us.'\n\n'Are your legs sick? Is that why you are so short?'\n\n'No. The beasts can run faster than we can. They carry us when we want to go fast.'\n\n'What kind of eat do you take?'\n\n'Pig.'\n\n'Pig is good. Deer is better.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'Where is the pig? Is it dead? If it is still alive, I will kill it.'\n\n'It is dead.'\n\nThe Troll looked around. 'I do not see it.'\n\n'We have only brought part of it.' Ulath pointed at the large ham spitted over the fire.\n\n'Do you share your eat with the child of Khwaj?'\n\nUlath decided not to explain the concept of cooking at that particular moment. 'Yes,' he said. 'It is our custom.'\n\n'Does it please Khwaj that you share your eat with his child?'\n\n'It is our thought that it does.' Ulath drew his dagger, lifted the spit from off the fire and sawed off a chunk of ham weighing perhaps three pounds.\n\n'Are your teeth sick?' The Troll even sounded sympathetic. 'I had a sick tooth once. It caused me much hurt.'\n\n'Our kind does not have sharp teeth,' Ulath told him. 'Will you take some of our eat?'\n\n'I will.' The Troll rose to his feet and came to the fire, towering over them.\n\n'The eat has been near the child of Khwaj,' Ulath warned. 'It is hot. It may cause hurt to your mouth.'\n\n'I am called Bhlokw,' the Troll introduced himself.\n\n'I am called Ulath.'\n\n'U-lat? That is a strange thing to be called.' Bhlokw pointed at Tynian. 'What is it called?'\n\n'Tynian,' Ulath replied.\n\n'Tin-in. That is stranger than U-lat.'\n\n'The bird-noises of our speech make what we are called sound strange.'\n\nThe Troll leaned forward and snuffled at the top of Ulath's head. Ulath suppressed a strong urge to shriek and run for the nearest tree. He politely sniffed at Bhlokw's fur. The Troll actually didn't smell too bad. Then the monster and Tynian exchanged sniffs. 'Now I know you,' Bhlokw said.\n\n'It is good that you do.' Ulath held out the chunk of steaming ham.\n\nBhlokw took it from him and stuffed it into his mouth. Then he quickly spat it back out into his hand. 'Hot,' he explained a little sheepishly.\n\n'We blow on it to make it cool so that we can eat it without causing hurt to our mouths,' Ulath instructed.\n\nBhlokw blew noisily on the piece of ham for a while. Then he crammed it back into his mouth. He chewed reflectively for a moment. Then he swallowed. 'It is different,' he said, diplomatically. Then he sighed. 'I do not like this, U-lat,' he confided unhappily. 'This is not how things should be.'\n\n'No,' Ulath agreed, 'it is not.'\n\n'We should be killing each other. I have killed and eaten you man-things since you first came to the Troll-range. _That_ is how things should be. It is my thought that the Gods are sick in their minds to make us do this,' He sighed a hurricane sort of sigh. 'Your thought is right, though. We must do as they tell us to do. Someday their minds will get well. Then they will let us kill and eat each other again,' He stood up abruptly. 'They want to see you. I will take you to them.'\n\n'We will go with you.'\n\nThey followed Bhlokw up into the mountains all that day and half of the next, and he led them finally to a snow-covered clearing where a fire burned in a large pit. The Troll-Gods were waiting for them there.\n\n'Aphrael came to us,' the enormity that was Ghworg told them.\n\n'She said that she would do this,' Ulath replied. 'She said that when things happened that we should know about, she would come to us and tell us.'\n\n'She put her mouth on our faces.' Ghworg seemed puzzled.\n\n'She does this. It gives her pleasure.'\n\n'It was not painful,' Ghworg conceded a bit dubiously, touching the cheek where Aphrael had kissed him.\n\n'What did he say?' Tynian asked quietly.\n\n'Aphrael came here and talked with them,' Ulath replied. 'She even kissed them a few times. You know Aphrael.'\n\n'She actually _kissed_ the Troll-Gods?' Tynian's face grew pale.\n\n'What did it say?' Ghworg demanded.\n\n'It wanted me to say what you had said.'\n\n'This is not good, Ulath-from-Thalesia. It should not talk to you in words we do not understand. What is its name?'\n\n'It is called Tynian-from-Deira.'\n\n'I will make it so that Tynian-from-Deira knows our speech.'\n\n'Brace yourself,' Ulath warned his friend.\n\n'What? What's happening, Ulath?'\n\n'Ghworg's going to teach you Trollish.'\n\n'Now, wait a minute \u2013' Then Tynian suddenly clapped his hands to the sides of his head, cried out and fell writhing into the snow. The paroxysm passed quickly, but Tynian was pale and shaking as he sat up, and his eyes were wild.\n\n'You are Tynian-from-Deira?' Ghworg demanded in Trollish.\n\n'Y-yes.' Tynian's voice trembled as he replied.\n\n'Do you understand my words?'\n\n'They are clear to me.'\n\n'It is good. Do not speak the other kind of talk when you are near us. When you do, you make it so that we do not trust you.'\n\n'I will remember that.'\n\n'It is good that you will. Aphrael came to us. She told us that the one called Berit has been told not to go to the place Beresa. He has been told to go to the place Sopal instead. She said that you would understand what this means.' He paused, frowning. 'Do you?' he asked.\n\n'Do we?' Tynian asked Ulath, speaking in Trollish.\n\n'I am not sure.' Ulath rose, went to his horse, and took a map out of his saddle-bag. Then he returned to the fire. This is a picture of the ground,' he explained to the enormous presences. 'We make these pictures so that we will know where we are going.'\n\nSchlee looked briefly at the map. 'The ground does not look like that,' he told them. He squatted and thrust his huge fingers down through the snow into the dirt. _'This_ is how the ground looks.'\n\nUlath jumped back as the earth under his feet shuddered slightly. Then he stared down. It was not so much a map as it was a miniaturized version of the continent itself. 'This is a _very_ good picture of the ground,' he marveled.\n\nSchlee shrugged. 'I put my hand into the ground and felt its shape. _This_ is how it looks.'\n\n'Where is Beresa?' Tynian asked Ulath, staring in wonderment at hair-thin little trees bristling like a two-day growth of beard on the sides of tiny mountains.\n\nUlath checked his map and walked several yards south to a shimmering surface covered with minuscule waves. His feet even sank slightly into Schlee's recreation of the southern Tamul sea. 'It is right here,' he replied in Trollish, bending and putting his finger on a spot on the coastline.\n\n'That is where the ones who took Anakha's mate away told him to go,' Tynian explained to the Troll-Gods.\n\n'We do not understand,' Khwaj said bluntly.\n\n'Anakha is fond of his mate.'\n\n'That is how it should be.'\n\n'He grows angry when his mate is in danger. The ones who took his mate away know this. They said that they will not give her back to him unless he gives them the Flower-Gem.'\n\nThe Troll-Gods all frowned, puzzling their way through it. Then Khwaj suddenly roared, belching out a great, billowing cloud of fire and melting the snow for fifty yards in every direction. 'That is wickedness!' he thundered. 'It is not right to do this! Their quarrel was with Anakha, not with his mate! I will find these wicked ones! I will turn them into fires that will never go out! They will cry out with hurt forever!'\n\nTynian shuddered at the enormity of that idea. Then, with a great deal of help from Ulath, he explained their disguises and the subterfuges those disguises made possible.\n\n'Do you in truth look different from how you looked before, Ulath-from-Thalesia?' Ghworg asked, peering curiously at Ulath.\n\n'Much different, Ghworg.'\n\n'That is strange. You seem the same to me,' The God considered it. 'Perhaps it is not so strange,' he amended. 'Your kind all look the same to me,' He clenched his huge fists. 'Khwaj is right,' he said. 'We must cause hurt to the wicked ones. Show us where the one called Berit has been told to go.'\n\nUlath consulted his map again and crossed the miniature world to the edge of the large lake known as the Sea of Arjun. 'It is here, Ghworg,' he said, bending again and putting his finger to a spot on the coast. Then he bent lower and stared at the shore-line. 'It is really _there!'_ he gasped. 'I can see the tiny little buildings! That is Sopal!'\n\n'Of course,' Schlee said as if it were of no particular moment. 'It would not be a good picture if I had left things out.'\n\n'We have been tricked,' Tynian said. 'It was our thought that our enemies were in the place Beresa. They are not. They are in the place Sopal instead. The one called Berit does not have the Flower-Gem. Anakha has the Flower-Gem. Anakha takes it to Beresa. If the wicked ones meet with Berit in the place Sopal, he will not have the Flower-Gem with him to give to the wicked ones. They will be angry, and they may cause hurt to Anakha's mate.'\n\n'It may be that I taught it too well,' Ghworg muttered. 'It talks much now.'\n\nSchlee, however, had been listening carefully to Tynian's oration. 'It has spoken truly, however. Anakha's mate will be in danger. Those who have taken her away may even kill her.' The skin on his enormous shoulders flickered, absently shaking off the snowflakes which continually fell on him, and his face twisted as he concentrated. 'It is my thought that this will anger Anakha. He may be so angry that he will raise up the Flower-Gem and make the world go away. We must keep the wicked ones from causing hurt to her.'\n\n'Tynian-from-Deira and I will go to the place Sopal,' Ulath said. 'The wicked ones will not know us because our faces have been changed. We will be nearby when the wicked ones tell the one called Berit that they will give him Anakha's mate if he will give them the Flower-Gem. We will kill them and take Anakha's mate back when they do this.'\n\n'It speaks well,' Zoka told the other Troll-Gods. 'Its thought is good. Let us help it and the other one \u2013 but let us not permit it to kill the wicked ones. Killing them is not enough. The thought of Khwaj is better. Let Khwaj make them into fires that will never go out instead. Let them burn always. That will be better.'\n\n'I will put these man-things into the time which does not move,' Ghnomb said. 'We will watch them in Schlee's picture of the ground as they go to the place Sopal while the world stands still.'\n\n'Can you truly see something as small as a man-thing in Schlee's picture of the ground?' Ulath asked the God of Eat with some surprise.\n\n'Can _you_ not?' Ghnomb seemed even more surprised. 'We will send Bhlokw with you to help you, and we will watch you in Schlee's picture of the ground. Then, when the wicked ones show her to the one called Berit to prove to him that they truly have her, you and Tynian-from-Deira will step out of the time which does not move and take her away from them.'\n\n'Then _I_ will reach into Schlee's picture of the ground and take them up in my hands,' Khwaj added grimly. I will bring them here and make them into fires that will never go out.'\n\n'Can you truly reach into Schlee's picture of the ground and pick the wicked ones out of the real world?' Ulath asked in astonishment.\n\n'It is easy,' Khwaj shrugged.\n\nTynian was shaking his head vigorously.\n\n'What?' Schlee demanded.\n\n'The one called Zalasta can also come into the time which does not move. We have seen him do this.'\n\n'It will not matter,' Khwaj told him. 'The one called Zalasta is one of the wicked ones. I will make him into a fire which will never go out as well. I will let him burn forever in the time which does not move. The fire will be just as hot there as it will be here.'\n\nThe snow was heavier \u2013 and wetter \u2013 after they crossed the rocky spine that divided the rivers flowing west from those that flowed east. The huge cloud of humid air that hung perpetually above the Astel Marshes lapped against the eastern slopes of the Mountains of Zemoch, unloosing phenomenal snowfalls that buried the forests and clogged the passes. The Church Knights grimly forced their way through sodden drifts as they followed the valley of the south fork of the River Esos toward the Zemoch town of Basne.\n\nPatriarch Abriel of the Cyrinic Knights had begun this campaign with a certain sense of well-being. His health was good, and a lifetime of military training had kept him in peak physical condition. He _was,_ however, fast approaching his seventieth year and he found that starting out each morning was growing harder and harder, though he would never have admitted it.\n\nAbout mid-morning on a snowy day, one of the scouting parties ranging ahead returned with three goatskin-clad Zemochs. The men were thin and dirty, and they had terrified expressions on their faces. Patriarch Bergsten rode on ahead to question them. When the rest of them caught up to the gigantic churchman, he was having a rather heated discussion with an Arcian Knight.\n\n'But they're Zemochs, your Grace,' the knight protested.\n\n'Our quarrel was with Otha, Sir Knight,' Bergsten said coldly, 'not with these poor, superstitious devils. Give them some food and warm clothing and let them go.'\n\n'But\u2014'\n\n'We're not going to have trouble about this, are we, Sir Knight?' Bergsten asked in an ominous tone, swelling even larger.\n\nThe knight seemed to consider his situation. He backed up a few paces. 'Ah \u2013 no, your Grace,' he replied, I don't believe so.'\n\n'Our Holy Mother appreciates your obedience, my son,' Bergsten told him.\n\n'Did those three have anything useful for us?' Komier asked.\n\n'Not much,' Bergsten replied, hauling himself back up into his saddle. 'There's an army of some kind moving into place somewhere to the east of Argoch. There was a lot of superstition mixed up in what they told me, so I couldn't get anything very accurate out of them.'\n\n'A fight then,' Komier said, rubbing his hands together in anticipation.\n\n'I sort of doubt that,' Bergsten disagreed. 'As closely as I could make out from all the gibberish, the force up ahead is composed largely of irregulars \u2013 religious fanatics of some kind. Our Holy Mother in Chyrellos didn't make many friends in this part of the world when she tried to re-assimilate herself with the branches of Elene faith in western Daresia during the ninth century.'\n\n'That was almost two thousand years ago, Bergsten,' Komier objected. 'That's a long time to hold a grudge.'\n\nBergsten shrugged. 'The old ones are the best. Send your scouts out a little further, Komier. Let's see if we can get some kind of coherent report on the welcoming committee. A few prisoners might be useful,'\n\n'I know how to do this, Bergsten,'\n\n'Do it then. Don't just sit there talking about it,'\n\nThey passed Argoch, and Komier's scouts brought in several prisoners. Patriarch Bergsten interrogated the poorly clad and ignorant Elene captives briefly, and then he ordered them released.\n\n'Your Grace,' Darellon protested, 'that was very unwise. Those men will run back to their commanders and report everything they've seen.'\n\n'Yes,' Bergsten replied, 'I know. I _want_ them to do that. I _also_ want them to tell all their friends that they've seen a hundred thousand Church Knights coming down out of the mountains. I'm encouraging defections, Darellon. We don't want to kill those poor misguided heretics, we just want them to get out of our way.'\n\n'I still think it's strategically unsound, your Grace.'\n\n'You're entitled to your opinion, my son,' Bergsten said. This isn't an article of the faith, so our Holy Mother encourages disagreement and discussion.'\n\n'There isn't much point to discussion after you've already let them go, your Grace.'\n\n'You know, that very same thought occurred to me.' They encountered the opposing force in the broad valley of the River Esos just to the south of the Zemoch town of Basne thirty leagues or so to the west of the Astellian border. The reports of the scouts and the information gleaned from the captives proved to be accurate. What faced them was not so much an army as it was a mob, poorly armed and undisciplined.\n\nThe preceptors of the Four Orders gathered around Patriarch Bergsten to consider options. 'They're members of our own faith,' Bergsten told them. 'Our disagreements with them lie in the area of Church Government, not in the substance of our common beliefs. Those matters aren't settled on the battlefield, so I don't want too many of those people killed.'\n\n'I don't see much danger of that, your Grace,' Preceptor Abriel said.\n\n'They outnumber us about two to one, Lord Abriel,' Sir Heldin pointed out.\n\n'One charge should even things out, Heldin,' Abriel replied. 'Those people are amateurs, enthusiastic but untrained, and about half of them are only armed with pitchforks. If we all drop our visors, level our lances and charge them _en masse,_ most of them will still be running a week from now.'\n\nAnd that was the last mistake the venerable Lord Abriel was ever to make. The mounted knights fanned out with crisp precision to form up on a broad front stretching across the entire valley. Rank after rank of Cyrinics, Pandions, Genidians, and Alciones, all clad in steel and mounted on belligerent horses, lined up in what was probably one of the more intimidating displays of organized unfriendliness in the known world.\n\nThe preceptors waited in the very center of the front rank as their subalterns formed up the rear ranks and the messengers galloped forward to declare that all was in readiness.\n\n'That should be enough,' Komier said impatiently. 'I don't think the supply wagons will have to charge too.' He looked around at his friends. 'Shall we get started, gentlemen? Let's show that rabble out there how _real_ soldiers mount an attack.' He made a curt signal to a hulking Genidian Knight, and the huge blond man blew a shattering blast on his Ogre-horn trumpet.\n\nThe front rank of the knights clapped down their visors and spurred their horses forward. The perfectly disciplined knights and horses galloped forward in an absolutely straight line like a moving wall of steel.\n\nMidway through the charge the forest of upraised lances came down like a breaking wave, and the defections in the opposing army began. The ill-trained serfs and peasants broke and ran, throwing away their weapons and squealing in terror. Here and there were some better-trained units that held their ground, but the flight of their allies from either side left their flanks dangerously exposed.\n\nThe knights struck those few units with a great, resounding crash. Once more Abriel felt the old exulting satisfaction of battle. His lance shattered against a hastily raised shield, and he discarded the broken weapon and drew his sword. He looked around and saw that there were other forces massed behind the wall of peasants that had concealed them from view, and _that_ army was like none Abriel had ever seen before. The soldiers were huge, larger than even the Thalesians. They wore breastplates and mail, but their cuirasses were more closely moulded to their bodies than was normal. Every muscle seemed starkly outlined under the gleaming steel. Their helmets were exotic steel recreations of the heads of improbable beasts, and they did not have visors as such but steel masks instead, masks which had been sculpted to bear individualized features, the features, Abriel thought, of the warriors who wore them. The Cyrinic Preceptor was suddenly chilled. The features the masks revealed were not human.\n\nThere was a strange domed leather tent in the center of that inhuman army, a ribbed, glossy black tent of gigantic dimensions.\n\nBut then it moved, opening, spreading wide \u2013 two great wings, curved and batlike. And then, rising up from under the shelter of those wings, was a being huge beyond imagining, a creature of total darkness with a head shaped like an inverted wedge and with flaring, pointed ears. Two slitted eyes blazed in that awful absence of a face, and two enormous arms stretched forth hungrily. Lightning seethed beneath the glossy black skin, and the earth upon which the creature stood smoked and burned.\n\nAbriel was strangely calm. He lifted his visor to look full into the face of Hell. 'At last,' he murmured, 'a fitting opponent,' And then he clapped his visor down again, drew his warlike shield before his body, and raised the sword he had carried with honor for over half a century. His unpalsied hand brandished the sword at the enormity still rising before him. 'For God and Arcium!' he roared his defiance, set himself, and charged directly into obliteration.\n\n# _Chapter 8_\n\nTo say that Edaemus was offended would be the grossest of understatements. The blur of white light that was the God of the Delphae was tinged around the edges with flickers of reddish orange, and the dusting of snow that covered the ground in the little swale above the valley of the Delphae fumed tendrils of steam as it melted in the heat of his displeasure. 'No!' he said adamantly. 'Absolutely not!'\n\n'Oh, be reasonable, Cousin,' Aphrael coaxed. 'The situation has changed. You're holding on to something that no longer has any meaning. There might have been some justification for \"eternal enmity\" before. I'll grant you that my family didn't behave very well during the war with the Cyrgai, but that was a long time ago. Clinging to your injured sensibilities now is pure childishness.'\n\n'How couldst thou, Xanetia?' Edaemus demanded accusingly. 'How couldst thou do this thing?'\n\n'It was in furtherance of our design, Beloved,' she replied. Sephrenia was more than a little startled by the intensely personal relationship Xanetia had with her God. 'Thou didst command me to render assistance unto Anakha, and by reason of his love for Sephrenia, I was obliged to reach accommodation with her. Once she and I did breach the wall of enmity which did stand between us and did learn to trust each other, respect and common purpose did soften our customary despite, and all unbidden, love did gently creep in to replace it. In my heart is she now my dear sister.'\n\nThat is an abomination! Thou shalt _not_ speak so of this Styric in my presence again!'\n\n'As it please thee, Beloved,' she agreed, submissively bowing her head. But then her chin came up, and her inner light glowed more intensely. 'But will ye, nil ye, I will continue to think so of her in the hidden silence of my heart.'\n\n'Are you ready to listen, Edaemus?' Aphrael asked, 'or would you like to take a century or two to throw a temper-tantrum first?'\n\n'Thou art pert, Aphrael,' he accused.\n\n'Yes, I know. It's one of the things that makes me so delightful. You _do_ know that Cyrgon's trying to get his hands on Bhelliom, don't you? Or have you been so busy playing leap-frog with the stars that you've lost track of what's happening here?'\n\n'Mind your manners,' Sephrenia told her crisply.\n\n'He makes me tired. He's been cuddling his hatred to his breast like a sick puppy for ten thousand years.' The Child Goddess looked critically at the incandescent presence of the God of the Delphae. 'The light-show doesn't impress me, Edaemus. I could do it too, if I wanted to take the trouble.'\n\nEdaemus flared even brighter, and the reddish-orange nimbus around him became sooty.\n\n'How tiresome,' Aphrael sighed. 'I'm sorry, Xanetia, but we're wasting our time here. Bhelliom and I are going to have to deal with Kl\u00e6l on our own. Your tedious God wouldn't be any help anyway.'\n\n' _Kl\u00e6l_ ' Edaemus gasped.\n\n'Got your attention, didn't I?' She smirked. 'Are you ready to listen now?'\n\n'Who hath done this? Who hath unloosed Kl\u00e6l again upon the earth?'\n\n'Well, it certainly wasn't _me._ Cyrgon had everything going his way, and then Anakha turned things around on him. You know how much Cyrgon hates to lose, so he started breaking the rules. Do you want to help us with this \u2013 or would you rather sit around and pout for another hundred eons or so? Quickly, quickly, Edaemus,' she said, snapping her fingers at him. 'Make up your mind. I don't have all day, you know.'\n\n'What makes you think I need any more men?' Narstil demanded. Narstil was a lean, almost cadaverous Arjuni with stringy arms and hollow cheeks. He sat at a table set under a spreading tree in the center of his encampment deep in the jungles of Arjuna.\n\n'You're in a risky kind of business,' Caalador shrugged, looking around at the cluttered camp. 'You steal furniture and carpets and tapestries. That means that you've been raiding villages and mounting attacks on isolated estates. People fight back when you try that, and that means casualties. About half of your men are wearing bandages right now, and you probably leave a few dead behind you every time you try to steal things. A leader in your line _always_ needs more men.'\n\n'I don't have any vacancies just now.'\n\n'I can arrange some,' Bevier told him in a menacing voice, melodramatically drawing his thumb across the edge of his lochaber.\n\n'Look, Narstil,' Caalador said in a somewhat less abrasive tone, 'we've seen your men. Be honest now. You've gathered up a bunch of local bad-boys who got into trouble for stealing chickens or running off somebody else's goats. You're very light on professionals, and that's what we're offering you \u2013 professionalism. Your bad-boys bluster and try to impress each other by looking mean and nasty, but real killing isn't in their nature, and that's why they get hurt when the fighting starts. Killing doesn't bother _us._ We're used to it. Your young bravos have to prove things to each other, but we don't. Orden knows who we are. He wouldn't have sent you that letter otherwise.' His eyes narrowed slightly. 'Believe me, Narstil, life will be much easier for all of us if we're working _with_ you rather than setting up shop across the street.'\n\nNarstil looked a little less certain of himself. 'I'll think about it,' he said.\n\n'Do that. And don't get any ideas about trying to eliminate potential competition in advance. Your bad-boys wouldn't be up to it, and my friends and I would sort of be obliged to take it personally.'\n\n'Stop that,' Sephrenia chided her sister as the four of them moved through the corridorlike streets of Delphaeus toward the home of Cedon, the Anari of Xanetia's people.\n\n'Edaemus is doing it,' Aphrael countered.\n\n'It's his city, and these are his people. It's not polite to do that when you're a guest.'\n\nXanetia gave them a puzzled look.\n\n'My sister's showing off,' Sephrenia explained.\n\n'Am not,' Aphrael retorted.\n\n'Yes you are too, Aphrael, and you and I both know it. We've had this argument before. Now stop it.'\n\n'I do not understand,' Xanetia confessed.\n\n'That's because you've grown accustomed to the sense of her presence, sister,' Sephrenia explained wearily. 'She's not supposed to flaunt her divinity this way when she's around the worshippers of other Gods. It's the worst form of bad manners, and she knows it. She's only doing it to irritate Edaemus. I'm surprised she hasn't flattened the whole city or set fire to the thatching on the roofs with all that divine personality.'\n\n'That's a spiteful thing to say, Sephrenia,' Aphrael accused.\n\n'Behave yourself then.'\n\n'I won't unless Edaemus does.'\n\nSephrenia sighed, rolling her eyes upward.\n\nThey entered the southern wing of the extended city-building that was Delphaeus and proceeded down a dim hallway to Cedon's door. The Anari was waiting for them, his ancient face filled with wonder. He fell to his knees as the light that was Edaemus approached, but his God dimmed, assumed a human form, and reached out gently to raise him to his feet again. 'That is not needful, my old friend,' he said.\n\n'Why, Edaemus,' Aphrael said, 'you're really quite handsome. You shouldn't hide from us in all that light the way you do.'\n\nA faint smile touched the ageless face of the Delphaeic God. 'Seek not to beguile me with flattery, Aphrael. I know thee, and I know thy ways. Thou shalt not so easily ensnare me.'\n\n'Oh, really? Thou art ensnared already, Edaemus. I do but toy with thee now. My hand is already about thine heart. In time, I shall close it and make thee mine.' And she laughed a silvery little peal of laughter. 'But that's between you and me, Cousin. Right now we have other things to do.'\n\nXanetia fondly embraced the ancient Cedon. 'As thou canst readily perceive, my dear old friend, momentous changes are afoot. The dire peril which we face doth reshape our entire world. Let us consider that peril first, and then at our leisure may we pause to marvel at how all about us is altered.'\n\nCedon led them down the three worn stone steps into his low-ceilinged chamber with its inwardly curving, white plastered walls, its comfortable furniture, and its cheery fire.\n\n'Tell them what's been going on, Xanetia,' Aphrael suggested, climbing up into Sephrenia's lap. That may explain why it was necessary for me to violate all the rules and come here,' She gave Edaemus an arch look. 'Regardless of what you may think, Cousin, I _do_ have good manners, but we've got an emergency on our hands.'\n\nSephrenia leaned back in her chair as Xanetia began her account of the events of the past several months. There was a sense of peace, an unruffled calm about Delphaeus that Sephrenia had not perceived during her last visit. At that time, her mind had been so filled with obsessive hatred that she had scarcely taken note of her surroundings. The Delphae had appealed to Sparhawk to seal their valley away from the rest of the world, but that seemed somehow unnecessary. They were already separate \u2013 so separate that they no longer seemed even human. In a peculiar way, Sephrenia envied them.\n\n'Infuriating, aren't they?' the Child Goddess murmured. 'And the word you're looking for is \"serenity\".'\n\n'And you're doing everything in your power to disturb that, aren't you?'\n\n'They're still a part of this world, Sephrenia \u2013 for a little while longer, anyway. All I'm doing is reminding them that the rest of us are still out here.'\n\n'You're behaving very badly toward Edaemus.'\n\n'I'm trying to jerk him back to reality. He's been off by himself for the past hundred centuries, and he's forgotten what it's like having the rest of us around. I'm reminding him. Actually, it's good for him. He was starting to get complacent.' She slipped down from her sister's lap. 'Excuse me,' she said. 'It's time for me to give him another lesson.' She crossed the room and stood directly in front of Edaemus, looking pleadingly into his face with her large, dark eyes.\n\nThe God of the Delphae was so engrossed in Xanetia's account that he scarcely noticed Aphrael and, when she held out her arms to him, he absently picked her up and settled her into his lap.\n\nSephrenia smiled.\n\n'And most recently,' Xanetia concluded her report, 'young Sir Berit hath been given further instruction. He is to turn aside and go to the town of Sopal on the coast of the Sea of Arjun. He hath advised the Child Goddess of this alteration of direction, and she in turn hath made the rest of us aware of it. It is the intent of the Troll-Gods to transport Sir Ulath and Sir Tynian to Sopal and to conceal them there in what they call \"No-Time\". It is their thought that when our enemies produce Queen Ehlana to exchange her for Bhelliom, they might leap from their concealment and rescue her.'\n\n'No-Time?' Cedon asked, his face puzzled.\n\n'Suspended duration,' Aphrael explained. 'Trolls are hunters, and their Gods have found a new place of concealment for them so that they're able to stalk their prey unseen. It's clever, but it has its drawbacks.'\n\nEdaemus asked her something in that language Sephrenia had tried several times to learn but had never really been able to grasp. Aphrael replied, speaking rapidly in a rather dry, technical tone and making intricate gestures with her hands.\n\n'Ah,' he said finally, lapsing back into Tamul and with an expression of comprehension flooding his face. 'It is a peculiar notion.'\n\n'You know how the Troll-Gods are.' She made a little face.\n\n'Didst thou in truth wring acceptance of thine outrageous demands from them?'\n\n'I had something they wanted.' She shrugged. 'They've been trying to think up some way to escape from Bhelliom for three hundred centuries now. They didn't _like_ my conditions, but they didn't have much choice.'\n\nThou art cruel, Aphrael.'\n\n'Not really. I was driven by necessity, and necessity's neither cruel nor kindly. It just _is._ I kissed them a few times when I stopped by a couple of days ago, and that made them feel better \u2013 it did once they realized that I wasn't going to take a bite out of them, anyway.'\n\n'Thou didst _not!'_ He seemed aghast.\n\n'They aren't so bad,' she defended her action. 'I suppose I could have scratched them behind the ears, but that might have insulted them, so I kissed them instead.' She smiled. 'A few more kisses and I'd have had them licking my fingers like puppies.'\n\nHe straightened, then suddenly blinked as if realizing for the first time where she was sitting.\n\nShe gave him another of those mysterious little smiles and patted his cheek. That's all right, Cousin,' she told him. 'You'll come around eventually. They always do.' And she slipped down from his lap and walked back across the room to rejoin her sister.\n\n'That's _my_ place!' a burly fellow of indeterminate race asserted threateningly as Kalten dropped his saddlebags and bed-roll on a clear spot under a large tree.\n\n'It _was,'_ Kalten grunted.\n\n'You can't just walk in here and steal a man's place like this.'\n\n'Oh? Is it against the law or something?' Kalten straightened. He was at least a head taller than the other man, and he bulked large in his mail-shirt. 'My friends and I are going to be staying right here,' he stated flatly, 'so pick up your bed and all this other trash and go someplace else.'\n\n'I'm not in the habit of taking orders from Elenes!'\n\nThat's too bad. Now move away. I've got work to do.' Kalten was not in a good humor. Alean's peril gnawed at him constantly, and even slight irritations rubbed his temper raw. Some of that must have showed on his face. The other man backed off a few steps.\n\n'Further,' Kalten told him.\n\n'I'll be back,' the man blustered, retreating a few more steps. 'I'll be back with all my friends.'\n\n'I can hardly wait.' Kalten deliberately turned his back on the man he had just dispossessed.\n\nCaalador and Bevier joined him. 'Trouble?' Caalador asked.\n\n'I wouldn't call it that,' Kalten shrugged. 'I was just establishing some rank, is all. Any time you come into a new situation, you have to push a few people around to make everybody else understand that you're not going to put up with any foolishness. Let's get settled in.'\n\nThey had erected their tent and were gathering leaves and moss for beds when Narstil stopped by. 'I see you're getting set up, Ezek,' he said to Caalador. His tone was conciliatory, though not quite cordial.\n\n'A few finishing touches are about all that's left,' Caalador replied.\n\n'You men make a good camp,' Narstil noted. Tidy.'\n\n'A cluttered camp is the sign of a cluttered mind,' Caalador shrugged. 'I'm glad you stopped by, Narstil. We hear that there's an army camped out not far from here. Do they cause you any problems?'\n\n'We've got an agreement with them,' Narstil replied. 'We don't steal from them, and they leave us alone. That's not a real army in Natayos, though. It's more like a large band of rebels. They want to overthrow the government.'\n\n'Doesn't everybody?'\n\nNarstil laughed. 'Actually, having that mob in Natayos is very good for _my_ business. The fact that they're all there keeps the police out of this part of the jungle, and one of the reasons they tolerate _us_ is because we rob travelers, and that keeps people from snooping around Natayos. We do a fairly brisk business with them. They're a ready market for just about everything we steal.'\n\n'How far is this Natayos place from here?'\n\n'About ten miles. It's an old ruin. Scarpa \u2013 he's the one in charge over there \u2013 moved in with his rebels a couple of years back. He's fortified it, and he's bringing in more of his followers every day. I don't care much for him, but business is business.'\n\n'What's he like?'\n\n'He's crazy. Some days he's so crazy that he bays at the moon. He's convinced that he'll be emperor one day, and I expect it won't be long until he marches his rabble out of those ruins. He's fairly safe in this jungle, but just as soon as he gets out into open country, the Atans will grind him into dog meat right on the spot.'\n\n'Are we supposed to care about that?' Bevier asked.\n\n'I personally couldn't care less,' Narstil assured the apparently one-eyed ruffian. 'It's the loss of his business that concerns me.'\n\n'Can just anybody walk in and out of Natayos any time he feels like it?' Kalten asked as if only mildly curious.\n\n'If you're leading a mule loaded down with food or drink, they'll welcome you with open arms. I send an ox-cart loaded down with barrels of ale every few days. You know how soldiers like their ale.'\n\n'Oh, yes,' Kalten agreed. 'I've known a few soldiers in my time, and their whole world stops when somebody opens an ale barrel.'\n\n'It doth derive from our ability to control the light which doth emanate from us,' Cedon explained. 'What we call sight is profoundly influenced by light. The subterfuge is not perfect. Some faint shimmers do appear, and we must be wary lest our shadows reveal our presence, but with a certain care, we can be unobserved.'\n\n'Now _there_ are some interesting contrasts,' Aphrael said. 'The Troll-Gods tamper with time, you tamper with light, and I tamper with the attention of the people I want to hide from, but it's all an attempt to achieve some measure of invisibility.'\n\n'Knowest thou of any who can be _truly_ invisible, Divine One?' Xanetia asked.\n\n' _I_ don't. Do you, Cousin?'\n\nEdaemus shook his head.\n\n'We can come close, though,' the Child Goddess said. The real thing would probably have drawbacks. It's a very good idea, Anari Cedon, but I don't want Xanetia to put herself in any kind of danger. I love her too much for that.'\n\nXanetia flushed slightly, and then she gave Edaemus an almost guilty look. Sephrenia laughed. 'I must in honesty warn thee, Edaemus,' she said. 'Guard well thy worshippers. My Goddess is a notorious thief.' She frowned thoughtfully. 'If Xanetia could go unobserved into Sopal, it could be very useful. Her ability to reach into the thoughts of others would enable her to discover in short order whether Ehlana's there or not. If she is, we can take steps. If not, we'll know that Sopal's just another diversion.'\n\nCedon looked at Edaemus. 'I think, Beloved One, that we must extend our involvement in the world around us further than we had earlier planned. Anakha's concern for the safety of his wife doth take precedence in his mind o'er all else, and his promise to us doth stand in peril until she be returned to him safe and whole.'\n\nEdaemus sighed. 'It may be e'en as thou sayest, my Anari. Though it doth make me unquiet, it would appear that we must set aside our repugnance and join in the search for Anakha's wife, lending such aid as is within our power.'\n\n'Are you _really_ sure you want to become involved in this, Edaemus?' Aphrael asked him. 'Really, _really_ sure?'\n\n'I have said it, Aphrael.'\n\n'Aren't you the least bit interested in why I'm so concerned with the fate of a pair of Elenes? Elenes _do_ have their own God, you know. Why do you imagine that _I'd_ be so interested in them?'\n\n'Why is it ever thy wont to speak circuitously, Aphrael?'\n\n'Because I love to surprise people,' she replied sweetly. 'I really _do_ want to thank you for your concern about the well-being of my mother and father, Cousin. You've touched me to the very heart.'\n\nHe stared at her in stunned astonishment. _'Thou didst not!'_ he gasped.\n\n_'Somebody_ had to do it.' She shrugged. 'One of us had to keep an eye on Bhelliom. Anakha is Bhelliom's creature, but as long as I have my hand around his heart, I can more or less control the things he does.'\n\n'But they're _Elenes!'_\n\n'Oh, grow up, Edaemus. Elene, Styric, Delphae \u2013 what difference does it make? You can love all of them if your heart's not closed.'\n\n'But they eat _pigs!'_\n\n'I know,' she shuddered. 'Believe me, I know. It's one of the things I've been working on.'\n\nSenga was a good-natured brigand whose racial origins were so mixed that no one could really tell _what_ he was. He grinned a great deal, and he was loud and boisterous and had an infectious laugh. Kalten liked him, and Senga appeared to have found a kindred spirit in the Elene outlaw he knew as Col. He was laughing as he came across Narstil's cluttered compound where furniture and other household goods were stacked in large, untidy heaps on the bare ground. 'Ho, Col!' he shouted as he approached the tree where Kalten, Caalador, and Bevier had pitched their tent. 'You should have come along. An ox-cart load of ale opens every door in Natayos.'\n\n'Armies make me nervous, Senga,' Kalten replied. The officers are always trying to enlist you \u2013 usually at sword-point \u2013 and generals as a group tend to be overly moralistic for my taste. The term \"martial law\" makes my blood run cold for some reason.'\n\n'Scarpa grew up in a tavern, my friend,' Senga assured him, 'and his mother was a whore, so he's accustomed to the seamier side of human nature.'\n\n'How did you make out?' Kalten asked.\n\nSenga grinned, rolled his eyes and jingled a heavy purse. 'Well enough to make me consider giving up crime and opening my own brewery. The only problem with that is the fact that our friends at Natayos probably won't be there all that much longer. If I set up shop as a brewer and my customers all marched off to get killed by the Atans, I'd probably have to drink all that ale by myself, and nobody's _that_ thirsty.'\n\n'Oh? What makes you think those rebels are getting ready to leave?'\n\n'Nothing very specific,' Senga said, sprawling out on the ground and offering Kalten his wineskin. 'Scarpa's been gone for the past several weeks. He and two or three Elenes left Natayos last month, and nobody I talked with knew where he was going or why.'\n\nKalten carefully kept his expression disinterested. 'I hear that he's crazy. Crazy men don't need reasons for the things they do or the places they go.'\n\n'Scarpa's crazy enough, all right, but he can certainly whip those rebels of his into a frenzy. When he decides to make a speech, you'd better find a comfortable place to sit, because you're going to be there for six hours at least. Anyway, he went off a while back, and his army was getting settled in for the winter. That's all changed now that he's back.'\n\nKalten became very alert. 'He's come back?'\n\n'That he has, my friend. Here, give us a drink.' Senga took the wineskin and tipped it up, squirting a long stream of wine into his mouth. Then he wiped his chin on the back of his hand. 'He and those Elene friends of his came riding into Natayos not four days ago. They had a couple of women with them, I hear.'\n\nKalten sank down on the ground and made some show of adjusting his sword-belt to cover his sudden excitement. 'I thought Scarpa hated women,' he said, trying to keep his voice casual.\n\n'Oh, that he does, my friend, but from what I hear, these two women weren't just some playthings he picked up along the way. They had their hands tied, for one thing, and the fellow I talked with said that they were a little bedraggled, but they didn't really look like tavern wenches. He didn't get a very good look at them, because Scarpa hustled them into a house that seems to have been fixed up for somebody a little special \u2013 fancy furniture and rugs on the floor and all that.'\n\n'Was there anything unusual about them?' Kalten almost held his breath.\n\nSenga shrugged and took another drink. 'Just the fact that they weren't treated like ordinary camp followers, I suppose.' He scratched his head. 'There _was_ something else the fellow told me,' he said. 'What was it now?'\n\nKalten _did_ hold his breath this time.\n\n'Oh, yes,' Senga said, 'now I remember. The fellow said that these two women Scarpa took all the trouble to invite to Natayos were Elenes. Isn't _that_ odd?'\n\n# _Chapter 9_\n\nThe town of Beresa on the southeastern Arjuni coast was a low, unlovely place squatting toadlike on the beach lying between the South Tamul Sea and the swampy green jungle behind it. The major industry of the region was the production of charcoal, and acrid smoke hung in the humid air over Beresa like a curse.\n\nCaptain Sorgi dropped his anchor some distance out from the wharves and went ashore to consult with the harbor master.\n\nSparhawk, Stragen, and Talen, wearing their canvas smocks, leaned on the port rail staring across the smelly water toward their destination. I have an absolutely splendid idea, Fron,' Stragen said to Sparhawk.\n\n'Oh?' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'Why don't we jump ship?'\n\n'Nice try, Vymer,' Talen laughed. They were all more or less at ease with the assumed names by now.\n\nSparhawk looked around carefully to make sure that none of the rest of the crew was near. 'An ordinary sailor wouldn't leave without collecting his pay. Let's not do anything to attract attention. All that's really left to do is the unloading of the cargo.'\n\n'Under the threat of the bo'sun's whip,' Stragen added glumly. 'That man _really_ tests my self-control. Just the sight of him makes me want to kill him.'\n\n'We can endure him this one last time,' Sparhawk told him. 'This town's going to be full of unfriendly eyes. Krager's note told me to come here, and he'll have people here to make sure I'm not trying to sneak in reinforcements behind his back.'\n\n'That might just be the flaw in this whole plan, Fron,' Stragen said. 'Sorgi knows that we're not ordinary sailors. Is he the kind to let things slip?'\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'Sorgi knows how to keep his mouth shut. He was paid to get us to Beresa unnoticed, and Sorgi always does what he's paid to do.'\n\nThe captain returned late that afternoon, and they raised anchor and eased up to one of the long wharves protruding out into the harbor. They unloaded the cargo the next morning. The bo'sun cracked his whip only sparingly, and the unloading proceeded rapidly.\n\nThen, when the cargo holds were all emptied, the sailors lined up and filed along the quarterdeck where Sorgi sat at a small table with his account book and his stacks of coins. The captain gave each sailor a little speech as he paid him. The speeches varied slightly, but the general message was the same: 'Stay out of trouble, and get back to the ship on time. I won't wait for you when the time comes to sail.' He did not alter the speech when he paid Sparhawk and his friends, and his face did not in any way betray the fact they were anything other than ordinary crew members.\n\nSparhawk and his two friends went down the gangway with their sea-bags on their shoulders and with a certain amount of anticipation. 'Now I see why sailors are so rowdy when they reach port,' Sparhawk said. 'That wasn't really much of a voyage, and I still feel a powerful urge to kick over the traces.'\n\n'Where to?' Talen asked when they reached the street.\n\n'There's an inn called the Seaman's Rest,' Stragen replied. 'It's supposed to be a clean, quiet place out beyond the main battle zone here along the waterfront. It should give us a base of operations to work from.'\n\nThe sun was just going down as they passed through the noisy, reeking streets of Beresa. The buildings were constructed for the most part of squared-off logs, since stone was rare here on the vast, soggy delta of the Arjun River, and the logs appeared to have been attacked by damp rot almost before they were in place. Moss and fungus grew everywhere, and the air was thick with the chill damp and the acrid wood smoke from the charcoal yards outside of town. The Arjunis in the streets were noticeably more swarthy than their Tamul cousins of the north; their eyes were shifty; and even their most casual gait through the muddy streets of their unlovely town seemed somehow furtive.\n\nSparhawk muttered the spell under his breath as they passed along the shabby street, and he released it carefully to avoid alerting the watchers he was sure were there.\n\n'Well?' Talen asked. Talen had been around Sparhawk long enough to know the signs that the big Pandion was using magic.\n\nThey're out there,' Sparhawk replied. Three of them that I can pick up.'\n\n'Are they concentrating on us?' Stragen asked tensely.\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'Their attention's sort of generalized. They aren't Styrics, so they won't know I've gone looking for them. Let's just move along. If they start to follow us, I'll let you know.'\n\nThe Seaman's Rest was a square, tidy inn festooned with fish nets and other nautical decorations. It was run by a burly retired sea captain and his equally burly wife. They brooked no nonsense under their roof and they recited a long list of house rules to each prospective tenant before they would accept his money. Sparhawk had not even heard of some of the things that were prohibited.\n\n'Where to now?' Talen asked after they had stowed their sea-bags in their room and come back out into the muddy street.\n\n'Back to the waterfront,' Stragen replied. 'The chief of the local thieves is a man named Estokin. He deals extensively with smugglers and with sailors who pilfer things from cargo holds. I've got a letter from Caalador. Ostensibly, we're here to make sure that he got his money's worth during the Harvest Festival. Arjunis aren't generally trusted, so Estokin won't be too surprised to see us.'\n\nEstokin the Arjuni was a man who had clearly been destined for a life of crime from the day he was born. He had what was perhaps the most evil face Sparhawk had ever seen. His left eye peered perpetually off in a northeasterly direction, and he had a pronounced squint. His beard was sparse and straggly, and his skin was blotched with a scaly disease. He scratched at his face almost continually, showering white flakes like a winter sky. His high-pitched, nasal voice was very much like the whine of a hungry mosquito, and he reeked of garlic, cheap wine and pickled herring. 'Is Caalador accusing me of cheating him, Vymer?' he demanded with some show of indignation.\n\n'Of course not.' Stragen leaned back in the rickety chair in the back room of the smelly waterfront dive. 'If he thought you'd done that, you'd already be dead. He wants to know if we missed anybody, that's all. Were any local people particularly upset when the bodies started to turn up?'\n\nEstokin squinted at Stragen with his good eye. 'What's it worth to him?' he haggled.\n\n'We've been instructed to let you live if you cooperate,' Stragen countered in a cool voice.\n\n'You can't threaten me like that, Vymer,' Estokin blustered.\n\n'I wasn't threatening you, old boy. I was just letting you know how things stand. Let's get to the point here. Who got excited here in Beresa after the killings?'\n\n'Not very many, really,' Stragen's chilly manner had evidently persuaded Estokin to behave himself. 'There was a Styric here who was fairly free with his money before the Harvest Festival.'\n\n'What was he buying?'\n\n'Information, mostly. He was on the list Caalador gave me, but he managed to get away \u2013 rode off into the jungle. I've got a couple of local cut-throats on his trail.'\n\n'I'd sort of like to talk with him before they put him to sleep.'\n\n'Not much chance, Vymer. They're a long way out in the bush by now.' Estokin scratched at his forehead, stirring up another snow flurry. 'I'm not sure why Caalador wanted all those people killed,' he said, 'and I don't really want to know, but I'm getting a whiff or two of politics, and here in Arjuna that means Scarpa. You might want to warn Caalador to be very careful. I've talked with a few deserters from that rebel army in the jungle. We've all heard stories about how crazy Scarpa is, but let me tell you, my friend, the stories don't even come close. If only half of what I've heard is true, Scarpa's the craziest man who ever lived.'\n\nSparhawk's stomach gave a lurch, and then it settled into a cold knot.\n\n'Father?'\n\nSparhawk sat up in bed quickly.\n\n'Are you awake?' the Child Goddess asked, her voice roaring in his mind.\n\n'Of course. Please lower your voice a bit. You're jarring my teeth.'\n\n'I wanted to be sure I had your attention. Some things have happened. Berit and Khalad got some new instructions from Krager. They're supposed to go to Sopal now instead of coming here to Beresa.'\n\nSparhawk swore.\n\n'Please don't use that kind of language, Father. I _am_ just a little girl, you know.'\n\nHe ignored that. 'Is the trade going to take place in Sopal?'\n\n'It's hard to say. Bevier's been in touch with me too. Kalten talked with an outlaw who's been selling beer to the soldiers in Natayos, and he says that Scarpa's gone back there. Then the outlaw told Kalten that Scarpa had two Elene women with him when he returned.'\n\nSparhawk's heart leaped. 'Was he sure?'\n\n'Kalten thinks so. The fellow didn't have any reason to lie about it. Of course, Kalten's beer merchant didn't actually see them for himself, so don't get your hopes up too much. It could be a very carefully planted story. Zalasta's in Natayos, and he could be trying to lure you there or trying to trick you into giving away any secrets you might have tucked up your sleeve. He knows you well enough to know that you'll try to do _something_ he doesn't expect.'\n\n'Is there any way you could find out for sure if your mother's in Natayos?'\n\n'I'm afraid not. I could slip around Scarpa easily enough, but Zalasta would sense me immediately. It's too risky.'\n\n'What else is going on?'\n\n'Ulath and Tynian have reached the Troll-Gods. Ghnomb's going to take them to Sopal in that frozen time he's so fond of, and they'll be there when Berit and Khalad arrive. Ghnomb knows another way to play around with time, so he's going to skip Ulath and Tynian from moment to moment. It's a little complicated, but they'll be there and watching and nobody will be able to see them. If Scarpa and Zalasta try to make the trade in Sopal, Tynian and Ulath will be right on top of them to rescue Mother and Alean.'\n\n'Zalasta can follow them into that frozen moment, you know.'\n\nThat wouldn't really pay him, Father. Khwaj was outraged when he heard about Mother, so he's going to be lurking in No-Time. If Zalasta tries to follow Ulath and Tynian, Khwaj will set him on fire \u2013 and the fire won't ever go out.'\n\n'I could learn to grow fond of Khwaj.'\n\n'Sephrenia and Xanetia are in Delphaeus,' Aphrael continued. 'Edaemus is being tiresome, but the news about Kl\u00e6l shook his tree, so I'll probably be able to coax him down out of the branches. He knows that Mother's captivity puts the arrangement you have with Cedon at risk, so he's agreed to help us rescue her. I'll keep working on him. If I can push him just a little further, he might agree to let the Delphae come out of their valley. They could be enormously helpful to us.'\n\n'Why didn't you tell me about all of this earlier?'\n\n'What would you have done if I had, Sparhawk? Jumped over the side of Sorgi's ship and swum ashore?'\n\n'I need to know these things when they happen, Aphrael.'\n\n'Why? Let me take care of the fretting and worrying, Sparhawk. All it does is make you foul-tempered.'\n\nHe let that pass. 'I'll tell this to Bhelliom.'\n\n'Absolutely not! We don't dare open that box. Cyrgon or Kl\u00e6l will feel Bhelliom instantly if we do.'\n\n'Didn't you know?' he asked her mildly. I don't have to open the box to speak with Bhelliom. We can talk with each other right through the gold.'\n\n'Why didn't you _tell_ me?'\n\n'What would you have done if I had? Jumped into the sea and come swimming after Sorgi's ship?'\n\nThere was a long moment of silence. 'You really enjoy turning my own words around and throwing them back in my teeth like that, don't you, Sparhawk?'\n\n'Naturally. Was there anything else you'd like to share with me, Divine One?'\n\nBut the sense of her presence was gone, leaving only a slightly huffy silence behind.\n\n'Where's \u2013 ah \u2013 Vymer?' Sparhawk asked Talen as the boy entered the room a few minutes later.\n\n'He's out attending to something,' Talen replied evasively.\n\n'Attending to what?'\n\n'He asked me not to tell you.'\n\n'All right. _I'm_ asking you to ignore him \u2013 and I'm right here where I can get my hands on you.'\n\n'That's a crude way to put it.'\n\n'Nobody's perfect. What's he up to?'\n\nTalen sighed. 'One of Estokin's men stopped by \u2013 just after you came up to go to bed. He said that there are three Elenes in town who are letting it be known they'll pay good money for information about any strangers who seem to be settling in for a long stay. Vymer decided to look them up.' Talen glanced meaningfully at the walls of their small room. 'I'd guess that he probably wants to find out just exactly what they mean by \"good money\". You know Vymer when there's some profit to be made.'\n\n'He should have told me,' Sparhawk said cautiously. 'I'm not any more allergic to a quick profit than he is.'\n\n'Sharing isn't one of Vymer's strong points, Fron.' Talen touched his ear and then laid a finger to his lips. 'Why don't we go out and see if we can find him?'\n\n'Good idea.' Sparhawk quickly pulled on his clothes, and the two of them clattered down the stairs and out into the street.\n\n'I just had a religious experience,' Sparhawk murmured as they walked into the noisy area near the docks.\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'One of those Divine visitations.'\n\n'Ah. What did your Divine visitor have to say?'\n\n'A broken-nosed friend of ours got another one of those notes. He's been told to go to Sopal instead of coming here.'\n\nTalen muttered a fairly vile oath.\n\n'My feelings exactly. Isn't that Vymer coming up the street?' Sparhawk pointed at a blond man in a tar-smeared smock who was lurching unsteadily toward them.\n\nTalen peered at the fellow. I think you're right.' He made a face. 'The ladies who changed things around may have gone a little far. He doesn't even walk the same any more.'\n\n'What are you two doing out this late?' Stragen asked as he joined them.\n\n'We got lonesome,' Sparhawk replied in a flat tone of voice.\n\n'For me? I'm touched. Let's go for a walk on the beach, my friends. I find myself yearning for the smell of salt water \u2013 and the nice loud sound of waves crashing on the sand.'\n\nThey went on past the last of the wharves and then out onto the sand. The clouds had blown off, and there was a bright moon. They reached the water's edge and stood looking out at the long combers rolling in off the south Tamul Sea to hammer noisily on the wet sand.\n\n'What have you been up to, Stragen?' Sparhawk demanded bluntly.\n\n'Business, old boy. I just enlisted us in the intelligence service of the other side.'\n\n'You did _what?'_\n\n'The three you sensed when we first got here needed a few good men. I volunteered our services.'\n\n'Are you out of your mind?'\n\n'Of course not. Think about it for a while, Sparhawk. What better way is there to gather information? Our celebration of the Harvest Festival thinned their ranks drastically, so they can't afford to be choosy. I paid Estokin to vouch for us, and then I told them a few lies. They're expecting a certain Sir Sparhawk to flood the town with sharp-eyed people. We're supposed to report anybody we see who's acting a little suspicious. I provided them with a prime suspect.'\n\n'Oh? Who was that?'\n\n'Captain Sorgi's bo'sun \u2013 you know, the fellow with the whip.'\n\nSparhawk suddenly laughed. 'That was a truly vicious thing to do, Stragen.'\n\n'I rather liked it, myself.'\n\n'Aphrael came by to call,' Talen said. 'She told Sparhawk that Berit and my brother have been ordered to change direction. Now they're supposed to go to Sopal on the coast of the Sea of Arjun.'\n\nStragen swore.\n\n'I already said that,' Talen told him.\n\n'We probably should have expected it,' Sparhawk said. 'Krager's working for the other side, and he knows us well enough to anticipate some of the things we might try to do.' He suddenly banged his fist into the palm of his hand. I _wish_ I could talk with Sephrenia!' he burst out.\n\n'You _can,_ as I recall,' Stragen said. 'Didn't Aphrael fix it once so that you and Sephrenia talked together when she was in Sarsos and you were in Cimmura?'\n\nSparhawk suddenly felt more than a little foolish. 'I'd forgotten about that,' he admitted.\n\n'That's all right, old boy,' Stragen excused him. 'You've got a lot on your mind. Why don't you have a word with her Divine little Whimsicality and see if she can arrange a council of war someplace? I think it might be time for a good, old-fashioned get-together.'\n\nSparhawk knew where he was before he even opened his eyes. The fragrance of wildflowers and tree blossoms immediately identified the eternal spring of Aphrael's own private reality.\n\n'Art thou now awake, Anakha?' the white deer asked him, touching his hand with her nose.\n\n'Yea, gentle creature,' he replied, opening his eyes and touching the side of her face. He was in the pavilion again and he looked out through the open flap at the flower-studded meadow, the sparkling azure sea, and the rainbow-colored sky above.\n\n'The others do await thy coming on the eyot,' the hind advised him.\n\n'We must hasten, then,' he said, rising from his bed. He followed her from the pavilion out into the meadow where the white tigress indulgently watched the awkward play of her large-footed cubs. He rather idly wondered if these were the same cubs she had been tending when he had first visited this enchanted realm a half-dozen years ago.\n\n'Well, of _course_ they are, Sparhawk,' Aphrael's voice murmured in his ear. 'Nothing ever changes here.'\n\nHe smiled.\n\nThe white deer led him to that beautiful, impractical boat, a swan-necked craft with sails like wings, elaborate embellishment and so much of its main structure above the water line that a sneeze would have capsized it, had it existed in the real world.\n\n'Critic,' Aphrael's voice accused him.\n\n'It's your dream, Divine One. You can put any impossibility in it that you want.'\n\n'Oh, _thank_ you, Sparhawk!' she said with effusive irony.\n\nThe emerald green eyot, crowned with ancient oaks and Aphrael's alabaster temple, nestled in the sapphire sea, and the swan-necked boat touched the golden beach in only minutes. Sparhawk looked around as he stepped out onto the sand. The disguises most of them wore in the real world had been discarded, and they all had their own features here in this eternal dream. Some of them had been here before. Those who had not had expressions of bemused wonderment as they all lounged in the lush grass that blanketed the slopes of the enchanted isle.\n\nThe Child Goddess and Sephrenia sat side by side on an alabaster bench in the temple. Aphrael's expression was pensive, and she was playing a complex Styric melody in a minor key on her many-chambered pipes. 'What kept you, Sparhawk?' she asked, lowering the rude instrument.\n\nThe person in charge of my travel arrangements took me on a little side-trip,' he replied. 'Are we all here?'\n\n'Everybody who's supposed to be. Come up here, all of you, and let's get started.'\n\nThey climbed up the slope to the temple.\n\n'Where is this place?' Sarabian asked in an awed voice.\n\n'Aphrael carries it in her mind, your Majesty,' Vanion replied. 'She invites us here from time to time. She likes to show it off.'\n\n'Don't be insulting, Vanion,' the Child Goddess told him.\n\n'Well, don't you?'\n\n'Of course, but it's not nice to come right out and say it like that.'\n\n'I feel different here, for some reason,' Caalador noted. 'Better, somehow.'\n\nVanion smiled. 'It's a very healthy place, my friend,' he said. I was seriously ill at the end of the Zemoch war \u2013 dying, actually. Aphrael brought me here for a month or so, and I was disgustingly healthy by the time I left.'\n\nThey all reached the little temple and took seats on the marble benches lining the columned perimeter. Sparhawk looked around, frowning. 'Where's Emban?' he asked their hostess.\n\n'It wouldn't have been appropriate for him to be here, Sparhawk. Your Elene God makes exceptions in the case of the Church Knights, but he'd probably throw a fit if I brought one of the Patriarchs of his Church here. I didn't invite the Atans either \u2013 or the Peloi.' She smiled. 'Neither group is comfortable with the idea of religious diversity, and this place would probably confuse them.' She rolled her eyes upward. 'You wouldn't _believe_ how long it took me to persuade Edaemus to permit Xanetia to come. He doesn't approve of me. He thinks I'm frivolous.'\n\n'You?' Sparhawk feigned some surprise. 'How could he possibly believe something like that?'\n\n'Let's get at this,' Sephrenia said. 'Why don't you start, Berit? We know generally what happened, but we don't have any details.'\n\n'Yes, Lady Sephrenia,' the young knight replied. 'Khalad and I were coming down the coast, and we'd been watched from almost the moment we came ashore. I used the spell and identified the watcher as a Styric. He came to us after several days and gave us another one of those notes from Krager. The note told us to continue down the coast, but once we get past the Tamul Mountains, we're supposed to cut across country to Sopal instead of continuing south. The note said that we'd get further instructions there. It was definitely from Krager. It had another lock of Queen Ehlana's hair in it.'\n\n'I'm going to talk with Krager about that when I catch up with him,' Khalad said in a bleak tone of voice. I want to be sure he understands just how much we resent his even touching the Queen's hair. Trust me, Sparhawk. Before I'm done with him, he's going to regret it \u2013 profoundly.'\n\n'I've got enormous confidence in you, Khalad,' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'Oh,' Khalad said then, 'there's something I almost forgot. Does anybody know of a way to make one of our horses limp \u2013 without actually hurting him? I think Berit and I might want to be able to slow down from time to time without causing suspicion. An intermittently lame horse should explain it to the people who are watching us.'\n\n'I'll talk with Faran,' Aphrael promised.\n\n'You won't need to limp on your way to Sopal,' Ulath told Khalad. 'Ghnomb's going to see to it that Tynian and I are there long before you arrive. You might be able to see us when you get there, but you might not. I'm having a little trouble explaining some things to the Troll-Gods. We'll be able to see you, though. If I can't make Ghnomb understand, I'll slip a note in your pocket.'\n\n'If we _do_ come out in the open, you'll just _love_ our traveling companion,' Tynian laughed.\n\nBerit gave him a puzzled look. 'Who's that, Sir Tynian?'\n\n'Bhlokw. He's a Troll.'\n\n'It's Ghnomb's idea,' Ulath explained. I have to go through a little ceremony before I can talk with the Troll-Gods. Bhlokw doesn't. It speeds up communication. Anyway, we'll be there and out of sight. If Scarpa and Zalasta try to make the trade there in Sopal, we'll step out of No-Time, grab the lot of you, and disappear again.'\n\nThat's assuming that they're taking Queen Ehlana to Sopal to make the exchange,' Itagne said. 'We've got some things that don't match up, though. Sir Kalten picked up a rumor that Scarpa's holding the Queen and her maid in Natayos.'\n\n'I wouldn't want to wager the farm on it, your Excellency,' Kalten said. 'It's second-hand information at best. The fellow I talked with probably isn't bright enough to make up stories, and he didn't have any reason to lie to me. He got _his_ information from somebody else, though, and that makes the whole thing a little wormy.'\n\n'You've put your finger on the problem, Sir Kalten,' Sarabian said. 'Soldiers gossip worse than old women.' He tugged at one earlobe and looked up at the rainbow-colored sky. The other side knows that I wasn't entirely dependent on the Ministry of the Interior for information, so they'll expect me to have ears in Natayos. This story Sir Kalten heard could have been planted for our benefit. Prince Sparhawk, is there any way at all you could use Bhelliom to confirm the rumor?'\n\n'It's too dangerous,' Sephrenia said flatly. 'Zalasta would know immediately if Sparhawk did that.'\n\n'I'm not so sure, little mother,' Sparhawk disagreed. 'It was just recently that we found out that the gold box doesn't totally isolate Bhelliom. I'm getting a strong feeling that a great deal of what we _think_ we know about Bhelliom is pure misdirection. The rings evidently don't really mean anything at all \u2013 except possibly as a means of communication, and the gold box doesn't appear to be relevant either. It _could_ be an idea Bhelliom planted to keep us from enclosing it in iron. I'm guessing, but I'd say that the touch of iron is still painful to it, but whether it's painful enough to actually confine it isn't all that certain.'\n\n'He's right, you know,' Aphrael told her sister. 'A great deal of what we think we know about Bhelliom came from Ghwerig, and Bhelliom had absolute control of Ghwerig. Our mistake was believing that Ghwerig knew what he was talking about.'\n\n'That still doesn't answer the question about using Bhelliom to investigate things in Natayos,' Sparhawk said, 'and it's not the sort of thing I'd want to experiment with.'\n\n'I will go to Natayos,' Xanetia said quietly. 'It had been mine intent to go unseen to Sopal, but Sir Tynian and Sir Ulath will be there already, and well able to determine if the Queen be truly there. I will go to Natayos and seek her there instead.'\n\n'Absolutely not!' Sarabian said. 'I forbid it.'\n\n'I am not subject to thee, Sarabian of Tamuli,' she reminded him. 'But fear not. There is no peril involved for me. None will know that I am there, and I can reach out to those who are about me and share their thoughts. I will soon be able to determine whether or no the Queen and her maidservant are in Natayos. This is precisely the kind of service we offered when we concluded our pact with Anakha.'\n\n'It's too dangerous,' he said stubbornly.\n\n'It seemeth me that thou hast forgot mine _other_ gift, Sarabian of Tamuli,' she told him quite firmly. 'The curse of Edaemus is still upon me, and my touch is still death, when I choose it so. Fear not for me, Sarabian, for should necessity compel me to it, I can spread death and terror through Natayos. Though it doth cause me pain to confess it, I can make Natayos once more a waste, a weed-choked ruin populated only by the dead.'\n\n# _Chapter 10_\n\nThe city of Sarna in Western Tamul Proper lay just to the south of the Atan border in the deep gorge of the river from which it took its name. The surrounding mountains were steep and rugged and were covered with dark evergreens which sighed endlessly in the prevailing wind sweeping down out of the wilderness to the north. The weather was cold, and the leaden sky spat stinging pellets of snow as Vanion's army of Church Knights slowly descended the long, steep road leading down into the gorge. Vanion and Itagne, muffled in their heavy cloaks, rode at the head of the column.\n\n'I'd have much preferred to stay on Aphrael's island,' Itagne said, shivering and pulling his cloak tighter. 'I've never been particularly fond of this time of year.'\n\n'We're almost there, your Excellency,' Vanion replied.\n\n'Is it customary to campaign in the wintertime, Lord Vanion?' Itagne asked. 'In Eosia, I mean?'\n\n'We try to avoid it, your Excellency,' Vanion replied. 'The Lamorks attack each other in the winter, but the rest of us usually have better sense.'\n\n'It's a miserable time to go to war.'\n\nVanion smiled faintly. 'That it is, my friend, but that's not why we avoid it. It's a question of economics, really. It's more expensive to campaign in winter because you have to buy hay for the horses. It's the expense that keeps Elene kings peaceful when there's snow on the ground.' Vanion stood up in his stirrups to peer ahead. 'Betuana's waiting,' he said. 'We'd better ride down to meet her.'\n\nItagne nodded, and they pushed their horses into a jolting trot.\n\nThe Queen of Atan had left them at Dasan on the eastern edge of the mountains to come on ahead. She had several very good reasons, of course, but Vanion privately suspected that her decision had been influenced more by impatience than necessity. Betuana was too polite to speak of it, but she clearly had little use for horses, and she seldom missed an opportunity to outrun them. She and Engessa, both garbed in otter-skins, waited at the roadside about a mile outside the city.\n\n'Was there any trouble?' the Atan Queen asked.\n\n'No, your Majesty,' Vanion replied, his black armor clinking as he swung down out of his saddle. 'We were watched, but there's nothing unusual about that. Has anything been happening in Cynesga?'\n\n'They're moving up to the border, Vanion-Preceptor,' Engessa replied quietly. 'They aren't being very subtle about it. We've been disrupting their supply lines and ambushing their scouting parties just to keep them off-balance, but it's fairly obvious that they plan to come across the line in force.'\n\nVanion nodded. 'It's more or less what we expected, then. If it's all right with you, your Majesty, I'd like to get my men settled in before we get too involved in discussions. I can always think better after I've seen to all the details.'\n\n'Of course,' Betuana agreed. 'Engessa-Atan and I have arranged quarters for them. When will you be leaving for Samar?'\n\n'Tomorrow or the next day, Betuana-Queen. Tikume's Peloi are probably spread a little thin down there. He has a lot of ground to cover.'\n\n'He sent back to Pela for more men, Vanion-Lord,' Engessa advised. 'You'll have a sizeable force in Samar in a week or so.'\n\n'Good. Let me go back and hurry the knights along. We have much to discuss.'\n\nNight settled early at the bottom of the gorge of the River Sarna, and it was fully dark by the time Vanion joined the others in the headquarters of the city's Atan garrison. Like all Atan structures, the building was severely utilitarian and devoid of any embellishment. The lone exception in the conference room in which they gathered was a very large map covering one entire wall. The map was brightly colored and dotted here and there with fanciful illustrations. Vanion had bathed hurriedly and now wore plain clothing. The years had taught him that armor was impressive and even useful at times, but that no one had yet devised a way to make it comfortable or to eliminate its characteristic smell.\n\n'Are the quarters satisfactory?' Betuana enquired politely.\n\n'Most satisfactory, your Majesty,' he replied, settling into a chair. 'Have you been advised of the details of our meeting with the Child Goddess?'\n\nShe nodded. 'Itagne-Ambassador gave me a report,' she replied. She paused. 'One is curious to know why one was excluded,' she added.\n\n'Theological considerations, your Majesty,' Vanion explained. 'As I understand it, the Gods have an exquisitely complex etiquette in these situations. Aphrael didn't want to offend your God by inviting his children to her island. There were some other rather conspicuous absences as well. Emperor Sarabian was there and Ambassador Itagne, but Foreign Minister Oscagne wasn't.'\n\nItagne frowned slightly. 'The Emperor and I are skeptics \u2013 agnostics, I suppose you could call us \u2013 but Oscagne's an out-and-out atheist. Would that account for it?'\n\n'It might. I'll ask Aphrael the next time I talk with her.'\n\nEngessa looked around. 'I didn't see Kring-Domi when we met you, Vanion-Preceptor,' he noted.\n\n'Kring took his men and veered off toward Samar not long after you and her Majesty left us to come on ahead. He thought he'd be more useful there than he would here in Sarna \u2013 and you know how the western Peloi feel about mountains and forests. Have the Cynesgans made any forays across the border as yet?'\n\n'No, Vanion-Preceptor,' Engessa replied. 'They're massing in staging areas and bringing up supplies.' He rose and went to the map. 'A large force moved out of Cynestra a while back,' he said, pointing at the Cynesgan capital. 'They're positioned near the border more or less opposite us here. Another force has taken up a similar position just across the line from Samar.'\n\nVanion nodded. 'Cyrgon's more like a general than a God in most ways. He's not going to leave fortified positions to his rear. He'll have to neutralize Samar and Sarna before he can strike any deeper into Tamul Proper. I'd say that the force you're facing here has been ordered to take Sarna, seal the southern border of Atan and then swing northeast toward Tualas. I'm sure they'd rather not have the entire Atan nation come swarming down out of these mountains.'\n\n'There aren't enough Cynesgans living to keep my people hemmed in,' Betuana told him.\n\n'I'm sure of it, your Majesty, but there probably _are_ enough to slow you down, and Cyrgon can recruit armies from the past to hinder you all the more.' He studied the map, his lips pursed. 'I think I see where he's going,' he said. 'Matherion's on a peninsula, and that narrow neck of land at Tosa is the key to that. If I had to wager anything on it, I'd say that the main battle's going to take place there. Scarpa will move north out of Natayos. Probably the southern Cynesgans are planning to capture Samar and then swing around the north shore of the Sea of Arjun to join him somewhere in the vicinity of the Tamul Mountains. From there the combined army can march up the west shore of the Gulf of Micae to Tosa.' He smiled faintly. 'Of course, there's a very nasty surprise waiting for them in the Tamul Mountains. I'd imagine that before this is over, Cyrgon will wish that he'd never _heard_ of the Trolls.'\n\n'I will send an army out of northern Atan to Tosa, Vanion-Preceptor,' Betuana said, 'but I'll leave enough of my people along the southern and eastern borders to tie up half of the Cynesgans.'\n\n'In the meantime I think we can disrupt their preparations,' Engessa added. 'Raids in force across that border will delay their main attack.'\n\n'And that's all we really need,' Vanion chuckled. 'If we can delay them long enough, Cyrgon's going to have a hundred thousand Church Knights swarming across his western frontier. I think he'll forget about Tosa at that point.'\n\n'Don't worry about him, Fron,' Stragen told Sparhawk. 'He can take care of himself.'\n\n'I think we sometimes forget that he's only a boy, Vymer. He doesn't even shave regularly yet.'\n\n'Reldin stopped being a boy before his voice started to change.' Stragen leaned back on his bed reflectively. 'Those of us in our particular line of work tend to lose our childhoods,' he said. 'It might have been nice to roll hoops and catch polliwogs, but...' He shrugged.\n\n'What are you going to do when this is all over?' Sparhawk asked him. 'Assuming that we survive?'\n\n'There's a certain lady of our acquaintance who proposed marriage to me a while back. It's part of a business arrangement that's very attractive. The notion of marriage never really appealed to me, but the business proposition's just too good to pass up.'\n\nThere's more, too, isn't there?'\n\n'Yes,' Stragen admitted. 'After what she did back in Matherion that night, I'm not about to let her get away from me. She's one of the coolest and most courageous people I've ever met.'\n\n'Pretty, too.'\n\n'You noticed.' Stragen sighed. Im afraid I'm going to end up being at least semi-respectable, my friend.'\n\n'Shocking.'\n\n'Isn't it? First, though, there's this other little matter I want to deal with. I think I'll present my beloved with the head of a certain Astellian poet of our acquaintance. If I can find a good taxidermist, I may even have it stuffed and mounted for her.'\n\n'It's the kind of wedding present every girl dreams of.'\n\n'Maybe not _every_ girl,' Stragen grinned, 'but I'm in love with a very special lady.'\n\n'But there are so _many_ of them, U-lat,' Bhlokw said plaintively. 'They would not miss just one, would they?'\n\n'I am certain they would, Bhlokw,' Ulath told the huge, brown-furred Troll. 'The man-things are not like the deer. They pay very close attention to the other members of the herd. If you eat one of them, they will know that we are here. Catch and eat one of their dogs instead.'\n\nIs dog good-to-eat?'\n\n'I am not sure. Eat one and tell me if it is good.'\n\nBhlokw grumbled and squatted down on his haunches.\n\nThe process Ghnomb had called breaking the moments in two pieces' produced some rather strange effects. The brightness of noon was dimmed to twilight, for one thing, and the citizens of Sopal seemed to walk about their town with a fast, jerky kind of movement, for another. The God of Eat had assured them that because they were present in only a small part of each instant, they had been rendered effectively invisible. Ulath could see a rather large logical flaw in the explanation, but the _belief_ that the spell worked seemed to override logic.\n\nTynian came back up the street shaking his head. 'It's impossible to understand them,' he reported. 'I can pick up a word or two now and then, but the rest is pure gibberish.'\n\n'It is talking in bird-noises again,' Bhlokw complained.\n\n'You'd better speak in Trollish, Tynian,' Ulath said. 'You're making Bhlokw nervous.'\n\n'I forgot,' Tynian admitted, reverting to the hideous language of the Trolls. I am \u2013' he groped. 'What is the word that means that you want it that you had not done something?' he asked their shaggy companion.\n\n'There is no such word, Tin-in,' Bhlokw replied.\n\n'Can you ask Ghnomb to make it so that we can understand what the man-things are saying?' Ulath asked.\n\n'Why? What does it matter?' Bhlokw's face was puzzled.\n\n'If we can know what they are saying, we will know which ones of the herd we should follow,' Tynian explained. 'They will be the ones who will know about the wicked ones.'\n\n'They do not _all_ know?' Bhlokw asked with some amazement.\n\n'No. Only some know.'\n\n'The man-things are very strange. I will talk with Ghnomb. He may understand this,' He rose to his feet, towering over them. I will do it as soon as I come back.'\n\n'Where are you going?' Tynian asked politely.\n\n'I am hungry. I will go eat a dog. Then I will come back and talk with Ghnomb.' He paused. 'I can bring a dog back for you as well, if you are also hungry.'\n\n'Ah \u2013 no, Bhlokw,' Tynian replied. 'I do not think I am hungry right now. It was good of you to ask, though.'\n\n'We are pack-mates now,' Bhlokw shrugged. 'It is right to do this.' And he shambled off down the street.\n\n'It's not really all that far,' Aphrael told her sister as the two of them rode with Xanetia up out of the valley of Delphaeus toward the town of Dirgis in southern Atan, 'but Edaemus is still reluctant to help us, so I think I'd better mind my manners. He might be offended if I start \"tampering\" in the home of his children.'\n\n'You've never used that word to describe it before,' Sephrenia noted.\n\n'Sparhawk's influence, I guess,' the Child Goddess replied. 'It's a useful sort of term. It glosses over things that we don't want to discuss in front of strangers. After we get to Dirgis, we'll be well clear of the home of the Delphae. Then I'll be able to tamper to my heart's content.'\n\n'How long dost thou think it will take us to reach Natayos, Goddess?' Xanetia asked. She had once again altered her coloration and suppressed her inner radiance to conceal her racial characteristics.\n\n'No more than a few hours \u2013 in real time,' Aphrael shrugged. 'I can't _quite_ jump us around the way Bhelliom does, but I can cover a lot of ground in a hurry when there's an emergency. If things were really desperate, I could fly us there.'\n\nSephrenia shuddered. 'It's not _that_ desperate, Aphrael.'\n\nXanetia gave her Styric sister a puzzled look.\n\n'It makes her queasy,' Aphrael explained.\n\n'No, Aphrael,' Sephrenia corrected, 'not queasy \u2013 terrified. It's a horrible experience, Xanetia. She's done it to me about five times in the past three hundred years. I'm an absolute wreck for weeks afterward.'\n\n'I keep telling you not to look down, Sephrenia,' Aphrael told her. 'If you'd just look at the clouds instead of down at the ground, it wouldn't bother you so much.'\n\n'I can't help myself, Aphrael,' Sephrenia told her.\n\n'Is it truly so disturbing, sister mine?' Xanetia asked.\n\n'You couldn't even begin to imagine it, Xanetia. You skim along with nothing but about five thousand feet of empty air between you and the ground. It's _awful!'_\n\n'We'll do it the other way,' Aphrael assured her.\n\n'I'll start composing a prayer of thanksgiving immediately.'\n\n'We'll stay the night in Dirgis,' Aphrael told them, 'and then tomorrow morning we'll run down to Natayos. Sephrenia and I'll stay out in the woods, Xanetia, and you can go into town and have a look around. If Mother's really being held there, we should be able to bring this little crisis to an end in short order. Once Sparhawk knows exactly where she is, he'll fall on Scarpa and his father like a vengeful mountain. Natayos won't even be a ruin any more when he's done. It'll just be a big hole in the ground.'\n\n'He actually saw them,' Talen reported. 'He described them too well to have been making it up.' The young thief had just returned from his foray into the seamier parts of Beresa.\n\n'What sort of fellow was he?' Sparhawk asked. 'This is too important for us to be taken in by random gossip.'\n\n'He's a Dacite,' Talen replied, 'a guttersnipe from Jura. His politics go about as far as his purse. His main reason for joining Scarpa's army in the first place was his enthusiasm for the idea of taking part in the looting of Matherion. We're not talking about a man with high ideals here. When he got to Natayos and found out that there might be actual fighting involved, he started to lose interest. Anyway, I found him in one of the shabbiest taverns I've ever seen, and he was roaring drunk. Believe me, Fron, he was in no condition to lie to me. I told him that I was thinking of joining Scarpa's army, and he turned all fatherly on me \u2013 \"Don' even _shink_ about it, boy. It's tur'ble there\" \u2013 that sort of thing. He said that Scarpa's a raving lunatic with delusions of invincibility who thinks he can just blow on the Atans and make them go away. He said he'd just about decided to desert anyway, and then Scarpa came back to Natayos \u2013 along with Krager, Elron and Baron Parok. They had the Queen and Alean with them, and Zalasta met them at the gate. The Dacite happened to be nearby, so he could hear what they were saying. Evidently, Zalasta's still got a _few_ good manners, so he wasn't very happy about the way Scarpa had been treating his prisoners. The two of them had an argument about it, and Zalasta tied his son into a very complicated knot with magic. I guess Scarpa was squirming around like a worm on a hot rock for a while. Then Zalasta took the ladies to a large house that had been fixed up for them. From what my deserter said, the house comes fairly close to being luxurious \u2013 if you discount the bars on the windows.'\n\n'He could have been coached,' Sparhawk fretted. 'Maybe he wasn't as drunk as he appeared to be.'\n\n'Believe me, Fron, he was drunk,' Talen assured him. I cut a purse on my way to that tavern \u2013 just to keep in practice \u2013 so I had plenty of money. I poured enough strong drink into him to stun a regiment.'\n\n'I think he's right, Fron,' Stragen said. 'There are just too many details for this to be a contrived story.'\n\n'And if this deserter had been sent to spin cobwebs for _our_ benefit, why would he waste time and effort entertaining a young pickpocket?' Talen added. 'None of us look the way we did the last time Zalasta saw us, and I doubt that even _he_ could have guessed how Sephrenia and Xanetia put their heads together to modify us.'\n\n'I still think we should hold off,' Sparhawk said. 'Aphrael's going to put Xanetia into Natayos in a day or so, and Xanetia can find out for sure if it's really Ehlana who's locked up in that house.'\n\n'We could at least get closer,' Stragen said.\n\n'Why? Distance doesn't mean anything to my blue friend here.' Sparhawk touched the bulge under the front of his tunic. 'Just as soon as I know for certain that Ehlana's there, we'll go pay Zalasta and his bastard a call. I might even invite Khwaj to come along. He has some plans for them that sort of interest me.'\n\nThe light was suddenly very bright, and the citizens of Sopal abruptly ceased jerking around like marionettes on strings and started to walk like normal humans. It had taken a half a day to explain to Ghnomb why it was necessary for them to return to real time, and the God of Eat still had some serious reservations about the whole idea.\n\n'I'll wait in that tavern just up the street,' Tynian said to Ulath as the two of them stepped out of the narrow alley. 'Do you remember the password?'\n\nUlath grunted. 'I shouldn't be long,' he said. He walked across the street toward the pair of travelers who had just come into town. 'That's an interesting looking saddlebow you've got there, neighbor,' he said to one of them, a broken-nosed man on a roan horse. 'What's it made of? Ramshorn?'\n\nBerit gave him a startled look, then glanced quickly around the narrow street near the east gate of Sopal. I didn't think to ask the saddle-maker, Sergeant,' he replied, noticing the blond Elene's tattered-looking uniform jacket. 'Ah \u2013 maybe you could give my young friend and me some advice.'\n\n'Advice is free. Go ahead and ask.'\n\n'Do you happen to know of a good inn here in Sopal?'\n\nThe one my friend and I are staying at isn't too bad. It's about three streets over.' Ulath pointed. 'It's got the sign of a boar hanging out front \u2013 although the picture doesn't look very much like any boar _I've_ ever seen.'\n\n'We'll look into it.'\n\n'Maybe my friend and I'll see you there. We're usually in the taproom after supper.'\n\n'We'll stop by \u2013 if we decide to stay there.'\n\nUlath nodded and walked up the street to a tavern and went on inside, where he joined Tynian at a table near the fire. 'What did you do with our shaggy friend?' he asked.\n\n'He went out looking for another dog,' Tynian replied. 'You might have made a mistake there, Sergeant. He seems to be developing a taste for them. There won't be a dog left in the whole town if we stay much longer.'\n\nUlath sat down and leaned back. 'Ran into an Elene fellow out there in the street,' he said, loudly enough to be heard by the other tavern patrons.\n\n'Oh?' Tynian said casually. 'Astellian or Edomish?'\n\n'It was sort of hard to say. He'd had his nose broken at one time or another, so it was a little difficult to determine his race. He was looking for a good inn, so I recommended the one where we're staying. We might see him there. It's good to hear somebody talking Elenic for a change. I get tired of listening to people babbling at me in Tamul. If you're about finished here, why don't we drift on down to the harbor and see if we can find somebody to ferry us on across the lake to Tiana.'\n\nTynian drained his tankard. 'Let's go,' he said, standing up.\n\nThe two of them left the tavern and strolled back to their inn, talking casually and moving at the leisurely pace of men with nothing really pressing to do.\n\n'I want to have a look at that shoe on my horse's left forehoof,' Ulath said when they arrived. 'Go on ahead. I'll meet you in the taproom.'\n\n'Where else?' Tynian laughed.\n\nKhalad was in the stable as Ulath had expected. He was making some show of currying Faran. 'I see that you and your friend decided to stay here,' the big Thalesian said in a casual tone.\n\n'It was handy,' Khalad shrugged.\n\n'Listen carefully,' Ulath said in a voice hardly more than a whisper. 'We were able to pick up some information. Nothing's going to happen here. You'll get another one of those messages.'\n\nKhalad nodded.\n\n'It's going to tell you to go on across the lake to Tiana. Be careful of what you say on the boat, because there'll be a fellow on board who's working for the other side \u2013 an Arjuni with a long scar on his cheek.'\n\n'I'll keep an eye out for him,' Khalad said.\n\n'You'll get another message in Tiana,' Ulath continued. 'You'll be told to go on around the lake to Arjun.'\n\n'That's the long way around,' Khalad objected. 'We could take the road from here and be in Arjun in less than half the time.'\n\n'Evidently they don't want you to get there that soon. They've probably got some other irons in the fire. I won't swear to this, but I _think_ they'll send you on to Derel from Arjun. If Kalten's right and Ehlana's being held in Natayos, that would be the next logical step.'\n\nKhalad nodded again. 'I'll tell Berit. I think we'd better stay out of that taproom. I'm sure we're being watched, and if we start talking with other Elenes, we'll just put the enemy on their guard.'\n\nThe horses in the stable suddenly began to squeal and kick at the sides of their stalls.\n\n'What's wrong with the horses?' Khalad demanded. 'And what's that odd smell?'\n\nUlath muttered an oath. Then he raised his voice and spoke in Trollish. 'Bhlokw, it is not good that you come into the dens of the man-things this way. You have been eating dog, and the man-things and their beasts can smell you.'\n\nThere was an injured silence as Ulath's unseen traveling-companion withdrew from the stable.\n\nBetuana and Engessa, dressed in sleek otter-skins, accompanied Vanion and the knights south from Sarna. At Engessa's suggestion they proceeded due west to come down out of the mountains in eastern Cynesga.\n\n'We've been watching them, Vanion-Preceptor,' the towering Atan said as he loped along beside Vanion's horse. 'Their main supply dump is about five leagues west of the frontier.'\n\n'Did you have anything pressing to attend to, your Majesty?' Vanion asked Betuana, who was running along on the other side.\n\n'Nothing that can't wait. What did you have in mind?'\n\n'Since we're here anyway, we might as well swing over and burn their supply dump. My knights are getting restless, and a little exercise might do them some good.'\n\n'It _is_ rather chilly,' she observed with just the hint of a smile. 'A fire _would_ be nice.'\n\n'Shall we, then?'\n\n'Why don't we?'\n\nThe Cynesgan supply dump covered about five acres. It lay in a rocky, treeless basin, and it was defended by about a regiment of Cynesgan troops in flowing robes. As the column of armored knights approached, the defenders galloped forth to meet them. That particular maneuver might best be described as a tactical blunder. The gravel-covered floor of the Desert of Cynesga was flat and clear of obstructions, so the charge of the Church Knights was unimpeded. There was an enormous crash as the two forces collided, and the knights, after only a momentary hesitation, rode on, trampling the bodies of the wounded and slain under the steel-shod hooves of their mounts while the squealing horses of the Cynesgans fled in terror.\n\n'Impressive,' Betuana conceded as she ran along beside Vanion's mount. 'But isn't it tedious to endure the weight \u2013 and the smell \u2013 of the armor for months on end for the sake of two minutes of entertainment?'\n\n'There are drawbacks to any style of warfare, your Majesty,' Vanion said, raising his visor. 'A part of the idea behind armored charges is to persuade others to avoid confrontations. It holds down the casualties in the long run.'\n\n'A reputation for extreme severity _is_ a good weapon, Vanion-Preceptor,' she agreed.\n\n'We like it,' he smiled. 'Let's go build that bonfire so that your Majesty can warm her toes.'\n\n'That would be nice,' she smiled.\n\nThere was a dust-covered hill directly ahead, rising like a slightly rounded pyramid to block the way to the supply dump. With simple arm-gestures, Vanion directed his knights to diverge and sweep around both sides of the hill to swarm over the accumulated supplies of Cyrgon's army. They galloped forward with that vast, steely, clinking thunder that proclaims implacable invincibility.\n\nAnd then the hill moved. The dust which had covered it shuddered away in a great billowing cloud, and the two enormous wings unfurled their glossy blackness to reveal the wedge-shaped face of Kl\u00e6l. The beast of ultimate darkness roared, and the fangs of lightning, jagged and flickering, emerged from behind snarling lips.\n\nAnd out from beneath the shelter of those two great wings came an army like no army Vanion had ever seen.\n\nThey were as tall as the Atans and more bulky. Their bare arms were huge, and their steel breastplates fit them like a second skin, revealing every knotted muscle. Their helmets bore exotic-looking embellishments \u2013 horns or antlers or stiff steel wings \u2013 and, like their breastplates, their visors fit tightly over their faces, exactly duplicating the features of each individual warrior. There was no humanity in those polished faces. The brows were impossibly wide, and, like the face of Kl\u00e6l himself, they narrowed down to almost delicately pointed chins. The eye-slits blazed, and there were twin holes in place of noses. The mouths of those masks were open, and they were filled with cruelly pointed teeth.\n\nThey swarmed out from beneath Kl\u00e6l's wings with his lightning playing around them. They brandished weapons that appeared to be part mace and part axe \u2013 steel atrocities dredged from nightmare.\n\nThey were too close to permit any kind of orderly withdrawal, and the knights, still moving at a thunderous gallop, were committed before they could fully comprehend the nature of the enemy.\n\nThe impact as the two armies came together shook the earth, and that solid, steely crash shattered into a chaos of sound \u2013 blows, shrieks, the agonized squeals of horses, the tearing of metal.\n\n'Sound a withdrawal!' Vanion bellowed to the leader of the Genidians. 'Blow your heart into that Ogre-horn, man! Get our people clear!'\n\nThe carnage was ghastly. Horses and men were being ripped to pieces by Kl\u00e6l's inhuman army. Vanion drove his spurs home, and his horse leapt forward. The Pandion Preceptor drove his lance through the steel breastplate of one of the aliens and saw blood \u2013 at least he thought it might be blood, thick yellow blood \u2013 gushing from the steel-lipped mask. The creature fell back, but still swung its cruel weapon. Vanion pulled his hand clear of the butt of the lance, leaving the beast transfixed, skewered, as it were, and drew his sword.\n\nIt took a long time. The thing absorbed blows which would have dismembered a human. Eventually, however, Vanion chopped it down \u2013 almost like a peasant chopping out a tough, stringy thorn-bush.\n\n'Engessa!' Betuana's shriek of rage and despair rang out above the other sounds of the battle.\n\nVanion wheeled his horse and saw the Atan Queen rushing to the aid of her stricken general. Even the monstrous creatures Kl\u00e6l had unleashed quailed in the face of her fury as she cut her way to Engessa's side.\n\nVanion smashed his way through to her, his sword flickering in the chill light, spraying yellow blood in gushing fountains. 'Can you carry him?' he shouted to Betuana.\n\nShe bent and with no apparent effort lifted her fallen friend in her arms.\n\n'Pull back!' Vanion shouted. 'I'll cover you!' And he hurled his horse into the path of the monsters who were rushing to attack her.\n\nThere was no hope in Betuana's face as she ran toward the rear, cradling Engessa's limp body in her arms, and her eyes were streaming tears.\n\nVanion ground his teeth together, raised his sword, and charged.\n\nSephrenia was very tired when they reached Dirgis. 'I'm not really hungry,' she told Xanetia and Aphrael after they had taken a room in a respectable inn near the center of the city. 'All I want is a nice hot bath and about twelve hours of sleep.'\n\n'Art thou unwell, sister mine?' Xanetia's voice was concerned.\n\nSephrenia smiled wearily. 'No, dear,' she said, laying one hand on the Anarae's arm. 'I'm a little tired, that's all. This rushing around is starting to wear on me. You two go ahead and have some supper. Just ask someone to bring a small pot of tea up to the room. That'll be enough for right now. I'll make up for it at breakfast time. Only don't make too much noise when you come up to bed.'\n\nShe spent a pleasant half-hour immersed to her ears in steaming water in the bath-house and returned to their room tightly wrapped in her Styric robe and carrying a candle to light her way.\n\nTheir room was not large, but it was warm and cozy, heated by one of the porcelain stoves common here in Tamuli. Sephrenia rather liked the concept of a stove, since it kept the ashes and cinders off the floor. She drew a chair close to the fire and began to brush her long, black hair.\n\n'Vanity, Sephrenia? After all these years?'\n\nShe started half to her feet at the sound of the familiar voice. Zalasta scarcely looked the same. He no longer wore his Styric robe, but rather a leather jerkin of an Arjuni cut, stout canvas trousers, and thick-soled boots. He had even so far discarded his heritage that he wore a short sword at his waist. His white hair and beard were tangled, and his face was haggard. 'Please don't make a scene, love,' he told her. His voice was weary and devoid of any emotion beyond a kind of profound regret. He sighed. 'Where did we go wrong, Sephrenia?' he asked sadly. 'What tore us apart and brought us to this sorry state?'\n\n'You don't really want me to tell you, do you, Zalasta?' she replied. 'Why couldn't you just let it go? I _did_ love you, you know \u2013 not _that_ way, of course, but it _was_ love. Couldn't you accept that and forget about the other?'\n\n'Evidently not. It didn't even occur to me.'\n\n'Sparhawk's going to kill you, you know.'\n\n'Perhaps. To be honest with you, though, I no longer really care.'\n\n'What's the point of this then? Why have you come here?'\n\n'I wanted to see you one last time \u2013 hear the sound of your voice.' He rose from the chair in the corner where he had been sitting. 'It all could have been so different \u2013 if it hadn't been for Aphrael. _She_ was the one who took you into the lands of the Elenes and corrupted you. You're Styric, Sephrenia. We Styrics have no business consorting with the Elene barbarians.'\n\n'You're wrong, Zalasta. Anakha's an Elene. _That's_ our business with them. You'd better leave. Aphrael's downstairs eating supper right now. If she finds you here, she'll have your heart for dessert.'\n\n'In a moment. There's something I have to do first. After that, she can do anything to me she wants to do.' His face suddenly twisted into an expression of anguish. 'Why, Sephrenia? Why? How could you _bear_ the unclean touch of that Elene savage?'\n\n'Vanion? You wouldn't understand. You couldn't even begin to comprehend it.' She stood, her face defiant. 'Do whatever it is you have to do and leave. The very sight of you sickens me.'\n\n'Very well,' His face was suddenly as cold as stone.\n\nShe was not really surprised when he drew a long bronze dagger out from under his jerkin. In spite of everything, he was still Styric enough to loathe the touch of steel. 'You have no idea of how much I regret this,' he told her as he came closer.\n\nShe tried to struggle, clawing at his face and eyes. She even felt a momentary sense of triumph when she seized his beard and saw him wince with pain. She jerked at his beard, sawing his face this way and that as she called out for help, but then he jerked free, roughly shoving her back from him. She stumbled back and half-fell over a chair, and that was what ultimately defeated her. Even as she struggled to regain her feet, he caught her by the hair, and she knew that she was lost. Despairing, she drew Vanion's face from her memory, filling her eyes and heart with his features even as she attempted again to claw at Zalasta's eyes.\n\nAnd then he drove the dagger directly into her breast and wrenched it free again.\n\nShe cried out, falling back and clutching at the wound, feeling the blood spurting out between her fingers.\n\nHe caught her in his arms. 'I love you, Sephrenia,' he said in a broken voice as the light faded from her eyes.\n\n# [PART TWO  \nNatayos](..\/Text\/9780007368051_epub_toc_r1.htm#pt02)\n\n# _Chapter 11_\n\n'I can't find anybody willing to stay in one place long enough for me to ask him any questions,' Komier growled when he returned late one cloudy afternoon with his scouts. He looked sourly back across the empty, winter-fallow fields all neatly bordered with low stone walls, carefully shifting his broken right arm. 'These Astellian serfs all take one look at us and bolt for the woods like frightened deer.'\n\n'What's ahead?' Darellon asked him. Darellon's helmet hung from his saddlebow, one side so crushed in that it no longer fit his bandaged head. His eyes were unfocused, and his bandage was blood-soaked.\n\nKomier took out his map and studied it. 'We're coming to the River Astel,' he replied. 'We saw a city over on the other side \u2013 Darsas, most likely. I couldn't catch anybody to tell me for sure, though. I'm not the prettiest fellow in the world, but I've never had people flee from me in terror like this before.'\n\n'Emban warned us about that,' Bergsten said. 'The countryside's crawling with agitators. They're telling the serfs that we've all got horns and tails and that we're coming here to burn down their churches and ram assorted heresies down their throats at sword-point. This fellow called Sabre seems to be the one behind it all.'\n\n'He's the one I want,' Komier muttered darkly. I think I'll run him down and set him up as the centerpiece in a bonfire.'\n\n'Let's not stir up the locals any more than they already are, Komier,' Darellon cautioned. 'We're not in any condition for confrontations at the moment.' He glanced back at the battered column and the long string of wagons bearing the gravely wounded.\n\n'Did you see any signs of organized resistance?' Heldin asked Komier.\n\n'Not yet. I expect we'll find out how things really stand when we get to Darsas. If the bridge across the Astel's been torn down and the tops of the city walls are lined with archers, we'll know that Sabre's message of peace and goodwill's reached the people in authority.' The Genidian Preceptor's face darkened, and he squared his shoulders. 'That's all right. I've fought my way into towns before, so it won't be a new experience.'\n\n'You've already managed to get Abriel and about a third of the Church Knights killed, Komier,' Bergsten told him pointedly. 'I'd say that your place in history's secure. Let's try a bit of negotiation before we start battering down gates and burning houses.'\n\n'You've had a clever mouth ever since we were novices, Bergsten. I should have done something about it before you put on that cassock.'\n\nBergsten hefted his war-axe a couple of times. I can take my cassock off any time it suits you, old friend,' he offered.\n\n'You're getting side-tracked, gentlemen,' Darellon said, his speech slightly slurred. 'Our wounded need attention. This isn't the time to pick fights \u2013 either with the local population or with each other. I think the four of us should ride on ahead under a flag of truce and find out which way the wind's blowing before we start building siege-engines.'\n\n'Am I hearing the voice of reason here?' Heldin rumbled mildly.\n\nThey tied a gleaming white Cyrinic cape to Sir Heldin's lance and rode ahead through the cheerless afternoon to the west bank of the River Astel.\n\nThe city beyond the river was clearly Elene, an ancient town with soaring towers and spires. It stood proudly and solidly on the far shore of the river under its snapping pennons of red and blue and gold proclaiming, or so it seemed, that it had always been there and always would be. It had high, thick walls and massive, closed gates. The bridge across the Astel was blocked by towering, bronze-faced warriors wearing minimal armor and carrying very unpleasant-looking weapons. 'Atans,' Sir Heldin identified them. 'We definitely don't want to fight those people.'\n\nThe ranks of bleak-faced infantry parted, and an ancient, wrinkled Tamul in a gold-colored mantle flanked by a vastly-bearded Astellian clergyman all in black came forward to meet them. 'Well-met, Sir Knights,' the hairless old Tamul greeted the armored men in a dry, dusty voice. 'King Alberen's a trifle curious as to your intentions. We don't see Church Knights in this part of the world very often.'\n\n'You would be Ambassador Fontan,' Bergsten said. 'Emban described you very well.'\n\n'I thought he had better manners,' Fontan murmured.\n\nBergsten flashed him a brief smile. 'You might want to send word back to the city, your Excellency. Assure His Majesty that our intentions are entirely peaceful.'\n\n'I'm sure he'll be happy to hear that.'\n\n'Emban and Sir Tynian came back to Chyrellos a couple months ago,' Bergsten continued. 'Sparhawk sent word that things were getting out of hand here. Dolmant dispatched us to help restore order.' The huge Patriarch made a sour face. 'We didn't get off to a very good start, I'm afraid. We had an unfortunate encounter near Basne and we have many wounded in need of medical attention.'\n\n'I'll send word to the nearby monasteries, Sir Knight,' the bearded clergyman standing at Fontan's elbow offered.\n\n'Bergsten's not a knight any more, your Reverence,' Komier corrected him. 'He _used_ to be, but God had other plans for him. He's a Patriarch of the Church now. He prays well enough, I suppose, but we haven't been able to get his axe away from him yet.'\n\n'My manners must be slipping,' Fontan apologized. 'My friend here is Archimandrite Monsel, the duly anointed head of the Church of Astel.'\n\n'Your Grace.' Bergsten inclined his head politely.\n\n'Your Grace,' Monsel replied, looking curiously at the warlike clergyman. 'Your friend Emban and I had some very stimulating discussions about our doctrinal differences. You and I might want to continue those, but let's see to your wounded first. How many injured men do you have?'\n\n'Twenty thousand or so, your Grace,' Komier answered bleakly. 'It's a little hard to keep an exact count. A few score die on us every hour or so.'\n\n'What in God's name did you encounter up in those mountains?' Monsel gasped.\n\n'The King of Hell, as closely as we can determine, your Grace,' Darellon replied. 'We left thirty thousand dead on the field \u2013 mostly Cyrinics. Lord Abriel, their Preceptor, led the charge, and his knights followed closely behind him. They were fully engaged before they realized what they were up against.' He sighed. 'Abriel was nearing seventy, and he seemed to think he was leading his last charge.'\n\n'He was right about that,' Komier grunted sourly. 'There wasn't enough of him left to bury.'\n\n'He died well, though,' Heldin added. 'Do you have any fast messengers available, your Excellency? Sparhawk and Vanion are counting on us to reach Matherion as soon as possible, so we'd probably better let them know that we're going to be delayed.'\n\n* * *\n\n'His name's Valash,' Stragen told Sparhawk and Talen as the three of them, still wearing their tar-smeared sailor's smocks, stepped out of the noisy, torch-lit street into a dark, foul-smelling alley. 'He and his two friends are Dacites from Verel.'\n\n'Have you been able to find out who they're working for?' Sparhawk asked him as they stopped to let their eyes adjust to the darkness and their noses to the smell. The alleys of Beresa were particularly unpleasant.\n\n'I heard one of them mention Ogerajin,' Stragen replied. 'It makes sense, I guess. Ogerajin and Zalasta seem to be old friends.'\n\n'I thought Ogerajin's brains were rotting out,' Talen objected.\n\n'Maybe he has lucid moments. It doesn't really matter who sent them, though. While they're here, they're reporting to Krager. As closely as I can make out, they've been sent here to assess the damage we did to them during the Harvest Festival and to pick up any bits and pieces of information that fall to hand. They've got money, but they don't want to turn much of it loose. They're in this strictly for gain \u2013 and for the chance to seem important.'\n\n'Does Krager come here to get their reports?' Sparhawk asked.\n\n'He hasn't recently. Valash communicates with him by messenger. These three Dacites are seriously out of their depth here. They want to hold on to as much of the money Ogerajin gave them as they can, but they don't want to miss anything important. They aren't professionals by any stretch of the imagination. They spend most of their time trying to figure out some way to get information without paying for it.'\n\n'A swindler's dream,' Talen noted. 'What did they do for a living back in Verel?'\n\n'They sold children to people whose tastes run in that direction,' Stragen replied in a disgusted tone. 'As I understand it, Ogerajin used to be one of their best customers.'\n\n'That puts them right at the bottom, doesn't it?'\n\n'Probably even lower than that.' Stragen glanced around to make sure they were alone. 'Valash wants to meet you two.' Stragen pointed toward the end of the alley. 'He's just up those stairs. He's renting a corner in the loft from a fellow who deals in stolen goods.'\n\nTalen smiled a rather nasty little smile. 'If these Dacites happened to pass too much erroneous information and false rumors on to Krager, he might just decide that they've outlived their usefulness, wouldn't you say?'\n\n'Probably,' Stragen shrugged.\n\n'That sort of stirs my creativity.'\n\n'Oh? Why's that?'\n\n'I don't like people who sell children. It's a personal sort of thing. Let's go meet this Valash. I'd like to find out if he's as gullible as you say.'\n\nThey climbed a rickety outside stairway to a door that was flimsy and patched and showed some signs of having been kicked in a few times. The loft beyond the door was incredibly cluttered with all manner of worn clothing, battered furniture, and dented kitchen utensils. There were even broken farm tools gathering dust in the corners. 'Some people will steal anything,' Talen sniffed.\n\nA lone candle guttered on the far side of the room, and a bony Elene sat drowsing at a table by its uncertain light. He wore a short, green brocade jacket of a Daconian cut, and his sparse, mud-colored hair stood almost straight up, looking much like a thin, dirty halo round his gaunt head. As they crossed the loft toward him, he stirred himself and quickly picked up some papers and began to shuffle them in a self-important manner. He looked up with feigned impatience as they approached. 'You're late, Vymer,' he accused in a high-pitched, nasal voice.\n\n'Sorry, Master Valash,' Stragen apologized in a servile tone. Tron and I were busy extricating young Reldin here from a tense situation. Reldin's very good, but he overextends himself sometimes. Anyway, you wanted to meet my associates,' He laid one hand on Sparhawk's shoulder. 'This is Fron. He's a tavern brawler, so we let him deal with any situation that can be settled with a few quick punches or a kick in the belly. The boy there is Reldin, the nimblest sneak-thief I've ever known. He can wriggle through mouse-holes, and his ears are sharp enough to hear ants crossing the street on the other side of town.'\n\n'I just want to hire him, Vymer,' Valash said. 'I don't want to buy him.' He giggled at his own joke. He smirked at them, clearly expecting them to join in his laughter. Talen, however, did not laugh. His eyes took on an icy glitter.\n\nValash seemed a bit abashed by their reception of his feeble joke. 'Why are you all dressed as sailors?' he asked, more for something to say than out of any real curiosity.\n\nStragen shrugged. 'It's a port city, Master Valash. The streets are crawling with sailors, so three more won't attract any particular attention.'\n\nValash grunted. 'Have you anything for me that I might find worth my while?' he asked in a superior, bored tone of voice.\n\nTalen snatched off his cap. 'You'll have to decide that for yourself, Master Valash,' he whined, as he bowed awkwardly. 'I _did_ come across something, if you'd care to hear it.'\n\n'Go on,' Valash told him.\n\n'Well, sir, there's this rich Tamul merchant who owns a big house over in the fancy part of town. He's got a tapestry on the wall of his study that I've had my eye on for quite some time now. It's a very good one \u2013 lots of tiny stitches, and the color hasn't faded very much. The only trouble is that it covers the whole wall. You can get a fortune for really good tapestry, but only if you can get it all out in one piece. It's not worth much if you have to cut it up to carry it out. Anyway, I went into his house the other night to try and come up with some way to get it out without butchering it. The merchant was in the study, though, and he had a friend with him \u2013 some noble from the imperial court at Matherion. I listened at the door, and the noble was telling the merchant about some of the rumors running around the imperial palace. Everybody's saying that the Emperor's very unhappy with these people from Eosia. That attempt to overthrow the government last fall really frightened him, and he'd like to come to some kind of agreement with his enemies, but this Sparhawk person won't let him. Sarabian's convinced that they're going to lose, so he's secretly outfitted a fleet of ships all loaded down with treasure and as soon as trouble shows up on the horizon, he's going to make a run for it. The courtiers all know about his plans, so they're stealthily making arrangements for their own escapes when the fighting starts. Some morning very soon this Sparhawk's going to wake up and find an unfriendly army at his gates and nobody around to help hold them off.' He paused. 'Was that the sort of information you wanted?'\n\nThe Dacite made some effort to conceal his excited interest. He put on a deprecating expression. 'It's nothing we haven't heard before. About all it does is help to confirm what we've already picked up.' He tentatively pushed a couple of small silver coins across the table. 'I'll pass it on to Panem-Dea and see what they think about it.'\n\nTalen looked at the coins and then at Valash. Then he crammed his cap back on. 'I'll be leaving now, Vymer,' he said in a flat tone, 'and don't waste my time on this cheapskate again.'\n\n'Don't be in such a rush,' Stragen said placatingly. 'Let me talk with him first.'\n\n'You're making a mistake, Valash,' Sparhawk told the Dacite. 'You've got a heavy purse hanging off your belt. If you try to cheat Reldin, he'll come back some night and slice open the bottom of it. He won't leave you enough to buy breakfast.'\n\nValash put his hand protectively over his purse. Then he opened it with what appeared to be extreme reluctance.\n\n'I thought Lord Scarpa was at Natayos,' Stragen said casually. 'Has he moved his operations to Panem-Dea?'\n\nValash was sweating as he counted out coins, his fingers lingering on each one as if he were parting with an old friend. 'There are a lot of things you don't know about our operation, Vymer,' he replied. He gave Talen a pleading look as he tentatively pushed the money across the table.\n\nTalen made no move to accept the coins.\n\nValash made a whimpering sound and added more coins.\n\n'That's a little better,' Talen told him, scooping up the money.\n\n'Then Scarpa's moved?' Stragen asked.\n\n'Of course not,' Valash retorted. 'You didn't think his _whole_ army's at Natayos, did you?'\n\n'That's what I'd heard. He has other strongholds as well, I take it?'\n\n'Of course. Only a fool puts his entire force in one place, and Scarpa's far from being a fool, I'll tell the world. He's been recruiting men in the Elene kingdoms of western Tamuli for years now, and he sends them all to Lydros and then on to Panem-Dea for training. After that, they go on to either Synaqua or Norenja. Only his crack troops are at Natayos. His army's at least five times larger than most people believe. These jungles positively seethe with his men.'\n\nSparhawk carefully concealed a smile. Valash obviously had a great need to appear important, and that need made him reveal things he shouldn't be talking about.\n\n'I didn't know Scarpa's army was so big,' Stragen admitted. 'It makes me feel better. It might be nice to be on the winning side for a change.'\n\n'It's about time,' Sparhawk growled. 'I'm getting a little tired of being chased out of every town we visit before I've even had the time to unpack my sea-bag.' He squinted at Valash. 'As long as the subject's come up anyway, could we expect Scarpa's people out there in the brush to take us in if things turn sour and we have to make a run for it?'\n\n'What could possibly go wrong?'\n\n'Have you ever taken a good look at an Atan, Valash? They're as tall as trees, and they've got shoulders like bulls. They do unpleasant things to people, so I want a friendly place to come down to if I suddenly have to take flight. Are there any other safe places out there in the woods?'\n\nValash's expression grew wary as if he had suddenly realized that he'd said too much already.\n\n'Ah \u2013 I think we know what we need to, Fron,' Stragen interposed smoothly. 'There _are_ safe places out there if we really need to find them. I'm sure there are many things Master Valash knows that he's not supposed to talk about.'\n\nValash puffed himself up slightly, and his expression took on a knowing, secretive cast. 'You understand the situation perfectly Vymer,' he said. 'It wouldn't be proper for me to reveal things Lord Scarpa's told me in strictest confidence,' He pointedly picked up his papers again.\n\n'We won't keep you from important matters, Master Valash,' Stragen said, backing away. 'We'll nose around town some more and let you know if we find out anything else.'\n\n'I'd appreciate that, Vymer,' Valash replied, shuffling his papers as his visitors departed.\n\n'What an ass,' Talen muttered as the three of them carefully descended the rickety staircase to the alley again.\n\n'Where did you learn so much about tapestry?' Sparhawk asked him.\n\n'I don't know anything about tapestry.'\n\n'You were talking as if you did.'\n\n'I talk about a lot of things I don't know anything about. It fills in the gaps when you're trying to peddle something that's worthless. I could tell by the way Valash's eyes glazed over when I mentioned the word \"tapestry\" that he didn't know any more about it than I did. He was too busy trying to make us think that he's important to pay any real attention. I could get rich from that one. I could sell him blue butter.'\n\nSparhawk gave him a puzzled look.\n\n'It's a swindler's term,' Stragen explained. 'The meaning's a little obscure.'\n\n'I'm sure it is.'\n\n'Did you want me to explain it?'\n\n'Not particularly, no,'\n\n'Is it a family custom? Or just a way to honor your father?' Berit asked Khalad as the two of them, wearing mail-shirts and grey cloaks, lounged against the forward rail of the scruffy lake-freighter plodding across the Sea of Arjun from Sopal to Tiana.\n\nKhalad shrugged. 'No, it's nothing like that. It's just that the men in our family all have heavy beards \u2013 except for Talen. If I decided not to wear a beard, I'd have to shave twice a day. I clip it close with scissors once a week and let it go at that. It saves time.'\n\nBerit rubbed at his altered cheek. 'I wonder what Sparhawk would do if I let his beard grow,' he mused.\n\n_'He_ might not do anything, but Queen Ehlana would probably peel you like an apple. She likes his face just the way it is. She's even fond of that crooked nose.'\n\n'It looks as if we've got weather up ahead.' Berit pointed toward the west.\n\nKhalad frowned. 'Where did _that_ come from? The sky was clear just a minute ago. It's funny I didn't smell it coming.'\n\nThe cloud-bank hovering low on the western horizon was purplish black, and it roiled ominously, swelling upward with surprising speed. There were flickers of lightning deep inside the cloud, and the sullen rumble of thunder came to them across the dark, choppy waters of the lake.\n\n'I hope these sailors know what they're doing,' Berit said. 'That has the earmarks of a very nasty squall.'\n\nThey continued to watch the inky cloud as it boiled higher and higher, covering more and more of the western sky.\n\nThat's not a natural storm, Berit,' Khalad said tensely. 'It's building too fast.'\n\nThen there was a shocking crash of thunder, and the cloud blanched and shuddered as the lightning seethed within it. Both the young men saw the shadowy shape in the instant that the bluish lightning thrust back the darkness to reveal what lay hidden in the cloud. 'Kl\u00e6l!' Berit gasped, staring at the monstrous, winged shape half-concealed in the churning storm-front.\n\nThe next crash of thunder ripped the sky, and the shabby vessel shuddered in the overwhelming sound. The inverted wedge of Kl\u00e6l's face seemed to ripple and change in the midst of its veiling cloud, and the slitted eyes flamed in sudden rage. The great, batlike wings began to claw at the approaching storm, and the awful mouth opened to roar forth the thunder of Kl\u00e6l's frustration. He howled in vast fury, and his enormous arms stretched up into the murky air, reaching hungrily to clutch at something that was not there.\n\nAnd then the thing was gone, and the unnatural cloud tattered and streamed harmlessly off to the southeast to become no more than a dirty smudge on the horizon. The air, however, was filled with a sulphurous reek.\n\n'You'd better pass the word to Aphrael,' Khalad said grimly. 'Kl\u00e6l's loose again. He was looking for something, and he didn't find it. God knows where he'll look next.'\n\n'Komier's arm is broken in three places,' Sir Heldin rumbled when he joined the mail-shirted Patriarch Bergsten, Ambassador Fontan, and Archimandrite Monsel in Monsel's book-littered study in the east wing of the palace, 'and Darellon's still seeing two of everything. Komier can travel if he has to, but I think we'd better leave Darellon here until he recovers.'\n\n'How many knights are fit to ride?' Bergsten asked.\n\n'Forty thousand at most, your Grace.'\n\n'We'll just have to make do with what we've got. Emban knew that we'd probably come this way, and he's been sending messengers by the platoon. Things are coming to a head in southeastern Tamuli. Sparhawk's wife has been taken hostage, and our enemies are offering to trade her for Bhelliom. There's a rebel army in the Arjuni jungles preparing to march on Matherion, and two more armies massing on the eastern frontier of Cynesga. If those armies all join up, the game's over. Emban wants us to ride east across the steppes until we're past the Astel Marshes and then turn south and lay siege to the Cynesgan capital. He needs a diversion of some kind to pull those armies back from the border.'\n\nSir Heldin pulled out his map. 'It's workable,' he said after a moment's study, 'but we're going to be a little light for that kind of job.'\n\n'We'll get by. Vanion's in the field, but he's badly outnumbered along that Cynesgan frontier. If we don't create enough of a disturbance to relieve some of the pressure on him, he'll be swarmed under.'\n\nHeldin looked speculatively at the huge Thalesian patriarch. 'You're not going to like this, your Grace,' he said, 'but there's not much choice in the matter.'\n\n'Go ahead,' Bergsten told him.\n\n'You're going to have to lay your cassock aside and take command. Abriel's been killed, Darellon's incapacitated, and if Komier gets into a fight, the weight of his axe will cripple him.'\n\n_'You're_ still here, Heldin. You can take charge.'\n\nHeldin shook his head. 'I'm not a Preceptor, your Grace, and everybody in the army knows it. I'm also a Pandion, and the other orders have strong feelings about us. We haven't made very many friends in the past couple of centuries. The other orders won't accept me as commander. You're a Patriarch, and you speak for Sarathi \u2013 and the Church. They'll accept you with no argument.'\n\n'It's out of the question.'\n\n'Then we'll have to sit here until Dolmant sends us a new commander.'\n\n'We _can't_ wait!'\n\n'My point exactly. Do I have your permission to tell the knights that you're taking command?'\n\n'I can't, Heldin. You know that I'm forbidden to use magic'\n\n'We can work our way around that, your Grace. There are plenty of accomplished magicians in the ranks. Just tell us what you want done, and we'll see to it.'\n\n'I've taken an oath.'\n\n'You took another one earlier, Lord Bergsten. You promised to defend the Church. _That_ oath takes precedence in this situation.'\n\nThe hugely bearded and black-robed Archimandrite Monsel looked speculatively at the reluctant Thalesian. Then he spoke in a neutral sort of way. 'Would you like an independent opinion, Bergsten?'\n\nBergsten scowled at him.\n\n'You're going to get it anyway,' the Astellian churchman said with unruffled calm. 'Given the nature of our opponent, we're face to face with a \"Crisis of the Faith\", and that suspends all the other rules. God needs your axe, Bergsten, not your theology.' He squinted at the Thalesian Patriarch. 'You don't seem convinced,' he said.\n\n'I'm not trying to be offensive, Monsel, but \"Crisis of the Faith\" can't just be pulled out and dusted off whenever we want to bend some rules.'\n\n'All right, let's try this one then. This is Astel, and your Church at Chyrellos recognizes _my_ authority here. As long as we're in Astel, _I_ speak for God.'\n\nBergsten pulled off his helmet and absently polished the glossy black Ogre-horns on his sleeve. 'Technically, I suppose,' he conceded.\n\n'Technicalities are the very soul of doctrine, your Grace.' Monsel's huge beard bristled with disputational fervor. 'Do you agree that I speak for God here in Astel?'\n\n'All right, for the sake of argument, yes.'\n\n'I'm glad you agree; I'd hate to have to excommunicate you. Now then, I speak for God here, and God wants you to take command of the Church Knights. Go forth and smite God's enemies, my son, and may heaven strengthen your arm.'\n\nBergsten squinted out the window at the dirty-looking sky for a long moment, mulling the clearly specious argument over in his mind. 'You take full responsibility, Monsel?' he asked.\n\n'I do.'\n\n'That's good enough for me, then.' Bergsten crammed his helmet back on his head. 'Sir Heldin, go tell the knights that I'm assuming command of the four orders. Instruct them to make all the necessary preparations. We march first thing in the morning.'\n\n'At once, General Bergsten,' Heldin replied, coming to attention.\n\n'Anakha,' Bhelliom's voice echoed in the vaults of Sparhawk's mind, 'thou must awaken.'\n\nEven before he opened his eyes, Sparhawk could feel a light touch on the thong about his neck. He caught the little hand and opened his eyes. 'What do you think you're doing?' he demanded of the Child Goddess.\n\n'I _have_ to have the Bhelliom, Sparhawk!' Her voice was desperate, and her eyes were streaming tears.\n\n'What's going on, Aphrael? Calm down and tell me what's happened.'\n\n'Sephrenia's been stabbed! She's dying! Please, Sparhawk! Give me the Bhelliom!'\n\nHe came to his feet all in one motion. 'Where did this happen?'\n\n'In Dirgis. She was getting ready for bed, and Zalasta came into her room. He stabbed her in the _heart,_ Sparhawk! Please, Father, give me the Bhelliom! I've got to have it to save her!'\n\n'She's still alive?'\n\n'Yes, but I don't know for how long! Xanetia's with her. She's using a Delphaeic spell to keep her breathing, but she's dying, my sister's dying!' She wailed and hurled herself into his arms, weeping uncontrollably.\n\n'Stop that, Aphrael! This isn't helping. When did this happen?'\n\n'A couple of hours ago. Please, Sparhawk! Only Bhelliom can save her!'\n\n'We _can't,_ Aphrael! If we take Bhelliom out of that box, Cyrgon will know immediately that we're trying to trick him, and Scarpa will kill your mother!'\n\nThe Child Goddess clung to him, sobbing uncontrollably. 'I _know!'_ she wailed. 'What are we going to do, Father? We _can't_ just let her die!'\n\n'Can't _you_ do something?'\n\n'The knife touched her heart, Sparhawk! I can't reverse that! Only Bhelliom has that kind of power!'\n\nSparhawk's soul seemed to shrivel, and he smashed at the wall with his fist. He lifted his face. 'What can I do?' he hurled his voice upward. 'What in God's name can I do?'\n\n'Compose thyself, Anakha!' Bhelliom's voice was sharp in his mind. 'Thou wilt serve neither Sephrenia nor thy mate by this unseemly display!'\n\n'We have to _do_ something, Blue Rose!'\n\n'Thou art not at this moment fit to decide. Thou must therefore be ruled by me. Go at once and do as the Child Goddess doth entreat thee.'\n\n'Thou wilt condemn my wife!'\n\n'That is not certain, Anakha. Sephrenia, however, doth linger on the brink of death. That much _is_ certain. It is _her_ need that is most pressing.'\n\n'No! I can't do that!'\n\n'Thou wilt obey me, Anakha! Thou art _my_ creature, and therefore subject to _my_ will! Go thou and do as I have commanded thee!'\n\n# _Chapter 12_\n\nSparhawk dug into his sea-bag, throwing clothes on the floor.\n\n'What are you _doing?'_ Aphrael demanded urgently. 'We have to hurry!'\n\n'I've got to leave a note for Stragen, but I can't find any paper.'\n\n'Here.' She held out her hand, and a sheet of parchment appeared in it.\n\n'Thank you.' He took the parchment and continued to rummage in the bag.\n\n'Get _on_ with it, Sparhawk.'\n\n'I need something to write with.'\n\nShe muttered something in Styric and handed him a quill and a small inkpot.\n\n'Vymer,' Sparhawk scribbled, 'something's come up, and I'll be gone for a while. Keep Reldin out of trouble.' And he signed it, 'Fron.' Then he laid it in the center of Stragen's bed.\n\n_'Now_ can we go?' she asked impatiently.\n\n'How are you going to do this?' He picked up his cloak.\n\n'We have to get out of town first. I don't want anybody to see us. What's the quickest way to the woods?'\n\n'East. It's about a mile to the edge of the forest.'\n\n'Let's go.'\n\nThey left the room, went down the stairs and on out into the street. Sparhawk picked her up and half-enfolded her in his cloak.\n\n'I can walk,' she protested.\n\n'Not without attracting attention, you can't. You're a Styric, and people would notice that.' He started off down the street, carrying her in his arms.\n\n'Can't you go any faster?'\n\n'Just let me handle this part of it, Aphrael. If I start running, people will think I've stolen you.' He looked around to make sure no one on the muddy street was close enough to hear. 'How are you going to manage this?' he asked her. There _are_ people out there who can feel it when you tamper with things, you know. We don't want to attract attention.'\n\nShe frowned. 'I'm not sure. I was upset when I came here.'\n\n'Are you _trying_ to get your mother killed?'\n\n'That's a hateful thing to say.' She pursed her little mouth in thought. 'There's always a certain amount of noise,' she mused.\n\n'I didn't quite follow that.'\n\n'It's one of the disadvantages of having our two worlds overlap the way they do. The sounds of one sort of spill over into the other. Most humans can't hear us \u2013 or feel us \u2013 when we move around, but _we_ can definitely hear and feel each other.'\n\nSparhawk crossed the street to avoid a noisy brawl that had just erupted from a sailors' tavern. 'If the others can hear you, how are you going to hide what you're doing?'\n\n'You didn't let me finish, Sparhawk. We're not alone here. There are others all around us \u2013 my family, the Tamul Gods, your Elene God, various spirits and ghosts, and the air's positively littered with the Powerless Ones. Sometimes they flock up like migrating birds.'\n\nHe stopped and stepped back to let a rickety charcoal wagon creak past. 'Who are these \"Powerless Ones\"?' he asked her. 'Are they dangerous?'\n\n'Hardly. They don't even really exist any more. They're nothing but memories \u2013 old myths and legends.'\n\n'Are they real? Could I see them?'\n\n'Not unless you believe in them. They were Gods once, but their worshippers either died out or were converted to the worship of other Gods. They wail and flutter around the edges of reality without substance or even thought. All they have is need.' She sighed. 'We go out of fashion, Sparhawk \u2013 like last year's gowns or old shoes and hats. The Powerless Ones are discarded Gods who shrink and shrink as the years go by until they're finally nothing at all but a kind of anguished wailing.' She sighed again. 'Anyway,' she went on, 'there's all this noise in the background, and it makes it very hard to concentrate or pick out specifics.'\n\nThey passed another smelly tavern loud with drunken song. 'Is this noise something like that?' Sparhawk asked, jerking his head toward the singing. 'Meaningless sound that fills up your ears and keeps you from hearing what you're really listening for?'\n\n'More or less. We have a couple of senses that you don't, though, so we know when others are around, for one thing, and we know when they're doing things \u2013 tampering, if you want to call it that \u2013 for another. Maybe I can hide what I'm doing in all that other noise. How much further do we have to go?'\n\nHe turned a corner into a quiet street. 'We're coming to the edge of town now.' He shifted her in his arms and continued on up the street, walking a little faster now. The houses here on the outskirts of Beresa were more substantial, and they were set back from the streets in aloof, self-important pride. 'After we go through the charcoal yards, we'll come to the woods,' he told her. 'Are you _sure_ this noise that I can't hear will be loud enough to hide your spells?'\n\n'I'll see if I can get some help. I just thought of something. Cyrgon doesn't know exactly where I am, and it'll take him a little while to identify me and pinpoint my exact location. I'll ask some of the others to come here and have a party or something. If they're loud enough, and if I move fast enough, he won't even know that I've been here.'\n\nThere were only a few workmen tending the sullen fires in the charcoal yards that ringed Beresa, incurious men, blackened by their tasks and far gone with drink, who lurched around the smoky flames like hellish imps dancing on eternal coals. Sparhawk walked even faster now, carrying the distraught Child Goddess toward the shadowy edge of the tangled forest.\n\n'I'll need to be able to see the sky,' she told him. 'I don't want any tree-limbs in my way.' She paused. 'Are you afraid of heights?' she asked.\n\n'Not particularly, why?'\n\n'Just asking. Don't get excited when we start. I won't let anything happen to you. You'll be perfectly safe as long as I'm holding your hand.' She paused again. 'Oh, dear,' she murmured. 'I just remembered something.'\n\n'What?' He pushed aside a branch and slipped past it into the darkness of the forest.\n\n'I have to be real when I do this.'\n\n'What do you mean \"real\"? You're real now, aren't you?'\n\n'Not exactly. Don't ask questions, Sparhawk. Just find me a patch of open sky and don't bother me for a while. I have to appeal for some help \u2013 if I can find them.'\n\nHe pushed through the tangled brush, a cold knot in his stomach and his heart like a stone in his chest. The hideous dilemma they faced tore at him, seeming almost to rip him apart. Sephrenia was dying, but he must endanger Ehlana in order to save her life. It was only the force of Bhelliom's will that kept him moving at all. His own will was paralyzed by the conflicting needs of the two he loved most in all the world. He pushed at the tangle surrounding him in a kind of hopeless frustration.\n\nThen he broke through the screen of brush into a small clearing carpeted by deep moss where a pool of water fed by a gurgling spring winked back at the stars strewn like bright grain across the velvet night. It was a quiet place, almost enchanted, but his eyes refused to accept its beauty. He stopped and set Aphrael down. Her small face was devoid of expression, and her eyes were blank, unseeing. Sparhawk waited tensely.\n\n'Well, _finally!'_ she said at last in an exasperated tone of voice. 'It's so hard to explain anything to them. They never stop babbling long enough to listen.'\n\n'Who's this we're talking about?'\n\nThe Tamul Gods. Now I can see why Oscagne's an atheist. I finally persuaded them to come _here_ to do their playing. That should help to hide you and me from Cyrgon.'\n\n'Playing?'\n\n'They're children, Sparhawk, babies who run and play and squeal and chase each other for months on end. Cyrgon absolutely hates them, so he won't go anywhere near them. That should help. They'll be here in a few minutes, and then we'll be able to start. Turn your back, Father. I don't like having people watch me change.'\n\n'I've seen you before \u2013 your reflection anyway.'\n\n'That part doesn't bother me. The process of the changeover's a little degrading, though. Just turn your back, Father. You wouldn't understand.'\n\nHe obediently turned and gazed up at the night sky. Several familiar constellations were either missing or in the wrong places.\n\n'All right, Father, you can turn around now.' Her voice was richer and more vibrant.\n\nHe turned. 'Would you _please_ put some clothes on?'\n\n'Why?'\n\n'Just do it, Aphrael. Humor my quirks.'\n\n'This is so tedious.' She reached out and took hold of a gauzy kind of veil she had spun out of nothing and wrapped herself in it. 'Better?' she asked.\n\n'Not much. Can we leave now?'\n\n'I'll check.' Her eyes went distant for a moment. 'They're coming,' she reported. 'They got side-tracked. It doesn't take much to distract them. Now, listen very carefully. Try to stay calm when we do this. Just keep the fact firmly in mind that I'm not going to let you get hurt. You won't fall.'\n\n'Fall? Fall from where? What are you talking about?'\n\n'You'll see. I'd do it differently, but we _have_ to get to Dirgis in a hurry, and I don't want Cyrgon to have time to locate me. We'll take it in easy stages at first, so you'll have time to get used to the idea.' She turned her head slightly. 'They're here,' she said. 'We can start now.'\n\nSparhawk cocked his head slightly. He seemed to hear the distant sound of childish laughter, though it might have been only the sound of an errant breeze rustling the leaves in the treetops.\n\n'Give me your hand,' she instructed.\n\nHe reached out and took her by the hand. It seemed very warm and somehow comforting.\n\n'Just look up at the sky, Sparhawk,' the heartbreakingly beautiful young woman instructed.\n\nHe raised his face and saw the upper edge of the moon come creeping pale and luminous up above the treetops.\n\n'You can look down now.'\n\nThey were standing some ten feet above the rippled waters of the pool. Sparhawk's muscles tensed.\n\n'Don't do that!' she said sharply. 'Just relax. You'll slow us down if I have to drag you through the air like a water-logged canoe.'\n\nHe tried, but he didn't have much success. He was certain that his eyes were lying to him, though. He could _feel_ solidity under his feet. He stamped on it, and it was as firm as earth ought to be.\n\n'That's just for now,' the Goddess told him. 'In a little while you won't need it any more. I always have to put something solid down for Sephrenia \u2013' Her voice broke off with a strange little sob. _'Please_ get control of yourself, Sparhawk,' she pleaded. 'We _must_ hurry. Look at the sky again. We're going a little higher.'\n\nHe felt nothing at all, no rush of air, no sinking in the pit of his stomach, but when he looked down again, the clearing and its enchanted pool had shrunk to a dot. The tiny lights of Beresa twinkled from minuscule windows, and the moon had laid a long, glowing path out across the Tamul Sea.\n\n'Are you all right?' Her inflections were still Aphrael's, but her voice, and most definitely her appearance, were totally different. Her face peculiarly combined Flute's features with Danae's, making her the adult who had somehow been both little girls. Sparhawk didn't answer, but instead stood stamping one foot on the solid nothing under him.\n\n'I won't be able to keep that there when we start,' she warned. 'We'll be going too fast. Just hold onto my hand, but don't get excited and break my fingers.'\n\n'Don't do anything to surprise me, then. Are you going to sprout wings?'\n\n'What an absurd idea. I'm not a bird, Sparhawk. Wings would only get in my way. Just lean back and relax.' She looked intently at him. 'You're really handling this well. Sephrenia's usually in hysterics at this point. Would you be more at ease if you sat down?'\n\n'On what?'\n\n'Never mind. Maybe we'd better stand. Take a couple of deep breaths, and let's get started.'\n\nHe found that looking up helped. When he was looking at the stars and the newly risen moon, he could not see the awful emptiness under him.\n\nThere was no sense of movement, no whistle of the wind in his ears, no flapping of his cloak. He stood holding Aphrael's hand and looking intently at the moon as it receded ponderously southward.\n\nThen there was a pale luminosity coming up from beneath.\n\n'Oh, bother,' the Goddess said.\n\n'What's wrong?' His voice was a little shrill.\n\n'Clouds.'\n\nHe looked down and saw a fairy-tale world under them. Tumbled white cloud, glowing in the moonlight, stretched out as if forever. Mountains of airy mist swelled up from a folded, insubstantial plain, and pillars and castles of curded cloud stood sentinel-like between. Sparhawk's mind filled with wonder as the soft, moonlit cloudscape flowed smoothly back below them. 'Beautiful,' he murmured.\n\n'Maybe, but I can't see the ground.'\n\n'I think I prefer it that way.'\n\n'I need reference points, Sparhawk. I can't see where I am, so I can't tell where I'm going. Bhelliom can find a place with nothing but a name to work with, but I can't. I need landmarks, and I can't see them with all these clouds in the way.'\n\n'Why don't you use the stars?'\n\n'What?'\n\n'That's what sailors do when they're out at sea. The stars don't move, so the sailors pick out a certain star or constellation and steer toward it.'\n\nThere was a long silence while the swiftly receding rush of cloud beneath them slowed and finally stopped. 'Sometimes you're so clever that I can't stand you, sparhawk,' the Goddess holding his hand said tartly.\n\n'Do you mean you've never even thought of it?' he asked her incredulously.\n\n'I don't fly at night very often.' Her tone was defensive. 'We're going down. I have to find a landmark.'\n\nThey sank downward, the clouds rushing up to meet them, and then they were immersed in a dense, clinging mist. 'They're made out of fog, aren't they? Clouds, I mean.' Sparhawk was surprised.\n\n'What did you think they were?'\n\n'I don't know. I've never thought of it before. It just seems strange for some reason.'\n\nThey broke out of the underside of the cloud \u2013 clouds no longer bathed in moonglow, now hanging close over their heads like a dirty ceiling that closed off the light. The earth beneath them was enveloped in almost total darkness. They drifted along, standing in air and veering this way and that, peering down and searching for something recognizable.\n\n'Over there.' Sparhawk pointed. 'It must be a fair-sized town. There's quite a lot of light.'\n\nThey moved in that direction, drawn toward the light like mindless insects. There was a sense of unreality as Sparhawk looked down. The town lying beneath them seemed tiny. It huddled like a child's toy on the edge of a large body of water. Sparhawk scratched at his cheek, trying to remember the details of his map. 'It's probably Sopal,' he said. 'That lake almost has to be the Sea of Arjun.' He stopped, his mind suddenly reeling. 'That's over three hundred leagues from where we started, Aphrael!' he exclaimed. 'Almost a thousand miles!'\n\n'Yes \u2013 if that town really _is_ Sopal.'\n\n'It has to be. The Sea of Arjun's the only large body of water on this part of the continent, and Sopal's on the east side of it. Arjun's on the south side, and Tiana's on the west.' He stared at her incredulously. 'A thousand miles! And we only left Beresa a half an hour ago! Just how fast are we going?'\n\n'What difference does it make? We got here. That's all that matters.' The young woman holding his hand looked speculatively down at the miniature town on the lake-shore. 'Dirgis is off to the west a little way, so we won't want to go straight north.' She shifted them around in mid-air until they were facing in a slightly northwesterly direction. 'That should be fairly close. Don't move your head, Sparhawk. Keep looking in that direction. We'll go back up, and you pick out a star.'\n\nThey rose swiftly through the clouds, and Sparhawk saw the familiar constellation of the wolf lying above the misty horizon ahead. 'There,' he pointed. 'The five stars clustered in the shape of a dog's head.'\n\n'It doesn't look like any dog _I've_ ever seen.'\n\n'You have to use your imagination. How is it you've never thought of steering by the stars before?'\n\nShe shrugged. 'Probably because I can see farther than you can. You see the sky as a surface \u2013 a kind of overturned bowl with the stars painted on it all at the same distance from you. That's why you can see that cluster of stars as a dog's head. I can't, because I can see the difference in distances. Keep an eye on your dog, Sparhawk. Let me know if we start to drift off-course.'\n\nThe moon-bathed cloud beneath them began to flow smoothly back again, and they flew on in silence for a while. This isn't so bad,' Sparhawk said. 'At least not when you get used to it.'\n\n'It's better than walking,' the gauze-clad Goddess replied.\n\n'It made my hair stand on end right at first, though.'\n\n'Sephrenia's never gotten past that stage. She starts gibbering in panic as soon as her feet come up off the ground.'\n\nSparhawk remembered something. 'Wait a minute,' he objected. 'When we killed Ghwerig and stole the Bhelliom, you came floating up out of that chasm in his cave, and she walked out across the air to meet you. She wasn't gibbering in panic then.'\n\n'No. It was probably the bravest thing she's ever done. I was so proud of her that I almost burst.'\n\n'Was she conscious at all? When you found her, I mean?'\n\n'Off and on. She was able to tell us who'd attacked her. I managed to slow her heartbeat and take away the pain. She's very calm now.' Aphrael's voice quavered. 'She expects to die, Sparhawk. She can feel the wound in her heart, and she knows what that means. She was giving Xanetia a last message for Vanion when I left.' The young Goddess choked back a sob. 'Can we talk about something else?'\n\n'Of course.' Sparhawk's eyes flickered away from the constellation in the night sky. 'There are mountains sticking up out of the clouds just ahead.'\n\n'We're almost there, then. Dirgis is in the big basin lying beyond that first ridge.'\n\nTheir rapid flight began to slow. They passed over the snowy peaks of the southern-most expanse of the mountains of Atan, peaks that rose out of the clouds like frozen islands, and found that there was only thin cloud-cover over the basin lying beyond.\n\nThey descended, drifting down like dandelion puffs toward the forest-covered hills and valleys of the basin, a landscape sharply etched in the moonlight that leeched out all color. There was another cluster of lights some distance to the left \u2013 ruddy torches in narrow streets and golden candlelight in little windows. 'That's Dirgis,' Aphrael said. 'We'll set down outside of town. I should probably change back before we go on in.'\n\n'Either that or put on some more clothes.'\n\nThat really bothers you, doesn't it, Sparhawk? Am I ugly or something?'\n\n'No. Quite the opposite \u2013 and that bothers me all the more. I can't think while you're standing around naked, Aphrael.'\n\n'Im not really a woman, Sparhawk \u2013 not in the sense that seems to bother you so much, anyway. Can't you think of me as a mare \u2013 or a doe?'\n\n'No, I can't. Just do whatever you have to do, Aphrael. I don't really think we need to talk about how I think of you.'\n\n'Are you blushing, Sparhawk?'\n\n'Yes, as a matter of fact I am. Now can we drop it?'\n\n'That's really rather sweet, you know.'\n\n'Will you stop?'\n\nThey came down in a secluded little glen about a half-mile from the outskirts of Dirgis, and Sparhawk turned his back while the Child Goddess once again assumed the more familiar form of the Styric waif they all knew as Flute. 'Better?' she asked when he turned around.\n\n'Much.' He picked her up and started toward town, his long legs stretching out in a rapid stride. He concentrated on that. It seemed to help him avoid thinking.\n\nThey went directly into town, made one turn off the main street, and came to a large, two-story building. 'This is it,' Aphrael said. 'We'll just go in and up the stairs. I'll make the innkeeper look the other way.'\n\nSparhawk pushed open the door, crossed the common-room on the main floor and went up the stairs.\n\nThey found Xanetia all aglow and cradling Sephrenia in her arms. The two women were on a narrow bed in a small room with roughly squared-off log walls. It was one of those snug, comfortable rooms such as one finds in mountain inns the world over. It had a porcelain stove, a couple of chairs, and a nightstand beside each bed. A pair of candles cast a golden light on the pair on the bed. The front of Sephrenia's robe was covered with blood, and her face was deathly pale, tinged slightly with that fatal grey. Sparhawk looked at her, and his mind suddenly filled with flames. 'I will cause hurt to Zalasta for this,' he growled in Trollish.\n\nAphrael gave him a startled look. Then she also spoke in the guttural language of the Trolls. 'Your thought is good, Anakha,' she agreed fiercely. 'Cause much hurt to him.' The rending sound of the Trollish word for \"hurt\" seemed very satisfying to both of them. 'His heart still belongs to me, though,' she added. 'Has there been any change?' she asked Xanetia, lapsing into Tamul.\n\n'None, Divine One,' Xanetia replied in a voice near to exhaustion. I am lending our dear sister of mine own strength to sustain her, but I am nearly spent. Soon both she and I will die.'\n\n'Nay, gentle Xanetia,' Aphrael said. I will _not_ lose you. Fear not, however. Anakha hath come with Bhelliom to restore ye both.'\n\n'But that must not be,' Xanetia protested. 'To do so would put the life of Anakha's Queen in peril. Better that thy sister and I both perish than that.'\n\n'Don't be noble, Xanetia,' Aphrael told her tartly. 'It makes my hair hurt. Talk to Bhelliom, Sparhawk. Find out how we're supposed to do this.'\n\n'Blue Rose,' Sparhawk said, touching his fingers to the bulge under his smock.\n\n'I hear thee, Anakha.' The voice in Sparhawk's mind was a whisper.\n\n'We have come unto the place where Sephrenia lies stricken.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'What must we now do? I implore thee, Blue Rose, do not increase the peril of my mate.'\n\n'Thine admonition is unseemly, Anakha. It doth bespeak a lack of trust. Let us proceed. Surrender thy will to me. It is through _thy_ lips that I must speak with Anarae Xanetia.'\n\nA strange, detached lassitude came over Sparhawk, and he felt himself somehow separating, his awareness sliding away from his body.\n\n'Attend to me, Xanetia.' It was Sparhawk's altered voice, but he had no consciousness of having spoken.\n\n'Most closely, World-Maker,' the Anarae replied in her exhausted voice.\n\n'Let the Child Goddess assume the burden of supporting her sister. I have need of thy hands.'\n\nAphrael slipped onto the bed and took Sephrenia from Xanetia's arms and held her in a tender embrace.\n\n'Take forth the box, Anakha,' Bhelliom instructed, 'and surrender it up unto Xanetia.'\n\nSparhawk's movements were jerky as he pulled the golden box out from under his tunic and lifted the thong upon which it was suspended up over his head.\n\n'Gather about thee that serenity which the curse of Edaemus hath bestowed upon thee, Xanetia,' Bhelliom instructed, 'and enfold the box \u2013 and mine essence \u2013 in thy hands, letting thy peace infuse that which thou dost hold.'\n\nXanetia nodded and extended her glowing hands to take the box from Sparhawk's grasp.\n\n'Very good. Now, take the Child Goddess in thine arms. Embrace her and deliver me up unto her.'\n\nXanetia clasped both Aphrael and Sephrenia in her arms.\n\n'Excellent. Thy mind is quick, Xanetia. This is even better. Aphrael, open thou the box and draw me forth.' Bhelliom paused. 'No tricks,' it admonished her with uncharacteristic colloquialism. 'Seek not to ensnare me with thy wiles and thy soft touch.'\n\n'Don't be absurd, World-Maker.'\n\n'I know thee, Aphrael, and I know that thou art more dangerous than ever Azash was or Cyrgon could be. Let us both concentrate all our attention upon the cure of thy sister.'\n\nThe Child Goddess opened the lid of the box and lifted out the glowing Sapphire Rose. Sparhawk, all bemused, saw the steady white glow which emanated from Xanetia take on a faint bluish flush as Bhelliom's radiance joined her own.\n\n'Apply me, poulticelike, to her wound that I may heal that injury which Zalasta hath inflicted.'\n\nSparhawk was a soldier and he knew a great deal about wounds. His stomach knotted when he saw the deep, seeping gash in the upper swell of Sephrenia's left breast.\n\nAphrael reached out with Bhelliom and gently touched it to the bleeding wound.\n\nSephrenia started to glow with an azure radiance. She half-raised her head. 'No,' she said weakly, trying to push Aphrael's hand away.\n\nSparhawk took both her hands in his and held them. 'It's all right, little mother,' he lied softly. 'Everything's been taken care of.'\n\nThe wound in Sephrenia's breast had closed, leaving an ugly purple scar. Then, even as they watched, the Sapphire Rose continued its work. The scar shrank down to a thin white line that became fainter and fainter and finally disappeared entirely.\n\nSephrenia began to cough. It was a gurgling, liquid kind of cough such as a nearly drowned man might make.\n\n'Hand me that basin, Sparhawk,' Aphrael instructed. 'She has to clear the blood out of her lungs.'\n\nSparhawk reached out and took the large, shallow basin from the nightstand and handed it to her.\n\n'Here,' she said. 'You can have this back now.' She gave him the closed box, took the basin, and held it under Sephrenia's chin. That's right,' she said encouragingly to her sister as the small woman began coughing up chunks of clotted blood. 'Get it all out.'\n\nSparhawk looked away. The procedure was not very pretty.\n\n'Put thy mind at rest, Anakha,' Bhelliom's voice told him softly. 'Thine enemies are unaware of what hath come to pass.' The jewel paused. I have not given Edaemus his due, for he is very shrewd. Methinks none other could have perceived the true import of what he hath done. To curse his children as he hath was the only true way to conceal them. I shudder to imagine the pain it must have caused him.'\n\n'I do not understand,' Sparhawk confessed.\n\n'A blessing rings and shimmers in the lucid air like bell-sound, Anakha, but a curse is dark and silent. Were the light which doth emanate from Anarae Xanetia a blessing, all the world would hear and feel its o'erwhelming love, but Edaemus hath made it a curse instead. Therein lay his wisdom. The accursed are cast out and hidden, and no one \u2013 man or God \u2013 can hear or feel their comings and goings up and down the land. When she did take the box in her hands, Anarae Xanetia did smother all sound and sense of my presence, and when she did embrace Aphrael and Sephrenia and enfold them in her luminous darkness, none living could detect me. Thy mate is safe \u2013 for now. Thine enemies have no knowledge of what hath come to pass.'\n\nSparhawk's heart soared. I do sorely repent my lack of trust, Blue Rose,' he apologized.\n\nThou wert distraught, Anakha. I do freely forgive thee.'\n\n'Sparhawk,' Sephrenia's voice was little more than a whisper.\n\n'Yes, little mother?' He went quickly to the side of the bed.\n\n'You shouldn't have agreed to this. You've put Ehlana in terrible danger. I thought you were stronger.'\n\n'Everything's all right, Sephrenia,' he assured her. 'Bhelliom just explained it to me. Nobody heard or felt a thing while you were being healed.'\n\n'How is that possible?'\n\n'It was Xanetia's presence \u2013 and her touch. Bhelliom says she completely muffled what was going on. It has to do with the difference between a blessing and a curse, as I understand it. However it works, what just happened didn't put Ehlana in any danger. How are you feeling?'\n\n'Like a half-drowned kitten, if you really want to know,' she smiled weakly. Then she sighed. 'I would never have believed that Zalasta could be capable of what he did.'\n\n'I'll make him wish he'd never thought of it,' Sparhawk said grimly. Im going to tear out his heart, roast it on a spit, and then serve it up to Aphrael on a silver plate.'\n\n'Isn't he a nice boy?' Aphrael said fondly.\n\n'No.' Sephrenia's voice was surprisingly firm. 'I appreciate the thought, dear ones, but I don't want either of you to do anything to Zalasta. I'm the one he stabbed, so I want to be the one who decides who gets him.'\n\n'I suppose that's fair,' Sparhawk conceded.\n\n'What have you got in mind, Sephrenia?' Aphrael asked.\n\n'Vanion's going to be dreadfully upset when he hears about this. I don't want him raging and breaking up the furniture, so I'm going to give Zalasta to him \u2013 all tied up in a bright red ribbon.'\n\n'I still get his heart, though,' Aphrael insisted.\n\n# _Chapter 13_\n\nThe sky was overcast with sullen cloud, and a chill, arid wind scoured the empty floor of the Desert of Cynesga as Vanion led the retreat eastward. Fully half of his armored knights had perished in the encounter with Kl\u00e6l's soldiers, and very few of the survivors had escaped serious injury. Vanion had ridden forth from Sarna with an army. He was returning at the head of a column of groaning invalids, battered and dented, after what had really been no more than a skirmish.\n\nFour Atans carried Engessa on a litter, and Queen Betuana strode along at his side, her face ravaged with grief. Vanion sighed. Engessa was still breathing, but only barely.\n\nThe Preceptor straightened in his saddle, trying to shake off his shock and dismay and to think rationally. The fight with Kl\u00e6l's warriors had decimated his force of Church Knights, and they had been central to the strategy of containment. Without those armored horsemen, the eastern frontier of Tamul Proper was no longer secure.\n\nVanion muttered a sour oath. The only thing he could really do now was to warn the others about the change in the situation. 'Sir Endrik,' he called to the old veteran riding some distance behind, 'take over here. I've got something to take care of.'\n\nEndrik came forward.\n\n'Keep them going east,' Vanion instructed. 'I'll be back in a little bit.' He spurred his tired horse into a loping canter and rode on ahead.\n\nWhen he was about a mile in front of the column, he reined in and cast the spell of summoning.\n\nNothing happened.\n\nHe cast it again, more urgently this time.\n\n_'What?'_ Aphrael's voice in his ear was irritably impatient.\n\n'I've got some bad news, Divine One,' he told her.\n\n'What _else_ can go wrong? Hurry up, Vanion. I'm very busy right now.'\n\n'We ran into Kl\u00e6l out in the desert. He had an army of giants with him, and we got very badly mauled. Tell Sparhawk and the others that I probably won't be able to hold Samar if the Cynesgans lay siege to it. I've lost half of the knights, and the ones I've got left aren't in any condition for a fight. Tikume's Peloi are brave men, but they don't have any experience with sieges.'\n\n'When did this happen?'\n\n'About four hours ago. Can you find Abriel and the other preceptors? They should be in Zemoch or Western Astel by now. They have to be warned about Kl\u00e6l. Tell them that under no circumstances should they engage in any pitched battles with Kl\u00e6l's troops. We're no match for them. If the main body of the Church Knights gets waylaid and wiped out, we'll lose this war.'\n\n'Who are these giants you're talking about, Vanion?'\n\n'We didn't have time for introductions. They're bigger than the Atans, though \u2013 almost as big as Trolls. They wear very close-fitting armor and steel face-masks. Their weapons aren't like anything I've ever seen, and they've got yellow blood.'\n\n'Yellow? That's impossible!'\n\n'It's yellow all the same. You can come here and look at my sword-blade, if you'd like. I managed to kill a couple of them while I was covering Betuana's retreat.'\n\n'Retreat? Betuana?'\n\n'She was carrying Engessa.'\n\n'What's wrong with Engessa?'\n\n'He was out front a little ways, and Kl\u00e6l's soldiers attacked him. He fought well, but they swarmed him under. We charged into them, and Betuana cut her way through to Engessa. I ordered a retreat and covered Betuana while she carried Engessa to the rear. We're taking him back to Sarna, but I think it's a waste of effort. The side of his head's been bashed in, and I'm afraid we're going to lose him.'\n\n'Don't say that, Vanion. Don't _ever_ say that. There's always hope.'\n\n'Not much this time, Divine One. When somebody breaks into a man's brain, about all you can do for him is dig a grave.'\n\n'I'm _not_ going to lose him, Vanion! How fast can you get him back to Sarna?'\n\n'Two days, Aphrael. It took us two days to get here, and two days out means two days back.'\n\n'Can he hold on that long?'\n\n'I doubt it.'\n\nShe said a short, ugly word in Styric. 'Where are you?'\n\n'Twenty leagues south of Sarna and about five leagues out into the desert.'\n\n'Stay there. I'll come and find you.'\n\n'Be a little careful when you approach Betuana. She's behaving very strangely.'\n\n'Say what you mean, Vanion. I don't have time for riddles.'\n\n'I'm not sure what I mean, Aphrael. Betuana's a soldier, and she knows that people sometimes get killed in battle. Her reaction to what's happened to Engessa is \u2013 well \u2013 excessive. She's broken down completely.'\n\n'She's an Atan, Vanion. They're a very emotional people. Go back and halt your column. I'll be there in a little while.'\n\nVanion nodded, although there was no one there to nod to, turned his horse and rode back to rejoin his knights. 'Any change?' he asked Queen Betuana.\n\nShe lifted her tear-streaked face. 'He opened his eyes once, Vanion-Preceptor,' she replied. 'I don't think he saw me, though.' She was holding Engessa's hand.\n\n'I talked with Aphrael,' he advised her. 'She's coming here to have a look at him. Don't give up hope yet, Betuana. Aphrael cured _me,_ and I was closer to being dead than Engessa is.'\n\n'He _is_ fairly strong,' she said. 'If the Child Goddess can heal his wound before it carries him off \u2013' Her voice caught with an odd little note.\n\n'He'll be all right, your Majesty,' he said, trying to sound more certain than he really was. 'Can you get word to your husband? \u2013 about Kl\u00e6l, I mean? He should know about those soldiers Kl\u00e6l hides under his wings.'\n\n'I'll send a runner. Should I tell Androl to come to Sarna instead of going to Tosa? Kl\u00e6l is here _now,_ and Scarpa's army won't reach Tosa for quite some time \u2013 and that's only if they can evade the Trolls.'\n\n'Let's wait until I've had the chance to talk with the others first. Is King Androl already on the march?'\n\n'He should be. Androl always jumps when I suggest something. He's a good man \u2013 and very, very brave.' She said it almost as if defending her husband from some unspoken criticism, but Vanion noticed that she absently stroked Engessa's ashen face even as she spoke.\n\n'He must have been in a hurry,' Stragen said, still puzzling over Sparhawk's terse note.\n\n'He's never been very good at writing letters,' Talen shrugged, 'except for that one time when he spent days composing lies about what we were supposedly doing on the Isle of Tega.'\n\n'Maybe that took it all out of him,' Stragen folded the note and looked closely at it. 'Parchment,' he said. 'Where did he get his hands on parchment?'\n\n'Who knows? Maybe he'll tell us when he comes back. Let's go take a walk on the beach. I need some exercise.'\n\n'All right.' Stragen picked up his cloak, and he and the younger thief went downstairs and out into the street.\n\nThe southern Tamul Sea was calm, and the moon-path across its dark surface was unbroken and very bright. 'Pretty,' Talen murmured when the two reached the damp sand at the edge of the water.\n\n'Yes,' Stragen agreed.\n\n'I think I've come up with something,' Talen said.\n\n'So have I,' Stragen replied.\n\n'Go ahead.'\n\n'No, let's hear yours first.'\n\n'All right. The Cynesgans are massing on the border, right?'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'A good story could un-mass them.'\n\n'I don't think there is such a word.'\n\n'Did we come here to discuss vocabulary? What will the Cynesgans do if they hear that the Church Knights are coming? Wouldn't they almost have to send an army to meet them?'\n\n'I think Sparhawk and Vanion want to keep the fact that the knights are coming more or less a secret.'\n\n'Stragen, how are you going to keep a hundred thousand men a secret? Let's say that I tell Valash that I've picked up a very reliable report that a fleet of ships flying Church banners has rounded the southern tip of Daconia bound for Kaftal. Wouldn't that cause the other side some concern? Even if they know about the knights coming across Zemoch, they'd _still_ have to send troops to meet that fleet. They couldn't ignore the possibility that the knights are coming at them from two different directions.'\n\nStragen suddenly laughed.\n\n'What's so funny?'\n\n'You and I have been running together for too long, Talen. We're starting to think alike. I came up with the idea of telling Valash that the Atans are going to cross the steppes of eastern Astel and strike down into northern Cynesga toward the capital.'\n\n'Nice plan,' Talen said.\n\n'So's yours,' Stragen squinted out across the moon-bathed water. 'Either story's strategically credible,' he mused. 'They're exactly the kind of moves a military man _would_ come up with. What we're _really_ planning is a simultaneous strike from the east and the west. If we can make Cyrgon believe that we're going to hit him from the north and south instead, we'll pull him so far out of position that he'll never be able to get his armies back to meet our real attacks.'\n\n'Not to mention the fact that we'll cut his army in two.'\n\n'We'll have to be careful though,' Stragen cautioned. I don't think even Valash is gullible enough to swallow these stories if we drop them both on him at the same time. We'll have to spread them out and dribble them to him bit by bit. What I'd _really_ like to do is let the fairy-tale about the Atans come from someone other than me.'\n\n'Sparhawk could probably get Aphrael to arrange that,' Talen suggested.\n\n'If he ever comes back. His note was a little vague. We can get things rolling, though. Let's modify your story a bit. Push your make-believe fleet back to Valesia. Give Cyrgon some time to worry about it before we pinpoint Kaftal as the final destination. I'll plant a couple of ambiguous hints about the Atans massing up near their northwestern frontier. We'll let things stand that way until Sparhawk comes back.'\n\nTalen sighed.\n\n'What's wrong?'\n\n'This is almost legal, isn't it?'\n\n'I suppose you could say so, yes. Is there some problem with that?'\n\n'If it's legal, why am I having so much fun?'\n\n'Nothing?' Ulath asked, opening the neck of his red uniform jacket.\n\n'Not a peep,' Tynian replied. 'I cast the spell four times, and I still can't raise her.'\n\n'Maybe she's busy.'\n\n'It's possible, I guess.'\n\nUlath rubbed at his cheek reflectively. 'I definitely think I'll shave off Sir Gerda's beard,' he muttered. 'You know, it _could_ be that it's because we're in No-Time. When we did this the first time \u2013 back in Pelosia \u2013 none of our spells worked.'\n\n'I think this spell's different, Ulath. I'm not really trying to _do_ anything. I just want to talk with Aphrael.'\n\n'Yes, but you're mixing magic. You're trying to use a Styric spell when you're up to your ears in a Trollish one.'\n\n'Maybe that's it. I'll try again when we get to Arjun and go back into real time.'\n\nBhlokw came shambling back through the grey light of Ghnomb's frozen moment, passing a flock of stationary birds hanging in the air. 'There are some of the dens of the man-things in the next valley,' he reported.\n\n'Many or few?' Ulath asked him.\n\n'Many,' Bhlokw replied. 'Will the man-things have dogs there?'\n\n'There are always dogs near the dens of the man-things, Bhlokw.'\n\n'We should hurry then.' The shaggy Troll paused. 'What do the man-things call this place?'\n\n'It is the place Arjun \u2013 I think.'\n\n'That is the place where we want to go, is it not?'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'Why?'\n\n'The wicked ones have told the one called Berit to go there. It is our thought that we should go there in Ghnomb's broken moment and listen to the bird-talk of the man-things. One of the man-things may say where the wicked ones will tell the one called Berit to go next. It may be that the next place will be the place where Anakha's mate is. It would be good to know this.'\n\nBhlokw's shaggy brow furrowed as he struggled his way through that. 'Are the hunts of the man-things always so not-simple?' he asked.\n\n'It is the nature of our kind to be not-simple.'\n\n'Does it not make your head hurt?'\n\nUlath smiled, being careful not to show his teeth. 'Sometimes it does,' he admitted.\n\n'It is my thought that a simple hunt is better than a not-simple hunt. The hunts of the man-things are so not-simple that sometimes I forget why I am hunting. Trolls hunt things-to-eat. The man-things hunt thought.'\n\nUlath was a bit startled at the Troll's perception. 'It is my thought that your thought may be good,' he admitted. 'The man-things _do_ hunt thought. We put much value on it.'\n\n'Thought is good, U-lat, but you can not eat it.'\n\n'We hunt thought after our bellies are full.'\n\n'That is how Trolls and the man-things are different, U-lat. I am a Troll. My belly is never full. Let us hurry. It is my thought that it will be good to know if the dogs of this place are as good-to-eat as the dogs of the other place.' He paused. I do not wish to cause you anger, U-lat, but it is my thought that the dogs of the man-things are more good-to-eat than the man-things themselves,' He scratched at his cheek with one shaggy paw. I would still eat a man-thing if my belly was empty, but I would like a dog better.'\n\n'Let us go find you a dog then.'\n\n'Your thought is good, U-lat.' The huge beast reached out and affectionately patted Ulath on the head, nearly driving him to his knees.\n\nThe Child Goddess touched her fingertips lightly to the sides of Engessa's broken head, and her eyes became distant.\n\n'Well?' Vanion asked, his tone urgent.\n\n'Don't rush me, Vanion. The brain is very complicated.' She continued her gentle probing. 'Impossible,' she said finally, withdrawing her fingers.\n\nBetuana groaned.\n\n'Please don't do that, Betuana,' Aphrael said. 'All I meant was that I can't do it here. I'll have to take him someplace else to repair him.'\n\n'The island?' Vanion guessed.\n\nShe nodded. I can control things there. This is still Cynesga \u2013 Cyrgon's place. I don't think he'd give me permission no matter how sweetly I asked him. Can you pray here, Betuana?'\n\nThe Atan Queen shook her head. 'Only in Atan itself.'\n\n'I'm going to talk to your God about that. It's really _very_ inconvenient.' She bent again and put her hand on Engessa's chest.\n\nThe Atan general appeared to stop breathing, and his face and body were suddenly covered with frost.\n\n'You've killed him!' Betuana shrieked at her.\n\n'Oh, hush! I just froze him to stop the bleeding until I can get him to the island. The injury itself isn't so bad, but the bleeding's tearing up the rest of his brain. The freezing slows it down to a trickle. That's all I can do for right now, but it should be enough to keep his body from doing any more damage to itself while you're taking him back to Sarna.'\n\nThere's no hope,' Betuana said with a look of anguish.\n\n'What are you talking about? I can have him back on his feet in a day or two \u2013 but I have to take him to the island where I can control time. The brain is easy. It's the heart that's so \u2013 well, never mind that. Listen closely, Betuana. As soon as you and Vanion get him to Sarna, I want you to go to the Atan border as fast as you can run. As soon as you get across that line, fall on your knees and start praying to your God. He'll be stubborn \u2013 he always is \u2013 but keep after him. Make a pest of yourself until he gives in. I need his permission to take Engessa to my island. If nothing else works, promise him that I'll do something nice for him someday. Don't be _too_ specific, though. Keep bearing down on the fact that _I_ can save Engessa, and _he_ can't.'\n\n'I will do as you have commanded, Divine One,' Betuana declared.\n\n'I didn't _command,_ Betuana. I only suggested. I don't have the authority to command you.' The Child Goddess turned to Vanion. 'Let me see your sword,' she said. I want to have a look at this yellow blood.'\n\nVanion drew his sword and offered it to her hilt-first.\n\nShe shuddered. _'You_ hold it, dear one. Steel makes me nauseous.' She squinted at the stains on the blade. 'Astonishing,' she murmured. 'That isn't blood at all.'\n\n'It's what came out of them when we cut them.'\n\n'Perhaps, but it's still not blood. It's some kind of bile. Kl\u00e6l's going a little far afield for allies. Those giants you ran across don't come from here, Vanion. They aren't like any creatures on _this_ world.'\n\n'We noticed that almost immediately, Divine One.'\n\nT'm not talking about their size or shape, Vanion. They don't even seem to have the same kind of internal organs as the humans and animals. I'd guess that they don't even have lungs.'\n\n'Everything has lungs, Aphrael \u2013 except maybe fish.'\n\nThat's _here,_ dear one. If these creatures have bile in their veins instead of blood, then they're relying on their livers for \u2013' she broke off, frowning. 'I guess it _is_ possible,' she said a little dubiously. 'I'd hate to smell the air on their world, though.'\n\n'You _do_ know that I haven't got the foggiest idea of what you're talking about, don't you?'\n\nShe smiled. 'That's all right, dear one. I love you anyway.'\n\n'Thank you.'\n\n'Don't mention it.'\n\n'It _could_ be good country, friend Tikume,' Kring said, adjusting his black leather jerkin and looking around at the rocky desert. 'It's open and not too rugged. All it needs is water \u2013 and a few good people.' The two of them rode at the front of their disorganized mob of Peloi.\n\nTikume grinned. 'When you get right down to it, friend Kring, that's all Hell really needs.'\n\nKring laughed. 'How far is it to this Cynesgan camp?' he asked.\n\n'Another five leagues. It's easy fighting, Domi Kring. The Cynesgans ride horses and carry curved swords much like your sabers, but their horses are scrubby and not very good, and the Cynesgans are too lazy to practice their swordsmanship. To make it even better, they wear flowing robes with big, floppy sleeves. Half the time they get tangled up in their own clothing.'\n\nKring's grin was wolfish.\n\n'They run fairly well,' Tikume added, 'but they always come back.'\n\n'To the same camps?' Kring asked incredulously.\n\nTikume nodded. 'It makes it even easier. We don't have to go looking for them.'\n\n'Incredible. Are they using rotten tree-stumps for leaders?'\n\n'From what I've heard, they're getting their orders from Cyrgon.' Tikume rubbed his shaved scalp. 'Do you think it might be heresy to suggest that even a God can be stupid?'\n\n'As long as you don't say it about _our_ God, I think you're safe.'\n\n'I wouldn't want to get in trouble with the Church.'\n\n'Patriarch Emban's a reasonable man, Domi Tikume. He won't denounce you if you say unflattering things about our enemy.' Kring raised up in his stirrups to peer across the brown, gravel-strewn expanse of the Desert of Cynesga. 'I'm looking forward to this,' he said. 'I haven't been in a real fight for a long time.' He sank back into his saddle. 'Oh, I almost forgot. I talked with friend Oscagne about the possibility of a bounty on Cynesgan ears. He said no.'\n\n'That's a shame. Men fight better if they've got an incentive of some kind.'\n\n'It even gets to be a habit. We had a fight with the Trolls up in northern Atan, and I had a dead Troll's ear half sawed-off before I remembered nobody was around to buy it from me. That's a funny-looking hill up there, isn't it?' He pointed ahead at an almost perfectly shaped dome rearing up out of the desert floor.\n\n'It _is_ a little odd,' Tikume agreed. 'There aren't any rocks on its sides \u2013 just dust.'\n\n'Probably some kind of dust-dune. They have sand-dunes down in Rendor that look like that. The wind whirls the sand around and leaves it in round hills.'\n\n'Would dust behave like sand?'\n\n'Evidently so. There's the proof just up ahead.'\n\nAnd then, even as they watched, the hill split down the middle and its sides fanned out. They stared at the triangular face of Kl\u00e6l as he rose ponderously to his feet, shedding great waterfalls of dust from his gleaming black wings.\n\nKring reined in sharply. 'I _knew_ something wasn't right about that hill!' he exclaimed, cursing his own inattention, as their men surged around them.\n\n'He didn't come alone this time!' Tikume shouted. 'He had soldiers hidden under his wings! Hold!'\n\n'Big devils, aren't they?' Kring squinted at the armored warriors rushing toward them. 'Big or little, though, they're still infantry, and that's all the advantage we need, isn't it?'\n\n'Right!' Tikume chortled. 'This should be more fun than chasing Cynesgans.'\n\n'I wonder if they've got ears,' Kring said, drawing his saber. 'If they do, we might just want to gather them up. I haven't given up on friend Oscagne yet.'\n\n'There's one way to find out,' Tikume said, hefting his javelin and leading the charge.\n\nThe standard Peloi tactics seemed to baffle Kl\u00e6l's soldiers. The superb horses of the nomads were as swift as deer, and the eastern Peloi's preference for the javelin over the saber was an additional advantage. The horsemen split up into small groups and began their attack. They slashed forward in long files, each group concentrating on one of the steel-masked monsters and each Peloi hurling his javelin into the huge bodies at close range and then swerving away to safety. After a few such attacks, the front ranks of the enemy warriors bristled like hedgehogs with the short spears protruding from their bodies.\n\nThe armored soldiers grew increasingly desperate, and they flailed ineffectually at their swift-charging tormentors with their brutal maces, savaging the unoffending air and almost never striking a solid blow.\n\n'Good fight!' Kring panted to his friend after several charges. They're big, but they're not quite fast enough.'\n\n'And not in very good condition either,' Tikume added. 'That last one I skewered was puffing and wheezing like a leaky bellows.'\n\n'They _do_ seem to be having some trouble getting their breath, don't they?' Kring agreed. His eyes suddenly narrowed. 'Wait a minute, let's try something. Tell your children to just ride in and then wheel and ride out again. Don't waste any more javelins.'\n\n'I don't quite follow, Domi.'\n\n'Have you ever gone up into the high mountains?'\n\n'A few times. Why?'\n\n'Do you remember how hard it was to get your breath?'\n\n'Right at first, I suppose. I remember getting a little light-headed.'\n\n'Exactly. I don't know where Kl\u00e6l went to recruit these soldiers, but it wasn't from around here. I think they're used to thicker air. Let's make them chase us. Why go to all the trouble of killing somebody if the air's going to do the job for you?'\n\n'It's worth a try.' Tikume shrugged. 'It takes a lot of the fun out of it, though.'\n\n'We can have fun with the Cynesgans later,' Kring told him. 'Let's run Kl\u00e6l's infantry to death first. _Then_ we can go slaughter Cyrgon's cavalry.'\n\n'Sort of follow my lead on this,' Stragen told Talen as the two mounted the rickety stairs leading up to the loft. 'I've gotten to know Valash fairly well, so I can gauge his reactions a little better than you can.'\n\n'All right,' Talen shrugged. 'He's your fish. I'll let you play him.'\n\nStragen opened the door to the stale-smelling loft, and the two of them threaded their way through the clutter to Valash's corner.\n\nThe bony Dacite in the brocade jacket was not alone. A gaunt Styric with open, seeping sores on his face slumped in a chair at the table. The Styric's right arm hung limply at his side, the right side of his ulcerated face sagged, and his right eyelid drooped down to almost totally cover the eye. He was mumbling to himself, evidently completely unaware of his surroundings.\n\n'This isn't a good time, Vymer,' Valash said.\n\n'It's quite important, Master Valash,' Stragen said quickly.\n\n'All right, but don't take too long.'\n\nAs they approached the table, Talen's stomach suddenly churned. An overpowering odor of putrefying flesh emanated from the comatose Styric.\n\nThis is my master,' Valash said shortly.\n\n'Ogerajin?' Stragen asked.\n\n'How did you know his name?'\n\n'You mentioned it to me once, I think \u2013 or maybe it was one of your friends. Isn't he a little sick to be out and about?'\n\nThat's none of your concern, Vymer. What's this important information you have for me?'\n\n'Not me, Master Valash. Reldin here picked up something.'\n\n'Speak up then, boy.'\n\n'Yes, Master Valash,' Talen said, ducking his head in a sort of half-bow. 'I went into a waterfront tavern earlier today, and I heard a couple of Edomish sailors talking. They seemed very excited about something, so I slipped a little closer to find out why they were so worked up. Well, you know how Edomishmen feel about the Church of Chyrellos.'\n\n'Get on with it, Reldin.'\n\n'Yes, sir. I was only trying to explain. _Anyway,_ one of the sailors had just reached port, and he was telling the other one to get word to somebody in Edom \u2013 Rebal, I think his name is. It seems that the first sailor had just come in from Valesia, and when he'd been leaving port there, his ship passed a fleet coming into the harbor at Valles.'\n\n'What's so significant about that?' Valash demanded.\n\n'I was just coming to that. What made the first sailor so excited was the fact that the ships he saw were all flying the banners of the Church of Chyrellos and the rails were lined with men wearing armor. He kept babbling something about Church Knights coming to impose heresies on the people of Tamuli.'\n\nValash was staring at him in open-mouthed horror.\n\n'As soon as I heard that part, I slipped away. Vymer here thought you might want to know about it, but I wasn't so sure. What difference should it make to us that the Elenes are arguing about religion? It doesn't involve us, does it?'\n\n'How many ships?' Valash demanded in a half-strangled tone. His eyes were bulging.\n\n'The sailor wasn't too specific, Master Valash.' Talen smiled. 'I sort of got the impression that he ran out of the numbers that he knew the names of. I guess that fleet stretched from horizon to horizon. If those men in armor _are_ Church Knights, I'd say that _all_ of them are on board these ships. I've heard things about those people. _I_ certainly wouldn't want to be the one they're coming after. How much would you say this information's worth, Master Valash?'\n\nValash reached for his purse without any protest.\n\n'Have any messengers from those camps out in the woods come by lately, Master Valash?' Stragen asked suddenly.\n\n'That's none of your concern, Vymer.'\n\n'Whatever you say, Master Valash. All I was getting at is that you ought to warn them about talking in public. I came across a couple of men who looked as if they've been living in the woods. One of them was telling the other that they couldn't do anything until Scarpa got instructions from Cyrga. Who's Cyrga? I've never heard of him.'\n\n'It's not a who, Vymer,' Talen said. 'It's a where. Cyrga's a town over in Cynesga.'\n\n'Really?' Stragen's expression grew curious. 'This is the first time I've ever heard the name. Where is it? What route would you take to get to Cyrga?'\n\n'The pathway lies close by the Well of Vigay,' the diseased Ogerajin announced in a loud, declamatory voice.\n\nValash made a slightly strangled noise and ineffectually tried to wave his hands warningly in front of his master's face, but Ogerajin brushed him aside. 'Keep morning at thy back,' the Styric continued.\n\n'Master Ogerajin,' Valash protested in a squeaky tone.\n\n'Silence, knave,' Ogerajin thundered at him. I will answer this traveler's question. If it is his intent to present himself and bow down to Cyrgon, he must know the way. Proceed, traveler, past the Well of Vigay and trek northwesterly into the desert. Thy destination shall be the Forbidden Mountains where none may go without Cyrgon's leave except at their peril. When thou dost reach those black, forbidding heights, seek ye the Pillars of Cyrgon, for without them to guide thee, Cyrga will remain forever hidden.'\n\n'Please, Master.' Valash was helplessly wringing his hands as he stared in chagrin at the raving old lunatic.\n\n'I have commanded thy silence, knave. Speak once more and thou shalt surely die.' He turned back to fix Stragen with his single wild eye. 'Be not dismayed, traveler, by the Plains of Salt which nomads fear to cross. Ride, boldly ride across the dead whiteness, empty of life save only where miscreants labor in the quarries to mine the precious salt.\n\n'From the verge of the Plains of Salt wilt thou behold low on the horizon before thee the dark shapes of the Forbidden Mountains, and, if it please Cyrgon, his fiery white pillars will guide thee to his Hidden City.\n\n'Let not the Plain of Bones disquiet thee. The bones are those of the nameless slaves who toil until death for Cyrgon's chosen, and, having served their purpose, are then given to the desert.\n\n'Beyond the Plain of Bones wilt thou come to the Gates of Illusion behind which lies concealed the Hidden City of Cyrga. The eye of mortal man cannot perceive those gates. Stark they stand as a fractured wall at the verge of the Forbidden Mountains to bar thy way. Bend thine eye, however, upon Cyrgon's two white pillars and direct thy steps toward the emptiness which doth lie between them. Trust not the evidence which thine eye doth present unto thee, for the solid-seeming wall is as mist and will not bar thy way. Pass through it and proceed along the dark corridor to the Glen of Heroes where lie the unnumbered regiments of Cyrgon in restless sleep, awaiting the trumpet call of his mighty voice summoning them forth once more to smite his enemies.'\n\nValash stepped back a pace and urgently beckoned to Talen to follow him.\n\nCurious, Talen followed the Dacite. 'Don't pay any attention to Master Ogerajin, boy,' Valash said urgently. 'He hasn't been well lately, and he has these spells quite often.'\n\n'I'd already guessed that, Master Valash. Shouldn't you get him to a physician? He's really raving, you know.'\n\n'There's nothing a physician could do for him,' Valash shrugged. 'Just make sure that Vymer understands that the old man doesn't know what he's talking about.' Valash seemed unusually concerned about Ogerajin's ravings.\n\n'He already knows, Master Valash. Any time somebody starts throwing the \"thee\"s' and \"thou\"s' around, you can be fairly sure that his saddle's starting to slip.'\n\nThe diseased Styric was still raving in that hollow, declamatory voice. 'Beyond the Glen of Heroes wilt thou see the Well of Cyrgon, sparkling in the sun and sustaining the Hidden City.\n\n'Close by the well in fields laced with channels thou wilt see black Cyrga rising like a mountain within its walls of night. Go boldly there and into the city of the Blessed Cyrgai. Mount the steep streets to the summit of that enclosed peak, and there at the Crown of the known world thou wilt find amid that blackness the white, where columns of chalk bear the lintels and roof of the Holy of Holies wherein Cyrgon burns eternal upon the sacred altar.\n\n'Fall upon thy face in that awful presence, crying _\"Vanet, tyek Alcor! Yala Cyrgon!\"_ and, should it please him, he will hear thee. And should it please him not, he will destroy thee.\n\n'Thus, traveler, is the way to the Hidden City which lieth at the heart of Mighty Cyrgon, King and God of all that was, all that is, and all that shall ever be.'\n\nThen the crazed Styric's face contorted into a grotesque mask of glee, and he began to cackle in a shrill, meaningless giggle.\n\n# _Chapter 14_\n\n'All right, Sparhawk, you can turn round now.'\n\n'Are you dressed?'\n\nShe sighed. 'Just a minute.' There was a satiny rustle. 'Will _this_ do?' she asked tartly.\n\nHe turned. The Goddess was wrapped in a shimmering white robe. 'That's a little better,' he told her.\n\n'Prude. Give me your hand.'\n\nHe took her slender hand in his and they drifted upward, rising out of the forested hills just east of Dirgis. 'Sarna's somewhat to the west of due south,' he told her.\n\n'I know where it is.' Her tone was crisp.\n\n'I was just trying to be helpful.'\n\nThe ground beneath them began to flow back as they sped southwesterly.\n\n'Can people see us from the ground?' he asked curiously.\n\n'Of course not. Why?'\n\n'Just wondering. It occurred to me that if they can it might explain a lot of the wild stories that crop up in folklore.'\n\n'You humans are very creative. You can invent wild stories without any help from us.'\n\n'You're in a disagreeable frame of mind today. How long is it going to take us to get there?'\n\n'Just a few minutes.'\n\n'It's an interesting way to travel.'\n\n'It's overrated.'\n\nThey drifted on in silence for a while. 'That's Sarna just ahead,' Aphrael said.\n\n'Do you think Vanion's reached here by now?'\n\n'I doubt it. Later today probably. We're going down,' They settled gently to earth in a clearing a mile or so from the northern edge of the city, and Aphrael returned to the more familiar form of Flute. 'Carry me,' she said, reaching up to him.\n\n'You know how to walk.'\n\n'I just carried you all the way from Dirgis. Fair _is_ fair, Sparhawk.'\n\nHe smiled. 'Only teasing, Aphrael.' He lifted her into his arms and started through the forest toward town. 'Where to?' he asked her.\n\n'The Atan barracks. Vanion says that Itagne's there,' She frowned. 'Oh, that's _really_ impossible!' she burst out.\n\n'What's wrong?'\n\n'Sir Anosian's hopelessly inept. I can't make any sense out of what he's saying.'\n\n'Where is he?'\n\n'At Samar. He's trying to tell me about something Kring and Tikume just discovered, but I'm only getting about every third word. Why _won't_ the man concentrate on his studies?'\n\n'Anosian's sort of \u2013 ah -'\n\n'The word you're looking for is \"lazy\", Sparhawk.'\n\n'He likes to conserve his energy,' Sparhawk defended his fellow Pandion.\n\n'Of _course_ he does,' She frowned. 'Stop a minute,' she said.\n\n'What's the matter?'\n\n'I just thought of something.'\n\n'What now?'\n\n'It just occurred to me that Tynian may have been a little unselective when he was gathering those knights he brought back from Chyrellos.'\n\n'He brought the best men he could lay his hands on.'\n\n'I think that's the problem. I've been wondering why I haven't been getting any reports from Komier. I don't think Tynian left him a single Pandion who has any more skill than Anosian does. There aren't all that many of you who can reach out more than a few leagues, and Tynian seems to have inadvertently commandeered them all.'\n\n'Could you make any sense at all about what Anosian was trying to tell you?'\n\n'It's something about breathing. Somebody's having problems with it. I'll run on down there after we talk with Itagne. Maybe Anosian can be coherent if I'm in the same room with him.'\n\n'Be nice.'\n\nThey passed through the city gates and entered Sarna. Sparhawk carried the Child Goddess through the narrow streets to the bleak stone fortress that housed the local Atan garrison.\n\nThey found the red-mantled Itagne in a large conference room examining the map that covered one entire wall. 'Ah, Itagne,' Sparhawk said, 'there you are.' He set Flute down on her feet.\n\n'I'm afraid you have the advantage of me, Sir \u2013?'\n\n'It's me, Itagne \u2013 Sparhawk.'\n\n'I'll _never_ get used to that,' Itagne said. I thought you were in Beresa.'\n\n'I _was_ \u2013 until yesterday.'\n\n'How did you get here so fast?'\n\nSparhawk laid his hand on Flute's little shoulder. 'Need you ask?'\n\n'Oh. What brings you to Sarna?'\n\n'Vanion ran into trouble out in the desert. He's coming back. He and Betuana are bringing Engessa in on a litter.'\n\n'Do you mean there's somebody in this world big enough to hurt Engessa?'\n\n'Perhaps not in _this_ world, Itagne,' Aphrael told him. 'Kl\u00e6l's brought in an army from someplace else. They're very strange. Vanion and Betuana should get here this afternoon. Then Betuana has to go to Atan. How far is that?'\n\nItagne looked at the map. 'Fifteen leagues.'\n\n'Good. It shouldn't take her long, then. She has to get her God's permission for me to take Engessa to the island. The side of his head's been bashed in, and I can't fix that here.'\n\n'Good God!' Itagne exclaimed.\n\n'How nice of you to notice.'\n\nHe smiled faintly. 'What else is going on?' he asked.\n\n'Quite a bit,' Sparhawk told him. 'Zalasta tried to kill Sephrenia.'\n\n'You're not serious!'\n\n'I'm afraid so. We had to use Bhelliom to save her life.'\n\n'Sparhawk!' Itagne's eyes widened.\n\n'It's all right Itagne,' Aphrael assured him, going across the room to him and holding out her hands.\n\n'Didn't that endanger Queen Ehlana?' he asked, lifting her into his lap.\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'Xanetia can muffle those telltale noises, I guess. Ehlana's still safe \u2013 or so Bhelliom tells me.' His face, however, was worried.\n\n'Thank God!'\n\n'You're welcome,' Aphrael said, 'but it was really Bhelliom's idea. We still have some problems, though. Vanion's encounter with Kl\u00e6l's army cost him about half of his knights.'\n\n'That's disastrous! We won't be able to hold Samar without those knights!'\n\n'Don't be quite so sure, Itagne,' she said. I just received a garbled message from a Pandion named Anosian. He's in Samar, and Kring and Tikume have discovered something about Kl\u00e6l's soldiers. I'll run down there and find out what's going on.'\n\n'Kl\u00e6l's keeping an eye on Berit and Khalad,' sparhawk continued. 'They saw him while they were crossing the Sea of Arjun,' He rubbed at the side of his face. 'Can you think of anything else, Aphrael?'\n\n'Lots of things,' she replied, 'but they don't have anything to do with what we're doing here.' She kissed Itagne and slipped down out of his lap. 'I shouldn't be too long,' she told them. 'If Vanion gets here before I come back, break the news about Sephrenia to him gently and tell him that's she's all right now. Keep a grip on him, gentlemen. It's wintertime, and you need the roof on this building.' She went to the door, opened it, and vanished as she stepped through.\n\nTiana lay on the north shore of the large lake known as the Sea of Arjun. It was a bustling Tamul town with an extensive harbor. As soon as the scruffy lake-freighter docked, Berit and Khalad led their horses ashore and mounted. 'What was the name of that inn again?' Khalad asked.\n\n'The White Gull,' Berit replied.\n\n'Poetic,' Khalad noted.\n\n'The other names had probably already been used up. You can only have so many lions and dragons and boars in one town before people start to get confused.'\n\n'Krager's starting to give us more specific instructions in those notes,' Khalad said. 'When he sent us to Sopal, he just gave us the name of the town. Now he's picking our accommodations for us. That _might_ mean that we're getting closer to the end of this little excursion.'\n\n'Sir Ulath said that they're going to send us to Arjuna from here.'\n\n'If I'd known we were going to spend so much time wandering around this lake, I'd have brought a fishing line.'\n\n'I'm not really all that fond of fish, myself.'\n\n'Who is? It's an excuse to get out of the house is about all. My brothers and I found that if we laid around the house too long, our mothers started finding things for us to do.'\n\n'You've got a strange family, Khalad. Most men only have one mother.'\n\n'It was Father's idea. There's the White Gull.' Khalad pointed up the street.\n\nThe inn was surprisingly clean and substantial. It had a well-maintained stable, and the rooms were neat almost to the point of fussiness. The two young men saw to their horses, dropped their saddlebags off in their room, and took advantage of the bath-house adjoining the rear of the inn. Then, feeling much improved, they adjourned to the taproom to pass the time until supper. Khalad rose and closely examined the porcelain stove. 'It's an interesting idea,' he told Berit. 'I wonder if it'd catch on in Eosia.'\n\n'I sort of like looking at the fire myself,' Berit replied.\n\n'You can stare at the candles, if that's all you want. A fireplace isn't very efficient, and it makes an awful mess. A stove's a lot more practical \u2013 and you can cook on it. When we get home, I think I'll build one for my mothers.'\n\nBerit laughed. 'If you start tearing up their kitchen, they'll take their brooms to you.'\n\n'I don't think so. The notion of a stew that doesn't have cinders floating in it might appeal to them.'\n\nThe man who approached their table wore a hooded smock, and the hood partially concealed his face. 'You don't mind if I join you, do you?' he asked, sitting down and pushing the hood back slightly.\n\nIt was the same Styric they had last seen on the shore of the Gulf of Micae.\n\n'You made good time, neighbor,' Berit said. 'Of course, you knew where you were going, and we didn't.'\n\n'How long did it take you to get dry?' Khalad asked him.\n\n'Shall we skip the pleasantries?' the Styric said coldly. 'I have further instructions for you.'\n\n'You mean you didn't stop by just to renew our acquaintance?' Khalad said. 'I'm crushed.'\n\n'Very funny.' The Styric hesitated. 'I'm going to reach into my pocket for the note, so don't start drawing your knives.'\n\n'Wouldn't dream of it, old boy,' Khalad drawled.\n\n'This is for you, Sparhawk.' The Styric handed Berit the sealed parchment.\n\nBerit took the parchment and broke the seal. He carefully lifted out the identifying lock of the Queen's hair and read aloud, 'Sparhawk. Go overland to Arjun. You'll receive further instructions there. Krager.'\n\n'He must have been drunker than usual,' Khalad observed. 'He didn't bother with all the snide little comments this time. Just out of curiosity, friend, why didn't he send us straight on to Arjun from Sopal? He could have saved everybody a great deal of time.'\n\n'That's really none of your business, Elene. Just do as you're told.'\n\n'I'm a peasant, Styric, so I'm used to doing that. Prince Sparhawk here might get a little impatient, though, and that makes him bad-tempered.' Khalad squinted at the lumpy-faced messenger. 'Since the subject's come up anyway, I've got a word of friendly advice for you, old boy. It's about twenty days on horseback from here to Arjun. He's going to be very unpleasant by the time he gets there. If you should happen to be the one who delivers the next message, I wouldn't get too close to him.'\n\n'I think we can come up with a way for him to work off his bad temper,' the Styric sneered. 'You don't _have_ twenty days to get to Arjun. You have fourteen,' He stood up. 'Don't be late.' He turned and started toward the door.\n\n'Let's go,' Khalad said.\n\n'Where?'\n\n'After him.'\n\n'What for?'\n\nKhalad sighed. 'To shake him down, Berit,' he explained with exaggerated patience. 'I want to strip him and go through his clothes. He _might_ just have the next message on him.'\n\n'Are you mad? They'll kill the Queen if we do that.'\n\n'Just because we rough up their messenger-boy? Don't be silly. They want the Bhelliom, and the Queen's the only thing they've got to trade for it. We could routinely kill every single one of their messengers, and they wouldn't do a thing to her. Let's go shake that Styric up a little bit and go through his pockets. If we can get hold of the next message, we might be able to get the jump on them.'\n\n'You know, I think you're right. They _won't_ do anything to the Queen, will they?'\n\n'Not a chance, my Lord. Let's go teach that Styric some manners. It's exactly the sort of thing Sparhawk would do.'\n\n'He _would,_ wouldn't he?' Berit looked closely at his friend. 'That fellow really irritates you, doesn't he?'\n\n'Yes, as a matter of fact, he does. I don't like his attitude.'\n\n'Well, let's go change it, then.'\n\n'I'm not going to do anything foolish,' Kalten said. I just want to have a look around.' The three of them were sitting under their tree in Narstil's cluttered jungle camp. They had a fire going, and three stolen chickens were spitted over it, dripping grease into the flames.\n\n'It won't hurt,' Caalador said to Bevier. 'If the time ever comes when we have to go in there, we should probably know the lay of the land.'\n\n'Are you sure you can keep a handle on your temper?' Bevier asked Kalten. 'You'll be all alone there, you know.'\n\n'I'm all grown up now, Bevier,' Kalten assured him. 'I'm not going to do anything noisy until _after_ things are back the way they should be. We may not get a chance like this again. Senga's invited me to go along to help him sell beer. It's the most natural thing in the world, and nobody's going to recognize me. I can pick up some very valuable information in Natayos, and if I happen to see somebody I recognize standing in a window or something, we'll know for sure exactly where those two friends of ours are located. Then the fellow with the broken nose can have a word with his blue friend and they can lift them out before anybody even has time to blink. Then we can all go down there and explain just how unhappy we are to certain people.'\n\n'I'm in favor of it, myself,' Caalador said to Bevier.\n\n'It's tactically sound,' Bevier admitted, 'but \u2013 uh \u2013 Col here doesn't have any way to call for help if he gets in trouble.'\n\n'I won't need any help, because I'm not going to do anything out of the ordinary. I'm going anyway, Shallag, so don't waste your breath trying to talk me out of it.'\n\nSenga came across the littered camp. 'The cart's all loaded, Col,' he called. 'Are you about ready?'\n\nKalten stood up. 'Any time you are, Senga,' he replied, pulling his half-cooked chicken off the spit and going to join his new-found friend. 'I'm getting bored just sitting here counting trees.'\n\nIt took the two of them about three hours to reach Natayos, since there is no real way to hurry an ox. The trail was fairly well traveled, and it wound around through the jungle, following the course of least resistance.\n\n'There it is,' Senga said as the cart jolted through a ford that crossed a narrow stream. He pointed across the stump-dotted clearing at an ancient city, a ruin so old that the passage of centuries had rounded down the very stones. 'Stay close to me when we get there, Col. There are a couple of places we have to keep away from. There's one building right near the gate that they _really_ don't want anybody to go near.'\n\n'Oh?' Kalten said, squinting at the mossy ruin ahead. 'What's inside that makes them so touchy?'\n\n'I haven't the faintest idea, and I'm not curious enough to risk my health by asking.'\n\n'Maybe the building's their treasure house,' Kalten speculated. 'If this army's as big as you say, they've probably picked up quite a bit of loot.'\n\nSenga shrugged. 'It could be, I suppose, but I'm not going to fight all those guards just to find out. We're here to sell beer, Col. We'll get a goodly share of their treasure that way, and it's not as risky.'\n\n'But it's so _honest,'_ Kalten objected, grinning. 'Isn't honest work immoral for people like us?'\n\nSenga laughed and tapped the ox's rump with the long, slender stick he carried. The creaking cart jolted over the uneven ground toward the moldering walls.\n\n'Ho, Senga!' one of the slovenly guards at the gate greeted Kalten's friend. 'What kept you? It's been as dry as a plate of sand since the last time you left.'\n\n'You fellows are overworking my brewer,' Senga replied. 'He can't keep up with the demand. We have to let the beer age a _little_ while before you drink it. Green beer does funny things to a man's guts.'\n\n'You haven't raised your prices again, have you?'\n\n'No. Same price as before.'\n\n'Ten times what you paid for the beer in the first place, I'll wager.'\n\n'Oh, not quite _that_ much. Where do you want me to set up?'\n\n'Same place as last time. I'll pass the word, and they'll start lining up.'\n\n'I want some guards this time, Mondra,' Senga told him. 'I don't want another riot when the last cask runs dry the way there was last week.'\n\n'I'll see to it. Save some for me.'\n\nThe ox-cart clattered through the gate and into a wide street where most of the moss had been worn off the cobblestones. A great deal of work had clearly taken place here in Natayos in the past few years. The squared-off stones of the broken walls had been rather carelessly re-stacked and then shored up with peeled log braces. Long-vanished roofs had been replaced with crude thatching made of tree-limbs, providing nesting sites for raucous tropical birds, and here and there blackened piles of half-burned trees and bushes marked the places where indifferent workmen had attempted to dispose of the mountains of brush that had been cleared from the streets and houses. The men living here lounged idly in the streets. There were Elenes from Astel, Edom, and Daconia, as well as Arjunis and Cynesgans. They were a roughly dressed, unshaven lot who showed no signs that they even knew the meaning of the word 'discipline'.\n\n'What price are you getting for this?' Kalten asked, patting one of the beer barrels in the cart.\n\n'A penny a gill,' Senga replied.\n\n'That's outrageous!'\n\n'They don't _have_ to buy it,' Senga shrugged. 'Get the money _before_ you start to pour. Don't take promises.'\n\n'You've put my moral qualms to rest, Senga,' Kalten laughed. 'At _that_ price, this is hardly honest.'\n\n'There's that building I was telling you about.'\n\nKalten tried to look casual as he turned to stare at the substantial-looking ruin. 'They _really_ don't want anybody to look into that place,' he said. 'Those bars on the windows make it look like a jail.'\n\n'Not quite, Col. Those bars are there to keep people _out,_ not in.'\n\nKalten grunted, still staring intently at the building. The barred windows had panes of glass in them, cheap, cloudy glass that had been poorly installed. Drapes on the inside cut off any possibility of seeing anything or anyone who might be in there. There were guards at the door and other guards stationed at every corner. Kalten wanted to howl with frustration. The gentle girl who had become the center of his life was possibly no more than twenty yards away, but she might as well have been on the other side of the moon; and even if she were to look out through that clouded glass she would not recognize his altered features.\n\nSenga paid the guards in the square with beer, and then he and his friend got down to work. Scarpa's rebels were rowdy, shouting and laughing, but they were generally in a good humor. They lined up in an orderly fashion and came to the rear of the cart two by two, where Senga and Kalten filled their containers with the amber beer. There were a few arguments about the capacity of the assorted tankards, jugs, and pails, but Senga's word on the subject was final, and anyone who objected too loudly was sent back to the end of the line to think things over for an hour or so while he worked his way back to the front again.\n\nIt was after the two entrepreneurs had drained the last barrel and sent the disappointed late-comers away that Kalten saw a familiar figure come weaving across the mossy square toward the ox-cart. Krager was not wearing well. His head was shaved and as pale as a fish-belly, and his dissipated face was eroded by decades of hard drinking. His clothing, though obviously expensive, was wrinkled and filthy. He shook continually with a palsied tremor that ran through him in waves.\n\n'I don't suppose you brought any wine,' he asked Senga hopefully.\n\n'Not much call for it,' Senga told him, re-fastening the tail-gate of the cart. 'Most of these fellows want beer.'\n\n'Do you know any place where you can _get_ wine?'\n\n'I can ask around. What's your preference?'\n\n'Arcian red, if you can find any.'\n\nSenga whistled. _'That_ will cost you, my friend. I could probably chase down some of the local reds for you, but the imported stuff \u2013 that's going to take a _big_ bite out of your purse.'\n\nKrager smirked at him. 'It's no problem,' he said in his slurred voice. 'I'm what you might call independently wealthy at the moment. These local reds taste like pig-swill. I want _real_ wine.'\n\n'It might take a while,' Senga told him dubiously. 'I've got contacts in Delo that might be able to find some for you, but Delo's a long way off.'\n\n'When are you coming back?'\n\n'A couple of days. The brewery where I buy this slop's running day and night, but I still can't keep up.'\n\n'Bring me a couple of barrels of the local pig-swill then \u2013 enough to tide me over until you can find me some Arcian red.'\n\n'You can count on me,' Senga assured him. He gave Krager a hard look. 'I'll need something in advance, though. I'll have to _buy_ the Arcian red before I can sell it to you. I'm doing fairly well, but I'm not _that_ rich yet.'\n\nKrager fumbled for his purse.\n\nKalten was suddenly gripped by an almost intolerable impatience. He was sure now that Alean was here. Krager's presence virtually confirmed it. The prisoners were most likely being held in the building with barred windows. He absolutely _had_ to get back to Narstil's camp so that Bevier could pass the word on to Aphrael. If Xanetia _could_ enter Natayos unseen, she could either penetrate the prison walls or reach into Krager's wine-sodden mind to verify what was almost a certainty now. If all went well, it would be no more than a few days until he and Sparhawk were reunited with the women they loved. _Then_ they could all come here and do unpleasant things to the people responsible.\n\nVanion and Betuana reached Sarna late that afternoon, and the Atan Queen scarcely paused before setting out for the border.\n\n'It was ghastly, Sparhawk,' Vanion said, leaning wearily back in his chair and putting his visored helmet on the table. 'They're like no soldiers I've ever seen before. They're big, and they're fast, and their hides are so tough that most of the time my sword just bounced off them. I don't know where Kl\u00e6l found them, but they've got yellow blood, and they made mincemeat out of my knights.'\n\n'Kring and Tikume ran into them as well, I guess,' Sparhawk told him. 'Anosian was trying to pass the word to Aphrael, but he garbled the spell so badly that she couldn't make any sense out of it. She's a little unhappy with Tynian. When he was gathering up the knights he brought back to Matherion, he accidentally picked every Pandion who has the least bit of skill with the spells. That's why she can't get any reports from Komier.'\n\n'We might have to send somebody to join him and handle communications \u2013 except that it'd take weeks for him to get there.'\n\n'Not if Aphrael takes him, it won't,' Sparhawk disagreed. 'She carried me from Beresa to Sopal \u2013 almost a thousand miles \u2013 in about a half an hour.'\n\n'You're not serious!'\n\n'You'll _love_ flying, Vanion.'\n\n'You're carrying tales, Sparhawk.'\n\nThey turned quickly.\n\nThe Child Goddess was sitting in a chair at the far end of the room with her grass-stained little feet up on the table.\n\n'I _wish_ you wouldn't do that,' Sparhawk told her.\n\n'Would you prefer some kind of announcement, Sparhawk? Multitudes of spirits bawling hymns of praise to introduce me? It's a little ostentatious, but I can arrange it.'\n\n'Just forget I said anything.'\n\n'I'll do that. I had a chat with Anosian. He's practicing now \u2013 very hard. Kring and Tikume ran across Kl\u00e6l and his soldiers out in the desert, and they discovered something you gentlemen should know. I was right, Vanion. Kl\u00e6l's soldiers have bile in their veins instead of blood because they breathe with their livers, and that means that the air where they come from isn't anything like the air here \u2013 probably something like marsh-gas. There's something in it that they need, and they can't get it out of our air. The Peloi used their standard cut-and-run tactics, and after a little while those monsters started to collapse. Next time you come up against them, just turn around and run away. If they try to chase you, they'll choke to death. Did Betuana leave?'\n\n'Yes, Divine One,' Itagne replied.\n\n'Good. The quicker I can get Engessa to my island, the quicker I'll have him back on his feet.'\n\n'I've been meaning to ask you about that,' Sparhawk said. 'You said that his brain's been injured.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\nThe brain's very complicated, isn't it?'\n\n'Yours aren't quite as complex as ours, but they aren't simple, by any means.'\n\n'And you can heal Engessa's brain on your island?'\n\n'Of course.'\n\n'If you can fix a brain, you should be able to fix somebody's heart. Why didn't you just take Sephrenia to your island and heal her there? Why did you come to Beresa and try to steal Bhelliom?'\n\n_'What's this?'_ Vanion exclaimed, coming to his feet.\n\n'Wonderful, Sparhawk,' Aphrael said dryly. 'I'm awed by your subtlety. She's all right, Vanion. Bhelliom brought her back.'\n\nVanion smashed his fist down on the table and then controlled himself with an obvious effort. 'Would it inconvenience anybody to tell me what happened?' he asked them in an icy voice.\n\n'We were in Dirgis,' Aphrael shrugged. 'Sephrenia was alone in the room, and Zalasta came in and stabbed her in the heart.'\n\n'Good God!'\n\n'She's fine, Vanion. Bhelliom took care of it. She's coming along very well. Xanetia's with her.'\n\nVanion started toward the door.\n\n'Oh, come back here,' the Child Goddess told him. 'As soon as I get Engessa to the island and deal with his injury, I'll take you to Dirgis. She's asleep now anyway, and you've seen her sleep before \u2013 lots of times.'\n\nVanion flushed slightly and then looked a bit sheepish.\n\n'You still haven't answered my question,' Sparhawk said. If you can fix a brain, why can't you fix a heart?'\n\n'Because I can shut a brain down to work on it, Sparhawk, ' she replied in a long-suffering tone. 'The heart has to keep on beating, and I can't work on it while it's jumping around like that.'\n\n'Oh, I guess that makes sense.'\n\n'Do you happen to know where I could find Zalasta?' Vanion asked in a dreadful voice.\n\n'He's probably gone back to Natayos,' Aphrael replied.\n\n'After I visit Sephrenia, do you suppose you could take me there? I'd _really_ like to have a talk with him.'\n\n'I get his heart,' the Child Goddess said.\n\nVanion gave her a strange look.\n\n'It's an on-going joke,' Sparhawk told him.\n\n'I'm not joking, Sparhawk,' Aphrael said bleakly.\n\n'We can't go to Natayos,' Sparhawk said. 'Ehlana might be there, and Scarpa will kill her if we come pounding on the gate. Besides, I think you'll have to talk with Khwaj before you do anything to Zalasta.'\n\n'Khwaj?' Vanion asked.\n\n'Tynian told Aphrael that Khwaj has his own plans for our Styric friend. He wants to set him on fire.'\n\n'I've got some more interesting ideas,' Vanion said grimly.\n\n'I wouldn't be so sure, my Lord. Khwaj wants to set Zalasta on fire, but he doesn't want to burn him to death. He's talking about an eternal flame \u2013 with Zalasta screaming in the middle of it \u2013 forever.'\n\nVanion considered that. 'What a merry idea,' he said finally.\n\n'My lady,' Alean whispered urgently, 'come quickly. Zalasta's returned.'\n\nEhlana drew the linen head-cloth down over her forehead and joined her maid at the defective window. The wimple had been Alean's idea. It fit snugly over the Queen's ravaged scalp, and covered her throat and the underside of her chin as well. It was uncomfortable, but it concealed the horror Krager's knife had made of her hair. She bent and looked out through the small triangular opening in the window.\n\nZalasta's gaunt face was twisted with grief, and his eyes were dead. Scarpa came hurrying up, his face eager. 'Well?' he demanded.\n\n'Go away, Scarpa,' Zalasta told him.\n\n'I only wanted to be sure you were all right, Father,' Scarpa replied with obvious insincerity. Scarpa had fashioned a crude crown for himself out of a serving-bowl made of hammered gold. He was evidently unaware of how absurd he looked with the lop-sided adornment perched on his shaved head.\n\n'Leave me!' Zalasta thundered. 'Get out of my sight!'\n\n'Is she dead?' Scarpa ignored the dreadful threat implicit in his father's voice.\n\nZalasta's face hardened. 'Yes,' he replied in a strangely neutral tone. 'I drove my knife straight into her heart. I'm deciding right now whether or not I can live with what I've done. Please stay, Scarpa, by all means. This was _your_ idea, after all. It was such a marvelous notion that I may want to reward you for it.'\n\nScarpa backed away, his suddenly rational eyes now filled with fear.\n\nZalasta barked two words in Styric and reached out his hand, his fingers curved like hooks. Scarpa clutched at his belly and screeched. His makeshift crown fell unnoticed as Zalasta implacably dragged him back.\n\n'You're pathetically obvious, Scarpa,' Zalasta grated, his face only inches from his son's, 'but your plan had one minor flaw. I may very well kill myself for what I did to Sephrenia, but I'll kill you first \u2013 just as unpleasantly as I possibly can. I may just kill you anyway. I don't really like you, Scarpa. I felt a certain responsibility for you, but that's a word you wouldn't understand.' His eyes suddenly burned. 'Your madness must be contagious, my son. I'm starting to lose my grip on sanity myself. You talked me into killing Sephrenia, and I loved her far more than I could ever love you.' He unhooked his fingers. 'Run away, Scarpa. Pick up your cheap toy crown and run. I'll be able to find you when I decide to kill you.'\n\nScarpa fled, but Ehlana did not see him leave. Her eyes were filled with tears, and she turned from the window with a grief-stricken wail.\n\n# _Chapter 15_\n\nIt was snowing in Sarna when Sparhawk woke the following morning, a thick, heavy snow that swirled and danced in the driving wind coming down out of the Atan mountains lying to the north. Sparhawk gazed sourly out of the window of his room in the barracks, then pulled on his clothes and went looking for the others.\n\nHe found Itagne sitting by the stove in the war-room with a sheaf of documents in his lap. 'Something important?' he asked as he entered.\n\n'Hardly,' Itagne replied. He made a face and put the papers away. 'I made a serious blunder last spring before Oscagne uprooted me and sent me to Cynestra. I was teaching a class in foreign relations at the University, and I slipped and said the fatal words, \"write a paper\". Now I've got a bale of these things to plough through.' He shuddered.\n\n'Bad?'\n\n'Unbelievably so. Undergraduates should never be allowed to touch a quill-pen. So far I've encountered fifteen different versions of my own lecture notes \u2013 all couched in graceless, semi-literate prose.'\n\n'Where's Vanion?'\n\n'He's checking on his wounded. Have you seen Aphrael yet this morning?'\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'She could be anywhere.'\n\n'Did she actually fly you here from Dirgis?'\n\n'Oh, yes \u2013 and up from Beresa before that. It's an unusual experience, and it always starts with the same argument.' Itagne gave him a questioning look.\n\n'She has to revert to her real form when she does it.'\n\n'Blazing light? Trailing clouds of glory, and all that?'\n\n'No, nothing like that. She always poses as a little girl, but that's a subterfuge. Actually, she's a young woman.'\n\n'What do you argue with her about?'\n\n'Whether or not she's going to wear clothes. The Gods evidently don't need them, and they haven't quite grasped the concept of modesty yet. She's a bit distracting when she first appears.'\n\n'I can imagine.'\n\nThe door opened, and Vanion came in, brushing the snow off the shoulders of his cloak.\n\n'How are the men?' Sparhawk asked him.\n\n'Not good,' the Preceptor replied. I wish we'd known more about Kl\u00e6l's soldiers before we closed with them. I lost a lot of very good knights needlessly during that skirmish. If I'd had my wits about me, I'd have suspected something when they didn't pursue us after we broke off our attack.'\n\n'How long were you engaged?'\n\n'It seemed like hours, but it was probably no longer than ten minutes.'\n\n'When you get to Samar, you might want to talk with Kring and Tikume. We should try to get some idea of just how long those soldiers can function in our air before they start to collapse.'\n\nVanion nodded.\n\nThere was really nothing for them to do, and the morning dragged sluggishly by.\n\nIt was shortly before noon when Betuana, clad in close-fitting otterskin clothing, came running effortlessly out of the swirling snow. Her almost inhuman stamina was somehow unnerving. She seemed hardly winded and not even flushed as she entered the room where they waited. 'Invigorating,' she noted absently as she peeled off her outer garment. She took one lock of her night-dark hair and stretched it out to look critically at its sodden length. 'Does anyone have a comb?' she asked.\n\nThey all started at the sound of a blaring trumpet fanfare from the other end of the room. They spun around and saw the Child Goddess. She was surrounded by a nimbus of pure light, she sat sedately in mid-air, and she was smiling sweetly at Sparhawk. 'Is that sort of what you had in mind?' she asked him.\n\nHe cast his eyes upward. 'Why me?' he groaned. Then he looked at her smiling little face. 'I give up, Aphrael,' he said. 'You win.'\n\n'Of course. I always win.' She gently settled to the floor, and her light dimmed. 'Come here, Betuana. Let me comb that out for you.' She held out her hands, and a comb appeared in one and a brush in the other.\n\nThe Queen of the Atans went to her and sat in a chair.\n\n'What did he say?' Aphrael asked as she began to slowly pull the comb through Betuana's dripping hair.\n\n'He said \"no\" right at first,' the Queen replied, 'and \"no\", the second and third times as well. He started to weaken about the twelfth time, as I remember it.'\n\n'I knew it would work.' Aphrael smiled.\n\n'Are we missing something?' Vanion asked her.\n\n'The Atans don't call on their God very often, so he almost _has_ to respond when they do. He was probably concentrating on something else, and each time Betuana called him, he had to put it down and go see what she wanted.'\n\n'I was very polite.' Betuana smiled. 'But I _did_ keep asking. He's very much afraid of you, Divine One.'\n\n'I know.' Aphrael laid down her comb and picked up the brush. 'He thinks I'm going to steal his soul or something. He won't come anywhere near me.'\n\n'I let him know that I was going to keep on calling him until he gave me permission,' Betuana went on, 'and he finally gave in.'\n\n'They always do,' Aphrael shrugged. 'You'll get what you want eventually if you just keep asking.'\n\n'It's called \"nagging\", Divine One,' Sparhawk told her.\n\n'How would you like to listen to a few days of trumpet fanfares, Sparhawk?' she asked.\n\n'Ah \u2013 no, thanks. It was good of you to ask, though.'\n\n'He _definitely_ gave his permission?' Aphrael asked the Queen.\n\nBetuana smiled. 'Very definitely. He said, \"Tell her she can do anything she wants! Just leave me alone!\"'\n\n'Good. I'll take Engessa to the island then.' Aphrael pursed her lips. 'Maybe you'd better send a runner to your husband. Tell him about Kl\u00e6l's soldiers. I know your husband, so you'll have to _order_ him not to attack them. I've never known _anyone_ so totally incapable of turning around as he is.'\n\n'I'll _try_ to explain it to him,' Betuana said a little dubiously.\n\n'Good luck. Here.' Aphrael handed over the comb and brush. 'I'll take Engessa to the island, thaw him out, and get started.'\n\nUlath called a halt on the outskirts of town, and Bhlokw summoned Ghnomb. The God of Eat appeared holding the half-eaten hind-quarter of some large animal in one huge paw.\n\n'We have reached the place where the one called Berit has been told to come,' Ulath told the huge Troll-God. 'It would be well now if we come out of No-Time and go into the time of broken moments.'\n\nGhnomb gave him a baffled look, clearly not understanding what they were doing.\n\n'U-lat and Tin-in hunt thought,' Bhlokw explained. The man-things have bellies in their minds as well as the bellies in their bellies. They have to fill both bellies. Their belly-bellies are full now. That is why they ask this. It is their wish to now fill their mind-bellies.'\n\nA slow look of comprehension began to dawn on Ghnomb's brutish face. 'Why did you not say this before, Ulath-from-Thalesia?'\n\nUlath groped for an answer.\n\n'It was Bhlokw who found that we have mind-bellies,' Tynian stepped in. 'We did not know this. We only knew that our minds were hungry. It is good that Ghworg sent Bhlokw to hunt with us. Bhlokw is a very good hunter.'\n\nBhlokw beamed.\n\nUlath quickly expanded the metaphor. 'Our mind-bellies hunger for thoughts about the wicked ones,' he explained. 'We can track those thoughts in the bird-noises the man-things make when they speak. We will stand on one side of the broken moment where they can not see us, and listen to the bird-noises they are making. We will follow those tracks to the ones we hunt, and they will not know we are there. Then we will listen to the bird-noises _they_ make and learn where they have hidden Anakha's mate.'\n\n'You hunt well,' Ghnomb approved. I had not thought of this kind of hunting before. It is almost as good as hunting things-to-eat. I will help you in your hunt.'\n\n'It makes us glad that you will,' Tynian thanked him.\n\nArjun was the capital of the Kingdom of Arjuna, a substantial city on the south shore of the lake. The royal palace and the stately homes of the noble families of the kingdom lay in the hills on the southern edge of town, and the commercial center was near the lake-front.\n\nUlath and Tynian concealed their horses and proceeded on foot through the grey half-light of Ghnomb's broken moments into the city itself. Then they split up and began to search for the food their mind-bellies craved, while Bhlokw went looking for dogs.\n\nIt was almost evening when Ulath came out of another of the seedy taverns near the docks on the east side of town. 'This is going to take all month,' he muttered to himself. The name Scarpa had cropped up in a few of the conversations he had overheard, and each time he heard it, he had eagerly drawn closer to listen. Unfortunately, however, Scarpa and his army were general topics of conversation here, and Ulath had not been able to pick up anything that was at all useful.\n\n'Get out of my way!' The voice was harsh, peremptory. Ulath turned to see who was being so offensive.\n\nThe man was a richly dressed Dacite. He was riding a spirited black horse, and his face bore the marks of habitual dissipation.\n\nThough he had never seen the fellow before, Ulath recognized him immediately. Talen's pencil had captured that face almost perfectly. Ulath smiled. 'Well, now,' he murmured, 'that's a little better.' He stepped out into the street and followed the prancing black horse.\n\nTheir destination was one of the grand houses near the royal palace. A liveried servant rushed from the house to greet the sneering Elene. 'We've been eagerly awaiting your arrival, my Lord,' he declared, bowing obsequiously.\n\n'Get somebody to take care of my horse,' the Elene snapped as he dismounted. 'Is everybody here?'\n\n'Yes, Baron Parok.'\n\n'Astonishing. Don't just stand there, fool. Take me to them at once.'\n\n'Yes, my Lord Baron.'\n\nUlath smiled again and followed them into the house.\n\nThe room to which the servant led them appeared to be a study of some kind. The walls were lined with book-cases, though the books shelved there showed no signs of ever having been opened. There were about a dozen men in the room: some Elene, some Arjuni, and even one Styric.\n\n'Let's get down to business,' Baron Parok told them, negligently tossing his plumed hat and his gloves down on the table. 'What have you to report?'\n\n'Prince Sparhawk has reached Tiana, Baron Parok,' the lone Styric told him.\n\n'We expected that.'\n\n'We did not, however, expect his treatment of my kinsman. He and that brute he calls his squire followed our messenger and assaulted him. They tore off all his clothes and turned all his pockets inside out.'\n\nParok laughed harshly. 'I've met your cousin, Zorek,' he said. 'I'm sure he richly deserved it. What did he say to the Prince to merit such treatment?'\n\n'He gave them the note, my Lord, and that ruffian of a squire made some insulting remark about a twenty-day journey on horseback. My cousin took offense at that and told them that they only had fourteen days to make the journey.'\n\n'That was _not_ in the instructions,' Parok snapped. 'Did Sparhawk kill him?'\n\n'No, my lord,' Zorek's tone was sullen.\n\n'Pity,' Parok said darkly. 'Now I'll have to attend to it myself. You Styrics get above yourselves at times. When I have leisure, I'm going to run your cousin down and hang his guts on a fence as an example to the rest of you. You're being paid to do as you're told, not to get creative.' He looked around. 'Who's got the next note?' he asked.\n\n'I have, my Lord,' a rather prosperous-looking Edom-ishman replied.\n\n'You'd better hold off on delivering it. Zorek's cousin upset our timetable with his excursion into constructive creativity. Let Sparhawk cool his heels here for a week or so. _Then_ give him the note that tells him to go on to Derel. Lord Scarpa wants his army to start moving north before we give Sparhawk that last message \u2013 the one that tells him to go on to Natayos for the exchange.'\n\n'Baron Parok,' a baggy-eyed Arjuni in a brocade doublet said arrogantly, 'this delay \u2013 particularly here in the capital \u2013 poses some threat to my king. This Sparhawk person is notoriously irrational, and he _does_ still have the jewel of power in his possession. His Majesty does _not_ want that Elene barbarian lingering here in Arjun with spare time on his hands. Send him on to Derel immediately. If he's going to destroy some place, let it be Derel instead of Arjun.'\n\n'You have amazingly sharp ears, Duke Milanis,' Parok said sardonically. 'Can you _really_ hear what King Rakya is saying when you're a mile from the palace?'\n\n'I'm here to protect His Majesty's interests, Baron. I have full authority to speak for him. His Majesty's alliance with Lord Scarpa is _not_ etched on a diamond. Keep Prince Sparhawk moving. We don't want him here in Arjun.'\n\n'And if I don't?'\n\nMilanis shrugged. 'His Majesty will abrogate the alliance and make a full report of what you people have been doing \u2013 and what you're planning to do \u2013 to the Tamul Ambassador.'\n\n'I see that the old saw about the stupidity of trusting an Arjuni still holds true.'\n\n'Just do as you're told, Parok,' Milanis snapped. 'Don't bore me with all these tedious protests and racial slurs. Don't make any blunders here, old boy. His Majesty's report to the ambassador has already been written. All he requires is an excuse to send it across town.'\n\nA servant entered with a flagon and a tray of wineglasses, and Ulath took advantage of the open door to slip from the room. It was going to take a while to round up Tynian and Bhlokw, and then they were going to have to compose a fairly extensive message to Aphrael.\n\nAfter he had slipped out of the house, however, Sir Ulath very briefly indulged himself. He leapt high into the air with a triumphant bellow, smacking his hands together with glee. Then he composed himself and went looking for his friends.\n\nThe black-armored Sir Heldin returned to rejoin Patriarch Bergsten at the head of the column.\n\n'Any luck?' Bergsten asked him.\n\nHeldin shook his head. 'Sir Tynian was very thorough,' he rumbled in his deep basso. 'He winnowed through the ranks of the Pandion Order like a man panning for gold. I think he took just about everybody who can even _pronounce_ the Styric language.'\n\n_'You_ know the spells.'\n\n'Yes, but Aphrael can't hear me. My voice is pitched too low for her ears.'\n\n'That raises some very interesting theological points,' Bergsten mused.\n\n'Could we ponder them some other time, your Grace? Right now we have to get word of what happened in Zemoch to Sparhawk and Vanion. The war could be over by the time Ambassador Fontan's messengers reach them.'\n\n'Talk with the other orders, Heldin,' Bergsten suggested.\n\n'I don't think it would work, your Grace. Each order works through the personal God of the Styric who taught them the secrets. We have to get word to Aphrael. _She's_ the one who's perched on Sparhawk's shoulder.'\n\n'Heldin, you spent too much time practicing with your weapons during your novitiate. Theology _does_ have a purpose, you know.'\n\n'Yes, your Grace,' Heldin sighed, rolling his eyes upward and bracing himself for a sermon.\n\n'Don't do that,' Bergsten told him. 'I'm not talking about _Elene_ theology. I'm talking about the misguided beliefs of the Styrics. How many Styric Gods are there?'\n\n'A thousand, your Grace,' Heldin replied promptly. 'Sephrenia always made some issue of that.'\n\n'Do these thousand Younger Gods exist independently of each other?'\n\n'As I understand it, they're all related \u2013 sort of like a family.'\n\n'Amazing. You _did_ listen when Sephrenia was talking to you. You Pandions all worship Aphrael, right?'\n\n' \"Worship\" might be too strong a term, your Grace.'\n\n'I've heard stories about Aphrael, Heldin,' Bergsten smiled. 'She has a private agenda. She's trying to steal the whole of human-kind. Now then, I'm a member of the Genidian Order.' He paused. 'I was,' he corrected himself. 'We make our appeals to Hanka; the Cyrinics work through Romalic; and the Alciones deal with Setras. Do you imagine that in their misty heaven somewhere above the clouds these Styric Gods might now and then talk with each other?'\n\n'Please don't beat me over the head, Bergsten. I overlooked something, that's all. I'm not stupid.'\n\n'Never said you were, old boy.' Bergsten smiled. 'You just needed spiritual guidance, that's all. That's the purpose of our Holy Mother. Come to _me_ with your spiritual problems, my son. I will gently guide you \u2013 and if guidance doesn't work, I'll take my axe and drive you.'\n\n'I see that your Grace adheres to the notion of the Church Muscular,' Heldin said sourly.\n\n'That's _my_ spiritual problem, my son, not yours. Now go find an Alcione. Legend has it that Aphrael and Setras are particularly close. I think we can count on Setras to pass things along to his thieving little cousin.'\n\n_'Your Grace!'_ Heldin protested.\n\n'The Church has had her eye on Aphrael for centuries, Heldin. We know all about your precious little Child Goddess and her tricks. Don't let her kiss you, my friend. If you do, she'll pinch your soul while you're not looking.'\n\nThere were a dozen wobbly ox-carts this time, all heavily laden with beer barrels, and Senga had recruited several dozen of Narstil's shabby outlaws to assist him in guarding and dispensing his product. Kalten had rather smoothly insinuated Caalador and Bevier into the company.\n\n'I still think you're making a mistake, Senga,' Kalten told his good-natured employer as their rickety cart jolted along the rough jungle path toward Natayos. 'You've got a complete lock on the market. Why lower your prices?'\n\n'Because I'll make more money if I do.'\n\nThat doesn't make sense.'\n\n'Look, Col,' Senga explained patiently, 'when I came here before, I only had one cart-load of beer. I could get any price I asked, because my beer was so scarce.'\n\n'I guess that makes sense.'\n\n'I've got an almost unlimited supply now, though, so I'm making my profit on volume instead of price.'\n\n'That's what doesn't make sense.'\n\n'Let me put it this way. Which would you rather do \u2013 steal ten crowns from one man or a penny from each of ten thousand men?'\n\nKalten did some quick counting on his fingers. 'Oh,' he said. 'Now I see what you're driving at. Very shrewd, Senga.'\n\nSenga puffed himself up a little. 'It never hurts to think long-range, Col. My real concern is the fact that it's not really all that hard to make beer. If some clever fellow's got a recipe, he could set up his own brewery right here. I don't want to get involved in a price war just when things are starting to go well for me.'\n\nThey had left Narstil's camp at daybreak, and so it was mid-morning when they reached Natayos. They passed unchallenged through the gates, rumbled by the house with barred windows, and set up shop again in the same square as before. As Senga's closest associate, Kalten had been promoted to the position of Chief of Security. The reputation for unpleasantness he had established early on in Narstil's camp ensured that none of the outlaws would question his orders, and the presence of Bevier, patch-eyed, lochaber-armed, and obviously homicidal, added to his authority.\n\n'We ain't likely t' accomplish too much here, Col,' Caalador muttered to Kalten as the two of them stood guard near one of the busy beer-carts. 'Ol' Senga's so worried 'bout some feller slippin' by 'thout payin' that me'n you is tied down tighter'n a couple o' dawgs on short leashes.'\n\n'Wait until later, Ezek,' Kalten advised. 'We'll be able to move around a little more freely after everybody gets drunk.'\n\nBevier slouched over to join them, his short-handled lochaber in his fist. People automatically got out of his way for some reason. 'I just had a thought,' he said.\n\n'You want to kill somebody?' Kalten suggested.\n\n'Be serious, Col. Why don't you take your friend Senga aside and suggest that he set up a permanent establishment here in Natayos? It's the logical thing to do, and it'd give the three of us an excuse to stay here. If we cleaned out one of these ruined buildings and opened a tavern, we could stay here and run it. It makes more sense than selling beer off the tail-gate of an ox-cart.'\n\n'He's got hisself a point there, Col,' Caalador said. 'Ol' Shallag here, he _looks_ like he drinks blood for breakfast, but his head's still a-workin' in back o' that there eye-patch.'\n\nKalten thought about it. 'It _would_ set us up right here in Natayos, wouldn't it? We'd be able to keep an eye on things.' He looked around. 'Senga's a little worried that somebody here might start his own brewery,' he said for the benefit of nearby soldiers. 'If the three of us are right here, we could probably persuade anybody who does that to take up another hobby. I'll go talk with Senga and see what he thinks of the notion.'\n\nHe found his good-natured friend sitting at a makeshift table behind one of the ox-carts. The outlaw was counting money with an almost dreamy expression on his face. 'Oh, this is just _fine,_ Col,' he almost crooned.\n\n'They're only pennies.'\n\n'I know, but there are so _many_ of them.'\n\n'Shallag came up with an idea.'\n\n'He wants to thin out the crowd by hacking the head off every third man in line?'\n\n'Shallag's not really _that_ bad.'\n\n'Oh, really? Every man in camp has nightmares about him.'\n\n'He hasn't killed a single man since he came to Arjuna.'\n\n'He's saving up. He's just biding his time until he can gather up a few thousand of us all together and kill all of us at once.'\n\n'Do you want to listen to his idea, or haven't you finished making bad jokes yet?'\n\n'Sorry. Go ahead.'\n\n'He thinks we ought to clean out one of these empty ruins and set up a permanent tavern.'\n\n'You mean like a real business? With a counter and tables and chairs and all that?'\n\n'Why not? Now that your brewer's working full time, you've got access to a steady supply, and this is where your customers are. If you set up shop here, you can sell beer all day every day instead of just coming here once a week. Then your customers would come to you in manageable numbers instead of by the regiment.'\n\n'I never thought of it,' Senga admitted. I just thought I'd make a quick profit and then run for the border. I could set up a real tavern here, Col \u2013 a real, honest-to-God legitimate business. I wouldn't have to steal any more.'\n\n'I've seen your price-list, Senga. Don't worry. You're still stealing.'\n\nSenga ignored him. 'Maybe I could call it \"Senga's Palace\",' he said in a dreamy tone of voice. He frowned. 'No,' he decided. 'That's a little too flashy for a beer-tavern. I think I'll just call it \"Senga's\". That'd definitely be a more lasting memorial than just a grave marker with the date when I got hung carved on it.' Then he shook his head and sighed. 'No, Col,' he said regretfully. 'It wouldn't work. If I took you and my other guards out of here, Scarpa's soldiers would just march in and drink up all my beer without paying.'\n\n'Why take us out, then? We can stay right here and make sure they pay.'\n\n'I'm not sure Narstil would like it if we didn't go back to camp at night.'\n\n'Senga,' Kalten said gently, 'do you really need Narstil any more? You're an honest businessman now. You shouldn't be associating with bandits.'\n\nSenga laughed. 'You're coming at me a little too fast, Col. Give me some time to adjust my thinking,' Then he suddenly swore.\n\n'What's wrong?'\n\n'It's a beautiful idea, Col, but it won't work.'\n\n'Why not?'\n\n'Because I'll need Scarpa's permission to set up shop here, and I'm not going to go anywhere near him to ask for it.'\n\n'I don't think you'll have to, my friend. I went rummaging around through those heaps of trash in Narstil's camp yesterday, and guess what I found?'\n\n'What?'\n\n'A very fancy, silver-mounted cask of Arcian red. It's even equipped with a silver spigot. The fellow who stole it didn't know how much it was worth \u2013 he's a beer man. I got it off him for half a crown. I'll sell it to you, and you can make a present of it to that Krager fellow. Why don't we let him persuade Scarpa to give you permission to go into business here?'\n\n'Col, you're a genius! What'll you take for that cask of Arcian red?'\n\n'Oh \u2013 five crowns, I guess.'\n\n_'Five crowns?_ Ten times what you paid for it? That's robbery!'\n\n'You ought to know, Senga. You're my friend, but business is business, after all.'\n\nThey found the bleary-eyed Krager sitting on a broken wall watching the crowd of thirsty soldiers in the square without much interest. He held a tankard in one hand, and he drank from it occasionally with obvious distaste.\n\n'Ah, there you are, Master Krager,' Senga said jovially. 'Why don't you dump out that slop and try a sup of this?' He patted the ornate wine cask he was carrying under one arm.\n\n'More local swill?' Krager asked.\n\n'Try it and see what you think,' Senga suggested.\n\nKrager emptied his wine out on the ground and held out his pewter tankard. Senga turned the handle of the silver spigot and dribbled about a half a cupful of Arcian red into it.\n\nKrager squinted into his mug and sniffed at it suspiciously. Then his eyes rolled up ecstatically. 'Oh, dearie, dearie me!' he breathed in a reverent tone of voice. He took a small sip and actually seemed to quiver with delight.\n\n'I thought you might like it,' Senga said. 'Now that I've got your attention, I've got a business proposition for you. I'd like to set up a permanent tavern here in Natayos, but I'll need permission to do that. I'd take it as a real favor if you could see your way clear to put in a good word for me with Lord Scarpa. I'd be very grateful to you if you can get his approval.'\n\n_'How_ grateful?' Krager asked quickly.\n\n'Probably about _this_ grateful.' Senga patted the silver-mounted cask again. Tell Lord Scarpa that I won't cause any problems. I'll pick one of these empty buildings a little way off from his main camp and clean it out and fix the roof my very own self. I'll provide my own security and make sure that none of his soldiers gets _too_ drunk.'\n\n'Go ahead and get started, Master Senga,' Krager said, eyeing the cask. 'You've got my personal guarantee that Lord Scarpa will agree.' He reached out for the wine.\n\nSenga stepped back. _'After,_ Master Krager,' he said firmly. 'At the moment, I'm filled with appreciation. The gratitude comes _after_ Scarpa gives his permission.'\n\nThen Elron came hurrying across the crowded square. 'Krager!' he said in a shrill voice. 'Come at once! Lord Scarpa's in a rage! He's commanded us all to meet him at headquarters immediately!'\n\n'What's the matter?' Krager rose to his feet.\n\n'Cyzada just came in from Cynesga. He told Zalasta and Lord Scarpa that Kl\u00e6l went to have a look at the fellow we've been following all this time! It's not Sparhawk, Krager! Whoever it is _looks_ like Sparhawk, but Kl\u00e6l knew immediately that it's somebody else!'\n\n# _Chapter 16_\n\n'I _know_ it's him, my Lady,' Alean insisted.\n\n'Alean, dear,' Ehlana said gently, 'he doesn't look the least bit like Sir Kalten.'\n\n'I don't know how they've done it, but that's Kalten out there in the street,' the girl replied. 'My heart sings every time he walks by.'\n\nEhlana peered through the little opening in the window. The man _looked_ like an Elene, there was no question about that, and Sephrenia _was_ a magician, after all.\n\nThe thought of Sephrenia filled the Queen's eyes with tears again. She straightened, quickly wiping her eyes. 'He's gone by,' she said. 'What makes you so sure, dear?'\n\n'A thousand things, my Lady \u2013 little things. It's the way he holds his head, that funny way he rolls his shoulders when he walks, his laugh, the way he hitches up his sword-belt. They've changed his face somehow, but I know it's him.'\n\n'You _could_ be right, Alean,' Ehlana concluded a bit dubiously. I could probably pick Sparhawk out of a crowd no matter _whose_ face he happened to be wearing.'\n\n'Exactly, my Lady. Our hearts know the men we love.'\n\nEhlana began to pace the floor, her fingers absently adjusting the wimple that covered her head. 'It's not impossible,' she conceded. 'Sparhawk's told me about all the times he disguised himself when he was in Rendor, and Styric magic might very well be able to change people's faces. And of course, if Sephrenia hadn't been able to do it, Bhelliom certainly could have. Let's trust your heart and say that it _is_ Sir Kalten out there.'\n\n'I _know_ it is, my Lady.'\n\n'It _does_ stand to reason,' Ehlana mused. 'If Sparhawk's somehow found out that we're here, he'd most _definitely_ want to have some of our friends close by when the rest of them come to rescue us,' She frowned as a thought came to her. 'Maybe he _doesn't_ know for sure, though. Kalten _might_ just be here to look around. We have to come up with some way to let him know that we're here before he gives up and moves on.'\n\n'But we're imprisoned, my Lady,' the girl with the huge eyes protested. 'If we try to call out to him, we'll put him in terrible danger.' She bent and looked out at the street again. 'He's coming back,' she said.\n\n'Sing, Alean!' Ehlana exclaimed suddenly.\n\n'What?'\n\n'Sing! If anyone in the whole world would recognize your voice, Kalten would!'\n\nAlean's eyes suddenly widened. 'He _would!'_ she exclaimed.\n\n'Here. Let me watch his face. Sing your soul out, Alean! Break his heart!'\n\nAlean's voice throbbed as her clear soprano reached effortlessly up in aching song. She sang 'My Bonnie Blue-Eyed Boy', a very old ballad which Ehlana knew held special significance for her maid and the blond Pandion. The Queen looked out the window again. The roughly dressed man in the street was standing stock-still, frozen in place by Alean's soaring voice.\n\nAll doubt vanished from Ehlana's mind. It _was_ Kalten! His eyes streamed tears, and his expression had become exalted, adoring.\n\nAnd then he did something so unexpected that Ehlana was forced to revise her long-held opinion about his intelligence. He sat down on the mossy cobblestones removed one shoe, and began to whistle an accompaniment to Alean's song. He _knew!_ And he was whistling to let them know that he knew! Not even Sparhawk could have responded so quickly, or come up with so perfect a way to convey his understanding of the situation.\n\nThat's enough, Alean,' Ehlana hissed. 'He got our message.'\n\nAlean stopped singing.\n\n'What are you doing there?' one of the Arjunis who guarded the door demanded, coming into view.\n\n'Stone in my shoe,' Kalten explained, shaking the shoe he'd just removed. 'It felt like a boulder.'\n\n'All right, move on.'\n\nKalten's altered features took on a truculent look. He pulled his shoe back on and stood up. 'Friend,' he said in a pointed sort of way, 'you'll be getting off guard-duty before very long, and you might just decide to stop by Senga's tavern for a few tankards of beer. I'm in charge of security there, and if you start pushing me around _here,_ I might just decide that you're too rowdy to be served when you get _there._ Understand?'\n\n'I'm supposed to keep people away from this building,' the guard explained, quickly modifying his tone.\n\n'But politely, friend, politely. Every man in this whole place is armed to the teeth, so we all have to be polite to each other.' Kalten threw a guarded glance at the barred window from which Ehlana watched. 'I learned politeness when I took up with Shallag \u2013 you know him, don't you? The one-eyed fellow with the lochaber axe?'\n\nThe guard shuddered. 'Is he as bad as he looks?' he asked.\n\n'Worse. He'll hack your head off if you even sneeze on him.' Kalten squared his shoulders. 'Well, I guess I'd better be getting back to the tavern. As my friend Ezek says, \"Tain't hordly likely that I'll make no profit lollygaggin' around in the street.\" Come on by the tavern when you get off work, friend. I'll buy you a tankard of beer.' And he went off down the street, still whistling 'My Bonnie Blue-Eyed Boy'.\n\n'Treasure him, Alean,' Ehlana said, her heart still soaring, 'and don't let that face deceive you. He gave me more information in two minutes than Sparhawk could have in an hour.'\n\n'My Lady?' Alean looked baffled.\n\n'He knows that we're here. He started to whistle along while you were singing. He also told me that Sir Bevier and Caalador are here with him.'\n\n'How did he do that?'\n\n'He was talking with the guard. Bevier's probably the only man in Daresia right now with a lochaber axe, and his other friend sounds just like Caalador. They know we're here, Alean, and if they know, Sparhawk knows. We might as well start packing. We'll be leaving here shortly and going back to Matherion.' She laughed delightedly and threw her arms round her maid.\n\nKalten tried very hard to keep his face expressionless as he walked back along the moss-covered streets toward Senga's tavern, but the excitement kept bubbling up in him, and it was very difficult to keep from laughing out loud.\n\nScarpa's army had cleared the northern quarters of Natayos and restored the buildings there to some degree of habitability when they had first arrived, but most of the city was still a vine-choked ruin. Senga had considered several possible sites for his tavern and had rather shrewdly decided to set up operations some distance deeper into the old city to avoid interference from officious sergeants or junior Elene officers with deep convictions and not much sense. He had chosen a low, squat building with thick walls but no roof, a deficiency easily overcome with tent-canvas. He had considered hiring off-duty soldiers to clear the brush out of the street leading from Scarpa's main camp to the tavern door, but Caalador had persuaded him to save his money. Ther ain't no need, Senga,' the disguised Cammorian had told the harried businessman, reverting to his dialect. Them thirsty soldiers'll clear the street fer us ther very own-selfs 'thout no money changin' hands a-tall.' The tavern crouched in the ruins, indistinguishable from nearby buildings except for its canvas roof and the crudely lettered sign reading 'Senga's' out front.\n\nKalten entered the tavern through the side door and paused to let his eyes adjust to the dimmer light. The place was moderately crowded, even at midday, and the six aproned outlaws from Narstil's camp hustled back and forth behind a rough plank counter, drawing foamy beer and collecting money.\n\nKalten pushed through the noisy crowd, looking for Bevier and Caalador. He found them sitting at a table on the near side of the room. Bevier's sawed-off lochaber and Caalador's stout cudgel lay in plain sight on the table as a sort of constant reminder to the assembled revelers that while having a good time was encouraged, there _were_ strictly enforced limits.\n\nKalten carefully lowered himself onto the bench, keeping his exuberance tightly bottled in. He leaned forward, motioning his friends closer. 'They're here,' he said quietly.\n\nCaalador looked around the tavern. 'Wal,' he drawled, 'not quite _all_ of 'em, but most likely ever'body who's off-duty.'\n\n'I'm not talking about this crowd, Ezek. I'm talking about the house with the barred windows. The people we've been looking for are definitely inside that house.'\n\n'How do you know?' Bevier demanded in an intense whisper. 'Did you see them?'\n\n'I didn't have to. One of them is a very special friend of mine, and this friend recognized me \u2013 even with this face. Don't ask me how.'\n\n'Are you sure?' Bevier pressed.\n\n'Oh, yes. This friend started to sing in a voice I'd recognize in the middle of a thunderstorm. It was a very old song that has a personal meaning for the two of us. Our friends inside recognized me, there's no question about it. This friend I was just talking about only sings that song for me.'\n\n'I don't suppose there was any way you could let them know that you'd received their message?' Caalador asked. 'Short of tearing down the door, I mean?'\n\n'No, I didn't have to tear down the door. I whistled along. I've done that before, so my friend knew what I was trying to say. Then I struck up a conversation with one of the guards, and I slipped in enough hints to let our friends inside know the things they ought to be aware of.'\n\nCaalador leaned back in his chair. 'Yer idee 'bout this yere tavern's workin' out real good, Shallag. We bin a-pickin' up all sorts o' useful infermation since we settled in.'\n\nKalten looked around the tavern. 'Things are quiet right now,' he said quietly. The fights probably won't start until after the sun goes down. Why don't we take a stroll back into the ruins? I think we'd better have another chat with that certain little girl. This time we've got some _good_ news for her.'\n\n'Let's get at it,' Caalador said, rising to his feet. He pushed his way through to the counter, spoke briefly with one of the foam-soaked outlaws and then led the way outside. They went around behind the tavern and pushed their way along a vine-choked side-street that ran on past some fallen buildings where bright-colored birds perched, squawking raucously. They went into a partially collapsed ruin, and Kalten and Caalador stood watch while Bevier cast the spell.\n\nThe Cyrinic was grinning when he came out. 'You'd better brace yourself, Kalten,' he said.\n\n'What for?'\n\n'Aphrael plans to kiss you into insensibility the next time she sees you.'\n\n'I suppose I can live with that. I gather she was pleased?'\n\n'She almost ruptured my eardrums.'\n\n'Well, as she always says, \"We only live to please those we love.\"'\n\nScarpa was screaming even before he came through the door. His voice was high and shrill, his eyes bulged, and his makeshift crown was askew. He was clearly in the throes of hysterical rage. His lips and beard were flecked with foam as he burst into the room. 'Your husband has betrayed you, woman!' he shrieked at Ehlana. 'You will pay for his perfidy! I will have your life for this!' He started toward her, his hands extended like claws.\n\nThen Zalasta was in the doorway. 'No!' he barked in an icy tone.\n\nScarpa spun on his father. 'Stay out of this!' he shrieked. 'She is my prisoner! I will punish her for Sparhawk's treachery!'\n\n'No, actually you won't. You'll do as I tell you to do.' Zalasta spoke in Elenic, and all traces of his accent were gone now.\n\n'He disobeyed my orders! I will make him pay!'\n\n'Are you so stupid that you didn't expect this? I _told_ you how devious the man was, but your mind's so clogged with cobwebs that you wouldn't listen.'\n\n'I gave him an _order!'_ Scarpa's voice had risen to a squeal. He stamped his foot. Then he stamped the other. Then he began jumping up and down on the floor, quite literally dancing with fury. 'I am the _emperor!_ He _must_ obey me!'\n\nZalasta did not even bother to use magic this time. He simply swung his staff and knocked his hysterical son to the floor, sending his crown rolling. 'You sicken me,' he said in a voice loaded with contempt. I have no patience with these temper-tantrums. You are _not_ the emperor. When you're in this condition, you're not even meaningful.' His face was unemotional, and his eyes were remote. 'Have a care, Scarpa,' he said in a dreadful voice. 'There's nothing in this world that I love now. You have freed me from all human attachments. If you annoy me, I'll squash you like a bug.'\n\nScarpa scrambled away from the terrible old man, his eyes suddenly rational and filled with fear.\n\n'What's happened?' Ehlana asked anxiously.\n\n'One of my associates \u2013 Cyzada of Esos \u2013 just arrived from Cynesga,' Zalasta replied calmly. 'He brought us some news that we probably should have expected. Your husband's a devious man, Ehlana. We thought that we had him, but he managed to wriggle free.'\n\n'I don't understand.'\n\n'We left him instructions when we abducted you. He was supposed to take his squire and set out on horseback for the town of Beresa in southern Arjuna. We had people watching, and he _seemed_ to be obeying. He was _not_ , however. Evidently he's not as fond of you as we'd thought he was.'\n\n'He was simply following my orders, Zalasta. I told him that under no circumstances was he to give up the Bhelliom.'\n\n'How did you manage that?' Zalasta seemed actually startled.\n\n'Your lunatic son here told Elron to kill Baroness Melidere. Elron's a hopeless incompetent, so Melidere was able to deflect his sword-thrust. I have some remarkable people working for me, Zalasta. Melidere was able to play dead very convincingly. I feigned hysteria and managed to whisper instructions to her while I covered her with a blanket.' She gave him a rather malicious sidelong glance. 'Your mind must be slipping, Zalasta. You didn't even notice that I no longer had my ring. I left _that_ with Melidere as well.'\n\n'Very resourceful, Ehlana,' he murmured. 'You and your husband are stimulating opponents.'\n\n'I'm so glad you approve. How did Sparhawk trick you?'\n\n'We're not entirely sure. We had people watching him from the moment he left the imperial compound in Matherion, and he followed our orders to the letter. We even diverted him a couple of times to prevent any tricks. Then Kl\u00e6l escaped again and went looking for Bhelliom. The man we _thought_ was Sparhawk was on a ship crossing the Sea of Arjun with his squire, Khalad. Kl\u00e6l took one look and instantly knew that the man who _appeared_ to be your husband was _not_ Anakha. That's the news that Cyzada just brought to us.'\n\nShe smiled almost beatifically at him. 'And so now Sparhawk's out there somewhere \u2013 with Bhelliom in his fist and murder in his heart \u2013 and you haven't the faintest idea of where he might be, and quite probably not even what he looks like. You've got a big problem, Zalasta.'\n\n'You're very quick, your Majesty. You think even faster than my colleagues.'\n\n'That isn't very difficult. You're surrounded with defectives. Which particular stroke of my genius is it that you admire?'\n\nHe smiled faintly. 'I rather like you, Ehlana,' he told her. 'You have spirit. My assorted defectives haven't yet fully grasped the implications of your husband's ploy. If he's somehow managed to make someone resemble him, he's surely able to alter his own features as well.'\n\n'He does it all the time, Zalasta. He had a great deal of experience with disguises when he was in Rendor. It's all falling apart on you, isn't it? I'd suggest that you start running immediately.'\n\n'I'll be leaving shortly, right enough, but _you'll_ be going with me. Tell your maid to start making preparations for a journey.'\n\n'What are you saying?' Scarpa scrambled to his feet. 'She _can't_ leave here!' he shrieked. 'We're going to make the exchange here!'\n\n'You imbecile,' Zalasta sneered. 'You didn't _really_ think I was going to let you go through with that, did you? I never had any intention of letting you get within five miles of Bhelliom.'\n\nScarpa gaped at him.\n\n'It was a misguided attempt to save your life, idiot. Bhelliom would have destroyed you in the instant that you touched it.'\n\n'Not if I had the rings. They would have protected me.' Scarpa's eyes were wild again.\n\n'The rings are a fraud,' Zalasta sneered. 'They have no power over Bhelliom whatsoever.'\n\n'You're lying!'\n\n'You desperately want to believe that, don't you, Scarpa? You thought that all you had to do to gain control of the most powerful force in the universe was to put on a pair of rings. Ghwerig the Troll-Dwarf made the rings at Bhelliom's instruction. They were designed to deceive a _Troll_ into thinking he had some power over the jewel. _Bhelliom_ induced Ghwerig to make the rings, and then it tricked Aphrael into stealing them. Everyone's attention was so fixed on the rings that we didn't even bother trying to steal Bhelliom from the royal crown of Thalesia.'\n\nScarpa suddenly sneered. 'You just out smarted yourself, old man. If Bhelliom's so deadly, how is it that the kings of Thalesia could touch it and not die?'\n\n'Because Bhelliom's _alive,_ you dolt. It has an awareness. It kills only those it _wants_ to kill \u2013 and that would certainly include you. You're my son, and even I want to kill you most of the time. You had some deranged, half-formed notion that you could just pick up Bhelliom and start giving it commands, didn't you?'\n\nScarpa flushed guiltily.\n\n'Can't you get it through your sick head that only a God \u2013 or Anakha \u2013 can safely take up Bhelliom and start giving it orders? I realized that over a century ago. Why do you think I made an alliance with Azash \u2013 or with Cyrgon? Did you think I was having religious yearnings?' He smiled a cruel smile. 'Did you really think Bhelliom would have made you a match for me, Scarpa? You were going to put on the rings, snatch up the Bhelliom, and order it to kill me, weren't you? I almost wish the situation were different. I'd have loved to see the expression on your face as Bhelliom slowly turned you to stone.' Zalasta straightened. 'Enough of this,' he said. He went to the door. 'Come in here,' he barked, 'all of you.'\n\nThe men who entered were fearful and hesitant as they sidled through the door. Krager appeared to have been frightened to the point that he was sober, and Elron was actually cringing. The third man was a stringy-looking Styric with a long beard, shaggy eyebrows, and sunken, burning eyes.\n\n'All right, gentlemen,' Zalasta said, 'this new development calls for a change of plans. My son and I have discussed the matter, and he's evidently decided that he wants to go on living, because he's agreed to follow my instructions. I'm going to take the Queen and her maid to a safe place. Natayos is no longer secure. Sparhawk could literally be anywhere. For all I know, he's already here. I want you three to stay here with Scarpa. Keep sending those letters of instruction to this counterfeit Sparhawk. Don't let our enemies know that we're on to them. Give me a couple of days and then send instructions to Panem-Dea. Tell them to prepare suitable quarters for two very important ladies. Then wait two more days and send a closed carriage down there. Security's an alien concept to those cretins at Panem-Dea, so word of your message will be all over southern Arjuna almost before your messenger arrives. Cyzada, I want _you_ to keep a close watch over my deranged son here. If he doesn't follow my instructions to the letter, I want you to summon one of the servants of Azash from the nether world to kill him. Be creative, old boy. Pick the crudest and most hideous demon you can find. If Scarpa disobeys me again, I want him to take a long, long time to die, and I want them to be able to hear him screaming all the way from here to Matherion.'\n\nCyzada's dead eyes came alight with a sudden cruel anticipation. He fixed a ghastly smile on the now totally rational Scarpa. 'I'll see to it, Zalasta,' he promised in a hollow voice. I know just the one to call on.'\n\nScarpa shrank back fearfully.\n\n'Where are you going to take the prisoners, Lord Zalasta?' Elron quavered. 'Where can you be safe from that vengeful monster they call Anakha?'\n\n'You don't need to know that, Elron,' Zalasta replied. The Pandions have a reputation for severity when they interrogate prisoners. You won't be able to tell them what you don't know \u2013 even when they start to torture you.'\n\nTorture?' Elron's eyes widened, and his voice came out in a terrified squeak.\n\n'This is the real world, Elron, not some romanticized day-dream. The posturing and play-acting are over now, but I'm sure we'll all be impressed by how heroically you endure the agonies they'll surely inflict on you when they catch you.'\n\nElron fell back in a near faint.\n\n# _Chapter 17_\n\nHer Royal Highness, Crown Princess Danae of Elenia, sat pensively on an out-of-the-way window-seat on one of the upper floors of her mother's castle. The weather outside was unsettled, and a blustery wind skipped the dead leaves across the lawns below like scurrying brown mice. Danae absently stroked her purring cat as she considered options, alternatives, and possibilities.\n\nMirtai, grim, implacable, and wearing an Atan breastplate of polished steel and black leather, stood several yards down the corridor, her face set in an expression of sullen obedience and her hand on her sword-hilt.\n\n'You're still angry with me, aren't you?' Danae asked the golden giantess, not even bothering to turn around.\n\n'It's not my place to either approve or disapprove of my owner.' Mirtai was being stubborn about it.\n\n'Oh, stop that. Come here.'\n\nMirtai marched up the hall to where her capricious little owner was sitting. 'Yes?'\n\n'I'm going to try again. Please listen to me this time.'\n\n'As your Majesty commands.'\n\n'That's getting very tiresome, you know. We love you, Mirtai.'\n\n'Is your Majesty speaking in the royal plural?'\n\n'You're starting to make me cross. I've got a name, and you know what it is. We all love you, and it would have broken our hearts if you'd decided to kill yourself. I spoke to you the way I did to bring you to your senses, you ninny.'\n\n'I know why you did it, Danae, but did you have to humiliate me in front of the others?'\n\n'I apologize.'\n\n'You can't do that. You're a queen, and queens _can't_ apologize.'\n\n'I can if I want.' Danae paused. 'So there,' she added.\n\nMirtai laughed and suddenly embraced the little girl. 'You're never going to learn how to be a queen, Danae.'\n\n'Oh, I don't know. Being the queen just means that you get what you want. I do that all the time anyway. I don't need a crown or an army for something as simple as that.'\n\n'You're a very spoiled little girl, your Majesty.'\n\n'I know, and I love every minute of it.'\n\nThen the Princess heard a faint, far-away murmur, a murmur that Mirtai could not, of course, even sense. 'Why don't you go find Melidere?' she suggested. She sighed and rolled her eyes upward. 'I'm sure she's looking for me anyway. It's probably time for another one of those girl lessons.'\n\n'She's giving you instruction in courtly manners and traditional courtesies, Danae,' Mirtai reproved her. 'If you're going to be a queen, you'll need to know those things.'\n\n'I think it's silly, myself. Go on ahead, Mirtai. I'll be along in a minute.'\n\nThe giantess went off down the hall, and Princess Danae spoke very quietly. 'What is it, Setras?' she asked her cousin.\n\n'You already know the courtesies, Aphrael,' her curly-haired cousin said, appearing suddenly beside her. 'Why are you taking lessons?'\n\n'It gives Melidere something to occupy her mind and keeps her out of mischief. I spent a great deal of time and effort getting her and Stragen together. I don't want her to spoil it by getting bored and starting to look for outside entertainment.'\n\n'That's very important to you, isn't it?' Setras sounded a little puzzled. 'Why should the things they do to perpetuate themselves interest you at all?'\n\n'You probably wouldn't understand, Setras. You're too young.'\n\n'I'm as old as you are.'\n\n'Yes, but you don't pay any attention to what your worshippers are doing when they're alone together.'\n\n'I know what they're doing. It's ridiculous.'\n\n_'They_ seem to like it.'\n\n'Flowers are much more dignified about it,' he sniffed.\n\n'Is this what you wanted to talk to me about?'\n\n'Oh, I almost forgot. I have a message for you. There's an Alcione Knight \u2013 one of the ones who serve _me._ I think you know him. He's a moon-faced fellow named Tynian.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'He went back to Chyrellos to pick up some help, and it seems that he inadvertently chose every Pandion skilled enough to pass messages on to you and brought them all to this part of the world, so there wasn't anybody with the Church Knights to tell you what happened in Zemoch.'\n\n'Yes, I already know about that. Anakha's going to talk with Tynian about that. What happened in Zemoch?'\n\nThe Church Knights had an encounter with Kl\u00e6l. A third of them were killed.'\n\nAphrael unleashed a blistering string of curses.\n\n'Aphrael!' he gasped. 'You're not supposed to talk that way!'\n\n'Oh, go bury it, Setras! Why didn't you tell me about this as soon as you got here?'\n\n'I was curious about the other thing,' he confessed. 'It's not as if they _all_ got killed, Aphrael. There are still plenty of them left. In a little while there'll be as many as before. They're ferociously prolific.'\n\n'I love them _all,_ you dolt! I don't want to lose any of them.'\n\n'You're greedy. That's one of your shortcomings, cousin. You can't keep _all_ of them, you know.'\n\n'Don't make any wagers on that, Setras. I'm only just getting started.' She threw her hands in the air. 'This is impossible! You don't even understand the message you're trying to give me. Where are the Church Knights now?'\n\n'They're coming across the steppes of Central Astel to invade Cynesga. They'll probably run into Kl\u00e6l again when they get there. I hope they don't _all_ get killed.'\n\n'Who's in command?'\n\n'One of Romalic's servants \u2013 an old man called Abriel \u2013 _was_ in charge when they left Chyrellos, but he got killed in Zemoch, so one of the high priests of the Church of the Elene God \u2013 a Thalesian named Bergsten \u2013 is giving orders now.'\n\n'I should have guessed,' she said. 'I have a few things to take care of first. Then I'll go find Bergsten and get a _true_ account of what happened.'\n\n'I was _only_ trying to help.' Setras sounded a little injured.\n\n'You did just fine, cousin,' Aphrael forgave him. 'It's not your fault that you haven't been keeping abreast of things here.'\n\n'I have important things on my mind, Aphrael,' he said defensively. 'Come by my studio some time,' he added brightly. I made a sunset the other day that's probably one of the best pieces I've ever done. It's so lovely that I've decided to keep it.'\n\n'Setras! You can't just stop the sun that way!'\n\n'There's nobody living there, Aphrael. They won't notice.'\n\n'Oh, dear!' She buried her face in her hands.\n\n'You're disappointed in me, aren't you?' His lower lip trembled slightly, and his large, luminous eyes filled with sudden tears. 'And I try so hard to make you and the others proud of me.'\n\n'No, Setras,' she said. 'I still love you.'\n\nHe brightened. 'Everything's all right then, isn't it?'\n\n'You're a dear, Setras.' She kissed him. 'Run along now. I have to talk with these others.'\n\n'You _will_ come and look at my sunset, won't you?'\n\n'Of course, cousin. Go along now.' She lifted her drowsing cat and blew into the furry creature's ear. 'Wake up, Mmrr,' she said.\n\nThe yellow eyes opened.\n\n'Go back to the place where we nest,' the little Princess said, speaking in cat. 'I have to do something.' She set Mmrr down on the floor, and the cat arched her back, hooking her tail into a sinuous question-mark, and yawned. Then she padded off down the corridor.\n\nDanae looked around, probing with eyes and mind to make certain she was alone. There were human males knocking around the halls of this castle, and the appearance of a naked Goddess always excited them. It was flattering, of course, but it was also a little confusing for a being with a total lack of any reproductive urges. No matter how hard she tried, Aphrael had never been able to understand how the mating impulse of human males could be so indiscriminate.\n\nThe Child Goddess briefly resumed her true person and then divided, becoming both little girls.\n\n'You're starting to get older, Danae,' Flute noted.\n\n'Does it show? Already?'\n\n'It's noticeable. You still have a way to go before you're fully mature, though. Are you really sure you want to go through with this?'\n\n'It might help us all to understand them a little better. I don't think Setras even knows that it takes a male and a female to \u2013 well, you know.' Danae blushed.\n\n'Setras isn't overly bright. Can I borrow Mirtai?' Flute asked.\n\n'What for?'\n\n'You don't really need her here, and after what happened in Dirgis, I'd like to have somebody I trust to stand guard over Sephrenia.'\n\n'Good idea. Let's go talk with Sarabian and the others. They'll be able to send messengers to people we don't have any contacts with.'\n\nFlute nodded. 'It would be _so_ much more convenient if they were _all_ ours.'\n\nDanae laughed. 'I think Setras was right. We _are_ greedy, aren't we?'\n\n'We love them all, Danae. I don't see any reason why they can't love us.'\n\nThe two little girls started off down the corridor hand in hand. 'Danae,' Flute said, 'do you think Mirtai might be afraid of heights?'\n\n'He _does_ look a lot like that picture Talen drew, doesn't he?' Tynian murmured to Ulath.\n\n'Very close,' Ulath agreed. 'That boy has a tremendous talent.'\n\n'Yes. He draws well, too.'\n\nUlath laughed shortly. Then he looked at the men clustered around Parok and drew Tynian a little further away from them. 'Parok's giving all the orders,' he whispered, 'but the Arjuni in the flamboyant doublet speaks for King Rakya.'\n\n'Sarabian's going to be very put out with the King of Arjuna.'\n\nUlath nodded. I wouldn't be at all surprised to see a new king on the throne before long.'\n\n'What exactly did Parok say about Natayos? You couldn't have mistaken his meaning, could you?'\n\n'Not a chance, Tynian. Just before he got into the argument with Duke Milanis, Parok said that Scarpa wanted to move his army out of Natayos before they gave Sparhawk the last note. I almost started cheering when he said that they were going to tell Sparhawk to go to Natayos for the exchange.'\n\n'We'll have to be careful, though. They _could_ be holding Ehlana someplace else. They may not take her to Natayos until the last minute.'\n\n'We'll find out for sure once Xanetia goes there,' Ulath shrugged.\n\nThe door to the book-lined room opened, and a liveried servant hurried in. 'An important message has arrived from Natayos, Baron,' he told Parok. 'The messenger rode his horse half to death.'\n\n'Horses are cheap. Send the fellow in.'\n\n'I could learn to dislike that man,' Tynian murmured.\n\n'I already do,' Ulath replied. He looked up speculatively. 'We're sort of invisible, aren't we?' he asked.\n\nThat's what Ghnomb says.'\n\n'Can you imagine the expression Parok would get on his face if he suddenly got ripped up the front with an invisible knife?'\n\n'Slowly,' Tynian added. 'Very, very slowly.'\n\nThe messenger from Natayos was a shabbily dressed Dacite, and he was reeling with exhaustion as he staggered into the room. 'Baron,' he gasped. 'Thank God I found you.'\n\n'Speak up, man!'\n\n'Could I have a drink of water?'\n\n'Talk first. Then you can drink anything you want.'\n\n'Lord Scarpa ordered me to tell you that the man you've been watching _isn't_ Sparhawk.'\n\n'I see that Scarpa's finally gone completely mad.'\n\n'No, Baron. Zalasta confirmed it. Somebody they call Kl\u00e6l went and had a look at this man you've been giving the notes to. They seemed to think you'd know who this Kl\u00e6l fellow is. Anyway, he sent word that the man with the broken nose _looks_ like Sparhawk, but it's not really him. This Kl\u00e6l must have some way to know for sure.'\n\nParok began to swear sulphurously.\n\n'That tears it,' Tynian growled. 'I'll pass this on to Aphrael. We'd better get Berit and Khalad to safety.'\n\n'Did Scarpa kill Sparhawk's wife?' Baron Parok asked the messenger.\n\n'No, my Lord Baron. He was going to, but Zalasta stopped him. I'm supposed to tell you not to do anything to let the imposter know that we're on to him. Zalasta needs some time to move the prisoners to someplace that's safe. He wants you to continue as if nothing had happened. After he has those two women clear, he'll get word to you that it's all right to kill the man who's posing as Sparhawk.'\n\n'Zalasta's in full command then?'\n\n'Yes, Baron Parok. Lord Scarpa's a bit \u2013 ah \u2013 distraught, I suppose you might say.'\n\n'You might say crazy, too. That'd be more accurate.' Parok started to pace the floor. 'I wondered how much it would take to push Scarpa over the edge,' he muttered. 'It's probably better this way anyhow. Zalasta's a Styric, but at least his head's on straight. Go back and tell him that I've received his message and that I won't do anything to upset his plans. Let him know that I have no real fondness for Scarpa and that I'll be completely loyal to him.'\n\n'I will, my Lord Baron.'\n\nDuke Milanis rose and crossed the room to close the window. 'What in God's name is that awful smell?' he exclaimed.\n\nTynian turned and saw the hulking Troll standing just behind them. 'Bhlokw,' he said, 'it is not good that you come into the dens of the man-things this way.'\n\n'I was sent by Khwaj, Tin-in,' Bhlokw explained. 'Khwaj grows tired of waiting. He wants to burn the wicked ones always.'\n\nThen their dim half-moment suddenly filled with smoke, and the enormous presence of the Fire-God was there. 'Your hunt takes too long, Ulath-from-Thalesia. Have you found any of the wicked ones yet? If you have, point out which one it is. I will make it burn forever.'\n\nTynian and Ulath exchanged a long look. Then Tynian grinned wolfishly. 'Let's,' he said.\n\n'Why don't we?' Ulath agreed. He looked at the flickering God of Fire. 'Our hunt has been successful, Khwaj,' he declared. 'We have found one of the ones who stole Anakha's mate. You can make it burn forever now.' He paused. There are others we also hunt, though,' he added. 'We do not want to frighten them away so that they will be harder to hunt. Can Ghnomb put the one we have found into No-Time? You can burn it always there. When it burns in No-Time, the others of its herd will not smell the smoke or hear the crying out with hurt, and so they will not run away.'\n\n'Your thought is good, Ulath-from-Thalesia,' Khwaj agreed. I will talk with Ghnomb about this. He will make it so that the one who burns always burns in the time which does not move. Which one of these should I burn?'\n\n'That one,' Ulath replied, pointing at Baron Parok.\n\nDuke Milanis was turning from the window when he suddenly stopped, becoming a statue in mid-stride.\n\nBaron Parok continued his restless pacing. 'We're going to have to start taking extra precautions,' he said, not yet realizing that the men around him were no longer moving. Then he turned and almost bumped into the exhausted messenger from Natayos. 'Get out of my way, idiot!' he snapped.\n\nThe man did not move.\n\n'I told you to take a message to Zalasta,' Parok raged. 'Why are you still here?' He struck the messenger across the face and cried out in pain as his hand hit something harder than stone. He looked around wildly. 'What's the matter with all of you?' he demanded in a shrill voice.\n\n'What did it say?' Khwaj's voice was dreadful.\n\nParok gaped at the vast Troll-God, shrieked, and ran for the door.\n\n'It does not understand that it is now in No-Time,' Ulath replied in Trollish.\n\n'It should know why it is being punished,' Khwaj decided. 'Will it understand if you talk to it in the bird-noises of the man-things?'\n\n'I will _make_ it understand,' Ulath promised.\n\n'It is good that you will. Speak to it.'\n\nParok was hammering futilely on the immovable door.\n\n'That won't do you any good, old boy,' Ulath urbanely advised the terrified Dacite nobleman. 'Things have definitely taken a turn for the worse for you, Baron. This large fellow with the smoke coming out of his ears is the Troll-God Khwaj. He disapproves of your abduction of Queen Ehlana.'\n\n'Who are you?' Parok half-screamed. 'What's going on here?'\n\n'You've been brought to the palace of punishment, Baron,' Tynian advised him. 'As my friend here just explained, Khwaj is quite put out with you. Trolls are a very moralistic sort. Things that we've come to take in stride \u2013 abductions, poisonings, and holding people for ransom \u2013 upset them enormously. There _is_ one small advantage, though. You're going to live forever, Baron Parok. You'll never, ever die.'\n\n'What are you talking about?'\n\n'You'll see.'\n\n'Does it understand now?' Khwaj demanded impatiently.\n\n'It is our thought that it does,' Ulath replied in Trollish.\n\n'Good.' Khwaj implacably advanced on the cringing Dacite, extending one vast paw. Then he clapped it down on top of Parok's head. 'Burn!' he growled.\n\nBaron Parok shrieked.\n\nThen his face seemed to split, and incandescent fire came spurting out through his skin. His doublet smoked for an instant and then flashed into ashes.\n\nHe shrieked again.\n\nHis form was still the form of a man, but it was a form etched in flame. The Baron burned, unconsumed, and he danced and howled in agony.\n\nKhwaj struck the immovable door with one huge paw, and the door burst outward in flaming chunks. 'Go!' he roared. 'Run! Run forever, and burn always!'\n\nThe flaming Dacite fled shrieking.\n\nThe town of Arjun stood frozen in that eternal instant of perpetual now. The citizens, like statues, stood frozen stock-still, unaware of the burning wraith that ran through their silent streets. They did not hear its agonized screams. They did not see it flee toward the lake-shore.\n\nBaron Parok, all ablaze, ran, trailing greasy smoke. He reached the docks and fled in flames out a long pier stretching into the dark waters of the Sea of Arjun. He did not pause when he reached the end of the pier, but plunged off, yearning toward the quenching water. But, like the moment itself, the surface of the lake was unyielding and as hard as diamond. The wraith of flame howled in frustration, kneeling on the glittering surface and hammering on it, pleading to be let in, begging to drown in the blessed coolness just beyond reach. Then Parok leaped to his feet, driven by the Troll-God's awful command. Shrieking still in agony and unutterable loneliness, the man-shape of eternal flame ran out across the dark crystal surface, receding incandescent until it was no more than a single bright spark far out on the night-darkened lake. And its lost wail of pain and endless solitude came echoing back to the incurious shore.\n\n'I wish Sparhawk would find his way home again,' Talen muttered as he and Stragen once again climbed the rickety stairs to the loft. 'We've got some fairly important information, and there's no way to pass it on to the others.'\n\n'There's nothing we can do about it right now,' Stragen told him. 'Let's see how Valash reacts to this story you cooked up. Keep it sort of vague until we see which way he jumps.'\n\n'And then will you teach me how to pick a pocket?' Talen asked with overly-feigned enthusiasm.\n\n'All right,' Stragen sighed. 'I apologize. I'll concede that you know what you're doing.'\n\n'Oh, _thank_ you, Vymer!' Talen gushed. 'Thank you, thank you!'\n\n'You've been spending too much time with Princess Danae,' Stragen muttered sourly. 'I hope she _does_ marry you. You deserve it.'\n\n'Bite your tongue, Stragen. I can still run faster than she can.'\n\n'Running doesn't always help, Reldin. I thought I could run, too, but Melidere cut my legs out from under me with a single word.'\n\n'Oh? Which word was that?'\n\n'Profit, my young friend. She waved unlimited amounts of gold in front of my face.'\n\n'You sold out, Stragen,' Talen accused. 'You betrayed every bachelor in the world for money.'\n\n'Wouldn't you have? We're not talking about a few farthings here.'\n\n'It's the principle of the thing,' Talen replied loftily. 'I wouldn't sell out for money.'\n\n'I don't think it'll be money that Danae's going to offer you, my innocent young friend. If you start running right now, you _might_ escape, but I sort of doubt it. I knew your father, and there's a certain weakness in your family. Danae's going to get you, Talen. You don't have a chance.'\n\n'Could we talk about something else? This is a very distressing sort of subject.'\n\nStragen laughed, and they went through the patched door at the top of the stairs.\n\nValash sat in the faint light of his single candle listening with a look of pained resignation on his face as Ogerajin babbled and drooled a long, strung-out series of disconnected phrases.\n\n'He doesn't seem to be getting any better,' Stragen observed quietly when he and Talen joined the two at the table.\n\n'He won't _get_ better, Vymer,' Valash sighed. 'I've seen this particular disease run its course before. Don't get too close to him. He's virulently infectious at this stage.'\n\n'I certainly wouldn't want to catch what he's got,' Talen shuddered.\n\n'Do you have something for me?' Valash asked.\n\n'I'm not going to swear to this, Master Valash,' Talen said cautiously. 'The fellows I picked it up from weren't any too reliable. You might want to pass it on to Panem-Dea, though. It concerns them rather directly, so they might want to take a few extra precautions.'\n\n'Go on,' Valash said.\n\n'Well, I overheard a couple of Arjuni soldiers talking in a tavern down by the waterfront \u2013 _real_ Arjuni soldiers, I mean, not the ones Lord Scarpa's recruited. They were talking about some orders that just came in from the capital at Arjuna. From what I was able to gather, they've been ordered to prepare for an extended campaign out in the jungle. They _think_ they're going to be mounting an attack on Lord Scarpa's camp at Panem-Dea.'\n\n'Impossible!' Valash snorted.\n\n'They were saying that the orders came from King Rakya himself. The message had been sent to their officers, of course, so they probably garbled it, but they're absolutely convinced that the Arjuni army's going to attack Scarpa's forces. I just thought you ought to know.'\n\n'Those soldiers were drunk, Reldin. King Rakya is our ally.'\n\n'Really? What an amazing thing. He ought to let his troops know about it, then. The two I was listening to were positively drooling about all the loot they thought they were going to carry out of Panem-Dea.'\n\n'The queen is coming to Panem-Dea,' Ogerajin suddenly sang in a wheezy voice to the tune of an old nursery song, 'the queen is coming to Panem-Dea.' Then he began to cackle in a high-pitched laugh.\n\nA look of sudden chagrin crossed Valash's face. 'Calm yourself, Master Ogerajin,' he said, giving Stragen and Talen a worried look.\n\n'The queen is coming to Panem-Dea, riding in a carriage,' Ogerajin sang in his cracked voice.\n\n'Don't pay any attention to him,' Valash said rather too quickly. 'He's only babbling.'\n\n'His mind really _is_ slipping, isn't it?' Stragen noted.\n\n'Six white horses and silver wheels \u2013' Ogerajin sang on.\n\n'Have you ever _heard_ such gibberish?' Valash asked with a weak laugh.\n\n'Our presence must be disturbing him,' Stragen said. 'Does he generally drift off to sleep later in the evening?'\n\n'Usually.'\n\n'Good. From now on, Reldin and I'll come by after midnight when he's asleep.'\n\n'I'd appreciate it, Vymer.' Valash looked at them, his face still worried. 'He wasn't always like this, you know. It's the disease.'\n\n'I'm sure of it. He's probably not even aware of what he's saying.'\n\n'Exactly, exactly. He's completely out of his head. Why don't you two just forget his crazy singing?' Valash snatched his purse from his belt and dug out several coins. 'Here. Come by again after he's gone to sleep.'\n\nThe two thieves bowed and quietly left.\n\n'Nervous, wasn't he?' Talen said as they went back down the stairs.\n\n'You noticed. He even forgot himself and opened his purse.'\n\nThey reached the bottom of the stairs. 'Where to?' Talen asked.\n\n'No place for the moment. Keep this to yourself, Talen.'\n\n'Keep what?'\n\nBut Stragen was already speaking in sonorous Styric, weaving his fingers intricately in the air in front of him.\n\nTalen stared as Stragen opened his hands palm up and made a sort of tossing gesture rather like a man releasing a pigeon. His eyes became distant, and his lips moved silently for a time. Then he smiled. 'Surprised her,' he said. 'Let's go.'\n\n'What's going on here?' Talen demanded.\n\n'I passed the things we just discovered along to Aphrael,' Stragen shrugged.\n\n_'You?_ When did you learn Styric magic?'\n\n'It's not really all that difficult, Talen,' Stragen grinned. 'I've seen Sparhawk do it often enough, and I _do_ speak Styric, after all. The gestures were a little tricky, but Aphrael gave me some instructions. I'll do it better next time.'\n\n'How did you know it would work?'\n\n'I didn't. I thought it was time I gave it a try, though. Aphrael's very pleased with me.'\n\n'You _do_ know that you just volunteered to serve her, don't you? I know _that_ much about her. You're her slave now, Stragen. She's got you.'\n\n'Oh, well.' Stragen shrugged. 'I suppose a man could do worse. Aphrael's a thief herself, so I'm sure we'll get along.' He squared his shoulders. 'Shall we go?' he suggested.\n\n# _Chapter 18_\n\n'You're absolutely certain?' Sparhawk eagerly asked the Child Goddess.\n\n'Kalten is,' she replied. 'He was walking past the building, and Alean started to sing. He'd recognize her voice, wouldn't he?'\n\nSparhawk nodded. 'She could raise him from the dead by singing to him. How fast can you get me to Natayos?'\n\n'Let's take the others to Dirgis first. I want to fill Xanetia and Sephrenia in on what's been happening.'\n\n'I already know about all that. I need to get to Natayos, Aphrael.'\n\n'All in good time, Sparhawk. It's not going to take us all that long to get to Dirgis, and the others might have some useful ideas.'\n\n'Aphrael \u2013' he began to protest.\n\n'We'll do it my way, Sparhawk,' she told him firmly. 'It won't take all that long, and it might give you enough time to get your temper under control. The others are waiting in the room with the map on the wall. Let's get them and go to Dirgis.'\n\nThere was one brief argument before they started. 'I have no need of a horse,' Betuana insisted, tightening the lace on one of her half-boots.\n\nAphrael sighed. 'Please do it my way, Betuana,' she said.\n\n'I can run faster than a horse. Why burden myself with one?'\n\n'Because you know how far it is from here to Dirgis, and the horse doesn't. It's easier for me that way. Please, Betuana, just for me.' The Child Goddess looked appealingly at the armored Atan Queen.\n\nBetuana laughed and gave in.\n\nAnd so they went out into the snowy courtyard, mounted, and rode on out into the streets of Sarna. The sky was heavy with clouds that obscured the surrounding mountains, and it was spitting snow. They left town by way of the east gate and slogged their way up the steep slope to the top of the gorge. Sparhawk, Itagne, and Vanion rode in the lead, breaking trail for the Queen of Atan, who rode wrapped in her heavy cloak and with the Child Goddess nestled in her arms. There was a strange dichotomy in the personality of the little divinity that troubled Sparhawk. He knew that she was wise beyond his ability to comprehend it, and yet she was still in most ways a little girl. Then he remembered the naked reality of the _true_ Goddess, and all hope of ever understanding her vanished.\n\n'Can't we go any faster?' Vanion demanded.\n\nSparhawk's friend had been in an agony of impatience ever since he had learned of the attack on Sephrenia, and Sparhawk had at times feared that he might have to physically restrain him. 'Fast or slow doesn't matter, Vanion,' he said. 'We can run or crawl, and we'll still get there at just about the same time.'\n\n'How can you be so calm?'\n\n'You get numb after awhile,' Sparhawk laughed wryly.\n\nIt was perhaps a quarter of an hour later when they crested the top of that long hill and looked down at the town of Dirgis \u2013 where the sun was shining brightly.\n\n'That's incredible!' Itagne exclaimed. Then he turned to look back down the trail they had just climbed, and his eyes suddenly went very wide.\n\n'I asked you not to do that, Itagne,' Aphrael reminded him.\n\n'It's still snowing there,' he choked, 'but \u2013' He stared at the sun-drenched snow-field just ahead again.\n\n'Why do people _always_ want to stop right there?' the little girl said irritably. 'Just move along, Itagne. Once you've passed the crossover between the two places, it won't bother you any more.'\n\nItagne resolutely set his face forward and rode on into the bright sunlight. 'Did you understand that, Sparhawk?' he asked in a strained voice.\n\n'Sort of. Do you really want to hear about what happens to you when you step through the place where two hundred miles have just been abolished?'\n\nItagne shuddered.\n\nThey rode on down the hill and entered the city.\n\n'How much further?' Vanion demanded.\n\n'Just a little ways,' Sparhawk replied. 'It's not all that big a town.'\n\nThey rode through the narrow streets where the snow lay thickly piled against the sides of the buildings. They reached the inn, rode into the courtyard just behind it, and dismounted.\n\n'Everything's been fixed now, Betuana,' Aphrael was assuring the Atan Queen. 'I'm keeping him in a deep sleep so that everything has a chance to knit back together again.'\n\n'Who's watching over him? Perhaps I should go there.'\n\n'No, Betuana,' Aphrael said firmly. 'I don't have permission to take you there \u2013 yet.'\n\n'But he's alone.'\n\n'Of course he's not alone. I'm right there beside him.'\n\n'But \u2013' Betuana stared at the little girl.\n\n'Try not to think about it.' The Child Goddess pursed her lips thoughtfully. 'Engessa-Atan's a deceptive man, you know \u2013 probably because he's so quiet. I didn't realize how remarkable he really is until I got into his mind.'\n\n'I have always known,' Betuana said. 'How long will it be necessary to keep him away from me \u2013 us?'\n\nAphrael let the Queen's slip pass without comment. 'A few weeks. I want to be sure that everything's healed. Let's go on inside before Vanion has apoplexy.'\n\nSparhawk led them into the inn, where the innkeeper seemed to be so engrossed in wiping off a table that he was totally oblivious to anything else. They went up the stairs, and Sparhawk was startled to see Mirtai standing guard at Sephrenia's door. 'What are _you_ doing here?' he asked her. I thought you were back in Matherion.'\n\n'I've been lent out,' she replied, 'like an old cloak.'\n\n'You know that's not true, Mirtai,' Aphrael said. 'Danae's perfectly safe where she is, but I needed someone I could count on to guard Sephrenia. Let's go inside.'\n\nSephrenia was sitting up in bed when they entered, and Xanetia was hovering protectively over her. The room was flooded with sunlight.\n\nVanion went directly to the woman he loved, knelt at her bedside, and gently put his arms around her. 'I'm never going to let you out of my sight again,' he told her in a thick voice.\n\nSephrenia took his face between her hands and kissed him.\n\n'You'll hurt yourself.'\n\n'Hush Vanion,' she told him, embracing his head and holding his face fiercely against her body.\n\nAphrael's huge eyes were luminous with tears. Then she seemed to shake off her sudden emotion. 'Let's get started,' she said crisply. 'A great deal has happened since the last time we were all together like this.'\n\n'And all of it bad,' Itagne added in a gloomy voice.\n\n'Not entirely,' she said. 'The worst of it is that Kl\u00e6l ambushed the Church Knights in the mountains of Zemoch. He had those strange soldiers with him, and our friends lost almost half their number in killed and wounded.'\n\n'Good God!' Itagne groaned.\n\nSince Sparhawk already knew the details of recent events, he decided to clear up the mystery of Kl\u00e6l's soldiers once and for all. He touched his fingertips to the bulge under his tunic. 'Blue Rose,' he said in the silence of his mind.\n\n'I hear thee, Anakha.'\n\n'Our friends have encountered Kl\u00e6l again. He hath brought warriors here from some other place.'\n\n'It was not unexpected. Kl\u00e6l is unsuited to direct engagement with humans by reason of his size.'\n\n'We are like mice in his eyes?' Sparhawk surmised.\n\n'Thou dost wrong thyself, Anakha.'\n\n'Perhaps. These soldiers are not of this world, methinks. Their blood is yellow and their faces are much like Kl\u00e6l's face.'\n\n'Ah,' the voice said. 'Thou wilt recall that I once told thee that it is customary for Kl\u00e6l and me to contest with each other for possession of the various worlds I have caused to be?'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'It pains me to admit this, Anakha, but I have not always prevailed in these contests. Kl\u00e6l hath wrested some of my worlds from me. It is from one of those worlds \u2013 Arcera would be my surmise \u2013 that he hath brought these creatures which thou and thy companions have met.'\n\n'They are fearsome, Blue Rose, but not invincible. We have noted some evidence of distress in them during prolonged sojourns here.'\n\n'I would be surprised hadst thou not. The air of Arcera would sear thy lungs shouldst thou take but one breath of it. The air of _this_ world is so sweet and wholesome that it may be most simply assimilated by thy kind and other creatures here. The creatures of Arcera are not so fortunate. _Their_ means of assimilating the noxious miasmas of their home are far more complex than _thy_ simple means of suspiration. Moreover, that which would be lethal to _thee_ hath become necessary for them. I am certain that they find thine air thin and unsatisfying by comparison.'\n\n'And deadly?' Sparhawk pressed.\n\n'In time, most certainly.'\n\n'Wouldst thou venture a surmise as to how _much_ time it might take our air to kill them?'\n\n'Thou art savage, Anakha.'\n\n'I am outnumbered, Blue Rose. The warriors of Kl\u00e6l put our cause in direst peril. We _must_ know how long they can survive here.'\n\n'That will vary from warrior to warrior. No more than a day, certainly, and exertion will hasten the process.'\n\n'I thank thee, Blue Rose. My companions and I will devise tactics to use this information to best advantage.'\n\n'Pay attention, Sparhawk,' Aphrael told him.\n\n'Sorry,' he apologized. 'I was conferring with our friend.' He patted the bulge at his front. He looked at Vanion. 'I picked up some more information about the weakness of Kl\u00e6l's soldiers,' he said. 'You and I need to work out some tactics.'\n\nVanion nodded.\n\n'Are you sure Berit and Khalad are all right?' Sephrenia asked the little girl.\n\nAphrael nodded. 'Zalasta doesn't want us to know that he's found out that we were deceiving him. He's given orders to everyone to behave as if nothing's happened.' She thought a moment. 'I guess that's about all,' she said. 'Bergsten's coming across the steppes; Kalten, Bevier, and Caalador are already in Natayos; and Ulath, Tynian and their pet Troll will be there before long.'\n\n'Can you get word to the Emperor?' Itagne asked her. 'He should know that the King of Arjuna's in league with Scarpa.'\n\n'I'll take care of it,' she promised. Then she frowned slightly. 'Sephrenia,' she said, 'have you been giving Stragen instruction in the secrets?'\n\n'No, why?'\n\n'He cast the spell of the secret summoning. He didn't do it very well, but he got my attention.'\n\n'How in God's name did he learn that?' Vanion exclaimed, still holding Sephrenia in his arms.\n\n'Probably from watching the rest of you. Stragen's very quick, and he _does_ speak Styric. Stealing secrets is almost the same as picking pockets, I guess. Anyway, it was Stragen who told me about Scarpa's other forts. He and Talen are planting false stories with that Dacite in order to confuse the other side.'\n\n'Methinks it is time for me to go to Natayos,' Xanetia said. 'We must verify the presence there of Anakha's Queen and make preparations for her rescue.'\n\n_'Before_ Zalasta tries to move her,' Sparhawk added. 'I'd better go along as well. The others are there already, and Kalten might need a firm hand to keep him from doing anything rash. Besides, if Ehlana and Alean are there, we might just as well pull them out of danger. Then I'll disperse Scarpa's army and we'll go have a talk with Cyrgon.'\n\n'And Zalasta,' Vanion added bleakly.\n\n'Oh, by the way,' Aphrael said, 'is anybody keeping a list of the people we want to do things about? If you are, you can scratch off Baron Parok's name.'\n\n'Did Ulath kill him?' Sparhawk guessed.\n\n'He isn't dead, Sparhawk. As a matter of fact, he's going to live forever. You'll never find him, though. Khwaj was getting impatient, and he started pushing Ulath and Tynian for information about the people who'd abducted Ehlana. They gave him Parok.'\n\n'What happened?' Itagne asked.\n\n'Ghnomb froze time.' She shrugged. 'Then Khwaj set fire to Parok. He's completely engulfed in flame. He's still running, and he'll run \u2013 and burn \u2013 in that empty, unmoving instant for all eternity.'\n\n'Dear God!' Itagne choked in horror.\n\n'I'll pass that on to Khwaj, Itagne,' the Child Goddess promised. 'I'm sure he'll be pleased that you approve.'\n\nThe air was cool and dry and the sky was peculiarly grey. Tynian and Ulath rode out of Arjun in frozen time with Bhlokw shambling along between their horses. 'How long would you say it's going to take us to reach Natayos?' Tynian asked.\n\n'Oh,' Ulath replied, I don't know \u2013 couple of seconds, probably.'\n\n'Very funny.'\n\n'I rather liked it.' Ulath looked up at the flock of birds hanging in mid-air overhead. 'I wonder if a man ages at all when he's walking around in this No-Time.'\n\n'I don't know. You could go ask Baron Parok, I suppose.'\n\n'I doubt that he'd be very coherent.' Ulath scratched at one bearded cheek. 'I'm definitely going to shave this thing off, and if Gerda doesn't like it, that's just too bad.' Then he thought of something he had been meaning to ask their shaggy friend. 'Bhlokw,' he said.\n\n'Yes, U-lat?'\n\n'It makes us sad that our hunt takes us to the lands of the sun where the heat causes hurt to you.'\n\n'It causes no hurt to me, U-lat. There is no heat or cold in No-Time.'\n\nUlath stared at him. 'You are sure?' he asked incredulously.\n\n'Do you feel heat?' Bhlokw asked simply.\n\n'No,' Ulath admitted, 'I do not. It had been my thought -' He broke off, frowning and trying to frame his next question in coherent Trollish. 'We were far to the north when you and your pack-mates ate the children of Cyrgon who were both dead and not dead.'\n\n'Yes. It was north from where we are now.'\n\n'Then Ghnomb took you and your pack-mates into No-Time.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'Then Ghworg led you to the lands of the sun.'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'There was no hurt caused to you when he did this?'\n\n'No. The hurt was caused by the things that were not how they should be.'\n\n'Which things were not how they should be?'\n\n'All of the Trolls were one pack. This is not how it should be. Troll-packs do not have so many. It is not a good way to hunt.' Bhlokw rubbed at his shaggy face with one massive paw. 'We did not hunt this way when we were in the Troll-range where we are supposed to be. My thought was that Ghworg's mind was sick when he came to us and told us to cross the ice-which-never-melts to come to this place. It was not Ghworg who did this. It was Cyrgon. Cyrgon had made himself to look like Ghworg and spoke in Ghworg's voice. It was my mind which was sick. My thought should have told me that it was not Ghworg.'\n\n'Does it cause hurt to you that the Trolls are all one pack?'\n\n'Much hurt, U-lat. I do not like it when things are not how they should be. I have known Grek for many snows. His pack hunts near my pack in the Troll-range. I do not like Grek. It has been in my thought for the past two snows to kill him. Ghworg will not let me kill him. This causes hurt to me.'\n\n'It will not be this way always, Bhlokw,' Ulath said consolingly. 'After we have killed all of Cyrgon's children, the Gods will take the Trolls back to the Troll-range. Then things will be how they should be again.'\n\n'It will make me glad when they are. I would really like to kill Grek.' Bhlokw shambled away mournfully.\n\n'What was that all about?' Tynian asked.\n\n'Im not sure,' Ulath admitted. 'Im groping around the edges of something here. I know it's right in front of me, but I can't put my finger on it.'\n\n'For the moment, let's just hope that the Troll-Gods can control the homicidal impulses of their children,' Tynian said fervently.\n\n'Trollicidal,' Ulath corrected.\n\n'What?'\n\n'You said \"homicidal\". Bhlokw wants to kill Grek. Grek's a Troll. The right word would be \"Trollicidal\".'\n\n'That's petty quibbling, Ulath.'\n\n'Right is right, Tynian,' Ulath replied in a faintly injured tone.\n\nIt was still quite early the next morning when Aphrael returned from Sarna. The sky to the east was lit with the pale approach of day, even though the moon still held sway above the western horizon.\n\nSparhawk and Xanetia had been waiting for no more than half an hour when they heard the familiar trill of Flute's pipes coming from back in the dark forest.\n\n'That was quick,' Sparhawk said as the Child Goddess joined them.\n\n'It's not as if Sarna were on the other side of the continent, Sparhawk,' she replied. I got them all settled in.' She smiled. 'Vanion's being a pest. He was trying to make Sephrenia go to bed when I left.'\n\n'She _has_ been very ill, Aphrael,' he reminded her.\n\n'But she isn't now. She needs to be up and moving about. Turn your backs.'\n\nXanetia looked puzzled.\n\n'It's one of her quirks,' Sparhawk explained. 'She doesn't want people watching while she changes.' He looked at the Child Goddess. 'Don't forget the clothes this time, Aphrael,' he told her. 'Let's not offend the Anarae.'\n\n'You're so tiresome about that, Sparhawk. Now please turn around.'\n\nIt only took a few moments. 'All right,' Aphrael said. They turned. Sparhawk noted the Goddess was once again garbed in that satiny white robe.\n\n'Thou art fair beyond description, Divine One,' Xanetia said.\n\nAphrael shrugged. 'I cheat a lot. Do you trust me, Anarae?'\n\n'With my life, Divine Aphrael.'\n\n'I hope you're taking notes, Sparhawk.'\n\n'Have you arranged for some noise to hide what you're doing from Zalasta?'\n\n'I don't have to. Xanetia's coming along, and her presence will conceal everything.'\n\n'I suppose I hadn't thought of that,' he admitted.\n\n'Now then, Anarae,' Aphrael explained, 'we're all going to hold hands. Then we'll rise up into the air. It's really better if you don't look down. As soon as we get above the tops of these mountains, we'll start moving. You won't feel any wind or sense of movement. Just hold onto my hand and try to think of something else. It won't take very long.' She squinted toward the eastern horizon. 'We'd better get started. I'd like to get us to Natayos and into a good hiding place before Scarpa's soldiers start stirring around.' She held out her hands, and Sparhawk and Xanetia took them.\n\nSparhawk steeled himself and watched the ground rapidly receding as they rose swiftly toward the dawn sky.\n\n'You're squeezing, Sparhawk,' Aphrael told him.\n\n'Sorry. I'm still not entirely used to this.' He looked at Xanetia. The Anarae, all aglow, was a picture of absolute serenity as they rose higher and higher.\n\n'The world is fair,' she said softly with a note of wonder in her voice.\n\n' _If_ you get high so that you can't see the ugliness.' Aphrael smiled. 'I come up here to think now and then. It's one place where I can be fairly sure I won't be interrupted.' She took a bearing on the newly risen sun, which had seemed almost to rush up into the sky as they rose, set her face resolutely toward the southeast and gave a peculiar little nod.\n\nThe earth beneath began to flow smoothly, rushing toward them from the front and receding just as rapidly behind.\n\n'It seemeth me a merry way to travel,' Xanetia observed.\n\n'I've always rather liked it,' Aphrael agreed. 'It's certainly faster than plodding along on horseback.'\n\nThey fled southeasterly with an eerie kind of silence around them.\n\n'The Sea of Arjun,' Sparhawk said, pointing toward a large body of water off to the right.\n\n'So small?' Xanetia said. 'I had thought it larger.'\n\n'We're up quite a ways,' Aphrael explained. 'Everything looks small from a distance.'\n\nThey sped on and were soon over the dense green jungle that covered the southeastern coast of the continent.\n\n'We'll go down a bit now,' Aphrael warned. 'I'll take a bearing on Delo, and then we'll swerve toward the southwest to reach Natayos.'\n\n'Will we not be seen from the ground?' Xanetia asked.\n\n'No \u2013 although it's an interesting idea. Your light would definitely startle people. Whole new religions could be born if people on the ground started seeing angels flying over their heads. There's Delo.'\n\nThe port city looked like a child's toy carelessly left on the shore of the deep blue Tamul Sea. They veered to the southwest, following the coastline and gradually descending.\n\nAphrael was peering intently down at the jungle rushing back beneath them. 'There,' she said triumphantly.\n\nThe ruin might have been more difficult to find had not the northern quarter been cleared of the brush and trees which covered the rest of the ancient city. The tumbled grey stones of the half-fallen buildings stood out sharply in the light of the sunrise, and the newly cleared road stretching toward the north was a yellow scar cut deeply into the face of the dark green of the jungle.\n\nThey settled gently to earth on the road about a quarter of a mile north of the ruins, and Sparhawk immediately led them back a hundred paces into the thick undergrowth. He was tense with excitement. If Kalten was right, he was less than a mile from the place where Ehlana was being held captive.\n\n'Go ahead, Xanetia,' Aphrael suggested. 'I want to look you over before you go into the city. This is important, but I don't want to put you in any danger. Let's be sure nobody can see you.'\n\n'Thou art overly concerned, Divine One. Over the centuries, we of the Delphae have perfected this particular subterfuge.' She straightened, and her face assumed an expression of almost unnatural calm. Her form seemed to shimmer, and little rainbow flickers of light seethed beneath her plain homespun robe. She blurred and wavered, her form becoming indistinct.\n\nThen she was only an outline, and Sparhawk could clearly see the trunk of the tree behind her.\n\n'How do you make the things on the other side of you visible?' Aphrael asked curiously.\n\n'We bend the light, Divine One. That is at the core of this deception. The light flows around us like a swift-moving stream, carrying with it the images of such objects as our bodies would normally obscure.'\n\n'Very interesting,' Aphrael mused. I hadn't even thought of that possibility.'\n\n'We must be wary, however,' Xanetia told the Goddess. 'Our shadows, like telltale ghosts, can betray us.'\n\n'That's simple. Stay out of the sunlight.'\n\nSparhawk concealed a faint smile. Even a Goddess could give blatantly obvious instructions sometimes.\n\n'I shall most carefully adhere to thine advice, Divine One,' Xanetia replied with an absolutely straight face.\n\n'You're making fun of me, aren't you, Xanetia?'\n\n'Of course not, Divine Aphrael.' Even the outline was gone now, and Xanetia's voice seemed to come out of nowhere. 'To work, withal,' she said, her sourceless voice receding in the direction of the road. I shall return anon.'\n\n'I'll have to compliment Edaemus,' Aphrael said. 'That's a very clever means of concealment. Turn around, Sparhawk. I'm going to change back.'\n\nAfter the Child Goddess had resumed the familiar form of Flute, she and Sparhawk made themselves comfortable and waited as the sun gradually rose. The jungle steamed, and the air was alive with the chattering of birds and the buzzing of insects. The moments seemed to drag. They were so close to Ehlana that Sparhawk almost imagined that he could smell her familiar fragrance. 'Are Ulath and Tynian here yet?' he asked, more to get his mind away from his anxious concern than out of any real curiosity.\n\n'Probably,' Flute replied. 'They set out from Arjun yesterday morning. It might have seemed like three weeks to them, but it was no more than a heartbeat for everybody else.'\n\n'I wonder if they stayed in No-Time or just merged into Scarpa's army.'\n\n'It's hard to say. Maybe I should have checked before Xanetia left.'\n\nThen they heard several men talking on the road. Sparhawk crept closer, with Aphrael just behind him.\n\n'Because I don't trust these soldiers, Col,' a rough-looking fellow was saying to a blond Elene.\n\n'It's daytime, Senga. Nobody's going to ambush your beer wagons in broad daylight.'\n\n'You can't be too careful. Money's running short here in Natayos, and that beer's the life-blood of my business. A thirsty man who's running short of money might do anything.'\n\n'Have you considered lowering your prices?' an evil-looking fellow with a black eye-patch asked.\n\n'Bite your tongue, Shallag,' Senga replied.\n\n'Just a suggestion,' the patch-eyed man shrugged.\n\nThe dozen or so heavily armed men moved on out of earshot.\n\n'You recognized them, of course,' Aphrael murmured to Sparhawk.\n\n'Kalten and Bevier, yes. I didn't see Caalador, though,' He thought for a moment. 'Will you be all right here? Alone, I mean?'\n\n'Well, it's _awfully_ dangerous, Sparhawk \u2013 lions and tigers and bears, you know.'\n\n'It was a silly question, wasn't it?'\n\n'I'd say so, yes. What have you got in mind?'\n\n'Kalten and Bevier are obviously working for that fellow they called Senga. I think I can get them to vouch for me. They seem to have the run of Natayos, so hiring on as a beer-guard would give me a way to get into the city without attracting attention.'\n\n'Will you be able to restrain yourself when you're that close to Mother?'\n\nIm not going to do anything foolish, Aphrael.'\n\n'Well, I suppose it's all right. You have my permission.'\n\n'Oh, _thank_ you, Divine Aphrael,' he said. Thank you, thank you, thank you.'\n\n'You have a very clever mouth, Sparhawk,' she said tartly.\n\n'It's probably the clever company I've been keeping lately,' he shrugged.\n\n'I have to run back to Sarna for a little while,' Aphrael told him. 'Try to stay out of trouble when you get into the city.'\n\n'I'll miss you desperately.' He grinned.\n\n'You're in an odd humor today.'\n\n'I feel good. If all goes well, I'll have your mother out of there before the sun goes down.'\n\n'We'll see.'\n\nThey waited as the sun crept further up in the eastern sky. Then from off to the north they heard the approach of several heavily laden wagons. 'I'll keep you posted,' Sparhawk promised, and he stepped out of the bushes to stand at the side of the muddy road.\n\nThe first wagon, drawn by four patient oxen, came creaking around a bend. The wagon-bed was piled high with barrels, and the one known as Senga sat on the seat beside the villainous-looking driver. Kalten, his expression oddly familiar on his altered face, was perched on top of the barrels.\n\n'Ho, Col,' Sparhawk called from the roadside. 'I _thought_ I recognized your voice when you passed here a little while ago.'\n\n'Well, strike me blind if it isn't Fron!' Kalten exclaimed with a broad grin. Sparhawk suddenly wondered what might have happened if Kalten hadn't recognized him. Kalten was laughing now with genuine delight. 'We all thought you'd run away to sea when things came apart on us back in Matherion.'\n\n'It didn't work out,' Sparhawk shrugged. 'There was a bo'sun on board who was a little too free with his whip. He decided to swim for shore one dark night. I can't imagine what came over him. We were twenty leagues out to sea when I helped him over the side.'\n\n'People do strange things sometimes. What are you doing here?'\n\n'I heard about this army, and I thought it might be a good place to hide. Word's going about that this Scarpa fellow plans to attack Matherion. I've got a few old scores to settle there, so I decided to tag along for fun and profit.'\n\n'I think we can find a better spot for you than back in the rear ranks of Scarpa's army.' Kalten nudged Senga's shoulder with his foot. 'The fellow standing ankle-deep in the mud there is an old friend of ours from Matherion,' he told the tavern-keeper. 'His name's Fron, and he's a very good man in a fight. When the police jumped on us back in Matherion, he stood shoulder to shoulder with Shallag, holding them off while the rest of us got away. Do you think there might be a spot for him in your operation here in Natayos?'\n\n'Do you vouch for him, Col?' Senga asked.\n\n'I couldn't ask for better help if trouble crops up.'\n\n'You're in charge of security,' Senga shrugged. 'Hire anybody you want.'\n\n'I was hoping you'd see it that way.' Kalten beckoned to Sparhawk. 'Climb on up, Fron,' he said. 'I'll show you the wonders of Natayos.'\n\n'From the top of a beer wagon?'\n\n'Can you think of a better place?'\n\n# _Chapter 19_\n\nKring arrived in Sarna late in the afternoon of the same day in which Aphrael had transported Sephrenia and the others there from Dirgis. Mirtai calmly went down into the courtyard of the Atan garrison to meet her bandy-legged betrothed. The two of them embraced rather formally and then came into the building.\n\n'She seems very restrained,' Vanion observed quietly to Betuana as the two watched from the window of the conference room.\n\n'It is not seemly to openly display affection in public, Vanion-Preceptor,' the Queen replied. 'Decorum must be maintained, even though the heart might prefer it otherwise.'\n\n'Ah.'\n\n'Ho, friend Vanion!' Kring said as he and his tall beloved entered. 'You're just the man I was looking for.'\n\n'It's good to see you, too, friend Kring. How are things going in Samar?'\n\n'It's quiet. The Cynesgans have pulled back from the border. Is there something going on to the south that I haven't been told about?'\n\n'Not that I know of. Why do you ask?'\n\n'The Cynesgans were massing just across the border, and we were expecting them to come across to lay siege to Samar almost any time. Then several days ago they pulled back and left only a few units in place. The rest of their army marched south.'\n\n'Why would they do that?' Vanion asked, frowning.\n\n'Probably to meet the Church Knights,' Aphrael replied.\n\nVanion turned to see the Child Goddess calmly sitting in her usual place on Sephrenia's lap. She had not been there a moment before. There was no point to making an issue of it. Aphrael would never change. The Church Knights aren't coming from that direction, Divine One,' he said.\n\n'We know that, Vanion,' she replied, 'but Stragen and Talen have been busy in Beresa. They've managed to convince the Dacite spy that there's a huge fleet of ships flying Church flags knocking about in the Gulf of Daconia. Evidently the Dacite passed the word on, and the Cynesgan High Command took it seriously enough to send their main force south to defend southern Cynesga.'\n\n'But they _know_ that the Church Knights are coming overland through Astel.'\n\nThey know about _that_ force, Lord Vanion,' Itagne said, 'but they must have been convinced that there's another coming by sea.'\n\nThere aren't that many of us, Itagne.'\n\n'You and I know that, Lord Vanion, but it's generally believed here in Tamuli that there are at least a million of you fellows. The term \"Church Knights\" conjures up visions of armies stretching from horizon to horizon.'\n\nVanion frowned. 'Oh,' he said finally. I think I understand. During the Zemoch wars, we joined forces with the armies of the kings of Eosia. The Tamul observers must have thought that everyone in armor was a Church Knight.'\n\n'I think I'll have a talk with the Emperor,' Itagne mused. 'Titles of nobility might be in order for your pair of thieves. This imaginary fleet of theirs seems to have pulled half the Cynesgan army off the border and most likely pinned down the Arjunis as well.'\n\n'It's a great little fleet,' Vanion grinned, 'and you don't even have to feed the sailors. Let's keep the stories alive.' He looked at Aphrael. 'Could you arrange some illusions, Divine One?'\n\n'Dragons? Flights of angels?'\n\n'How about a thousand ships hull-down on the horizon instead?'\n\n'What do I get in return?'\n\n'Stop teasing,' Sephrenia told her with a gentle smile.\n\n'Where would you like your make-believe boats, Vanion?'\n\nHe thought about it. 'Why don't you just bounce them up and down the coastline of Daconia and western Arjuna?' he suggested. 'Let's run the Cynesgans and Arjunis ragged trying to position themselves to defend against landings.'\n\n'I'll go take care of it right now,' she said, slipping down from her sister's lap, 'before I forget.'\n\n'When did you ever forget anything?' Sephrenia smiled.\n\n'I don't know. I must have at some time, though. I've probably forgotten exactly when.' She gave them all an impish little smile, and then she vanished.\n\nKring was sitting at Mirtai's side, and he had been squinting speculatively at the ceiling, absently running one hand over his stubbled scalp. He was not free to use the other, since Mirtai had taken possession of it. Her contented, almost placid, expression clearly said that she did not intend to release his hand in the foreseeable future.\n\n'If Divine Aphrael can keep those Cynesgan troops more or less permanently distracted, Tikume and I'll be able to hold Samar without any help,' the Domi said, 'particularly now that we know how to deal with Kl\u00e6l's soldiers.' He rubbed even more briskly at his scalp.\n\n'Quit worrying at it,' Mirtai told him. 'I'll shave you just as soon as we finish here.'\n\n'Yes, love,' he agreed immediately.\n\n'Oh, that reminds me,' Vanion said. 'Sparhawk had a talk with Bhelliom. Kl\u00e6l's soldiers can only breathe our air for about a day before they start dying, and exertion speeds up the process. If you come across them again, keep them running.'\n\nKring nodded.\n\nA tall Atan came in and murmured something to Itagne.\n\n'I'm really awfully busy right now, old boy,' Itagne objected.\n\n'He's most insistent, Itagne-Ambassador.'\n\n'Oh, very well.' Itagne rose to his feet. 'I'll be right back, Lord Vanion,' he said and followed the Atan from the room.\n\n'Did Sparhawk find out what country Kl\u00e6l's soldiers come from, friend Vanion?' Kring asked. 'I'd sort of like to avoid that place.'\n\n'I don't think you need to worry, Domi Kring.' Sephrenia smiled. 'Kl\u00e6l's soldiers were brought here from someplace beyond the stars.'\n\nKring frowned. 'You might want to have a talk with Sparhawk, friend Vanion,' he said. 'I enjoy a good fight as much as the next man, but if he's going to declare war on the whole universe, he ought to let the rest of us in on his plans.'\n\n'I'll definitely speak with him about it, Domi Kring,' Vanion said. Then he sighed. 'I wish we'd known more about Kl\u00e6l's soldiers earlier. The Church Knights encountered them in the mountains of Zemoch and lost half their number in killed and wounded.'\n\n'I'm sorry, friend Vanion. Did you lose many old comrades?'\n\n'Many, Domi Kring,' Vanion replied sadly, 'many.'\n\n'How's friend Engessa coming along?' Kring asked Betuana.\n\n'Aphrael says that he's recovering, Domi,' she replied. 'I'd like to see that for myself, though.'\n\nItagne returned, accompanied by a Tamul wearing slightly out-of-date clothing. 'Would you please see to it that we're not disturbed?' he said to the Atan guard in the hall. Then he closed and bolted the door. 'I have some good news for a change,' he said then. He put his hand on the stranger's shoulder. 'This is my very dear \u2013 though new-found friend, Ekrasios,' he said.\n\nBetuana frowned. 'That is not a Tamul name,' she said.\n\n'No, your Majesty,' Itagne agreed, 'it's not. Actually, it's Delphaeic. The Delphae are such a musical people. It probably derives from the fact that they still speak classical Tamul. My friend here just stopped by to advise us that the Delphae have decided to come out of their splendid seclusion. Ekrasios, this is Preceptor Vanion, the close friend of Anakha. The regal lady is Betuana, Queen of the Atans. The short fellow is Domi Kring of the western Peloi. The tall, pretty girl with the death-grip on his hand is Mirtai, his betrothed, and the exquisite Styric lady is Sephrenia, High Priestess of the Goddess Aphrael.'\n\n'Nobles all,' Ekrasios greeted them with a formal bow. 'I bring greetings from Beloved Edaemus. Divine Aphrael hath persuaded him that we have common cause in the current situation, and he hath thus relaxed his centuries-old prohibition upon us. I am sent to thee, Lord Vanion, to advise thee that I and diverse companions are at thine immediate disposal. Where might we best be deployed to further our cause?'\n\n'If I may, Lord Vanion?' Itagne interposed. 'It just occurred to me that the Delphae might be best suited to empty those ruins in the Arjuni jungles. If Ekrasios and his friends were to appear in all their glowing splendor at the gates of Scarpa's camps down there, the rebels would probably go back home and take up peaceful pursuits, just as fast as they possibly could.'\n\n'Well said,' Mirtai murmured her agreement.\n\n'He certainly moves around, doesn't he?' Ulath said to Tynian as the beer wagon with Sparhawk and Kalten perched atop the barrels rumbled past on the ancient street. 'Last I heard, he was in Dirgis.'\n\n'The natcherl rules don't seem t' apply t' ol' Spor-hawk,' Tynian replied in a bad imitation of Caalador's dialect. 'What do you think? Should we slip back into real time? Or should we stay where we are?'\n\n'I think we'll be more useful if we stay out of sight,' Ulath replied.\n\n'That's fine with me, but how are we going to get word to Sparhawk and the others that we're here?'\n\n'I'll slip a note in his pocket \u2013 or blow in his ear.'\n\n'That ought to get his attention.'\n\nBhlokw came shambling back up the street with a mournful expression on his ape-like face. 'There are no dogs here,' he reported in Trollish.\n\n'Soldiers don't usually keep dogs, Bhlokw,' Tynian explained.\n\n'I have hunger, Tin-in. Would the man-things here miss one of their herd \u2013 a small one?'\n\n'We might have a problem here,' Tynian muttered to Ulath. 'It's definitely in our best interests to keep our friend here well-fed.'\n\nUlath scratched at his now clean-shaven cheek. 'We can't just turn him loose,' he noted. 'He'll attract attention if he starts grabbing people and jerking them into these broken moments.'\n\n'He's invisible, Ulath.'\n\n'Yes, but if some Arjuni suddenly vanishes and his bones start getting tossed back out of nowhere, it's bound to attract attention.' He turned back to the Troll. 'It is our thought that it would not be good for you to kill and eat the man-things here, Bhlokw. We hunt thought here, and if you kill and eat the man-things, you will frighten the thought away.'\n\n'I do not like this hunting of thought, U-lat,' Bhlokw complained. 'It makes things not-simple.'\n\n'The forest is near, Bhlokw,' Tynian said. 'There must be many good-to-eat things there.'\n\n'I am not an Ogre, Tin-in,' Bhlokw protested in a slightly offended tone. 'I do not eat trees.'\n\n'There should be creatures that are good-to-eat among the trees, Bhlokw,' Ulath said. 'That is what Tin-in was trying to say. It was not his thought to insult you.'\n\nBhlokw glowered at Tynian for a moment. 'I will go hunt now,' he said abruptly. Then he turned and shambled off.\n\n'You have to be careful, Tynian,' Ulath warned his friend. 'If you want to get into a fight almost immediately, all you have to do is suggest to a Troll that he might be an Ogre.'\n\n'They're actually prejudiced?' Tynian asked in amazement.\n\n'You wouldn't _believe_ how prejudiced,' Ulath replied. 'Trolls and Ogres have hated each other since the beginning of time.'\n\n'I thought that prejudice was a human failing.'\n\n'Some things are just too good to stay private, I guess. Let's follow Sparhawk and let him know that we're here. He might have something for us to do.'\n\nThey trailed along behind the beer caravan winding through the cleared streets toward that part of Natayos that was still choked in brush and vines. The wagons trundled along a recently cleared street and then went around behind a canvas-roofed building identified by a crudely lettered sign that read 'Senga's'.\n\n'Trust Kalten to get close to the beer,' Tynian said.\n\n'Truly,' Ulath agreed. 'Wait here. I'll go let Sparhawk know that we're in Natayos.' He walked over to where Sparhawk, Kalten, and Bevier, looking strange with their altered features, stood off to one side while Senga supervised the unloading of the barrels. 'Ramshorn,' he said quietly. 'Don't get excited and start looking around,' he added. 'You won't be able to see me.'\n\n'Ulath?' Kalten asked incredulously.\n\n'Right. Tynian, Bhlokw and I got here yesterday. We've been nosing around.'\n\n'How have you managed to become invisible?' the patch-eyed Bevier asked.\n\n'We aren't, actually. Ghnomb's breaking the seconds into two pieces. We're only present during the smaller piece. That's why you can't see us.'\n\n'But you can see _us!'_\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'Ulath, that's logically inconsistent.'\n\n'I know, but Ghnomb _believes_ that it works, and I guess his belief is strong enough to override logic. Tynian and I are here, and nobody can see us. Is there anything you want us to do?'\n\n'Can you get into that building near the gate?' Sparhawk asked quickly. 'The one with the barred windows?'\n\n'Not a chance. We already looked into the possibility. Too many guards on the doors. Bhlokw even tried going in through the roof, but it's all sealed up.'\n\n'That's my _wife_ in there, Ulath!' Sparhawk exclaimed. 'Are you saying that you tried to send a _Troll_ into the same building with her?'\n\n'Bhlokw wouldn't have hurt her, Sparhawk \u2013 frightened her a little, maybe, but he wouldn't have hurt her. We sort of thought he might be able to go in through the roof, pick Ehlana and Alean up, and carry them out.' Ulath paused. 'It wasn't really our idea, Sparhawk. Bhlokw volunteered \u2013 well, actually he didn't even volunteer. He just started climbing up the wall before we could stop him. He said, \"I will go get them. I will bring Anakha's mate and her friend out so that we can kill all these children of Cyrgon and eat them.\" Bhlokw's a little elemental, but his heart's in the right place. I hate to admit it, but I'm actually starting to like him.'\n\nKalten looked around nervously. 'Where is he now?' he asked.\n\n'He's out hunting. When we were knocking around those cities by the lake, we persuaded him not to eat people. We got him started on dogs instead. He really likes them, but there aren't any dogs here in Natayos, so he's out in the woods \u2013 probably chasing elephants or something.' Then something flickered at the corner of Ulath's eye. 'What in God's name is that?' he exclaimed.\n\n'What?' Kalten asked, looking around in bafflement.\n\n'There's somebody made out of rainbows coming around the side of the building!' Ulath gaped at the clearly defined shape approaching. The many-colored light was dazzling.\n\n'That's Xanetia,' Sparhawk explained. 'Can you actually _see_ her?'\n\n'Are you saying that you _can't?'_\n\n'She's invisible, Ulath.'\n\n'Not to _me,_ she isn't.'\n\n'It must have something to do with the peculiar time you're in, my friend,' Bevier suggested. 'You'd better let her know that you can see her. It might be important some day.'\n\nThe shimmering rainbow stopped a few paces away. 'Anakha,' Xanetia said softly.\n\n'I hear thee, Anarae,' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'It pains me to tell thee that I have failed,' she confessed. 'The mind of Scarpa is so twisted that I cannot wring coherence from his thought. I did gently probe the minds of some of his followers, however, and I must sadly advise thee that thy Queen is no longer here in Natayos. When our enemies did discover the subterfuge involving young Sir Berit, Zalasta did spirit thy wife and her handmaiden away under cover of darkness. I shall endeavor to glean their destination from the thoughts of others here, an it please thee.'\n\nUlath's heart twisted with sympathy at the look of sudden despair that came over Sparhawk's face.\n\nThey ran easily in their endless regiments, tall and lightly armored, with their bronze limbs glowing in the cool grey light. The towering King Androl ran smoothly at the front of his army. It was good to be on the move again, and the prospect of battle was exhilarating. Battle was meaningful, and one could actually _see_ results. The absence of his wife had thrust a thousand petty administrative chores on Androl's unprepared shoulders. It was so frustrating to make decisions about things he didn't really understand and not to see any immediate results that would have told him whether or not his decisions had been correct. Once again the King of Atan thanked his God for giving him Betuana for his wife. They made a good team, actually. The Queen was very skilled with details. Her mind was quick, and she could pick out subtleties and nuances that frequently escaped her husband. Androl, on the other hand, was made for action. He gladly let his wife make all the tiresome decisions, and then, when it was all settled and they knew what they were going to do, _he_ took charge of carrying her decisions out. It was better that way, actually. The King of Atan was fully aware of his limitations, and he knew that his wife forgave him when he occasionally overlooked something. He hoped that he didn't disappoint her too much.\n\nHer suggestion \u2013 she never gave him orders \u2013 that he take the bulk of their people to the south end of Lake Sarna in preparation for a grand battle at Tosa was exactly the sort of thing Androl truly loved. Here was action, simple and uncomplicated. The troublesome decisions had all been made, the enemy had been identified, and all the boring details had been swept out of the way. He smiled as he led his army into the last outcropping of mountains some fifty leagues to the southeast of Tualas. Betuana's message had hinted that the battle at Tosa would be a titanic one, a grand clash at arms with struggling armies stretching for miles and the ring of sword against sword reaching to the skies. He would make her proud of him.\n\nThe route through the outcropping mountains led up a long ridge-line, through a narrow notch and then down into the deep gorge of a turbulent stream that had gnawed at the rock for eons.\n\nKing Androl was breathing a bit heavily when he crested the ridge-line and led his forces through the notch. The wasted hours spent conferring with Ambassador Norkan had taken off Androl's edge. A warrior should never permit himself to be lured away from the practice-field or the exercise yard. He picked up the pace as he led his army down into the narrow gorge, running smoothly along the south bank of the rushing mountain river. If _he_ was out of shape, his soldiers probably were as well. He hoped that he could find a suitable place for an encampment at Lake Sarna, a proper encampment with enough space for training and practice and those necessary calisthenics that honed warriors to the peak of fitness. Androl was sublimely confident that _any_ opposing force could be overcome if only his army were fully trained and fit.\n\n'Androl-King!' General Pemaas shouted over the sound of the turbulent stream. 'Look!'\n\n'Where?' Androl demanded, half-turning and reaching for his sword.\n\n'At the top of the gorge \u2013 on the right!'\n\nThe Atan King craned his neck to peer up the sheer cliff-face to the rocky brink high above.\n\nThe King of Atan had seen many things in his life, but nothing to compare with the vast, monstrous form rearing suddenly above them on the rim of the gorge.\n\nThe thing was glossy black, like polished leather, and it had enormously out-spreading wings, jointed and batlike. Its wedge-shaped head was accentuated by blazing eye-slits and a gaping mouth that dripped flame.\n\nKing Androl considered it. The problem, of course, was the fact that the towering creature was at the top of the gorge while he stood at the bottom. He could turn and retrace his steps, running back up the gorge to the notch and scrambling around the rocks to reach the rim; but that would give the thing plenty of opportunity to run away, and then he would have to chase it down in order to kill it. In his present less-than-perfect condition, that would be very tedious. He could always climb up the cliff, but that would still take time, and the creature might very well see him coming and try to flee.\n\nThen, amazingly, the large being at the top of the gorge provided the solution. It raised its enormous arms and began to slash at the top of the cliff with what appeared to be fire of some kind.\n\nAndrol smiled as the cliff-face began to topple outward, tumbling and roaring down into the gorge. The silly beast was accommodatingly providing the means for its own destruction. How could it _be_ so stupid?\n\nKing Androl adroitly dodged a tumbling, house-sized boulder, carefully assessing the rapidly growing slope of rubble piling up at the base of the cliff.\n\nThe beast actually intended to attack! Androl laughed with delight. The creature was stupid beyond imagining, but he _did_ have to give _it_ credit for courage \u2013 foolish courage, of course, but courage nonetheless. All the universe knew that Androl of Atan was invincible, and yet this poor dumb brute meant to pit its puny strength against the greatest warrior since the beginning of time.\n\nAndrol looked speculatively at the steep, growing slope of rubble, ignoring the cries of those of his soldiers not nimble enough to avoid being crushed in the avalanche rumbling down upon them. Almost high enough now. Just a few more feet.\n\nAnd then he judged that the steep slope had grown high enough to give him access to the stupid creature roaring and flapping its wings high above. He dodged another boulder and began his rush, scrambling, dodging, leaping, as he swiftly mounted toward the doomed beast above him.\n\nWhen he was almost to the top, he paused, drew his sword, and set himself.\n\nAnd then with a savage war-cry he rushed up the remaining slope, ignoring the momentary flicker of sympathy he felt for the brave, misguided creature he was about to kill.\n\n'Where do you think you're going?' a burly Dacite wearing a shabby uniform tunic and holding a long pike demanded as Sparhawk and Kalten pulled the wobbly cart with two large barrels in it around the corner of the building.\n\n'We've got a delivery from Senga for Master Krager,' Kalten replied.\n\n'Anybody could say that.'\n\n'Go ask him,' Kalten suggested.\n\n'I wouldn't want to disturb him.'\n\n'Then you'd better let us past. He's been waiting for this wine for quite some time now. If you keep us from delivering it, he'll _really_ be disturbed. He might even be disturbed enough to take the matter to Lord Scarpa.'\n\nThe guard's face grew apprehensive. 'Wait here,' he said, then turned and went along the back of the building to the heavy door.\n\n'I'll stay in the background when we get inside,' Sparhawk quietly told his friend. 'If he asks, just tell him that I'm a strong back you commandeered to help pull the cart.'\n\nKalten nodded.\n\n'Are you here, Anarae?' Sparhawk asked, looking around in spite of the fact that he knew he wouldn't be able to see her.\n\n'Right at thy side, Anakha,' her voice replied softly.\n\n'We'll keep him talking for as long as we can. He'll probably be a little drunk. Will that make it difficult for you?'\n\n'I have shared the thoughts of this Krager before,' she told him. 'He is coherent unless he is far gone with drink. If it be convenient, direct his attention toward the house where thy Queen was late held captive. That may prod his mind toward thoughts of interest to us.'\n\n'I'll see what I can do, Anarae,' Kalten promised.\n\nThe Dacite guard came back. 'He'll receive you,' he announced.\n\n'Somehow I was almost sure he would,' Kalten smirked. 'Master Krager's very fond of this particular wine.' He and Sparhawk lifted the shafts of the cart and pulled it along over the rough, littered ground at the back of the semi-restored ruin that appeared to be Scarpa's main headquarters.\n\nKrager was eagerly waiting in the doorway. His head was shaved, but he still looked much the same. He was dishevelled and unshaven, his near-sighted, watery eyes were bloodshot, and his hands were visibly shaking. 'Bring it inside,' he ordered in his familiar, rusty-sounding voice.\n\nKalten and Sparhawk set the shafts of the cart down, untied the ropes that had held the two barrels in place, and carefully eased one of them out onto the ground. Kalten measured the height of the barrel with a length of the rope and then checked the width of the doorway. 'Just barely,' he said. Tip it over, Fron. We'll be able to roll it in.'\n\nSparhawk heaved the barrel over onto its side, and he and his friend rolled it through the doorway into the cluttered room beyond. There was an unmade bed against one wall, and clothes littered the floor. The place was permeated with the acrid smell of Krager's unwashed, wine-sodden body, and there was a heap of empty casks and broken earthenware bottles in one corner.\n\n'Where did you want these, Master Krager?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Anyplace,' Krager said impatiently.\n\n'That's not thinking ahead,' Kalten said critically. 'They're too heavy for you to move by yourself. Pick a spot that'll be convenient.'\n\n'You might be right.' Krager squinted around the room. Then he went to a place near the head of the bed and kicked some clothes out of the way. 'Put them right here,' he instructed.\n\n'Ah \u2013 before we go any further, why don't we settle up? These are very expensive, Master Krager.'\n\n'How much?'\n\n'Senga told me that he had to have fifty crowns a barrel. Arcian red's very hard to come by this far away from Arcium.'\n\n_'Fifty crowns?'_ Krager exclaimed.\n\n'Each,' Kalten insisted. 'He told me to open the barrels for you, too.'\n\n'I know how to open a wine barrel, Col.'\n\n'I'm sure of it, but Senga's an honest businessman, and he wants me to make sure you're satisfied before I take your money.' He rolled the barrel over against the wall. 'Help me set it up, Fron,' he told Sparhawk. They righted the barrel, and Kalten took a pry-bar out from under his belt. 'Beer's a lot easier to deal with,' he noted. 'Somebody ought to tell those Arcian vintners about the advantages of putting a bung-hole in the side of a barrel.' He carefully pried up the lid as Krager, cup in hand, eagerly waited at his elbow.\n\n'Give it a try, Master Krager,' Kalten said then, lifting off the lid and stepping aside.\n\nKrager dipped his cup into the deep red liquid, lifted it with a trembling hand, and drank deeply. 'Marvelous!' he sighed happily.\n\n'I'll tell Senga that it meets with your approval,' Kalten said. He laughed. 'You wouldn't expect it of a highway robber, but Senga's very concerned about satisfying his customers. Would you believe that he even had us pour out a barrel of beer that had gone sour? Come on, Fron, let's get the other barrel. We'll have Master Krager test that one and then we'll settle accounts.'\n\nThe two of them went back outside and manhandled the second barrel out of the cart.\n\n'Ask him why they've taken the guards off the doors of the house where they were holding Ehlana and Alean,' Sparhawk muttered.\n\n'Right,' Kalten grunted as they lowered the wine barrel to the ground.\n\nThey put the second barrel beside the first, Kalten pried open the lid, and Krager sampled it.\n\n'Satisfactory?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Just fine,' Krager said. He dipped out another cup and sank back happily on his bed. 'Absolutely splendid.'\n\n'That'll be a hundred crowns then.'\n\nKrager pulled a heavy purse out from under his belt and negligently tossed it to Kalten. 'Here,' he said. 'Count it out yourself. Don't steal too much.'\n\n'This is business, Master Krager,' Kalten told him. 'If I was robbing you, I'd have my knife against your throat.' He swept some clothing and a few dried crusts of bread off the top of a table with his forearm, opened the purse, and started counting out coins. 'We noticed that all the guards have been pulled away from the house with the bars on the windows,' he said. 'A couple of days ago a man couldn't get within twenty paces of that place, but this morning Fron and I wheeled that cart right past the front door, and nobody paid any attention to us. Has Lord Scarpa moved whatever was so valuable out of there?'\n\nKrager's puffy face became suddenly alert. 'That's none of your business, Col.'\n\n'I didn't say it was. You might just make a suggestion to Lord Scarpa, though. If he doesn't want people to notice things like that, he shouldn't change anything. He should have kept all the guards right where they were. Senga and the rest of us are all robbers, you know, and we all more or less believed that Lord Scarpa was keeping his treasure in that house. The word \"treasure\" makes men like us prick up our ears.'\n\nKrager stared at him and then he began to laugh.\n\n'What's so funny?' Kalten looked up from his counting.\n\n'It was a treasure all right, Col,' Krager smirked, 'but not the kind you can count.'\n\n'Like you say, it's none of my business, but every man who works in Senga's tavern knows that it's been moved. I'm sure they'll all be poking around in these ruins looking for the new storehouse.'\n\n'Let them look,' Krager shrugged. 'The treasure's a long, long way from here by now.'\n\n'I hope you've still got guards on it. Those woods out there are crawling with fellows like Fron and me. Would you come here and check my count?'\n\n'I trust you, Col.'\n\n'You're a fool, then.'\n\n'Take another ten crowns for yourself and your man,' Krager said expansively, 'and then if you don't mind, I'd like to be alone with my two new friends here.'\n\n'You're very generous, Master Krager.' Kalten took some more coins from the purse, scooped up all the ones he had previously counted out, and dumped them into the side pocket of his smock. 'Let's go, Fron,' he said to Sparhawk. 'Master Krager wants to be alone.'\n\nTell Senga that I'm grateful to him,' Krager said, dipping out more wine, 'and tell him to keep his eye out for more of this excellent vintage. I'll buy all he can find.'\n\n'I'll tell him, Master Krager. Enjoy yourself.' And Kalten led the way out of the reeking room.\n\nSparhawk closed the door and held out his hand.\n\n'What?' Kalten asked.\n\n'My five crowns, if you don't mind,' Sparhawk said firmly. 'Let's keep accounts current, shall we?'\n\n'Thou art shrewd, Sir Kalten,' Xanetia's whispered voice came to them. 'Thou didst most skillfully guide his thought in precisely the direction most useful to us.'\n\nKalten made some show of counting coins into sparhawk's hand. 'What did you find out, Anarae?' he asked in a tense voice.\n\n'Some day or two ago a closed carriage did depart from this place after making some show of stopping \u2013 under heavy guard \u2013 at the door to the house upon which all our attention hath been fixed. The carriage, which was but a ploy, is bound for Panem-Dea. Those we seek are not inside, however. They had long since departed from Natayos with Zalasta.'\n\n'Did Krager know where Zalasta was taking them?' Sparhawk asked.\n\n'It was evidently in Zalasta's mind that none here should know,' Xanetia replied, 'but Krager, ever alert to the main chance, was well aware that news of Zalasta's destination might well save his life should things go awry, and he did strive most assiduously to learn the Styric's plans. By feigning drunken stupor, he was able to be present when Zalasta did speak with his comrade, Cyzada. The twain spake in Styric, but Krager, unbeknownst to us all, hath a smattering of that tongue, and he was thus able to glean from their hurried conversation the very information which he \u2013 and we \u2013 are most curious about.'\n\n'That's a surprise,' Kalten muttered. 'Drunk or sober, Krager's a shrewd one, all right. Where's Zalasta taking the ladies, Anarae?'\n\nXanetia sighed. 'The information is melancholy, Sir Kalten,' she told him. 'I do fear me that it is Zalasta's intent to take the Queen and her handmaiden to the hidden city of Cyrga, where Cyrgon himself doth hold sway, and by his power there can deny us all access to those we love.'\n\n# [PART THREE  \nCyrga](..\/Text\/9780007368051_epub_toc_r1.htm#pt03)\n\n# _Chapter 20_\n\nIf they would just let her sleep. The world around her seemed distorted, unreal, and she could only watch in numb, uncaring bemusement as her exhausted body screamed for sleep \u2013 or even for death. She stood exhausted at the window. The slaves toiling in the fields around the lake below looked almost like ants crawling across the winter-fallow fields as they grubbed at the soil with crude implements. Other slaves gathered firewood among the trees on the sloping sides of the basin, and the puny sounds of their axes drifted up to the dark tower from which she watched.\n\nAlean lay on an unpadded bench, sleeping or dead, Ehlana could no longer tell which, but she envied her gentle maid in either case.\n\nThey were not alone, of course. They were never alone. Zalasta, his own face gaunt with weariness, talked on and on with King Santheocles. Ehlana was too tired to make any sense of the haggard Styric's droning words. She absently looked at the King of the Cyrgai, a man in a close-fitting steel breastplate, a short leather kirtle and ornate steel wrist-guards. Santheocles was of a race apart, and generations of selective breeding had heightened those features most admired by his people. He was tall and superbly muscled. His skin was very fair, although his carefully curled and oiled hair and beard were glossy black. His nose was straight, continuing the unbroken line of his forehead. His eyes were very large and very dark \u2013 and totally empty. His expression was haughty, cruel. His was the face of a stupid, arrogant man devoid of compassion or even simple decency.\n\nHis ornate breastplate left his upper arms and shoulders bare, and as he listened, he absently clenched and relaxed his fists, setting his muscles to writhing and dancing under his pale skin. He was obviously not paying much attention to Zalasta's words, but sat instead totally engrossed in the rhythmic flexing and relaxing of the muscles in his arms. He was in all respects a perfect soldier, possessed of a superbly-conditioned body and mind unviolated by thought.\n\nEhlana wearily let her eyes drift again around the room. The furniture was strange. There were no chairs as such, only benches and padded stools with ornate arms but no backs. Evidently the notion of a chair-back had not occurred to the Cyrgai. The table in the center of the room was awkwardly low, and the lamps were of an ancient design, no more than hammered copper bowls of oil with burning wicks floating in them. The roughly sawed boards of the floor were covered with rushes, the walls of square-cut black basalt were unadorned, and the windows were undraped.\n\nThe door opened and Ekatas entered. Ehlana struggled to bring her exhausted mind into focus. Santheocles was king here in Cyrga, but it was Ekatas who ruled. The High Priest of Cyrgon was robed and cowled in black, and his aged face was a network of deep wrinkles. Although his expression was every bit as cruel and arrogant as that of his king, _his_ eyes were shrewd, ruthless. The front of his black robe was adorned with the symbol that seemed to be everywhere here in the Hidden City, a white square surmounted by a stylized golden flame. There was some significance there certainly, but Ehlana was too tired to even wonder what it might be. 'Come with me,' he commanded abruptly. 'Bring the women.'\n\n'The servant girl is of no moment,' Zalasta replied in a slightly challenging tone. 'Let her sleep.'\n\n'I am not accustomed to having my commands questioned, Styric.'\n\n_'Get_ accustomed, Cyrg. The women are _my_ prisoners. My arrangement is with Cyrgon, and you're no more than an appendage to that arrangement. Your arrogance is beginning to annoy me. Leave the girl alone.'\n\nTheir eyes locked, and a sudden tension filled the room. 'Well, Ekatas?' Zalasta said very quietly. 'Has the time come? Have you finally worked up enough courage to challenge me? Any time, Ekatas. Any time at all.'\n\nEhlana, now fully alert, saw the flicker of fear in the eyes of Cyrgon's priest. 'Bring the Queen then,' he said sullenly. 'It is _she_ whom Cyrgon would behold.'\n\n'Wise decision, Ekatas,' Zalasta said sardonically. 'If you keep making the right choices, you might even live for a little while longer.'\n\nEhlana took her cloak and gently covered Alean with it. Then she turned to face the three men. 'Let's get on with this,' she told them, mustering some remnant of her royal manner.\n\nSantheocles rose woodenly to his feet and put on his high-crested helmet, taking great pains to avoid mussing his carefully arranged hair. He spent several moments buckling on his large round shield, and then he drew his sword.\n\n'What an ass,' Ehlana noted scornfully. 'Are you really sure you should trust His Majesty with anything sharp, though? He might hurt himself with it, you know.'\n\n'It is customary, woman,' Ekatas replied stiffly. 'Prisoners are always kept under close guard.'\n\n'Ah,' she murmured, 'and we _must_ obey the dictates of custom, mustn't we, Ekatas? When custom rules, thought is unnecessary.'\n\nZalasta smiled faintly. 'I believe you wanted to take us to the temple, Ekatas. Let's not keep Cyrgon waiting.'\n\nEkatas choked back a retort, jerked the door open and led them out into the chilly hallway.\n\nThe stairs that descended from the top-most tower of the royal palace were narrow and steep, endless stairs winding down and down. Ehlana was trembling by the time they reached the courtyard below.\n\nThe winter sun was very bright in that broad courtyard, but there was not much heat to it.\n\nThey crossed the flagstoned courtyard to the pale temple, a building constructed not of marble but of chalky limestone. Unlike marble, the limestone had a dull, unreflective surface, and the temple looked somehow diseased, leprous.\n\nThey mounted the stairs to the portico and entered through a wide doorway. Ehlana had expected it to be dark inside this Holy of Holies, but it was not. She stared with a certain apprehensive astonishment at the source of the light even as Ekatas and Santheocles prostrated themselves, crying in unison, _'Vanet, tyek Alcor1 Yala Cyrgon!'_\n\nAnd then it was that the Queen understood the significance of that ubiquitous emblem that marked virtually everything here in the Hidden City. The white square represented the blocky altar set in the precise center of the temple, but the flame that burned atop that altar was no stylized representation. It was instead an actual fire that twisted and flared, reaching hungrily upward.\n\nEhlana was suddenly afraid. The fire burning on the altar was not some votive offering, but a living flame, conscious, aware, and possessed of an unquenchable will. Bright as the sun, Cyrgon himself burned eternal on his pale altar.\n\n* * *\n\nNo,' Sparhawk decided. 'We'd better not. Let's just sit tight \u2013 at least until Xanetia has the chance to winnow through a few minds. We can always come back and deal with Scarpa and his friends later. Right now we need to know where Zalasta's taking Ehlana and Alean.'\n\n'We already know,' Kalten said. 'They're going to Cyrga.'\n\n'That's the whole point,' the now-visible Ulath told him. 'We don't know where Cyrga is.'\n\nThey had gone back into the vine-choked ruins and had gathered on the second floor of a semi-intact palace to consider options.\n\n'Aphrael has a general idea,' Kalten said. 'Can't we just start out for central Cynesga and do some poking around when we get there?'\n\n'I don't think that'd do much good,' Bevier pointed out. 'Cyrgon's been concealing the place with illusions for the past ten eons. We could probably walk right through the streets of the city and not even see it.'\n\n'He's not hiding it from _everybody,'_ Caalador mused. 'There _are_ messages going back and forth, so _somebody_ here in Natayos has to know the way. Sparhawk's right. Why don't we let Xanetia do the poking around _here,_ instead of the lot of us going off into the desert to dodge scorpions and snakes while we turn over pebbles and grains of sand?'\n\n'We stay here then?' Tynian asked.\n\n'For the time being,' Sparhawk replied. 'Let's not do anything to attract attention until we find out what Xanetia can discover. That's our best option at the moment.'\n\n'We were so _close!'_ Kalten fumed. 'If we'd just gotten here a day or two earlier.'\n\n'Well we didn't,' Sparhawk said flatly, forcing back his own disappointment and frustration. 'So let's make the best of it and salvage what we can.'\n\n'With Zalasta getting further and further away with every minute,' Kalten added bitterly.\n\n'Don't worry, Kalten,' Sparhawk told him in a tone as cold as death. 'Zalasta can't run far enough or fast enough to get away from me when I decide to go after him.'\n\n'Are you busy, Sarabian?' Empress Elysoun asked tentatively from the doorway of the blue-draped room.\n\n'Not really, Elysoun,' he sighed. 'Just brooding. I've had a great deal of bad news in the last day or so.'\n\n'I'll come back some other time. You're not much fun when you've got things on your mind.'\n\n'Is that all there is in the world, Elysoun?' he asked her sadly. 'Only fun?'\n\nHer sunny expression tightened slightly, and she stepped into the room. 'That's what you married us for in the first place, wasn't it, Sarabian?' She spoke in crisp Tamul that was not at all like her usual relaxed Valesian dialect. 'Our marriages to you were to cement political alliances, so we're here as symbols, playthings, and ornaments. We're certainly not a part of the government.'\n\nHe was rather startled by her perception and by the sudden change in her. It was easy to underestimate Elysoun. Her single-minded pursuit of pleasure and the aggressively revealing nature of her native dress proclaimed her to be an empty-headed sensualist, but this was a completely different Elysoun. He looked at her with new interest. 'What have you been up to lately, my love?' he asked her fondly.\n\n'The usual,' she shrugged.\n\nHe averted his eyes. 'Please don't do that.'\n\n'Do what?'\n\n'Bounce that way. It's very distracting.'\n\n'It's supposed to be. You don't think I dress this way because I'm too lazy to put on clothes, do you?'\n\n'Is that why you came by? For fun? Or was there something more tedious?' They had never talked this way before, and her sudden frankness intrigued him.\n\n'Let's talk about the tedious things first,' she said. She looked at him critically. 'You need to get more sleep,' she chided.\n\n'I wish I could. I've got too much on my mind.'\n\n'I'll have to see what I can do about that.' She paused. There's something going on in the Women's Palace, Sarabian.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'A lot of strangers have been mingling with the assorted lap-dogs and toadies that litter the halls.'\n\nHe laughed. That's a blunt way to describe courtiers.'\n\n'Aren't they? There's not a real man among them. They're in the palace to help us with our schemes. You _did_ know that we spend our days plotting against each other, didn't you?'\n\nHe shrugged. 'It gives you all something to do in your spare time.'\n\n'That's the only kind of time we have, my husband. _All_ of our time is spare time, Sarabian, that's what's wrong with us. Anyway, these strangers aren't attached to any of the established courts.'\n\n'Are you sure?'\n\nHer answering smile was wicked. 'Trust me. I've had dealings with all the regular ones. They're all little more than butterflies. These strangers are wasps.'\n\nHe gave her an amused look. 'Have you actually winnowed your way through _all_ the courtiers in the Women's Palace?'\n\n'More or less.' She shrugged again \u2013 quite deliberately, he thought. 'Actually it was rather boring. Courtiers are a tepid lot, but it was a way to keep track of what was going on.'\n\n'Then it wasn't entirely \u2013?'\n\n'A little, perhaps, but I have to take steps to protect myself. Our politics are subtle, but they're very savage.'\n\n'Are these strangers Tamuls?'\n\n'Some are. Some aren't.'\n\n'How long has this been going on?'\n\n'Since we all moved back to the Women's Palace. I didn't see any of these wasps when we were all living here with the Elenes.'\n\n'Just the past few weeks then?'\n\nShe nodded. 'I thought you should know. It could be just more of the same kind of thing that's been going on for years, but I don't really think so. It _feels_ different somehow. Our politics are more indirect than yours, and what's happening in the Women's Palace is men's politics.'\n\n'Do you suppose you could keep an eye on it for me? I'd be grateful.'\n\n'Of course, my husband. I _am_ loyal, after all.'\n\n'Oh, really?'\n\n'Don't make that mistake, Sarabian. Loyalty shouldn't be confused with that other business. That doesn't mean anything. Loyalty does.'\n\n'There's a lot more to you than meets the eye, Elysoun.'\n\n'Oh? I've never tried to conceal anything.' She inhaled deeply.\n\nHe laughed again. 'Do you have plans for this evening?'\n\n'Nothing that can't be put off until some other time. What did you have in mind?'\n\n'I thought we might talk a while.'\n\n'Talk?'\n\n'Among other things.'\n\n'Let me send a message first. Then we can talk for as long as you like \u2013 among those other things you mentioned.'\n\n* * *\n\nThey were two days out of Tiana on their way around the west end of the lake on the road to Arjuna. They had camped on the lake-shore some distance from the road, and Khalad had shot a deer with his crossbow. 'Camp-meat,' he explained to Berit as he skinned the animal. 'It saves time and money.'\n\n'You're really very good with that crossbow,' Berit said.\n\nKhalad shrugged. 'Practice,' he replied. Then his head came up sharply. 'Company coming.' He pointed toward the road with his knife.\n\n'Arjuni,' Berit noted, squinting at the approaching riders.\n\n'Not all of them,' Khalad disagreed. 'The one in front's an Elene \u2013 an Edomishman, judging from his clothes.' Khalad wiped his bloody hands on the long grass, picked up his crossbow and re-cocked it. 'Just to be on the safe side,' he explained. 'They _do_ know who we really are, after all.'\n\nBerit nodded bleakly and loosened his sword in its scabbard.\n\nThe riders reined in about fifty yards away. 'Sir sparhawk?' the Edomishman called out in Elenic.\n\n'Maybe,' Berit called back. 'What can I do for you, neighbor?'\n\n'I have a message for you.'\n\n'I'm touched. Bring it on in.'\n\n'Come alone,' Khalad added. 'You won't need your bodyguards.'\n\n'I've heard about what you did to the last messenger.'\n\n'Good,' Khalad replied. 'We sort of intended for word of that to get around. The fellow had a little trouble being civil, but I'm sure you have better manners. Come ahead. You're safe \u2013 as long as you're polite.'\n\nThe Edomishman still hesitated.\n\n'Friend,' Khalad said pointedly, 'You're well within range of my crossbow, so you'd better do as I tell you. Just come on in alone. We'll conduct our business, and then you and your Arjuni friends can be on your way. Otherwise, this might turn unpleasant.'\n\nThe Edomishman conferred briefly with his bodyguards and then rode cautiously forward, holding a folded parchment above his head. 'I'm not armed,' he announced.\n\n'That's not very prudent, neighbor,' Berit told him. 'These are troubled times. Let's have the note.'\n\nThe messenger lowered his arm slowly and extended the parchment. 'The plans have changed, Sir Sparhawk,' he said politely.\n\n'Astonishing.' Berit opened the parchment and gently took out the lock of identifying hair. 'This is only about the third time. You fellows seem to be having some difficulty making up your minds.' He looked at the parchment. 'That's accommodating. Somebody even drew a map this time.'\n\n'The village isn't really very well-known,' the Edomishman explained. 'It's a tiny place that wouldn't even be there if it weren't for the slave-trade.'\n\n'You're a very good messenger, friend,' Khalad told him. 'Would you like to carry a word back to Krager for me?'\n\n'I'll try, young Master.'\n\n'Good. Tell him that I'm coming after him. He should probably start looking back over his shoulder, because no matter how this turns out, one day I'll be there.'\n\nThe Edomishman swallowed hard. 'I'll tell him, young Master.'\n\n'I'd appreciate it.'\n\nThe messenger carefully backed his horse off a few yards and then rode off to rejoin his Arjuni escort.\n\n'Well?' Khalad asked.\n\n'Vigayo \u2013 over in Cynesga.'\n\n'It's not much of a town.'\n\n'You've been there?'\n\n'Briefly. Bhelliom took us there by mistake when Sparhawk was practicing with it.'\n\n'How far is it from here?'\n\n'About a hundred leagues. It's in the right direction, though. Aphrael said that Zalasta's taking the Queen to Cyrga, so Vigayo's got to be closer than Arjun. Pass the word, Berit. Tell Aphrael that we'll start out first thing in the morning. Then you can come and help me cut up this deer. It's ten days to Vigayo, so we're probably going to need the meat.'\n\n'He hath been there,' Xanetia told them. 'His memories of the Hidden City are vivid, but his recollection of the route is imprecise. I could glean no more than disconnected impressions of the journey. His madness hath bereft his thought of coherence, and his mind doth flit from reality to illusion and back without purpose or direction.'\n\n'I'd say we got us a problem,' Caalador drawled. 'Ol' Krager, he don't know th' way on accounta he wuz too drunk t' pay attention when Zalasta wuz a-talkin' 'bout how t' git t' Cyrga, an' Scorpa's too crazy t' remember how he got thar.' His eyes narrowed, and he discarded the dialect. 'What about Cyzada?' he asked Xanetia.\n\nShe shuddered. 'It is not madness nor drunkenness which doth bar my way into the thought of Cyzada of Esos,' she replied in a voice filled with revulsion. 'Deeply hath he reached into the darkness that was Azash, and the creatures of the nether-world have possessed him so utterly that his thought is no longer human. His spells at first did in some measure control those horrid demons, but then he did summon Kl\u00e6l, and in that act was all unloosed. Prithee, do not send me again into that seething chaos. He doth indeed know a route to Cyrga, but we could in no wise follow _that_ path, for it doth lie through the realm of flame and darkness and unspeakable horror.'\n\n'That more or less exhausts the possibilities of this place then, doesn't it?' They all turned quickly at the sound of the familiar voice. The Child Goddess sat demurely on a window-ledge holding her pipes in her hands.\n\n'Is this wise, Divine One?' Bevier asked her. 'Won't our enemies sense your presence?'\n\n'There's no one left here who can do that, Bevier,' she replied. 'Zalasta's gone. I just stopped by to tell you that Berit's received new instructions. He and Khalad are going to Vigayo, a village just on the other side of the Cynesgan border. As soon as you're ready, I'll take you there.'\n\n'What good will that do?' Kalten asked.\n\n'I need to get Xanetia close to the next messenger,' she replied. 'Cyrga's completely concealed \u2013 even from me. There's a key to that illusion, and _that's_ what we have to find. Without that key, we could all grow old wandering around out in that wasteland and still not find the city.'\n\n'I suppose you're right,' Sparhawk conceded. He looked directly at her. 'Can you arrange another meeting? We're getting close to the end of this, and I need to talk with the others \u2013 Vanion and Bergsten in particular, and probably with Betuana and Kring as well. We've got armies at our disposal, but they won't be much use if they're running off in three different directions or attacking Cyrga piecemeal. We've got a general idea of where the place is, and I'd like to put a ring of steel around it, but I _don't_ want anybody to go blundering in there until we get Ehlana and Alean safely out.'\n\n'You're going to get me in trouble, Sparhawk,' she said tartly. 'Do you have any idea of the kinds of promises I'll have to make to get permission for that kind of gathering? \u2013 and I'll have to _keep_ all those promises too.'\n\n'It's really very important, Aphrael.'\n\nShe stuck her tongue out at him, and then she wavered and vanished.\n\n'Domi Tikume sent orders, your Reverence,' the shaved-headed Peloi advised Patriarch Bergsten when they met in the churchman's tent just outside the town of Pela in central Astel. 'We're to provide whatever assistance we can.'\n\n'Your Domi's a good man, friend Daiya,' the armored Patriarch replied.\n\n'His orders stirred up a hornet's nest,' Daiya said wryly. 'The idea of an alliance with the Church Knights set off a theological debate that went on for days. Most people here in Astel believe that the Church Knights were born and raised in Hell. A fair number of the debaters are currently taking the matter up with God in person.'\n\n'I gather that religious disputes among the Peloi are quite spirited.'\n\n'Oh, yes,' Daiya agreed. 'The message from Archimandrite Monsel helped to quiet things, though. Peloi religious thought isn't really all that profound, your Reverence. We trust God and leave the theology to the churchmen. If the Archimandrite approves, that's good enough for us. If he's wrong, _he's_ the one who'll burn in Hell for it.'\n\n'How far is it from here to Cynestra?' Bergsten asked him.\n\n'About a hundred and seventy-five leagues, your Reverence.'\n\n'Three weeks,' Bergsten muttered sourly. 'Well, there's not much we can do about that, I suppose. We'll start out first thing in the morning. Tell your men to get some sleep, friend Daiya. It's probably going to be in short supply for the next month or so.'\n\n'Bergsten.' The voice crooning his name was light and musical.\n\nThe Thalesian Patriarch sat up quickly, reaching for his axe.\n\n'Oh, don't do that, Bergsten. I'm not going to hurt you.'\n\n'Who's there?' he demanded, fumbling for his candle and his flint and steel.\n\n'Here.' A small hand emerged from the darkness with a tongue of flame dancing on its palm.\n\nBergsten blinked. His midnight visitor was a little girl \u2013 Styric, he guessed. She was a beautiful child with long hair and large eyes as dark as night. Bergsten's hands started to tremble. 'You're Aphrael, aren't you?' he choked.\n\n'Keen observation, your Grace. Sparhawk wants to see you.'\n\nHe drew back from this personage that standard Church doctrine told him did not \u2013 could not \u2013 exist.\n\n'You're being silly, your Grace,' she told him. 'You know that I couldn't even be talking to you if I didn't have permission from your God, don't you? I can't even come near you without permission.'\n\n'Well, theoretically,' he reluctantly conceded. 'You _could_ be a demon, though, and the rules don't apply to them.'\n\n'Do I _look_ like a demon?'\n\n'Appearance and reality are two different things,' he insisted.\n\nShe looked into his eyes and pronounced the true name of the Elene God, one of the most closely-kept secrets of the Church. 'A demon couldn't say that name, could it, your Grace?'\n\n'Well, I suppose not.'\n\n'We'll get along well, Bergsten,' she smiled, kissing him lightly on the cheek. 'Ortzel would have argued that point for weeks. Leave your axe here, please. Steel makes my flesh crawl.'\n\n'Where are we going?'\n\n'To meet with Sparhawk. I already told you that.'\n\n'Is it far?'\n\n'Not really.' She smiled, opening the tent flap.\n\nIt was still night in Pela, but it was broad daylight beyond the tent flap \u2013 a strange sort of daylight. A pristine white beach stretched down to a sapphire sea all under a rainbow-colored sky, and a small green eyot surmounted by a gleaming alabaster temple rose from that incredibly blue sea about a half-mile from the beach.\n\n'What place is this?' Bergsten asked, poking his head out of the tent and looking around in amazement.\n\n'I suppose you could call it Heaven, your Grace,' the Child Goddess replied, blowing out the flame dancing on her palm. 'It's mine, anyway. There are others, but this one's mine.'\n\n'Where is it?'\n\n'Everywhere and anywhere. All the Heavens are everyplace all at once. So are all the Hells, of course -but that's another story. Shall we go?'\n\n# _Chapter 21_\n\nCordz of Nelan was the perfect man. That realization had not come easily to the devout Edomishman. It had only been after extended soul-searching and a meticulous examination of the sacred texts of his faith that he had arrived at the inescapable conclusion. He was perfect. He obeyed all of God's commandments, he did what he was supposed to do, and he did not do the things that were forbidden. Isn't that what perfection is all about?\n\nIt was a comfort to be perfect, but Cordz was not one to rest on his laurels. Now that _he_ had achieved perfection in the eyes of God, it was time to turn his attention to the faults of his neighbors. Sinners, however, seldom sin openly, so Cordz was obliged to resort to subterfuge. He peeked through windows late at night; he eavesdropped on private conversations; and, when his sinful neighbors cleverly concealed their wrongdoing from him, he imagined the sins they _might_ be committing. The Sabbath was a very special day for Cordz, but not for the sermons. After all, what need had a perfect man for sermons? It was on the Sabbath that he was able to rise to his feet and denounce the sins of his neighbors, both the sins they _had_ committed and the sins they _might_ be committing.\n\nHe probably irritated the Devil. God knows he irritated his neighbors.\n\nBut then a crisis had arisen in Edom. The debauched and heretical Church of Chyrellos, after two eons of plotting and scheming, was finally preparing to make her move against the righteous. The Church Knights were on the march, and horrors beyond imagining marched with them.\n\nCordz was among the first to enlist in Rebal's army, the perfect man abandoned his neighbors to their sinful ways to join a holier cause. He became Rebal's most trusted messenger, killing horses by the dozen as he rushed about the Elene kingdoms of western Tamuli carrying the dispatches so vital to the cause.\n\nOn this particular day Cordz was flogging his exhausted horse southward toward the corrupt cities of southern Daconia, cesspools of sin and licentiousness, if the truth were to be known, where the citizens not only did not _know_ that they were sinners, they did not even _care._ Worse yet, an obscure and probably heretical tradition of the Dacite Church prevented laymen from speaking aloud during Sabbath services. Thus, God's very own spokesman, the perfect man, was not permitted to expose and denounce the sins he saw all around him. The frustration of it sometimes made him want to just scream.\n\nHe had been riding hard for the past week, and he was very tired. Thus it was with some relief that he finally crested the hill that overlooked the port city of Melek.\n\nThen all thoughts of the sins of others vanished. Cordz reined in his staggering horse and gaped in horror at what he saw.\n\nThere on a sea sparkling in the winter sun was a vast armada, ships beyond counting, sailing majestically down the coast under the red and gold banners of the Church of Chyrellos!\n\nThe perfect man was so overcome with horror that he did not even hear the plaintive sound of a shepherd's rude pipe playing a Styric air in a minor key somewhere off to his left. He gaped for a time at his worst nightmare, and then he desperately drove his spurs into his horse's flanks, rushing to spread the alarm.\n\nGeneral Sirada was the younger brother of Duke Milanis, and he commanded the rebel forces in Panem-Dea. King Rakya had so arranged it that most of Scarpa's generals were Arjuni. Sirada knew that there were risks involved, but the younger sons of noble families were obliged to take risks if they wanted to get ahead in the world. For them, rank and position had to be won. Sirada had endured the years of association with the crazy bastard son of a tavern wench and the discomfort of camping out in the jungle waiting for his chance.\n\nAnd now it had come. The madman in Natayos had finally sent the order to march. The campaign had begun. There was no sleep in Panem-Dea that night. The preparations for the march went on through the hours of darkness, and the undisciplined rabble Sirada commanded was incapable of doing _anything_ quietly. The general spent the night poring over his maps.\n\nThe strategy was sound; he was forced to admit that. He was to join forces with Scarpa and the other rebels near Derel. Then they would march north to the Tamul Mountains to be reinforced by Cynesgans. From there, they would march on Tosa in preparation for the final assault on Matherion.\n\nGeneral Sirada's own strategy was much simpler. Scarpa would crush any resistance at Tosa, but he would not live to see the gleaming domes of the imperial capital. Sirada smiled thinly and patted the little vial of poison he carried in his inside pocket. The army would capture Matherion, but it would be General Sirada who would lead the final assault and personally run his sword through Emperor Sarabian. The younger brother of Duke Milanis expected an earldom at the very least to come out of this campaign.\n\nThe door banged open, and his adjutant burst into the room, his eyes starting from his head and his face a pasty white. 'Good God, my General!' he shrieked.\n\n'What do you think you're doing?' Sirada demanded. 'How _dare_ you? I'll have you flogged for this!'\n\n'We're being attacked, my General!'\n\nSirada could hear the squeals of terror now. He rose quickly and went out the door.\n\nIt was not yet daylight, and a clinging mist had crept in out of the tangled forest to blur the ruined walls and houses of Panem-Dea. There were fires and flaring torches pushing back the darkness with their ruddy light, but there were other lights in the weed-choked streets as well, pale, cold lights that did not burn or flicker. Creatures of light, pale as wandering moons, stalked the streets of Panem-Dea. The general's heart filled with terror. It was impossible! The Shining Ones were a myth! There were no such creatures!\n\nSirada shook off his fright and drew his sword. 'Stand fast!' he roared at his demoralized men. 'Form up! Pike-men to the front!' He bulled his way into the milling mob of terrified troops, flailing about him with the flat of his sword. 'Form up! Make a line!'\n\nBut there was no rationality nor fear of authority in the panic-stricken faces of his poorly trained men. The screaming mob simply diverged and bypassed him on either side. He ran at them again, swinging great strokes with his sword, cutting down his own men.\n\nHe was so desperate to restore order that he did not even feel the knife-stroke that went in just below his ribs on the left side. He could not even understand why his knees buckled or why he fell under the trampling feet of his soldiers as they fled screaming into the trackless forest.\n\n* * *\n\n'Are you sure this map's accurate, Tynian?' Patriarch Bergsten demanded, peering at the miniature world under his feet.\n\n'It's the most accurate map you'll ever see, your Grace,' Tynian assured him. 'Bhlokw cast the spell, and the Troll-Gods put their hands into the ground and felt the shape of the continent. This is it \u2013 down to the last tree and bush. Everything's here.'\n\n'Except for Cyrga, Tynian-Knight,' Engessa amended. The Atan general was completely healed now, and he looked as fit as ever. His face, however, was troubled. His Queen had greeted him almost abruptly when she had first arrived, and she was now quite obviously avoiding him.\n\nSephrenia was seated on one of the benches in Aphrael's alabaster temple with the rainbow light from the impossible sky playing over her face. 'We'd hoped that Schlee might be able to feel Cyrga when he recreated the continent, your Grace,' she said, 'but Cyrgon's illusion seems to be absolute. Not even a Trollish spell can break it.'\n\n'What's the best guess we can come up with?' Bergsten asked.\n\nAphrael walked lightly across the tiny world Bhlokw had conjured up for them. She stepped over the minuscule city of Cynestra and continued south to a mountainous region in the center of the desert. 'It used to be somewhere in this general vicinity,' she said, gesturing vaguely over the mountains.\n\n'Used to be?' Bergsten asked her sharply.\n\nShe shrugged. 'Sometimes we move things.'\n\n'Whole cities?'\n\n'It's possible \u2013 but it's a reflection of bad planning.'\n\nBergsten shuddered and began marking off distances on the miniature continent with a long piece of string. 'I'm up here at Pela,' he told them, pointing at a spot in central Astel. 'That's almost three hundred leagues from the general vicinity of Cyrga, and I'll have to stop to capture Cynestra along the way. The rest of you are much closer, so you're going to have to hold off a bit if we all want to get there at approximately the same time.'\n\nAphrael shrugged. 'I'll tamper,' she said.\n\nBergsten gave her a puzzled look.\n\n'Divine Aphrael has ways of compressing time and distance, your Grace,' Sparhawk explained. 'She can \u2013'\n\n'I don't want to hear about it, Sparhawk!' Bergsten said sharply, putting his hands over his ears. 'You've already put my soul in danger just by bringing me here. Please don't make it any worse by telling me things I don't need to know about.'\n\n'Whatever you say, your Grace,' Sparhawk agreed.\n\nEmban was pacing around the cluster of up-thrusting mountains in the center of the Cynesgan Desert. 'We're all going to be converging on these mountains,' he said. 'I'm no expert, but wouldn't our best move be to just stop in the foothills and wait until everyone's in place before we make the final assault?'\n\n'No, your Grace,' Vanion said firmly. 'Let's stay out a bit from the foothills \u2013 at least a day's ride. If we run into Kl\u00e6l's creatures, we'll need room to maneuver. I want a lot of flat ground around me when that happens.'\n\nThe fat little Churchman shrugged. 'You're the soldier, Vanion.' He pointed toward the south. 'There's our weakness,' he said. 'We've got a good concentration of forces coming out of the east, the northeast and the north, but we don't have anybody covering the south.'\n\n'Or the west,' Sarabian added.\n\n'I'll cover the west, your Majesty,' Bergsten told him. I can position my knights and the Peloi to block off that entire quadrant.'\n\n'That still leaves the south,' Emban mused.\n\n'It's already been taken care of, Emban,' Aphrael assured him. 'Stragen's been spinning stories about a vast Church fleet off the southern coast, and I've been weaving illusions to back him up. How long is it going to take the Trolls to get into position north of Zhubay, Ulath?'\n\n'Just as long as it takes to persuade the Troll-Gods that we need their children there instead of in the Tamul mountains,' the big Thalesian replied. 'A day or so, probably. Once they're convinced, they'll put their children into No-Time. If we didn't have to stop now and then to feed the Trolls, we could be in Zhubay before you could even blink. If I knew where Cyrga was, I could have fifteen hundred Trolls on the doorstep by morning.'\n\n'There's no need to rush.' The Child Goddess looked around with steely eyes. 'Nobody \u2013 and I mean _nobody_ \u2013 is going to move on Cyrga until I know that Ehlana and Alean are safe. If I have to, I can keep you running around in circles out there in that desert for generations, so don't try to get creative on me.'\n\n'Is the Queen of Elenia so very important to you, Divine One?' Betuana asked mildly. 'War is hard, and we must accept our losses.'\n\n'It's a personal matter, Betuana,' Aphrael said shortly. 'These are your positions.' She gestured over the miniature continent. 'Bergsten will come in from the north and west to cover that side of the city; Ulath, Tynian and Bhlokw will bring the Trolls down from Zhubay and join with Betuana's Atans on their left flank; Vanion will come in from the east and be joined on _his_ left by Kring and the Peloi; Stragen's persuaded that disgusting Dacite in Beresa that there are a million or so Church Knights landing on the coast around Verel and Kaftal, and that should divert most of the armies of Cynesga. We'll all converge on Cyrga. There are some discrepancies in the distances, but I'll take care of those. When the time comes, you _will_ all be in place \u2013 even if I have to pick you up one by one and carry you.' She stopped abruptly. 'What _is_ your problem, Bergsten? Don't laugh at me, or I'll take you by the nose and shake you.'\n\n'I wasn't laughing, Divine One,' he assured her. 'I was only smiling in approval. Where _did_ you learn so much about strategy and tactics?'\n\n'I've been watching you Elenes make war since shortly after you discovered fire, your Grace. I was bound to learn a _few_ of the tricks of the trade.' She turned suddenly on Bhlokw. 'What?' she asked irritably in Trollish.\n\n'U-lat has said to me what you have said, Child Goddess. Why are we doing this?'\n\n'To punish the Wicked ones, Priest of the Troll-Gods.'\n\n_'What?'_ Sparhawk said to Ulath in stunned amazement. 'What did she call him?'\n\n'Oh?' Ulath said mildly. 'Didn't you know? Our shaggy friend has a certain eminence.'\n\n'They actually have priests?'\n\n'Of course. Doesn't everybody?'\n\n'It is good to punish the wicked ones who have taken Anakha's mate away,' Bhlokw was saying, but do we need to take so many? Khwaj will punish the wicked ones. This is the season of Schlee, and we should be following the way of the hunt. The young must be fed or they will die, and that is not a good thing.'\n\n'Oh, dear,' Aphrael murmured.\n\n'What's happening here, Sir Ulath?' Sarabian asked.\n\n'The Trolls are hunters, your Majesty,' Ulath explained, 'not warriors. They have no real understanding of warfare. They eat what they kill.'\n\nSarabian shuddered.\n\n'It _is_ very moral, your Majesty,' Ulath pointed out. 'From a Troll's point of view, wasting the meat is criminal.'\n\nAphrael was squinting at the priest of the Troll-Gods. 'It is a good thing to do that which follows the way of the hunt _and_ punishes the wicked ones at the same time,' she said. 'If we hunt this way, we will cause hurt to the wicked ones _and_ bring much meat to the young during the season of Schlee.'\n\nBhlokw considered that. 'The hunts of the man-things are not-simple,' he said dubiously, 'but it is my thought that the hunts of the God-things are even _more_ not-simple.' He reflected on it. 'It is good, though. A hunt that gathers more than meat is a good hunt. You hunt very well, Child Goddess. Sometime we might take eat together and talk of old hunts. It is good to do this. It makes pack-mates closer so that they hunt together better.'\n\n'It would make me glad if we did this, Bhlokw.'\n\n'Then we will do it. I will kill a dog for us to eat. Dog is even more good-to-eat than pig.'\n\nAphrael made a slight gagging sound.\n\n'Will it cause anger to you if I speak to our pack-mates in bird-noises, Bhlokw?' Sparhawk stepped in. 'It will soon be time for the hunt to begin, and all must be made ready.'\n\n'It will not cause anger to me, Anakha. U-lat can say to me what you are saying.'\n\n'All right then,' Sparhawk said to the rest of them. 'We all know how we're going to converge on Cyrga, but there are several of us who have to go in first. Please hold off on your attack until we're in position. Don't crowd us by trampling on our heels.'\n\n'Who are you taking in with you, Sparhawk?' Vanion asked.\n\n'Kalten, Bevier, Talen, Xanetia and Mirtai.'\n\n'I don't quite \u2013'\n\nSparhawk held up one hand. 'Aphrael made the choices, my Lord,' he said. 'If there are any objections, take them up with her.'\n\n'You have to have those people with you, sparhawk,' Aphrael explained patiently. 'If you don't, you'll fail.'\n\n'Whatever you say, Divine One,' he surrendered.\n\n'You'll be out in front of Berit and me then?' Khalad asked.\n\nSparhawk nodded. 'The people on the other side will expect us to trail along behind you. If we're in front, it might confuse them \u2013 at least that's what we're hoping. Aphrael will take us directly to Vigayo and we'll nose around a bit. If the fellow with the next message is already there, Xanetia should be able to pick up your new destination. Sooner or later, somebody's going to have to give you the key to the illusion that's hiding Cyrga, and _that's_ the one piece of information we have to have. Once we've got that, the rest is easy.'\n\n'I like his definition of easy,' Caalador murmured to Stragen.\n\nEmban jotted another note on his inevitable list. Then he cleared his throat.\n\n_'Must_ you, Emban?' Bergsten sighed.\n\n'It helps me to think, Bergsten, and it makes sure that we haven't left anything out. If it bores you so much, don't listen.'\n\n'The man-things talk much when they decide how they will hunt, U-lat,' Bhlokw complained.\n\n'It is the nature of the man-things to do this.'\n\n'It is because the hunts of the man-things are too much not-simple. It is my thought that their hunts are not-simple because they do not eat the ones they kill. They hunt and kill for reasons which I do not understand. It is my thought that this thing the man-things call \"war\" is a very great wickedness.'\n\n'It is not in our thought to cause anger to the priest of the Troll-Gods,' Patriarch Bergsten said in flawless Trollish. 'The thing which the man-things call war is like the thing which happens when two Troll-packs come to hunt on the same range.'\n\nBhlokw considered that. Then he grunted as comprehension came over his shaggy face. 'Now it is clear to me,' he said. 'This thing the man-things call \"war\" is like the hunting of thought. That is why it is not-simple. But you still talk much,' The Troll squinted at Emban. 'That one is the worst,' he added. 'His mind-belly is as big as his belly-belly.'\n\n'What did he say?' Emban asked curiously.\n\n'It wouldn't translate very well, your Grace,' Ulath replied blandly.\n\nPatriarch Emban gave him a slightly suspicious look and then meticulously laid out their deployment once again, checking items off his list as he went. When he had finished, he looked around. 'Can anybody think of anything else?'\n\n'Perhaps,' Sephrenia said, frowning slightly. 'Our enemies know that Berit's not really Sparhawk, but they're going to think that Sparhawk won't have any choice but to follow along behind. It might help to confirm that belief. I think I know a way to duplicate the sound and sense of Bhelliom. If it works, our enemies will think that Sparhawk's somewhere in the column of knights Vanion's going to lead out into the desert. They'll concentrate on us rather than looking for him.'\n\n'You're putting yourself in danger, Sephrenia,' Aphrael objected.\n\n'There's nothing particularly new about that.' Sephrenia smiled. 'And when you consider what we're trying to do, no place is really safe.'\n\n'Is that it, then?' Engessa asked, standing up.\n\n'Probably, friend Engessa,' Kring replied, 'except for the hour or so we'll all spend telling each other to be careful.'\n\nEngessa squared his shoulders, turned and faced his Queen directly. 'What are your orders, Betuana-Queen,' he asked her with military formality.\n\nShe drew herself up with a regal stiffness. 'It is our instruction that you return with us to Sarna, Engessa-Atan. There you will resume command of our armies.'\n\n'It shall be as you say, Betuana-Queen.'\n\n'Directly upon our return, you will send runners to my husband, the king. Tell him that there is no longer a threat to Tosa. The Shining Ones will deal with Scarpa.'\n\nHe nodded stiffly.\n\n'Further, tell him that I have need of his forces in Sarna. That is where we will prepare for the main battle, and he should be there to take command.' She paused. 'This is not because we are dissatisfied with _your_ leadership, Engessa-Atan, but Androl _is_ the king. You have served well. The royal house of Atan is grateful.'\n\n'It is my duty, Betuana-Queen,' he replied, clashing his fist against his breastplate in salute. 'No gratitude is necessary.'\n\n'Oh, dear,' Aphrael murmured.\n\n'What's wrong?' Sephrenia asked her.\n\n'Nothing.'\n\n# _Chapter 22_\n\n'It's definitely Chacole and Torellia, Sarabian,' Elysoun insisted several days later. 'Chacole's more or less running things. She's older and shrewder. The strangers usually go directly to her. They talk privately for a while, and then she sends for Torellia. They weren't really all that fond of each other before, but now they've got their heads together all the time.'\n\n'They're probably getting orders from home,' Sarabian mused. 'King Jaluah of Cynesga is Chacole's brother, and Torellia's the daughter of King Rakya of Arjuna. Can you get any sense at all of what they might be up to?'\n\nShe shook her head. 'It's too early.'\n\n'Early?'\n\n'Women's politics again. We're more devious than men. Chacole will want everything in place before she starts to form other alliances. She's got Torellia under control, but she's not quite ready to start trying to expand yet.'\n\n'You're sure that Torellia's the subordinate one?'\n\nShe nodded. 'Chacole's servants are lording it over hers. That's the first sign of dominance in the Women's Palace. Cieronna's servants are all insufferable because she's the first wife, and we're all subordinate to her \u2013 except for Liatris, of course.'\n\n'Of course,' Sarabian smiled. 'No one in his right mind is impertinent to Liatris. Has she killed anybody lately?'\n\n'Not since she butchered Cieronna's footman last year.'\n\n'There's a thought. Should we bring Liatris into this?'\n\nElysoun shook her head. 'Maybe later, but not at this stage. Atana Liatris is too direct. If I approached her with this, she'd simply kill Chacole and Torellia. Let's wait until Chacole approaches me before we involve Liatris.'\n\n'Are you sure Chacole _will_ approach you?'\n\n'It's almost certain. My servants have greater freedom of movement than hers \u2013 because of my social activities.'\n\n'That's a delicate way to put it.'\n\n'You knew I was a Valesian when you married me, Sarabian, and you know about our customs. That's why my servants have the run of the compound. It's always been a tradition.'\n\nHe sighed. 'How many are there currently, Elysoun?'\n\n'None, actually.' She smiled at him. 'You don't really understand, do you, Sarabian? The biggest part of the fun of those little adventures has always been the intrigue, and I'm getting plenty of that playing politics.'\n\n'Aren't you feeling a little \u2013 deprived?'\n\n'I can endure it,' she shrugged, 'and if I get desperate, I always have you to fall back on, don't I?' and she gave him an arch little smile.\n\n'Wal, sir, Master Valash,' Caalador drawled, leaning back in his chair in the cluttered loft, 'ol' Vymer here, he done tole me that yer a' willin' t' pay good money fer infermation, an' he sorta figgered ez how y' might want t' hear 'bout the stuff I seen in southwest Atan fer yer very ownself.'\n\n'You two have known each other for quite some time then?' Valash asked.\n\n'Oh, gorsh yes, Master Valash. Me'n Vymer goes way back. We wuz all t'gether durin' that fracas in Matherion \u2013 him an' me an' Fron an' Reldin \u2013 along with a couple others \u2013 when the fellers from Interior come a-bustin' in on us. They wuz hull _bunches_ o' excitement that night, let me tell yew. Anyway, after we shuck off the po-lice, we all split up an' scattered t' th' winds. Tain't a _real_ good idee t' stay all bunched up whin yer a-runnin' from th' law.'\n\nStragen sat back from the table out of the circle of light from the single candle, carefully watching Valash's face. Caalador had just arrived to replace Sparhawk and Talen in the on-going deception of Valash, and Stragen was once again impressed by how smooth his friend really was. Valash seemed lulled by the easy, folksy charm of Caalador's dialect. Stragen despised the slovenly speech, but he was forced to admit its utility. It always seemed so genuine, so innocently artless.\n\n'Where _is_ Fron, anyway?' Valash asked.\n\n'Him an' Reldin tuk off 'bout a week ago,' Caalador shrugged. 'I happened t' stop off in a tavern up in Delo whilst I wuz a-comin' on down yere, an' they wuz a feller what had \"policeman\" wrote all over him who wuz describin' ol' Fron an' the boy right down t' th' warts. Soon's I got yere, I tole 'em 'bout it, an' they figgered that it might just be time t' move on. Anyhow, Vymer here sez as how yer innerested in whut's a-goin' on here an' thar, an' I seen a few things after we all got run outta Matherion that he's a-thankin' might be worth somethin' to ya.'\n\n'I'll certainly listen, Ezek.' Valash raised his head sharply as the comatose Ogerajin began to mumble in his sleep.\n\n'Is he all right?' Stragen asked.\n\n'It's nothing,' Valash said shortly. 'He does that all the time. Go ahead, Ezek.'\n\n'Wal, sir, she wuz a couple weeks ago, I guess, an' I wuz a-hot-footin' it across Atan, figgerin' t' make m' way on acrost Astel t' Darsos \u2013 on accounta the law bein' hot on m' heels an' all. I wuz a-comin' on down outten th' mountings when I pult up short, cuz I seen more gol-dang Atans than I thought they wuz in the hull world \u2013 I mean, they wint on fer _miles!_ They wuz _multitudes_ o' them big rascals \u2013 all geared up fer war an a-lookin' real mean an' on-friendly-like.'\n\nThe entire Atan army?' Valash exclaimed.\n\n'It lookt t' me more like a gineral my-grashun of the hull dang race, Master Valash. Y' aint' niver _seen_ s' miny of 'em!'\n\n'Where exactly were they?' Valash asked excitedly.\n\n'Wal, sir, close ez I could make out, they wuz right close t' the Cynesgan border \u2013 up thar close by a little town calt Zhubay. Iff'n y' happen t' have a map handy, I could point out th' egg-zact spot fer ya.' Caalador squinted at the Dacite. 'Whut would y' say this infer-maytion's worth, Master Valash?'\n\nValash didn't even hesitate when he reached for his purse.\n\n'It was very strange, Domi Tikume,' Kring told his friend as they rode at the head of their massed tribesmen out into the Cynesgan Desert the morning after the conference on Aphrael's island. 'The Child Goddess said that we were all dreaming, but everything seemed so real. I could actually smell the flowers and the grass. I've never smelled anything in a dream before.'\n\nTikume looked dubious. 'Are you _sure_ it wasn't heresy to go there, Domi Kring?'\n\nKring laughed wryly. 'Well, if it was, I was in good company. Patriarch Emban was there, and so was Patriarch Bergs ten. Anyway, you and I are supposed to continue making these raids into Cynesga. Then we're supposed to go ahead and ride on in toward those mountains out in the middle of the desert. We're hoping that Prince Sparhawk will have pinpointed the exact location of Cyrga by the time we get there.'\n\nOne of the scouts who had been ranging out into the burnt brown desert ahead came galloping back. 'Domi Tikume,' he said as he reined in. 'We've found them.'\n\n'Where?' Tikume demanded.\n\n'There's a dry watercourse about two miles ahead, Domi. They're crouched down in there. I'd say they're planning to ambush us.'\n\n'What sort of soldiers are they?' Kring asked.\n\nThere was Cynesgan cavalry and more of those big ones with the steel masks that we've been running to death lately. There was some other infantry as well, but I didn't recognize them.'\n\n'Breastplates? Short kirtles? Helmets with high crests, and big round shields?'\n\nThose are the ones, Domi Kring.'\n\nKring rubbed one hand across his shaved scalp. 'How wide is the water-course?' he asked.\n\n'Fifty paces or so, Domi.'\n\n'Crooked? Fairly deep?'\n\nThe scout nodded.\n\n'It's an ambush, all right,' Kring said. 'The cavalry probably intends to let us see them and then retreat into the gully. If we follow them, we'll run right into the infantry. We've been running Kl\u00e6l's soldiers to death in open country, so they want to get us into tight quarters.'\n\n'What do we do?' Tikume asked.\n\n'We stay out of that stream-bed, friend Tikume. Send out flankers to cut off their cavalry after they ride out. We'll slaughter them, and that should bring Kl\u00e6l's soldiers out into the open.'\n\n'What about the Cyrgai? Are they more of those ones out of the past that we keep coming across?'\n\n'I don't think so. This is inside the borders of Cynesga, so they're probably live ones from Cyrga itself.' Kring stopped suddenly, and a slow grin crossed his face. I just thought of something. Send out your flankers, friend Tikume. Give me some time to think my way through this.'\n\n'That's a particularly nasty grin there, friend Kring,'\n\n'I'm a particularly nasty fellow sometimes, friend Tikume,' Kring replied, his grin growing even wider.\n\n'Slavers,' Mirtai said shortly after she had peered down the rocky hill at the column creeping slowly across the barren brown gravel toward the village clustered around the oasis. The almost instantaneous change from the humidity of the Arjuni jungle to the arid Cynesgan Desert had given Sparhawk a slight headache.\n\n'How can you tell at this distance?' Bevier asked her.\n\n'Those hooded black robes,' she replied peering again over the boulder which concealed them. 'Slavers wear them when they come into Cynesga so that the local authorities won't interfere with them. Cynesga's about the only place left where slavery's openly legal. The other kingdoms frown on it.'\n\n'There's a thought, Sparhawk,' Bevier said. 'If we could get our hands on some of those black robes, we'd be able to move around out in the desert without attracting attention.'\n\n'We don't look very much like Arjuni, Bevier,' Kalten objected.\n\n'We don't have to,' Talen told him. 'From what I heard back in Beresa, there are bands of raiders out in the desert who ambush the caravans in order to steal the slaves, so the Arjuni slavers hire lots of fighting men of all races to help protect the merchandise.'\n\n'Oh,' Kalten said. 'I wonder where we could lay our hands on black robes.'\n\n'I see a hundred or so of them right out there,' Bevier said, pointing at the caravan.\n\n'Elenes,' Xanetia sighed, rolling her eyes upward.\n\n'You're even starting to _sound_ like Sephrenia, Anarae,' Sparhawk said with a faint smile. 'What are we overlooking?'\n\n'Robes of any shade or hue will serve, Anakha,' she explained patiently, 'and doubtless may be obtained in Vigayo close by yon oasis.'\n\n'They have to be black, Anarae,' Bevier objected.\n\n'Color is an aspect of light, Sir Bevier, and I am most skilled at controlling light.'\n\n'Oh,' he said. 'I guess I didn't think of that.'\n\n'I had noticed that myself \u2013 almost immediately.'\n\n'Be nice,' he murmured.\n\nBergsten's knights and their Peloi allies crossed the Cynesgan border on a cloudy, chill afternoon after what _seemed_ to be several days of hard riding, and rode southeasterly toward the capital at Cynestra. Peloi scouts ranged out in front, but they encountered no resistance that day. They made camp, put out guards, and bedded down early.\n\nIt was not long after they had broken camp and set out on what was ostensibly the next morning that Daiya came riding back to join Bergsten and Heldin at the head of the column. 'My scouts report that there are soldiers massing about a mile ahead, your Reverence,' he reported.\n\n'Cynesgans?' Bergsten asked quickly.\n\n'It does not appear so, your Reverence.'\n\n'Go have a look, Heldin,' Bergsten ordered.\n\nThe Pandion nodded and spurred his horse to the top of a rocky hill a quarter mile to the front. His face was bleak when he returned. 'We've got trouble, your Grace,' he rumbled. 'They're more of those monsters we came up against in eastern Zemoch.'\n\nBergsten muttered a fairly savage oath. 'I _knew_ things were going too well.'\n\n'Domi Tikume has warned us about these foreign soldiers,' Daiya said. 'Would it offend your Reverence if I suggested that you let _us_ deal with them? Domi Tikume and Domi Kring have devised certain tactics that seem to work.'\n\nIm not offended in the slightest, friend Daiya,' Bergsten replied. _'We_ didn't exactly cover ourselves with glory the last time we encountered those brutes, so I'd be very interested in seeing something that's a little more effective than _our_ tactics were.'\n\nDaiya conferred briefly with his clan-chiefs, and then he led Bergsten, Heldin and several other knights up to the top of the hill to watch.\n\nBergsten immediately saw the advantages of light cavalry as opposed to armored knights mounted on heavy war-horses. The huge soldiers in their tight-fitting armor seemed baffled by the slashing attacks of the Peloi armed with javelins. They floundered forward, desperately trying to close with their tormentors, but the cat-footed horses of the Peloi were simply too quick. The javelins began to take their toll, and more and more of the hulking monsters fell in that deadly rain.\n\n'The idea is to force them to run, your Reverence,' Daiya explained. 'They're very dangerous in close quarters, but they don't seem to have much endurance, so they aren't nearly as dangerous in a running fight.'\n\n'Vanion told me about that,' Bergsten said. 'Did Domi Tikume give you any idea of how long it takes them to run out of breath?'\n\n'Nothing very specific, your Reverence.'\n\nBergsten shrugged. 'That's all right, friend Daiya. We've got plenty of open ground, and it's still morning. We can run them all day if we have to.'\n\nStung by the repeated attacks, the huge soldiers began to lumber forward in a kind of shuffling trot, brandishing their horrid weapons and bellowing hoarse war-cries.\n\nThe Peloi, however, refused those challenges and continued their slash-and-run tactics.\n\nThen, driven and stung beyond endurance, the creatures broke into a shambling run.\n\n'It's feasible,' Sir Heldin mused in his deep, rumbling basso. 'We'd need different equipment, though.'\n\n'What are you talking about, Heldin?' Bergsten demanded.\n\n'Looking to the future, your Grace,' Heldin replied. 'If those beasts become a standard fixture, we'll have to modify a few things. It might not be a bad idea to train and equip a few squadrons of Church Knights to serve as light cavalry.'\n\n'Heldin,' Bergsten said acidly, 'if those things become a standard fixture, it'll be because we've lost this war. What makes you think there'll _be_ any Church Knights at that point?'\n\n'They're breaking off, your Reverence!' Daiya cried excitedly. 'They're running away!'\n\n'But where are they running to, Daiya?' Bergsten demanded. 'It's the air that's killing them, and the air's everywhere. Where can they go, Daiya? Where can they go?'\n\n'Where can they go?' Kring asked in bafflement as Kl\u00e6l's soldiers broke off from their clumsy pursuit of the Peloi horsemen and fled off into the desert.\n\n'Who cares?' Tikume laughed. 'Let them run. We've still got those Cyrgai penned up in that gully. We'd better get them to moving before some clever subaltern in the rear ranks has time to take his bearings.'\n\nThe Cyrgai were following a strategy from the dawn of time. They advanced steadily, marching in step, with their large round shields protecting their bodies and with their long spears leveled to the front. As the Peloi slashed in on them, they would stop and close ranks. The front rank would kneel with overlapping shields and leveled spears. The ranks behind would close up, their shields also overlapping and spears also to the front.\n\nIt was absolutely beautiful \u2013 but it didn't accomplish anything at all against cavalry.\n\n'We have to get them to run, Domi Tikume!' Kring shouted to his friend as they galloped clear of the massed Cyrgai regiments again. 'Pull your children back a little further after the next attack! This won't work if those antiques just keep plodding! Make them run!'\n\nTikume shouted some orders, and his horsemen altered their tactics, pulling back several hundred yards and forcing the Cyrgai to come to them.\n\nA brazen trumpet sounded from the center of one of the advancing regimental squares, and the Cyrgai broke into a jingling trot, their ranks still perfectly straight.\n\n'They look good, don't they?' Tikume laughed.\n\n'They would if this was a parade-ground,' Kring replied. 'Let's sting them again and then pull back even further.'\n\n'How far is it to the border?' Tikume asked.\n\n'Who knows? Nobody I've talked with is really sure. We're close, though. Make them run, Tikume! Make them run!'\n\nTikume rose in his stirrups. 'Pass the word!' he bellowed. 'Full retreat!'\n\nThe Peloi turned tail and galloped to the east across the rattling brown gravel.\n\nA thin cheer went up from the massed regiments of the Cyrgai, and the trumpet sounded again. The ancient soldiers, still in perfect step and with their ranks still perfectly straight broke into a running charge. Sergeants barked the staccato cadence, and the sound of the half-boots of the Cyrgai beating on the barren ground was like the pounding of some huge drum.\n\nAnd then the full light of a winter midday dimmed as if some giant, silent wings had somehow blotted out the sun. A chill wind swept across the desert, and there was a wailing sound like the sum of human woe.\n\nThe suddenly stricken Cyrgai, rank upon rank, died soundlessly in mid-stride, falling limply to earth to be trampled by their blindly advancing comrades, who also fell, astonished, on top of them.\n\nKring and Tikume, both pale and trembling, watched in awe-struck wonder as the ancient Styric curse did its dreadful work. Then, sickened, they wheeled and rode back eastward, turning their backs on the perfect soldiers rushing blindly into chill, wailing obliteration.\n\nThese clothes are good enough for Arjuna and Tamul Proper, neighbor,' Sparhawk told the shopkeeper later that same day, 'but they don't exactly turn the trick in a duststorm. I think that last one put about four pounds of dirt down my back.'\n\nThe shopkeeper nodded sagely. 'Other races laugh at our customary garb, good Master,' he observed. 'They usually keep laughing right up until the time when they ride through their first duststorm.'\n\n'Does the wind blow all the time out there?' Talen asked him.\n\n'Not quite _all_ the time, young Master. The afternoons are usually the worst.' He looked at Sparhawk. 'How many robes will you be needing, good Master?'\n\n'There are six of us, neighbor, and none of us are so fond of each other that we'd care to share a robe.'\n\n'Have you any preferences in colors?'\n\n'Does one color keep the dust out better than the others?'\n\n'Not that I've noticed.'\n\n'Then any color will do, I guess.'\n\nThe shopkeeper hustled into his storeroom and returned with a pile of neatly-folded garments. Then he smiled, rubbed his hands together and broached the subject of the price.\n\n'He overcharged you, you know,' Talen said as they emerged from the cluttered shop into the dusty street.\n\nSparhawk shrugged. 'Perhaps,' he said.\n\n'Someday I'm going to have to teach you about the finer points of haggling.'\n\n'Does it really matter?' Sparhawk asked, tying the bundle of Cynesgan robes to the back of his saddle. He looked around. 'Anarae?'\n\n'I am here, Anakha,' her whispered voice responded.\n\n'Were you able to find anything?'\n\n'Nay, Anakha. Clearly the messenger hath not yet arrived.'\n\n'Berit and Khalad are still several days away, Sparhawk,' Talen said quietly. 'And this isn't such an attractive place that the messenger would want to get here early to enjoy the scenery.' He looked around at the winter-dispirited palm trees and the muddy pond that lay at the center of the cluster of white houses.\n\n'Attractive or not, we're going to have to come up with some reason for staying,' Sparhawk said. 'We can't leave until the messenger gets here and Anarae Xanetia can listen to what he's thinking.'\n\n'I can remain here alone, Anakha,' Xanetia told him. 'None here can detect my presence, so I do not need protection.'\n\n'We'll stay all the same, Anarae,' Sparhawk told her. 'Courtesy and all that, you understand. An Elene gentleman will _not_ permit a lady to go about unescorted.'\n\nAn argument had broken out on the shaded porch of what appeared to be a tavern or a wine-shop of some kind. 'You don't know what you're talking about, Echon!' a wheezy-voiced old man in a patched and filthy robe declared loudly. 'It's a good hundred miles from here to the River Sarna, and there's no water at all between here and there.'\n\n'You either drink too much or you've been out in the sun too long, Zagorri,' Echon, a thin, sun-dried man in a dark blue robe scoffed. 'My map says that it's sixty miles \u2013 no more.'\n\n'How well do you know the man who drew the map? I've been here all my life, and I know how far it is to the Sarna. Go ahead, though. Take only enough water for sixty miles. Your mules will die, and you'll be drinking sand for that last forty miles. It's all right with me, though, because I've never liked you all that much anyway. But, mark my words, Echon. It's one hundred miles from the Well of Vigay there to the banks of the Sarna.' And the old man spat in the direction of the pale brown pond.\n\nTalen suddenly began to laugh.\n\n'What's so funny?' Sparhawk asked him.\n\n'We just had a stroke of luck, revered leader,' the boy replied gaily. 'If we're all finished up here, why don't we go back to where the others are waiting? We'll all want to get a good night's sleep \u2013 since we'll probably be leaving first thing in the morning.'\n\n'Oh? For where?'\n\n'Cyrga, of course. Wasn't that where we wanted to go?'\n\n'Yes, but we don't know where Cyrga is.'\n\n'That's where you're wrong, Sparhawk. We _do_ know the way to Cyrga \u2013 at least, _I_ do.'\n\n# _Chapter 23_\n\n'Did he die well?' Betuana asked. Her face was very pale, but she gave no other outward sign of distress.\n\n'It was a suitable death, Betuana-Queen,' the messenger replied. 'We were at the bottom of a gorge and the Kl\u00e6l-beast was hurling the sides of it down upon us. Androl-King attacked the beast, and many escaped that would have died if he had not.'\n\nShe considered it. 'Yes,' she agreed finally. 'It was suitable. It will be remembered. Is the army fit to travel?'\n\n'We have many injured, Betuana-Queen, and thousands are buried in the gorge. We withdrew to Tualas to await your commands.'\n\n'Leave some few to care for the injured, and bring the army here,' she told him. Tosa is no longer in danger. The danger is here.'\n\n'It shall be as you say, my Queen.' He clashed his fist against his breastplate in salute.\n\nThe Queen of Atan rose to her feet, her still-pale face betraying no emotion. I must go apart and consider this, Itagne-Ambassador,' she said formally.\n\n'It is proper, Betuana-Queen,' he responded. I share your grief.'\n\n'But not my guilt.' She turned and slowly left the room.\n\nItagne looked at the stony-faced Engessa. 'I'd better pass the word to the others,' he said.\n\nEngessa nodded shortly.\n\n'Could you speak with the messenger before he leaves, Engessa?' Itagne asked. 'Lord Vanion will need casualty figures before he can change his strategy.'\n\n'I will obtain them for you, Itagne-Ambassador.' Engessa inclined his head shortly and went out.\n\nItagne swore and banged his fist on the table. 'Of all the times for _this_ to happen!' he fumed. 'If that idiot had only _waited_ before he got himself killed!'\n\nBetuana had done nothing wrong. There had been no stain of dishonor in her concern for Engessa, and if she had only had a week or two to put it behind her, it would probably have been forgotten \u2013 along with the personal feelings which caused it. But Androl's death, coming as it did at this particular time \u2013 Itagne swore again. The Atan Queen _had_ to be able to function, and this crisis might well incapacitate her. For all Itagne knew, she was in her room right now preparing to fall on her sword. He rose and went looking for paper and pen. Vanion had to be warned about this before everything here in Sarna flew apart.\n\n'It all fell into place when I heard that old man call their little pond \"the Well of Vigay\",' Talen explained. 'Ogerajin used exactly the same term.'\n\n'I don't know that it means very much,' Mirtai said dubiously. 'Cynesgans call all these desert springs wells. Vigay was probably the one who discovered it.'\n\n'But the important thing is that _this_ is one of the landmarks Ogerajin mentioned,' Bevier said. 'How did the subject come up?' he asked Talen.\n\n'Stragen and I were spinning moonbeams for Valash,' the boy replied. 'Ogerajin had just arrived from Verel, and he was sitting in a chair with his brains quietly rotting. Stragen was telling Valash about something he'd supposedly overheard \u2013 some fellow telling another that Scarpa was waiting for instructions from Cyrga. He was fishing for information, and he casually asked Valash what route a man would have to follow to get to Cyrga. That's when Ogerajin jumped in. He started rambling, talking about the \"Well of Vigay\" and the \"Plains of Salt\" and other places with names that sounded as if they'd come right out of a story-book. I thought he was just raving, but Valash got very excited and tried to hush him up. That's what made me pay closer attention to what the crazy man was saying. I got the feeling that he was giving Stragen very specific directions to Cyrga, but the directions were all clouded over with those story-book names. This \"Well of Vigay\" business makes me start to wonder if the directions were as cloudy and garbled as I thought they were at first.'\n\n'What were his exact words, young Talen?' Xanetia asked.\n\n'He said, \"The pathway lies close by the Well of Vigay\". That's when Valash tried to shut him up, but he kept right on. He said something about wanting to give Stragen directions so that he could go to Cyrga and bow down to Cyrgon. He told him to go northwest from the \"Well of Vigay\" to the \"Forbidden Mountains\".'\n\nSparhawk checked over his map. 'There _are_ several clusters of mountains in central Cynesga, and that's the general region Aphrael pointed out back on the island. What else did he say, Talen?'\n\n'He sort of jumped around. He talked about the \"Forbidden Mountains\" and the \"Pillars of Cyrgon\". Then he doubled back on himself and started talking about the \"Plains of Salt\". From what he told Stragen, you're supposed to be able to see these \"Forbidden Mountains\" from those salt-plains. Then there was something about \"Fiery White Pillars\" and \"The Plain of Bones\". He said that the bones are \"the nameless slaves who toil until death for Cyrgon's Chosen\". Evidently when a slave dies in Cyrga, he's taken out and dumped in the desert.'\n\n'That boneyard wouldn't be very far from the city, then,' Kalten mused.\n\n'It _does_ all sort of fit together, Sparhawk,' Bevier said seriously. 'The Cynesgans themselves are largely nomads, so they wouldn't have any real need for large numbers of slaves. Ogerajin spoke of \"Cyrgon's Chosen\". That would be the Cyrgai, and _they're_ probably the ones who buy slaves.'\n\n'And that would mean that the caravan of slavers we saw is going to Cyrga, wouldn't it?' Talen added excitedly.\n\n_'And_ they were going northwest,' Mirtai said, 'the exact direction Ogerajin was raving about.'\n\nSparhawk went to his saddle-bags and took out his map. He sat down again and opened it, holding it firmly as the desert wind started to flap its corners. 'We know that Cyrga's somewhere in these mountains in central Cynesga,' he mused, 'so we'll be going in that direction anyway. If Ogerajin was just raving and his directions don't go anyplace, we'll still be in the right vicinity if we follow them.'\n\n'It's better than just sitting here waiting for Berit and Khalad,' Kalten said impatiently. I have to be doing _something_ \u2013 even if it's only riding around in circles out there in the desert.'\n\nSparhawk wordlessly put a comforting hand on his old friend's shoulder. His own desperate concern was at least as driving as Kalten's, but he knew that he had to keep it separate, remote. Desperate men make mistakes, and a mistake here could put Ehlana in even greater peril. His emotions screamed at him, but he grimly, implacably, pushed them into a separate compartment of his mind and firmly closed the door.\n\n'Anakha would be made glad if we would do this,' Ulath said in Trollish to the enormous presences.\n\nGhworg, God of Kill, rumbled ominously. 'Anakha's thought is like the wind,' he complained. 'One time he said to us, \"Go to the place the man-things call the Tamul Mountains to kill the children of Cyrgon.\" Now he says to us, \"Go to the place the man-things call Zhubay to kill the Children of Cyrgon.\" Can he not decide which Children of Cyrgon he wants us to kill?'\n\n'It is the way of the hunt, Ghworg,' Tynian explained. 'The Children of Cyrgon are not like the red-deer, which feeds always in the same range. The Children of Cyrgon are like the reindeer, which goes from this place to that place as the seasons change to find better food. Before, they were going to this place, Tamul Mountains, to feed, but now they go to the place Zhubay to feed. If we hunt in this place Tamul Mountains, we will find no game to kill and eat.'\n\n'It speaks well,' Ghnomb, God of Eat, said. 'It is not Anakha's thought which changes, it is the path of the creatures we hunt which changes. The way of the hunt tells us that we must go where they graze if we would find them and kill them and eat them.'\n\n'This hunt becomes more and more not-simple,' Ghworg grumbled.\n\n'That is because the man-things are more not-simple than the deer-things,' Khwaj, God of Fire, told him. 'The thought of Tynian-from-Deira is good. The one who hunts where there is no game does not eat.'\n\nGhworg pondered it. 'We must follow the way of the hunt,' he decided. 'We will take our children to the place Zhubay to hunt the Children of Cyrgon. When they come there to graze, our children will kill them and eat them.'\n\n'It would make us glad if you would,' Tynian said politely.\n\n'I will take our children into the Time-Which-Does-Not-Move,' Ghnomb said. They will be in the place Zhubay before the Children of Cyrgon come there.'\n\nSchlee, God of Ice, stuck his huge fingers into the dirt. The earth shuddered slightly and contorted itself into his picture of the continent. 'Show us where, Ulath-from-Thalesia,' he said. 'Where is the place Zhubay?'\n\nUlath walked some distance along the southwestern edge of the tiny mountains of Atan, peering intently at the ground. Then he stopped, bent, and touched a spot a short way out into the northern end of the Desert of Cynesga. 'It is here, Schlee,' he said.\n\nGhworg, God of Kill, stood up. 'We will take our children there,' he declared. 'Let us make Anakha glad.'\n\n'They're watching us, Vanion,' Sephrenia said quietly.\n\nHe pulled his horse in closer to hers. 'Styrics?' he asked quietly.\n\n'One of them is,' she replied. 'He's not particularly skilled.' She smiled faintly. 'I may have to hit him over the head to get his attention.'\n\n'Whatever it takes, love,' he said. He glanced back over his shoulder at the column of knights and then on ahead. They were coming down out of the mountains, and the Valley of the Sarna was beginning to broaden. 'We should reach that bridge tomorrow,' he told her. 'After we cross the river, we'll be in Cynesga.'\n\n'Yes, dear one,' she said, 'I've seen the map.'\n\n'Why don't you cast the spell?' he suggested. 'Let's give our inept Styric out there a chance to earn his keep.' He looked at her gravely. 'I'm having some second thoughts about this, Sephrenia. Kl\u00e6l's still out there, and if he thinks Sparhawk's somewhere in this column with Bhelliom, he'll be all over us.'\n\n'You can't have it both ways, Vanion,' she said with a fond smile. 'You said that you were never going to let me out of your sight, so if you insist on going into dangerous places, I'm sort of obliged to go along. Now if you'll excuse me, I'll wake up that Styric.' She began to speak softly in Styric, her fingers weaving the spell as she did so.\n\nVanion was puzzled. He took a certain pride in his familiarity with most of the spells, but this was one he had never seen or heard before. He watched more closely.\n\n'Never mind,' she told him crisply, breaking off the spell. 'You don't need to know this one.'\n\n'But \u2013'\n\n'Just look over there, Vanion,' she said. 'I can do this without any help.' She paused. 'Humor me, dear one. A girl needs a _few_ secrets, after all.'\n\nHe smiled and turned his head.\n\nThere was a kind of vague blurring in the air about ten yards away, and then, as surely as if he were really there, Vanion saw Sparhawk appear, mounted as always on his evil-tempered roan. So real was the image that flies were attracted to the horse. 'Brilliant!' Vanion exclaimed. He sent out a probing thought and even encountered the familiar sense of Sparhawk's presence. 'If I didn't know better, I'd swear that he was really here. Can you sustain this illusion?'\n\n'Naturally,' she said in an infuriatingly offhand way. And then she laughed, reached out and fondly touched his cheek.\n\n'What took you so long?' Talen asked the Child Goddess when she appeared on the edge of their camp outside Vigayo the following morning.\n\n'I've been busy,' she replied with a little shrug. 'This is a fairly complex business, you know. We all _do_ want to get there at approximately the same time, don't we? What's the problem here, Sparhawk?'\n\n'We might have just had a bit of good luck for a change, Divine One,' he replied. 'Talen and I were in the village yesterday, and we heard one of the villagers refer to their oasis as \"the Well of Vigay\".'\n\n'So?'\n\n'Why don't you tell her about it, Talen?'\n\nThe young thief quickly repeated the conversation between Ogerajin and Stragen back in Beresa.\n\n'What do you think?' Kalten asked the Child Goddess.\n\n'Does somebody have a map?' she asked.\n\nSparhawk went to his saddle-bags, took out his tightly rolled map, and brought it to her.\n\nShe spread it out on the ground, knelt in front of it, and studied it for several moments. 'There _are_ some salt-flats out there,' she conceded.\n\n'And they _are_ in the right direction,' Bevier pointed out.\n\n'Ogerajin's been there,' Talen added, 'at least he _says_ he has, so he'd almost have to know the way, wouldn't he?'\n\n'There's also a slaver's route that runs off to the northwest,' Mirtai said. 'We saw a caravan following it when we first got here, and Ogerajin mentioned the fact that the Cyrgai keep slaves. It sort of stands to reason that the slave caravan's bound for Cyrga, doesn't it?'\n\n'You're hanging all this speculation on the ravings of a madman, you know,' Flute said critically.\n\n'We _do_ have a bit of verification, Aphrael,' Sparhawk reminded her. The villagers use the same term for their oasis as Ogerajin did, the salt-flats are where he said they were, and the slavers are going in that direction as well. I'm inclined to accept it.'\n\n'You said yourself that Cyrga's somewhere in central Cynesga,' Kalten reminded her, 'and that's where all of this points. Even if Ogerajin left some things out, we'll still end up in the general vicinity of Cyrga. We'll be a lot closer than we are right now, anyway.'\n\n'Since you've all made up your minds, why did you bother me with it?' Her tone was just a bit petulant.\n\nTalen grinned at her. 'We didn't think it'd be polite to run off without telling you, Divine One.'\n\n'I'll get you for that, Talen,' she threatened.\n\n'How far ahead of us would you say that caravan is by now?' Sparhawk asked Mirtai.\n\n'Ten leagues,' she replied. 'Twelve at the most. Slave caravans don't move very fast.'\n\n'I think that's our best bet, then,' he decided. 'Let's put on those black robes and get started. We'll trail along a couple of leagues behind that caravan, and anybody who happens to see us will think we're stragglers.'\n\n'Anything's better than just sitting still,' Kalten said.\n\n'Somehow I was almost sure you'd feel that way about it,' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'We're little more than prisoners here,' Empress Chacole declared, waving her hand at the luxurious furnishings of the Women's Palace. Chacole was a ripe-figured Cynesgan lady in her thirties. Her tone was one of only idle discontent, but her eyes were hard and shrewd as she looked at Elysoun.\n\nElysoun shrugged. _'I've_ never had any trouble coming and going as I choose.'\n\n'That's because you're a Valesian,' Empress Torellia told her with just a touch of resentment. 'They make allowances for you they don't make for the rest of us. I don't think it's very fair.'\n\nElysoun shrugged again. 'Fair or not, it's the custom.'\n\n'Why should you have more freedom than the rest of us?'\n\n'Because I have a more active social life.'\n\n'Aren't there enough men in the Women's Palace for you?'\n\n'Don't be catty, Torellia. You're not old enough to make it convincing.' Elysoun looked appraisingly at the Arjuni Empress. Torellia was a slender girl in her mid-twenties, and, like all Arjuni women, she was quite subservient. Chacole was obviously taking advantage of that.\n\n'You don't see anybody restricting Cieronna's movements,' Chacole said.\n\n'Cieronna's the first wife,' Elysoun replied, 'and she's the oldest. We should respect her age if nothing else.'\n\n'I will _not_ be a servant to an ageing Tamul hag!' Chacole flared.\n\n'She doesn't _want_ you as a servant, Chacole,' Elysoun told her. 'She already has more servants than she can count \u2013 unless Liatris has thinned them out some more. All Cieronna really wants is a fancier crown than the rest of us have and the right to walk in front of us in formal processions. It doesn't take much to make her happy. She's not the brightest person in Matherion.'\n\nTorellia giggled.\n\n'Here comes Gahennas,' Chacole hissed.\n\nThe jug-eared Tegan Empress, covered to the chin in scratchy wool, approached them with a disapproving expression, an expression that came over her face every time she so much as looked at the barely dressed Elysoun. 'Ladies,' she greeted them with a stiff little nod.\n\n'Join us, Gahennas,' Chacole invited. 'We're discussing politics.'\n\nGahennas' bulging eyes brightened. Tegans lived and breathed politics.\n\n'Chacole and Torellia want to get up a petition to our husband,' Elysoun said. She raised her arms and yawned deeply, stretching back and literally thrusting her bare breasts at Gahennas.\n\nGahennas quickly averted her eyes.\n\n'I'm sorry, ladies,' Elysoun apologized. I didn't get much sleep last night.'\n\n'How do you find enough hours in the day?' Gahennas asked spitefully.\n\n'It's only a matter of scheduling, Gahennas,' Elysoun shrugged. 'You can get all sorts of things accomplished if you budget your time. Why don't we just drop it, dear? You don't approve of me, and I don't really care. We'll never understand each other, so why waste our time trying?'\n\n'You can go anywhere in the imperial compound you want to, can't you, Elysoun?' Chacole asked rather tentatively.\n\nElysoun feigned another yawn to conceal her smile. Chacole had finally gotten to the point. Elysoun had wondered how long it was going to take. 'I can come and go more or less as I choose,' she replied. 'I guess all the spies got tired of trying to keep up with me.'\n\n'Do you suppose I could ask a favor of you?'\n\n'Of course, dear. What do you need?'\n\n'Cieronna doesn't like me, and her spies follow me everywhere I go. I'm involved in something at the moment I'd rather she didn't find out about.'\n\n'Why Chacole! Are you saying that you've finally decided to go a little further afield for entertainment?'\n\nThe Cynesgan Empress gave her a blank stare, obviously missing her point.\n\n'Oh, come now, dear,' Elysoun said slyly. 'We all have our little private amusements here inside the Women's Palace \u2013 even Gahennas here.'\n\n'I most certainly do _not!'_ The Tegan protested.\n\n'Oh, _really,_ Gahennas? I've seen that new page-boy of yours. He's absolutely luscious. Who's _your_ new lover, Chacole? Some husky young lieutenant in the Guards? Did you want me to smuggle him into the palace for you?'\n\n'It's nothing like that, Elysoun.'\n\n'Of _course_ it isn't,' Elysoun agreed with heavy sarcasm. 'All right, Chacole. I'll carry your love-notes for you \u2013 if you're really sure you trust me that close to him. But why go so far afield, sister dear? Gahennas has this lovely young page-boy, and I'm sure she's trained him very well \u2013 haven't you, Gahennas?' She raised one mocking eyebrow. Tell me, dear,' she added, 'was he a virgin? \u2013 Before you got your hands on him, I mean?'\n\nGahennas fled with Elysoun's mocking laughter following after her.\n\n# _Chapter 24_\n\n'It's supposed to be two words,' Kalten insisted that afternoon some miles outside Vigayo. 'Ram's. Horn. Two words.'\n\n'It's a password, Sir Kalten,' Talen tried to explain. '\"Ramshorn\". Like that.'\n\n'What do _you_ say, Sparhawk?' Kalten asked his friend. 'Is it one word or two?' The three of them had just finished piling rocks in a rough approximation of a grave at the side of the trail, and Talen and Kalten were arguing about the crude marker the boy had prepared.\n\n'What difference does it make?' Sparhawk shrugged.\n\n'If it's spelled wrong, Berit might not recognize it when he rides by,' Talen said.\n\n'He'll recognize it,' Sparhawk disagreed. 'Berit's quick. Just don't disturb the arrangement of those yellow rocks on the top of the grave.'\n\n'Are you sure Khalad will understand what those rocks mean?' Talen asked skeptically.\n\n'Your father would have,' Sparhawk replied, 'and I'm sure he taught Khalad all the usual signals.'\n\n'I still say it's supposed to be two words,' Kalten insisted.\n\n'Bevier,' Sparhawk called.\n\nThe Cyrinic Knight walked back to the imitation grave with an enquiring expression.\n\n'These two are arguing about how to spell \"ramshorn\",' Sparhawk told him. 'You're the scholar. _You_ settle it.'\n\n'I say he spelled it wrong,' Kalten said truculently. 'It's supposed to be two words, isn't it?'\n\n'Ah...' Bevier said evasively, 'there are two schools of thought on that.'\n\n'Why don't you tell them about it as we ride along?' Mirtai suggested.\n\nSparhawk looked at Xanetia. 'Don't,' he warned her quietly.\n\n'What wouldst thou not have me do, Anakha?' she asked innocently.\n\n'Don't laugh. Don't even smile. You'll only make it worse.'\n\nIt may or may not have been three weeks later. Patriarch Bergsten had given up on trying to keep track of actual time. Instead he glared in sullen theological discontent at the mud-walled city of Cynestra and at the disgustingly young and well-conditioned person coming toward him. Bergsten believed in an orderly world, and violations of order made him nervous.\n\nShe was very tall and she had golden skin and night-dark hair, she was also extremely pretty and superbly muscled. She emerged from the main gate of Cynestra under a flag of truce, running easily out to meet them. She stopped some distance to their front, and Bergsten, Sir Heldin, Daiya, and Neran, their Tamul translator, rode forward to confer with her. She spoke at some length with Neran.\n\n'Keep your eyes where they belong, Heldin,' Bergsten muttered.\n\n'I was just \u2013'\n\n'I know what you were doing. Stop it.' Bergsten paused. 'I wonder why they sent a woman.'\n\nNeran, a slender Tamul who had been sent along by Ambassador Fontan, returned. 'She's Atana Maris,' he told them. 'Commander of the Atan garrison here in Cynestra.'\n\n'A _woman?'_ Bergsten was startled.\n\n'It's not uncommon among the Atans, your Grace. She's been expecting us. Foreign Minister Oscagne sent word that we were coming.'\n\n'What's the situation in the city?' Heldin asked.\n\n'King Jaluah's been quietly dribbling troops into Cynestra for the past month or so,' Neran replied. 'Atana Maris has a thousand Atans in her garrison, and the Cynesgans have been trying to restrict their movements. She's been growing impatient with all of that. She probably would have moved against the royal palace a week ago, but Oscagne instructed her to wait until we arrived.'\n\n'How did she get out of the city?' Heldin rumbled.\n\n'I didn't ask her, Sir Heldin. I didn't want to insult her.'\n\n'What I meant was, didn't they try to stop her?'\n\n'They're dead if they did.'\n\n'But she's a _woman!'_ Bergsten objected.\n\n'You're not really familiar with the Atans, are you, your Reverence?' Daiya asked.\n\n'I've heard of them, friend Daiya. The stories all seem wildly exaggerated to me.'\n\n'No, your Reverence, they aren't,' Daiya said firmly. 'I know of this girl's reputation. She's the youngest garrison commander in the entire Atan army, and she didn't get to where she is by being sweet and ladylike. From what I've heard, she's an absolute savage.'\n\n'But she's so pretty,' Heldin protested.\n\n'Sir Heldin,' Neran said firmly to him, 'while you're admiring her, pay particular attention to the development of her arms and shoulders. She's as strong as a bull, and if you offend her in any way at all, she'll tear you to pieces. She almost killed Itagne \u2013 or so the rumor has it.'\n\n'The Foreign Minister's brother?' Bergsten asked.\n\nNeran nodded. 'He was here on a mission, and he decided to place the city under martial law. He needed Atana Maris' help with that, so he seduced her. Her response was enthusiastic \u2013 but very muscular. Be very careful around her, gentlemen. She's almost as dangerous to have as a friend as an enemy. She asked me to give you your instructions.'\n\n_'Instructions?'_ Bergsten erupted. 'I don't take orders from women!'\n\n'Your Grace,' Neran said, 'Cynestra's technically still under martial law, and that puts Atana Maris in charge. She's been ordered to deliver the city to you, but she's instructed you to wait outside the walls until she's crushed all the resistance. She wants to present the city to you as a gift \u2013 all neat and tidy. Please don't spoil it for her. Smile at her, thank her politely, and wait right here until she's finished cleaning the streets. After she's got all the bodies stacked in neat piles, she'll invite you in and turn the city over to you \u2013 along with King Jaluah's head, more than likely. I know that the situation seems unnatural to you, but for God's sake don't do anything to offend her. She'll go to war with you just as quickly as with anybody else.'\n\n'But she's so pretty,' Heldin objected again.\n\nBerit and Khalad dismounted and led their horses down to the edge of the oasis to water them. In theory, they _might_ have reached Vigayo this soon. 'Can you tell if he's here?' Khalad muttered.\n\nBerit shook his head. 'I _think_ that means that he's not a Styric. We'll just have to wait for him to come to us.' He looked around at the few white-walled houses shaded by low palm trees. 'Is there any kind of inn here?'\n\n'Not very likely. I see a lot of tents on the other side of the oasis. I'll ask around, but don't get your hopes up.'\n\nBerit shrugged. 'Oh, well. We've lived in tents before. Find out where we're permitted to set up.'\n\nThe village of Vigayo itself was clustered along the eastern side of the oasis, and the informal encampment of nomads and merchants stretched along the west shore of what was actually a fair-sized pool of artesian water. Berit and Khalad picketed their horses, erected their tent near the water, and sat down in the shade to wait. 'Can you tell if Sparhawk's around anyplace?' Khalad asked.\n\nBerit shook his head. 'He may have already passed through. Or he could be watching from one of the hills outside of town. He might not want people to know that he's here.'\n\nIt was an hour or so past sunset, and twilight was descending on the oasis when a Cynesgan in a loose-fitting striped robe approached their tent. 'I'm supposed to ask if one of you might be named Sparhawk,' he said in a slightly accented voice.\n\nBerit rose to his feet. 'I might be named Sparhawk, neighbor.'\n\n'Might be?'\n\n'That's the way you phrased your question, friend. You've got a note for me. Why don't you just hand it over and be on your way? We don't really have anything else to talk about, do we?'\n\nThe messenger's face hardened. He reached inside his robe, took out a folded and sealed parchment, and negligently tossed it at Berit's feet. Then he turned and walked away.\n\n'You know, Berit,' Khalad said mildly, 'sometimes you're even more abrasive than Sparhawk himself.'\n\nBerit grinned. 'I know. I'm trying to maintain his reputation.' He bent, picked up the parchment, and broke the seal. He removed the identifying lock of hair and quickly read the brief message.\n\n'Well?'Khalad asked.\n\n'Nothing very specific. It says that there's a caravan route running off to the northwest. We're supposed to follow that. We'll get further instructions along the way.'\n\n'Will it be safe to use the spell and talk with Aphrael once we get out of town?'\n\n'I think so. I'm sure she'd have told me if I wasn't supposed to use it here in Cynesga.'\n\n'We don't have much choice,' Khalad said. 'We can't tell if Sparhawk's already been here, if he's here now, or if he's still on the way, and we've got to let him know about these new instructions.'\n\n'Do you think we ought to start out tonight?'\n\n'No. Let's not start floundering round in the dark. We might miss the trail, and there's nothing out in that desert but empty.'\n\n'I won't do anything to put Berit in any kind of danger,' Elysoun insisted a few days later. 'I'm very fond of him.'\n\n'They found out that he was posing as Sparhawk quite some time ago, Elysoun,' Baroness Melidere told her. 'You won't be putting him in any more danger than he's already in. Telling Chacole about his disguise will convince her that you've gone over to her side \u2013 _and_ that you have access to important information.'\n\n'You might want to make them believe that your husband's totally smitten with you, Empress Elysoun,' Patriarch Emban added. 'Let them think that he tells you everything.'\n\n_'Are_ you smitten with me, Sarabian?' Elysoun asked archly.\n\n'Oh, absolutely, my dear,' he smiled. 'I adore you.'\n\n'What a nice thing to say.' She smiled warmly.\n\n'Later, children,' Melidere told them absently, her forehead furrowed with concentration. 'At the same time you tell Chacole about Berit's disguise, drop a few hints about a fleet of Church ships in the Gulf of Daconia. Stragen's been very carefully planting that particular lie, so let's give them some confirmation. After you tell them about Berit, they'll be inclined to believe your story about the fleet.' She looked at the Emperor. 'Is there anything else we can give them that won't hurt us? Something they can verify?'\n\n'Does it have to be important?'\n\n'Not really, just something that's true. We need another truth to get the mix right.'\n\n'The mix?'\n\n'It's like a recipe, your Majesty,' she smiled. 'Two parts truth to one part lie; stir well and serve. If you get the mix right, they'll swallow the whole thing.'\n\nThey had set out at first light, and the sun had not yet risen when they topped a low ridge and saw a vast, flat expanse of dead whiteness lying ahead. Time, like climate, had lost all meaning.\n\n'I'd hate to have to cross _that_ in the summertime,' Kalten said.\n\n'Truly,' Sparhawk agreed.\n\n'The slavers' trail swings north here,' Bevier noted, 'probably to go around those flats. If a Cynesgan patrol stumbles across us out there, we might have trouble convincing them that we're attached to that caravan we've been following.'\n\n'We'll just say that we got lost,' Kalten said with a shrug. 'Let me do the talking, Bevier. I get lost all the time anyway, so I can be fairly convincing. How far is it to the other side, Sparhawk?'\n\n'About twenty-five leagues, according to my map.'\n\n'Two days \u2013 even if we push,' Kalten calculated.\n\n'And no cover,' Bevier added. 'You couldn't hide a spider out \u2013' He broke off. 'What's that?' he asked, pointing at an intensely bright spot of light on the mountainous western horizon.\n\nTalen squinted at the light. 'I think it might be the landmark we've been looking for,' he said.\n\n'How did you arrive at that?' Kalten asked skeptically.\n\n'It's in the right direction, isn't it? Ogerajin said that we were supposed to go northwest from Vigayo to the Plains of Salt. Then he said, \"From the verge of the Plains of Salt wilt thou behold low on the horizon before thee the dark shapes of the Forbidden Mountains, and, if it please Cyrgon, his fiery white pillars will guide thee to his Hidden City.\" There _are_ mountains there, and if that light's coming from right in the middle of them wouldn't it almost _have_ to be coming from the pillars?'\n\n'The man was crazy, Talen,' Kalten objected.\n\n'Maybe,' Sparhawk disagreed, 'but everything he described is right where he said it would be. Let's take a chance on it. It's still the right direction.'\n\n'About the only thing that might cause us any trouble would be if we stumbled across a helpful Cynesgan patrol and they decided to escort us back to that caravan we've been following for the last few days,' Mirtai observed.\n\n'Logically, our chances of coming across a patrol out there on the flats are very slim,' Bevier suggested. 'Cynesgans would normally avoid that waste in the first place, and the war's probably pulled almost everybody off patrol duty in the second.'\n\n'And any patrols unlucky enough to cross us won't be making any reports in the third,' Mirtai added, suggestively putting her hand on her sword-hilt.\n\n'We've tentatively located the pillars,' Sparhawk said. 'And if Ogerajin knew what he was talking about, we'll have to take a line of sight on them to penetrate the illusion. Now that we've found them, let's not lose them. We'll just have to take our chances out there on the flats. If we're lucky, nobody will even notice us. If not, we'll try lying to them, and if that doesn't work, we still have our swords.' He looked around at them. 'Does anybody have anything else to add?'\n\n'I think that covers it,' Kalten said, still somewhat dubious.\n\n'Let's get started, then.'\n\n'They just broke off and ran away, friend Vanion,' Kring said a day or so later. Kring's face was baffled. 'We were using those tactics Tikume and I came up with, and everything was going more or less the way we expected, and then somebody blew a horn or something, and they turned tail and ran \u2013 but where? If what we've been told is true, there's no place in the whole world they can go to catch their breath.'\n\n'Did you have anybody follow them?' Vanion asked.\n\n'I probably should have, I suppose, but I was concentrating on luring the Cyrgai across the border.' Kring smiled at Sephrenia. 'That Styric curse doesn't seem to have worn thin in the last ten thousand years, Lady. Three full regiments of Cyrgai went down like newly-mown wheat when they crossed the border.' He paused. 'They're not really very bright, are they?'\n\n'The Cyrgai? No. It's against their religion.'\n\n'You'd think that at least a _few_ of them would have realized that something was wrong, but they just kept running across the border and falling over dead.'\n\n'Independent thinking isn't encouraged among them. They're trained to follow orders \u2013 even bad ones.'\n\nKring looked at the bridge crossing the Sarna. 'You'll be operating from here, friend Vanion?' he asked.\n\n'I'll put a force on the other side of the bridge,' Vanion replied. 'But our main camp will be on this side. The river marks the boundary between Tamul Proper and Cynesga, doesn't it?'\n\n'Technically, I suppose,' The Domi shrugged. 'The curse-line's a couple of miles further west, though.'\n\n'The boundary's changed several times over the years,' Sephrenia explained.\n\n'Tikume thought I should come up here and talk things over with you, friend Vanion,' Kring said then. 'We don't want to interfere with Sparhawk, so we haven't been going too far into Cynesga, but we're running out of people to chase.'\n\n'How far in have you been going?' Vanion asked.\n\n'Six or seven leagues,' Kring replied. 'We come back to Samar every night \u2013 although there's no real reason for it now. I don't think there's any danger of a siege any more.'\n\n'No,' Vanion agreed. 'We've pushed them enough so that they can't really concentrate on Samar now.' He opened his map and frowned at it for a few moments, then he dropped to one knee and spread it out on the winter-brown grass. 'Step on that corner, please,' he said to Sephrenia. I don't want to have to chase it again.'\n\nKring looked puzzled.\n\n'Household joke,' Sephrenia explained, putting one small foot on the corner of Vanion's map. 'Vanion's fond of maps, and an errant breeze turned his current favorite into a kite two days ago.'\n\nVanion let that pass. 'I'll agree that we don't want to crowd Sparhawk, Domi, but I think we'll want to build some fortified positions out there in the desert. They'll give us jumping-off places when we start our advance on Cyrga.'\n\n'I had the same thought, friend Vanion.'\n\n'Let's establish a presence across that border,' Vanion decided. 'I'll send word to Betuana, and she'll do the same.'\n\n'How deep in should we go?' Kring asked.\n\nVanion looked at Sephrenia. 'Ten leagues?' he suggested. 'That's not so deep that we'll be stepping on Sparhawk's heels, but we'll have room to maneuver, and it'll give you some elbow-room for that spell of yours.'\n\n'Using the spell's a good plan, friend Vanion,' Kring said a bit dubiously. 'But you're deliberately drawing the best our enemies can throw at us to yourself \u2013 and to Lady Sephrenia. Is that what you want? I don't mean to be offensive, but your fight with Kl\u00e6l's soldiers seriously reduced your ranks.'\n\n'That's one of the reasons I want forts out there in the desert, Domi,' Vanion said wryly. 'If worst comes to worst, I'll pull back into those positions. I'm almost sure I can count on some dear friends on my flanks to come to my rescue.'\n\n'Well said,' Sephrenia murmured.\n\n'Stop,' Khalad said sharply, reining in his horse when they were perhaps five miles outside Vigayo.\n\n'What is it?' Berit asked tensely.\n\n'Somebody named Ramshorn died,' Khalad said, pointing. 'I think we should stop and pay our respects.'\n\nBerit looked at the crude grave beside the trail. 'I looked right through it,' he confessed. 'Sorry, Khalad.'\n\n'Pay attention, my Lord.'\n\n'It seems you've said that before.'\n\nThey dismounted and approached the rude 'grave'.\n\n'Clever,' Berit murmured quietly. It was probably not necessary to lower his voice, but it had gotten to be a habit.\n\n'Talen's idea, probably,' Khalad said as they both knelt beside the mound. 'It's a little subtle for Sparhawk.'\n\n'Isn't that supposed to be two words?' Berit asked, pointing at the weathered plank with 'Ramshorn' roughly carved into its face.\n\n'You're the educated one, my Lord. Don't touch those rocks.'\n\n'Which rocks?'\n\n'The yellow ones. We'll mix them up as soon as I read them.'\n\n'You read rocks? Is that like reading seagulls?'\n\n'Not exactly. It's a message from Sparhawk. He and my father worked this out a long time ago.' The short-bearded young man leaned first this way and then that, squinting at the mound. 'Naturally,' he said finally with a certain resignation. He rose and moved to the head of the grave.\n\n'What?'\n\n'Sparhawk wrote it upside down. Now it makes sense.' Khalad studied the apparently random placement of the yellowish rocks on top of the predominantly brown mound. 'Pray, Berit,' he said. 'Offer up a prayer for the soul of our departed brother, Ramshorn.'\n\n'You're not making any sense, Khalad.'\n\n'Somebody might be watching. Act religious.' The husky young squire took the reins of their horses and led them several yards away from the ill-defined trail. Then he bent, took Faran's left foreleg in both hands, and carefully inspected the hoof.\n\nFaran gave him an unfriendly stare.\n\n'Sorry,' Khalad apologized to the bad-tempered brute, 'it's nothing important.' He lowered the hoof to the gravel again. 'All right, Berit,' he said then, 'say \"Amen\", and we'll get going again.'\n\n'What was that all about?' Berif s tone was surly as he remounted.\n\n'Sparhawk left a message for us,' Khalad replied, swinging up into his saddle. 'The arrangement of the yellow rocks told me where to find it.'\n\n'Where is it?' Berit asked eagerly.\n\n'Right now? It's in my left boot. I picked it up when I was checking Faran's hoof.'\n\n'I didn't see you pick up a thing.'\n\n'You weren't supposed to, my Lord.'\n\nKrager awoke with the horrors to the sound of distant screaming. Days and nights had long since blurred in Krager's awareness, but the sun shattering against his eyes told him that it was a full and awful morning. He had certainly not intended to drink so much the previous night, but the knowledge that he was reaching the bottom of his last cask of Arcian red had worried at him as he had grown progressively drunker, and the knowledge that it would soon be all gone had somehow translated itself in his fuddled mind into a compulsion to drink it all before it got away from him.\n\nNow he was paying for that foolishness. His head was throbbing, his stomach was on fire, and his mouth tasted as if something had crawled in there and died. He was shaking violently, and there were sharp stabbing pains in his liver. He sat on the edge of his tangled bed with his head in his hands. There was a sense of dread hanging over him, a shadowy feeling of horror. He kept his burning eyes closed and groped under the bed with one shaking hand for the emergency bottle he always kept there. The liquid it contained was neither wine nor beer but a dreadful concoction of Lamork origin that was obtained by setting certain inferior wines out in the winter and allowing them to freeze. The liquid that rose to the top and remained unfrozen was almost pure spirits. It tasted foul, and it burned like fire going down, but it put the horrors to sleep. Shuddering, Krager drank off about a pint of the awful stuff and lurched to his feet.\n\nThe sun was painfully bright when he stumbled out into the streets of Natayos and went looking for the source of the screams that had awakened him. He reached a central square and recoiled in horror. Several men were being systematically tortured to death while Scarpa, dressed in his shabby imitation royal robe and his makeshift crown, sat in an ornate chair watching with approval.\n\n'What's going on?' Krager asked Cabah, a shabby Dacite brigand of his acquaintance with whom he had frequently gotten drunk.\n\nCabah turned quickly. 'Oh, it's you, Krager,' he said. 'As closely as I can gather, the Shining Ones descended on Panem-Dea.'\n\n'That's impossible,' Krager said shortly. 'Ptaga's dead. There aren't any more of those illusions to keep the Tamuls running around in circles.'\n\n'If we can believe what some of those dying fellows said, the ones who went into Panem-Dea weren't illusions,' Cabah replied. 'A fair number of the officers there got themselves dissolved when they tried to stand and fight.'\n\n'What's happening here?' Krager asked, pointing at the screaming men bound to poles set up in the middle of the square.\n\n'Scarpa's making examples of the ones who ran away. He's having them cut to pieces. Here comes Cyzada.' Cabah pointed at the Styric hurrying out of Scarpa's headquarters.\n\n'What are you _doing?'_ the hollow-eyed Cyzada bellowed at the madman sitting on his cheap throne.\n\n'They deserted their posts,' Scarpa replied. 'They're being punished.'\n\n'You need every man, you idiot!'\n\n'I ordered them to march to the north to join my loyal armies,' Scarpa shrugged. 'They concocted lies to excuse their failure to obey. They must be punished. I _will_ have obedience!'\n\n'You will _not_ kill your own soldiers! Order your butchers to stop!'\n\n'That's quite impossible, Cyzada. An imperial order, once given, cannot be rescinded. I have commanded that every deserter from Panem-Dea be tortured to death. It's out of my hands now.'\n\n'You maniac! You won't have a soldier left by tomorrow morning! They'll _all_ desert!'\n\n'Then I will recruit more and hunt them all down. I _will_ be obeyed!'\n\nCyzada of Esos controlled his fury with an obviously great effort. Krager saw his lips moving and his fingers weaving intricate patterns in the air. 'Let's get out of here, Cabah!' he said urgently.\n\n'What? The crazy man ordered us all to watch.'\n\n'You don't want to watch what's going to happen next,' Krager told him. 'Cyzada's casting a spell \u2013 Zemoch, most likely. He's summoning a demon to teach our \"emperor\" the meaning of the word \"obedience\".'\n\n'He can't do that. Zalasta left his son in charge here.'\n\n'No, actually Cyzada's in charge. I personally heard Zalasta tell that Styric who's wriggling his fingers right now to kill Scarpa the minute he stepped out of line. I don't know about you, my friend, but _I'm_ going to find someplace to hide. I've seen the kind of creatures that were subject to Azash before, and I'm feeling a little delicate this morning, so I don't want to see one again.'\n\n'We'll get into trouble, Krager.'\n\n'Not if the demon Cyzada's summoning right now eats Scarpa alive, we won't.' Krager drew in a deep breath. 'It's up to you, Cabah. Stay if you want, but I think I've seen as much as I want to of Natayos.'\n\n'You're going to desert?' Cabah was aghast.\n\n'The situation's changed. If Sparhawk's allied himself with the Delphae, I want to be a long way from here when they come glowing out of that jungle. I find that I'm suddenly homesick for Eosia. Come or stay, Cabah, but _I'm_ leaving \u2013 now.'\n\n# _Chapter 25_\n\nZalasta's face was strangely altered when Ekatas unlocked and opened the door to the small, dank cell adjoining the larger room at the top of the tower a week or so after he had brought Ehlana and Alean to Cyrga. The doubt and remorse which had filled it before were gone, and the Styric's expression was now one of calm detachment. He took in the horrid little room at a glance. Ehlana and Alean were chained to the wall, and they were sitting on heaps of moldy straw that were supposed to serve as beds. Crude earthenware bowls filled with cold gruel sat untouched on the floor. 'This won't do, Ekatas,' Zalasta said in a remote kind of voice.\n\n'It's really none of your concern,' the High Priest replied. 'Prisoners are kept closely confined here in Cyrga.' As always, Ekatas sneered when he spoke to Zalasta.\n\n'Not _these_ prisoners.' Zalasta stepped into the cell and took up the chains that bound the two women to the wall. Then, showing no emotion, he crushed them into powdery rust. 'The situation here has changed, Ekatas,' he snapped, helping Ehlana to her feet. 'Get this mess cleaned up.'\n\nEkatas drew himself up. I don't take orders from Styrics. I am the High Priest of Cyrgon.'\n\n'I'm truly sorry about this, your Majesty,' Zalasta apologized to Ehlana. 'My attention's been diverted for the past week or so. Evidently I didn't make my wishes clear to the Cyrgai. Please excuse me for a moment, and I'll correct that oversight.' He turned back to Ekatas. 'I told you to do something,' he said in a dreadful voice. 'Why haven't you started?'\n\n'Come out of there, Zalasta, or I'll lock you in with them.'\n\n'Oh, really?' Zalasta said with a thin smile. 'I thought you had better sense. I don't have time for this, Ekatas. Get this room cleaned up. I have to take our guests to the Temple again.'\n\n'I've received no such instructions.'\n\n'Why should you have?'\n\n'Cyrgon speaks through me.'\n\n'Precisely. The instructions didn't come from Cyrgon.'\n\n'Cyrgon is God here.'\n\n'Not any more, he isn't.' Zalasta gave him an almost pitying look. 'You didn't even feel it, did you, Ekatas? The world heaved and convulsed all around you, and you didn't even notice. How can you possibly be so dense? Cyrgon has been supplanted. Kl\u00e6l rules in Cyrga now \u2013 and I speak for Kl\u00e6l.'\n\n'That's not possible! You're lying!'\n\nZalasta walked out of the cell and took hold of the front of the High Priest's robe. 'Look at me, Ekatas,' he commanded. 'Take a long, hard look, and then tell me that I'm lying.'\n\nEkatas struggled momentarily, and then, unable to help himself, he looked into Zalasta's eyes. The blood slowly drained from his face, and then he screamed. He screamed again, trying to tear himself free from the Styric's iron grasp. 'I beg of you!' he cried out in a voice filled with horror, 'no more! No more!' Then he sagged, covering his eyes with his hands.\n\nZalasta contemptuously let go of the front of his black robe, and he fell to the floor, weeping uncontrollably.\n\n'Now do you understand?' Zalasta asked him, almost gently. 'Cyzada and I tried to warn you and your petty Godling about the dangers involved in summoning Kl\u00e6l, but you wouldn't listen. Cyrgon wanted to enslave Bhelliom, and now he's the slave of Bhelliom's opposite. And, since I speak for Kl\u00e6l, I guess that makes you _my_ slave,' He prodded the weeping priest with one foot. 'Get up, Ekatas! Get on your feet when your master speaks!'\n\nThe grovelling priest scrambled to his feet, his tear-streaked face still filled with unspeakable horror.\n\n'Say it, Ekatas,' Zalasta said in a cruel voice. I want to hear you say it \u2013 or would you like to witness the death of another star?'\n\n'M-M-Master,' the High Priest choked.\n\n'Again \u2013 a little louder, if you don't mind.'\n\n'Master!' It came out almost as a shriek.\n\n'Much better, Ekatas. Now wake up those lazy cretins in the guardroom and put them to work cleaning this cell. We have preparations to make when I come back from the temple. Anakha's bringing Bhelliom to Cyrga, and we'll want to be ready when he arrives.' He turned. 'Bring your maid, Ehlana. Kl\u00e6l wants to look at you.' Zalasta paused, looking at her critically. 'I know that we've treated you badly,' he half-apologized, 'but don't let our bad manners break your spirit. Remember who you are and draw that about you. Kl\u00e6l respects power and those who wield it.'\n\n'What do I say to him?'\n\n'Nothing. He'll find out what he wants to know just by looking at you. He doesn't understand your husband, and looking at you will give him some hints about Anakha's nature. Anakha's the unknown element in this business. He always has been, I suppose. Kl\u00e6l understands Bhelliom. It's Bhelliom's creature who baffles him.'\n\n'You've changed, Zalasta.'\n\n'I suppose I have,' he admitted. 'I have a feeling that I won't live much longer. Kl\u00e6l's touch does peculiar things to people. We'd better not keep him waiting,' He looked at Ekatas, who stood trembling violently. 'I want this room clean when we come back.'\n\n'I'll see to it, Master,' Ekatas promised in a grotesquely servile tone.\n\n'How do you find them again?' Itagne asked curiously. 'What I'm trying to get at is that the Trolls are in this \"No-Time\", but you and Tynian had to come out into real time in order to enter Sarna, so time started moving for you. How do you get back to the moment where you left the Trolls?'\n\n'Please don't ask metaphysical questions, Itagne,' Ulath replied with a pained expression. 'We just go back to the spot where we left the Trolls, and there they are. We deal with \"where\" and let the Troll-Gods deal with \"when\". They seem to be able to jump around in time without paying much attention to the rules.'\n\n'Where are the Trolls right now?'\n\n'Just outside of town,' Tynian replied. 'We didn't think it was a good idea to bring them into Sarna with us. They're starting to get a little out of hand.'\n\n'Is it something we should know about, Tynian-Knight?' Engessa asked.\n\nUlath leaned back in his chair. 'Cyrgon disrupted Trollish behavior rather profoundly when he went to Thalesia and posed as Ghworg,' he explained somberly. 'Zalasta told him about the Trolls, but Cyrgon's been a little out of touch, so he mistook the Trolls for the Dawn-Men. The Dawn-Men were herd-animals, but the Trolls run in packs. Herd-animals will accept any member of their species, but pack-animals are a little more selective. It's to our advantage right now to have the Trolls behave like a herd. At least we can keep them all going in the same direction, but some problems are starting to crop up. The packs are beginning to separate, and there's a great deal of snapping and snarling going on.'\n\nTynian glanced at Queen Betuana, who, gowned all in black, was sitting somewhat apart from them. He motioned Engessa slightly to one side. 'Is she all right?' he asked very quietly.\n\n'Betuana-Queen is in ritual mourning,' Engessa replied, also in half-whisper. 'The loss of her husband has touched her very deeply.'\n\n'Were they really that close?'\n\n'It did not seem so,' Engessa admitted. His eyes were troubled as he looked at his melancholy Queen. 'The mourning-ritual is seldom observed now. I am keeping careful watch over her. She must not be allowed to do herself injury.' Engessa's shoulder-muscles bunched.\n\nTynian was startled. 'Is there any real danger of that?'\n\n'It was not uncommon a few centuries ago,' Engessa replied.\n\n'We'd been expecting you earlier,' Itagne was saying to Ulath. 'As I understand it, \"No-Time\" means that the Trolls can go from one place to another almost instantaneously.'\n\n'Not quite instantaneously, Itagne. We've been a week or so getting here from the Tamul Mountains. We have to stop and go back into real time every so often so that they can hunt. Hungry Trolls aren't the best of travelling companions. What's been happening? We can't make contact with Aphrael when we're in No-Time.'\n\n'Sparhawk's found some clues about the location of Cyrga,' Itagne replied. They aren't too precise, but he's going to take a chance and try to follow them.'\n\n'How's Patriarch Bergsten coming?'\n\n'He's captured Cynestra \u2013 had it handed to him on a plate, actually.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'Do you remember Atana Maris?'\n\n'The pretty girl who commanded the garrison in Cynestra? The one who was so fond of you?'\n\nItagne smiled. 'That's the one. She's an abrupt sort of girl, and I'm quite fond of her, and when she saw Bergsten and the Church Knights approaching, she decided to present him with the city. She swept the streets clean of Cynesgan troops and opened the gates for Bergsten. She was going to give him King Jaluah's head as well, but he persuaded her not to.'\n\n'Pity,' Ulath murmured, 'but that's the sort of thing you have to expect when a good man gets religion.'\n\n'Vanion's in place,' Itagne continued, 'and he and Kring are establishing strongholds about a day's ride out into Cynesga. We're going to do the same here, but we thought we'd wait until you arrived first.'\n\n'Is anybody encountering any significant opposition?' Tynian asked.\n\n'It's hard to say exactly,' Itagne mused. 'We're moving on central Cynesga, but Kl\u00e6l's soldiers pop out of every crack between two rocks. The further back we push them, the tighter they'll be concentrated. If we don't come up with a way to neutralize them, we'll have to carve our way through them, and from what Vanion tells me they don't carve very well. Kring's tactics are working well enough now, but when we get closer to Cyrga \u2013' He spread his hands helplessly.\n\n'We'll work something out,' Ulath said. 'Anything else?'\n\n'It's still sort of up in the air, Sir Ulath,' Itagne replied. 'The fairy-stories Stragen and Caalador are hatching in Beresa are diverting most of the Cynesgan cavalry away from the eastern border. Half of them are running south toward the coast around Kaftal, and the other half are running north toward a little village called Zhubay. Caalador added an imaginary massing of the Atans up there to Stragen's illusory fleet off the southern coast. Between them, they've split the entire Cynesgan army in two and sent them off to chase moonbeams.'\n\n'You say that half of them are going north?' Tynian asked innocently.\n\n'Toward Zhubay, yes. They seem to think the Atans are massing there for some reason.'\n\n'What an amazing thing,' Ulath said with a straight face. 'It just so happens that Tynian and I have been sort of drifting in that general direction anyway. Do you think the Cynesgans would be _too_ disappointed if they came up against Trolls instead of Atans?'\n\n'You could go up there and ask them, I suppose,' Itagne replied, also with no hint of a smile. They all knew what was going to happen at Zhubay.\n\n'Convey our apologies to them, Ulath-Knight,' Betuana said with a sad little smile.\n\n'Oh, we _will,_ your Majesty,' Ulath assured her. 'If we can find any of them still in one piece after they've frolicked around with the Trolls for a couple of hours.'\n\n'Get out of there!' Kalten shouted, galloping his horse toward the dog-like creatures clustered around something lying on the gravel floor of the desert. The beasts scampered away, hooting with soulless laughter.\n\n'Are they dogs?' Talen asked in a sick voice.\n\n'No,' Mirtai replied shortly. 'Hyenas.'\n\nKalten rode back. 'It's a man,' he reported bleakly, 'or what's left of one.'\n\n'We must bury him,' Bevier said.\n\n'They'd only dig him up again,' Sparhawk told him. 'Besides,' he added, 'if you start trying to bury them all, we'll be here for several lifetimes.' He gestured at the bone-littered plain stretching off to the low range of black mountains lying to the west. He looked at Xanetia. 'It was a mistake to bring you along, Anarae,' he apologized. 'This is going to get worse before it gets any better.'\n\n'It was not unexpected, Anakha,' she replied.\n\nKalten looked up at the flock of vultures circling overhead. 'Filthy brutes,' he muttered.\n\nSparhawk raised up in his stirrups to peer on ahead. 'We've got a couple more hours until the sun goes down, but maybe we'd better pull back a mile or two and set up camp a little early. We'll have to spend _one_ night out there. Let's not spend two.'\n\n'We need those pillars for landmarks anyway,' Talen added, 'and they're a lot brighter when the sun first comes up.'\n\n'That's _if_ that bright spot we've been following really comes from those pillars,' Kalten said dubiously.\n\n'They got us here, didn't they? This _has_ to be what Ogerajin called \"the Plain of Bones\", doesn't it? I had my own doubts at first. Ogerajin was raving so much of the time that I was sure that he'd garbled at least some of the directions, but he hasn't led us astray yet.'\n\n'We still haven't seen the city, Talen,' Kalten reminded him, 'so I'd sort of hold off on composing the letter of thanks.'\n\n'I've got all the money I'll ever need, Orden,' Krager said expansively, leaning back in his chair and looking out through the window at the buildings and the harbor of the port city of Delo. He took another drink of wine.\n\n'I wouldn't go around announcing that, Krager,' the burly Orden advised. 'Particularly not here on the waterfront.'\n\n'I've hired some bodyguards, Orden. Can you ask around and find out if there's a fast ship leaving for Zenga in Cammoria in the next week or so?'\n\n'Why would anybody want to go to Zenga?'\n\n'I grew up there, and I'm homesick,' Krager replied with a shrug. 'Besides, I'd sort of like to grind a few faces \u2013 all the people who said that I'd come to no good end while I was growing up.'\n\n'Did you happen to come across a fellow named Ezek while you were in Natayos?' Orden asked. 'I think he's a Deiran.'\n\n'The name rings a bell. I think he was working for the fellow who ran the tavern.'\n\n'I sent him down there,' Orden explained, 'him and the other two \u2013 Col and Shallag. They were going to see if they could join Narstil's band of outlaws.'\n\n'They may have, but they were working in the tavern when I left.'\n\n'It's none of my business, but if you were doing so well in Natayos, why did you leave?'\n\n'Instincts, Orden,' Krager replied owlishly. I get this cold little feeling at the base of my skull, and I know that it's time to run. Have you ever heard of a man named Sparhawk?'\n\n'You mean Prince Sparhawk? Everybody's heard of him. He's got quite a reputation.'\n\n'Oh, yes. That he does. Anyway, Sparhawk's been looking for an opportunity to kill me for twenty years or so, and that's the sort of thing that puts a very fine edge on a man's instincts.' Krager took another long drink.\n\n'You might want to give some thought to drying out for a while,' Orden advised, looking meaningfully at Krager's tankard of Arcian red. 'I run a tavern, and I've learned to recognize the signs. Your liver's starting to go on you, my friend. Your eyeballs are turning yellow.'\n\n'I'll cut down once I get out to sea.'\n\n'I think you'll have to do more than just cut down, Krager. You're going to have to give it up entirely if you want to go on living. Believe me, you _don't_ want to die the way most drunkards do. I knew one once who screamed for three straight weeks before he finally died. It was awful.'\n\n'There's nothing wrong with my liver,' Krager said truculently. 'It's just the funny light in here. When I get out to sea, I'll space out my drinks. I'll be all right.' His face had a haunted expression, however, and the mere mention of giving up strong drink had set his hands to trembling violently.\n\nOrden shrugged. He _had_ tried to warn the man. 'It's up to you, Krager,' he said. 'I'll ask around and see if I can find a ship that'll get you out of Prince Sparhawk's reach.'\n\n'Soon, Orden. Soon.' Krager held out his tankard. 'In the meantime, why don't we have another?'\n\nEkrasios and his party of Delphae reached Norenja late in the afternoon on a murky day when heavy clouds hung low over the treetops and there was not a breath of air moving. Ekrasios took his boyhood friend, Adras, and crept forward through the tangle of brush and vines to the edge of the clearing to survey the ruin.\n\n'Thinkest thou that they will offer resistance?' Adras asked quietly.\n\n'That is difficult to predict,' Ekrasios replied. 'Anakha and his companions have advised that these rebels are poorly trained. Methinks their response to our sudden appearance will depend on the character of their officers. Better that we leave them a clear path to the surrounding forest. Should we encircle them, desperation will impel them to fight.'\n\nAdras nodded. 'They have made some effort to repair the gates,' he said, pointing at the entrance to the city.\n\n'The gates will pose no problem. I will instruct thee and our companions in the spell which doth modify the curse of Edaemus. Those newly-made gates are constructed of wood, and wood is as susceptible to decay as is flesh.' He looked up at the dirty grey clouds. 'Canst thou make any estimate as to the time of day?'\n\n'No more than two hours until dusk,' Adras replied.\n\n'Let us proceed then. We must find yet another gate to provide means of escape for those whom we would confront this night.'\n\n'And if there be none other?'\n\n'Then those who would escape must find their own way. I am reluctant to unleash the full force of the curse of Edaemus. Should necessity compel me to it, however, I will not shrink from that stern duty. Should they flee, well and good. Should they choose to stay and fight, we will do what we must. I do assure thee, Adras, that when tomorrow's sun rises, none living shall remain within the walls of Norenja.'\n\n'Good God!' Berit exclaimed, peering over the edge of the dry gully at the huge soldiers in close-fitting armor running westward across the sun-baked gravel. 'They're _monsters!'_\n\n'Keep your voice down,' Khalad cautioned. 'There's no way of knowing how good their ears are.'\n\nThe strange, bestial soldiers were larger than Atans, and their burnished steel breastplates fit their torsos snugly, outlining each muscle. They wore helmets adorned with fanciful horns or wings, and the visors of those helmets were individualized, evidently forged to fit each warrior's face. They ran westward in a sort of ragged formation, and their hoarse gasping was clearly audible even at this distance.\n\n'Where are they going?' Berit demanded. 'The border's off in the other direction.'\n\n'That one who's trailing along behind the others has a broken-off javelin sticking out of him,' Khalad replied. 'I'd say that means that they've come up against Tikume's Peloi. They've already been to the border, and now they're coming back.'\n\n'Back to where?' Berit was baffled. 'Where can they go? They can't breathe here.'\n\nKhalad cautiously poked his head above the rim of the gully and squinted out across the rocky desert. 'They seem to be going toward that cluster of hills about a mile to the west.' He paused. 'Just how curious are we feeling today, Berit?'\n\n'What have you got in mind?'\n\n'This gully comes down out of those hills, and if we follow it and keep our heads down, they won't see us. Why don't we drift off toward the west? I've got a strong feeling that we might find out something important if we tag along behind those fellows.'\n\nBerit shrugged. 'Why not?'\n\n'That's really not a very logical answer, Berit. I can think of a half-dozen reasons why not.' Khalad squinted at the panting soldiers lurching across the desert. 'Let's do it anyway, though. For some reason, I think we should.'\n\nThey slid back down into the gully and led their horses along the dry watercourse toward the west.\n\nThey moved quietly along the bottom of the wash for about a quarter of an hour. 'Are they still out there?' Berit whispered.\n\n'I'll look.' Khalad carefully climbed back up the steep bank to the rim of the gully and eased his head up far enough to look. Then he slid back down again. 'They're still staggering toward the hills,' he reported. 'This gully starts getting shallower on up ahead. Let's leave the horses here.'\n\nThey crept along, crouched over to stay out of sight, and as the gully started to run uphill, they found that they were forced to crawl on their hands and knees.\n\nKhalad raised up slightly to look again. 'They seem to be swinging around behind that other hill,' he said quietly. 'Let's slip up to the top of this ridge and see what's back there.'\n\nThe two of them crawled out of the now-shallow wash and slanted their way up to the ridge-line to a point from which they could see what lay behind the hill Khalad had pointed out.\n\nIt was a kind of shallow basin nestled down among the three hills that heaved up out of the surrounding desert. The basin was empty. 'Where did they go?' Berit whispered.\n\n'That basin was the place they were making for,' Khalad insisted with a puzzled frown. 'Wait. Here comes that one with the javelin in his belly.'\n\nThey watched the wounded soldier stumble into the basin, half-falling and rising again to drag himself along. He raised his masked face and bellowed something.\n\nKhalad and Berit waited tensely.\n\nThen two other soldiers emerged from a narrow opening in the side of one of the hills, descended to the floor of the basin, and half-dragged their injured comrade back up the hill and on into the mouth of the cave.\n\n'That answers that,' Khalad said. \"They ran across miles of open desert to get to that cave.'\n\n'Why? What good will it do them?'\n\n'I haven't got a clue, Berit, but I still think it's important.' Khalad stood up. 'Let's go back to where we left the horses. We can still cover a few more miles before the sun goes down.'\n\nEkrasios crouched at the edge of the forest waiting for the torches inside the walls of Norenja to burn down and for the sounds of human activity to subside. The events at Panem-Dea had confirmed the assessment of these rebels Lord Vanion had given him at Sarna. Given the slightest opportunity, these poorly-trained soldiers would flee, and that suited Ekrasios very well. He was still somewhat reluctant to unleash the curse of Edaemus, and people who ran away did not have to be destroyed.\n\nAdras returned, ghosting back to the edge of the jungle through the night mist. 'All is in readiness, Ekrasios,' he reported quietly. 'The gates will crumble at the merest touch.'\n\n'Let us then proceed,' Ekrasios replied, standing up and relaxing the rigid control that dimmed his inner light. 'Let us pray that all within yon walls may flee.'\n\n'And if they do not?'\n\n'Then they must surely die. Our promise to Anakha binds us. We _will_ empty yon ruin \u2013 in one fashion or the other.'\n\n'It's not so bad here,' Kalten said as they dismounted. 'The bones are older, for one thing,' Necessity had compelled them to camp in the hideous boneyard the previous night, and they were all eager to reach the end of the horror.\n\nSparhawk grunted, looking across the intervening stretch of desert at the fractured basalt cliff that seemed to mark the eastern edge of the Forbidden Mountains. The sun had just come up above the eastern horizon, and its brilliant light reflected back from the pair of quartz-laced peaks rearing up out of the rusty black mountains just to the west.\n\n'Why are we stopping here?' Mirtai asked. That cliff's still a quarter of a mile away.'\n\n'I think we're supposed to line up on those two peaks,' Sparhawk replied. 'Talen, can you remember Ogerajin's exact words?'\n\n'Let's see.' The boy frowned in concentration. Then he nodded shortly. 'I've got it now,' he said.\n\n'How do you do that?' Bevier asked him curiously.\n\nTalen shrugged. 'There's a trick to it. You don't think about the words. You just concentrate on where you were when you heard them.' He lifted his face slightly, closed his eyes, and began to recite. 'Beyond the Plain of Bones wilt thou come to the Gates of Illusion behind which lies concealed the Hidden City of Cyrga. The eye of mortal man cannot perceive those gates. Stark they stand as a fractured wall at the verge of the Forbidden Mountains to bar thy way. Bend thine eye, however, upon Cyrgon's two white pillars and direct thy steps toward the emptiness which doth lie between them. Trust not the evidence which thine eye doth present unto thee, for the solid-seeming wall is as mist and will not bar thy way.'\n\n'That didn't even sound like your own voice,' Bevier said.\n\n'That's part of the trick,' Talen explained. 'That was Ogerajin's voice \u2013 sort of.'\n\n'All right then,' Sparhawk said. 'Let's see if he really knew what he was talking about.' He squinted at the two brilliant points of reflected light. 'There are the pillars,' He took a few steps to the right and shook his head. 'From here they merge into one light.' Then he walked to the left. 'It does the same thing here.' Then he went back to his original location. 'This is the spot,' he said with a certain amount of excitement. 'Those two peaks are very close together. If you move a few feet either way, you can't even see that gap between them. Unless you're really looking for it, you could miss it altogether.'\n\n'Oh, that's just fine, Talen,' Kalten said sarcastically. 'If we go any closer, the cliff will block off our view of the peaks.'\n\nTalen rolled his eyes upward.\n\n'What?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Just start walking toward the cliff, Kalten. Sparhawk can stand here and keep his eyes on the gap. He'll tell you whether to go to the right or the left.'\n\n'Oh.' Kalten looked around at the others. 'Don't make an issue of it,' he told them. Then he started off toward the cliff.\n\n'Veer to the right,' Sparhawk told him.\n\nKalten nodded and changed direction.\n\n'Too far. Back to the left a little.'\n\nThe blond Pandion continued toward the cliff, altering his direction in response to Sparhawk's shouted commands. When he reached the cliff, he went along slapping his hands on the face of the rock. Then he drew his heavy dagger, stuck it into the ground, and started back.\n\n'Well?' Sparhawk called when he had covered half the distance.\n\n'Ogerajin didn't know what he was talking about,' Kalten shouted.\n\nSparhawk swore.\n\n'Do you mean there's no opening?' Talen called.\n\n'Oh, the opening's there all right,' Kalten replied, 'but it's at least five feet to the left of where your crazy man said it would be.'\n\n# _Chapter 26_\n\n'Please don't do that, Talen,' Bevier said. 'Either go all the way in or stay outside. It's very disturbing to see the bottom half of you sticking out of solid rock that way.'\n\n'It's not solid, Bevier.' The boy stuck his hand into the rock and pulled it out again to demonstrate.\n\n'Well, it _looks_ solid. Please Talen, in or out. Don't hover in between.'\n\n'Can you feel anything at all when you poke your head through?' Mirtai asked.\n\n'It's a little cooler in there,' Talen replied. 'It's a sort of cave or tunnel. There's light at the far end.'\n\n'Can we get the horses through?' Sparhawk asked.\n\nTalen nodded. 'It's big enough for that \u2013 if we go through in single file. I guess Cyrgon wanted to keep down the chances of anybody accidentally discovering the opening.'\n\n'You'd better let me go first,' Sparhawk said. 'There might be guards at the other end.'\n\n'I'll be right behind you,' Kalten said, retrieving his dagger and drawing his sword.\n\n\"Tis a most clever illusion,' Xanetia observed, touching the rock face on the left of the gate. 'Seamless and indistinguishable from reality.'\n\n'It's been good enough to hide Cyrga for ten thousand years, I guess,' Talen said.\n\n'Let's go in,' Sparhawk said. I want to have a look at this place.'\n\nThere was difficulty with the horses, of course. No matter how reasonably one explains something to a horse, he will not willingly walk into a stone wall. Bevier solved the problem by wrapping cloth around their heads, and, with Sparhawk in the lead, the party led their mounts into the tunnel.\n\nIt was perhaps a hundred feet long, and since the opening at the far end was still in shade, the light from it was not blinding. 'Hold my horse,' Sparhawk muttered to Kalten. Then, his sword held low, he moved quietly toward the opening. When he reached it, he tensed himself and then stepped through quickly, whirling to fend off an attack from either side.\n\n'Anything?' Kalten demanded in a hoarse whisper.\n\n'No. There's nobody here.'\n\nThe rest of them cautiously led their horses out of the tunnel.\n\nThey had emerged into a tree-shaded swale carpeted with winter-dry grass and dotted with white stone markers. 'The Glen of Heroes,' Talen murmured.\n\n'What?' Kalten asked.\n\n'That's what Ogerajin called it. I guess it sounds nicer than \"graveyard\". The Cyrgai seem to treat their own dead a little better than they do the slaves.'\n\nSparhawk looked across the extensive cemetery. He pointed to the western side where a slight rise marked the edge of the burial ground. 'Let's go,' he told his friends. I want to see just exactly what we're up against.'\n\nThey crossed the cemetery to the bottom of the rise, tied their horses to the trees growing there and carefully crept to the top.\n\nThe basin was significantly lower than the floor of the surrounding desert, and there was a fair-sized lake nestled in the center, dark and unreflective in the morning shadows. The lake was surrounded by winter-fallow fields, and a forest of dark trees stretched up the slopes of the basin. There was a sort of rigid tidiness about it all, as if nature itself had been coerced into straight lines and precise angles. Centuries of brutal labor had been devoted to hammering what might have been a place of beauty into a stern reflection of the mind of Cyrgon himself.\n\nThe hidden valley was perhaps five miles across, and on the far side stood the city that had remained concealed for ten eons. The surrounding mountains had provided the building materials, and the city wall and the buildings within were constructed of that same brownish-black volcanic basalt. The exterior walls were high and massive, and a steep, cone-like hill, its sides thickly covered with buildings, rose inside those walls. Surmounting that hill was yet another walled enclosure with black spires rising on one side and, in startling contrast to the rest of the city, white spires on the other.\n\n'It's not particularly creative,' Bevier observed critically. The architect doesn't seem to have had much imagination.'\n\n'Imagination is not a trait encouraged amongst the Cyrgai, Sir Knight,' Xanetia told him.\n\n'We could swing around the sides of the basin and get closer,' Kalten suggested. 'The trees would hide us. The ground around the lake doesn't offer much concealment.'\n\n'We've got some time,' Sparhawk said. 'Let's get away from the mouth of this tunnel. If it's the only way in or out of the valley, there's bound to be traffic going through here. I can see people working in those fields down there \u2013 slaves, most likely. There'll be Cyrgai watching them, and there may be patrols as well. Let's see if we can pick up some kind of routine before we blunder into anything.'\n\nBerit and Khalad made a dry camp in another cluster of jumbled boulders two days west of the place where they had seen the strange soldiers. They watered their horses sparingly, built no fire, and ate cold rations. Khalad spoke very little, but sat instead staring moodily out at the desert.\n\n'Quit worrying at it, Khalad,' Berit told him.\n\n'It's right in front of my face, Berit. I know it is, but I just can't put my finger on it.'\n\n'Do you want to talk it out? Neither one of us is going to get any sleep if you spend the whole night wrestling with it.'\n\n'I can brood quietly.'\n\n'No, actually you can't. We've been together too long, my friend. I can hear you thinking.'\n\nKhalad smiled faintly. 'It has to do with those creatures,' he said.\n\n'Really? I never would have guessed. That's all you've been thinking about for the past two days. What did you want to know about them \u2013 aside from the fact that they're big, ugly, savage, and they've got yellow blood?'\n\nThat's the part that's nagging at me \u2013 that yellow blood. Aphrael says that it's because they breathe with their livers. They do that because what they're used to breathing isn't air. They can get along here for a little while, but when they start exerting themselves, they start to fall apart. The ones we saw the other day weren't just running around aimlessly out there in the desert. They had a specific destination in mind.'\n\n'That cave? You think it might be a haven for them?'\n\n_'Now_ we're starting to get somewhere,' Khalad said, his face growing intent. The Peloi are probably the best light cavalry in the world, but Kl\u00e6l's soldiers are almost as big as Trolls, and they seem to be able to ignore wounds that would kill one of us. I don't think they're running from the Peloi.'\n\n'No. They're trying to run away from the air.'\n\nKhalad snapped his fingers. _'That's it!'_ he exclaimed. _'That's_ why they break off and run back to those caves. They aren't hiding from the Peloi. They're hiding from the air.'\n\n'Air is air, Khalad \u2013 whether it's out in the open or inside a cave.'\n\n'I don't think so, Berit. I think Kl\u00e6l has filled that cave with the kind of air his soldiers are used to breathing. He can't change all the air on the whole world, because it would kill the Cyrgai as well as all the rest of us, and Cyrgon won't let him do that. He _can_ fill the cave with that other kind of air, though. It'd be the perfect place. It's closed-in and more or less air-tight. It gives those monsters a place to go when they start to get winded. They can rest up in there and then come back out and fight some more. You'd better pass this on, Berit. Aphrael can let the others know that Kl\u00e6l's soldiers are hiding out in caves because they can breathe there.'\n\n'I'll tell her,' Berit said dubiously. 'I'm not sure what good it's going to do us, but I'll tell her.'\n\nKhalad leaned back on his elbows with a broad grin. 'You're not thinking, Berit. If something's giving you problems, and it's hiding out in a cave, you don't have to go in after it. All you have to do is collapse the entrance. Once it's trapped inside, you can forget about it. Why don't you pass this on to Aphrael? Suggest that she tell the others to collapse every cave they come across. She won't even have to do it herself.' Then he frowned again.\n\n'What's wrong now?'\n\n'That was too easy,' Khalad told him, 'and it doesn't really help all that much. As big as those beasts are, you could collapse a whole mountain on them, and they could still dig their way out. There's something else that hasn't quite come together yet.' He held up one hand. 'I'll get it,' he promised. 'I'll get it if it takes me all night.'\n\nBerit groaned.\n\n* * *\n\n'I have decided to go with you, Bergsten-Priest,' Atana Maris replied haltingly in heavily accented Elenic. She had come up from behind their column when they were five days south of Cynestra.\n\nBergsten suppressed an oath. 'We're an army on the move, Atana Maris,' he tried to explain diplomatically. 'We wouldn't be able to make suitable arrangements for your comfort or safety when we stop for the night.'\n\n'Arrangements?' She looked at Neran, the translator, with a puzzled expression.\n\nNeran spoke at some length in Tamul, and the tall girl burst out laughing.\n\n'What's so funny, Atana?' Bergsten asked suspiciously.\n\n'That you would worry about _that,_ Bergsten-Priest. I am a soldier. I can defend myself against any of your men who admire me too much.'\n\n'Why have you decided to come along with us, Atana Maris?' Heldin stepped in.\n\n'I had a thought after you left Cynestra, Heldin-Knight,' she replied. 'It has been in my mind to go find Itagne-Ambassador for much weeks now. You are going to the place where he will be, so I will go with you.'\n\n'We could carry a message to him for you, Atana. You don't really have to go along.'\n\nShe shook her head. 'No, Heldin-Knight. It is a personal matter between Itagne-Ambassador and me. He was friendly to me when he was in Cynestra. Then he had to go away, but he said to me that he would write letters to me. He did not do that. Now I must go find him to make sure that he is well.' Her eyes went hard. 'If he _is_ well, I must know if he does not want to be friendly to me any more.' She sighed. 'I hope much that his feelings have not changed. I would not want to have to kill him.'\n\n* * *\n\n'I want no part of this,' Gahennas said abruptly, standing up and giving the rest of them a reproving look. 'I was willing to join with you if it meant tweaking Cieronna's nose, but I'm not going to involve myself in treason.'\n\n'Who said anything about treason, Gahennas?' Chacole asked her. 'There won't be any _real_ danger to our husband. We're just going to make it _appear_ that there's a plot against him \u2013 and we're going to plant enough evidence to lay the plot at Cieronna's door. If something _were_ to happen to Sarabian, the Crown Prince would be elevated to the imperial throne, and Cieronna would be regent. We'll expose her plot before anything really happens, and she'll be totally discredited \u2013 probably imprisoned \u2013 and we won't have to kow-tow to her any more.'\n\n'I don't care what you say, Chacole,' the jug-eared Tegan Empress declared flatly. 'You're putting something in motion that's treasonous, and I won't be a party to it. I'm going to keep an eye on you, Chacole. Dismiss your spies and drop this wild scheme at once, because if you don't \u2013' Gahennas left it hanging ominously in the air as she turned on her heel and stalked away.\n\n'That was very clumsy, Chacole,' Elysoun drawled, carefully selecting a piece of fruit from the silver platter on the table. 'She might have gone along if you hadn't gone into such detail. She didn't _have_ to know that you were actually going to send out your assassins. You weren't really sure of her yet, and you went too fast.'\n\n'I'm running out of time, Elysoun.' Chacole's tone was desperate.\n\n'I don't see the need for all this urgency,' Elysoun replied, 'and how much time did you save today? That Tegan hag's going to be watching your every move now. You blundered, Chacole. Now you're going to have to kill her.'\n\n_'Kill?'_ Chacole's face went white.\n\n'Unless you don't mind losing your head. One word from Gahennas can send you to the block. You aren't really cut out for men's politics, dear. You talk too much.' Elysoun rose lazily to her feet. 'We can discuss this later,' she said. 'I have an enthusiastic young guardsman waiting for me, and I wouldn't want him to cool off.' She sauntered away.\n\nElysoun's casual attitude concealed a great deal _of_ urgency. Chacole's Cynesgan upbringing had made her painfully obvious. She had drawn on the hatred of Sarabian's other wives for Empress Cieronna. That part was clever enough, but the elaborate, involved story of staging an imitation assassination-attempt was ridiculously excessive. Very clearly the attempt was _not_ designed to fail, as Chacole and Torellia so piously proclaimed. Elysoun began to walk faster. She had to get to her husband in order to warn him that his life was in immediate danger.\n\n'Xanetia!' Kalten said, starting back in surprise as the Anarae suddenly appeared in their midst that evening. 'Can't you cough or something before you do that?'\n\n'It was not mine intent to startle thee, my protector,' she apologized.\n\n'My nerves are strung a little tight right now,' he said.\n\n'Did you have any luck?' Mirtai asked.\n\n'I gleaned much, Atana Mirtai.' Xanetia paused, collecting her thoughts. 'The slaves are not closely watched,' she began, 'and their supervision is given over to Cynesgan overseers, for such menial tasks are beneath the dignity of the Cyrgai. The desert itself doth confine the slaves. Those foolish enough to attempt escape inevitably perish in that barren waste.'\n\n'What's the customary routine, Anarae?' Bevier asked her.\n\n'The slaves emerge from their pens at dawn,' she replied, 'and, unbidden and unguarded, leave the city to take up their tasks. Then, at sunset, still uncommanded and scarce noticed, they return to the city and to the slave-pens for feeding. They are then chained and locked in their pens for the night to be released again at first light of day.'\n\n'Some of them are up here in these woods,' Mirtai noted, peering out through the trees that concealed them. 'What are they supposed to be doing?'\n\n'They cut firewood for their masters in this extensive forest. The Cyrgai warm themselves with fires in the chill of winter. The kenneled slaves must endure the weather.'\n\n'Were you able to get any sense of how the city's laid out, Anarae?' Bevier asked her.\n\n'Some, Sir Knight.' She beckoned them to the edge of the trees so that they could look across the valley at the black-walled city. 'The Cyrgai themselves live on the slopes of the hill which doth rise within the walls,' she explained, 'and they do hold themselves aloof from the more mundane portion of the city below. There is yet another wall within the outer one, and that inner wall doth protect Cyrgon's Chosen from contact with inferior races. The lower city doth contain the slave-pens, the warehouses for foodstuffs, and the barracks of the Cynesgans who oversee the slaves and man the outer wall. As thou canst see, there is yet that final wall which doth enclose the summit of the hill. Within _that_ ultimate wall lieth the palace of King Santheocles and the temple of Cyrgon.'\n\nBevier nodded. 'It's fairly standard for a fortified town then.'\n\n'If thou wert aware of all this, why didst thou ask, Sir Knight?' she asked tartly.\n\n'Confirmation, dear lady,' he replied, smiling. 'The city's ten thousand years old. They might have had different ideas about how to build a fort before the invention of modern weapons.' He squinted across the valley at walled Cyrga. 'They're obviously willing to sacrifice the lower city,' he said. 'Otherwise that outer wall would be defended by Cyrgai. The fact that they've turned that chore over to the Cynesgans means that they don't place much value on those warehouses and slave-pens. The wall at the foot of \"Mount Cyrgon\" will be more fiercely defended, and if necessary, they'll pull back up the hill to that last wall that encloses the palace and the temple.'\n\n'All of this is well and good, Bevier,' Kalten interrupted him, 'but where are Ehlana and Alean?'\n\nBevier gave him a surprised look. 'Up on top, of course,' he replied, 'either in the palace or in the temple.'\n\n'How did you arrive at that?'\n\n'They're hostages, Kalten. When you're holding hostages, you have to keep them close enough to threaten them when your enemies get too close. _Our_ problem is how to get into the city.'\n\n'We'll come up with something,' Sparhawk said confidently. 'Let's go back into the woods a ways and set up for the night.'\n\nThey moved back among the trees and ate cold rations, since a fire was out of the question.\n\n'The problem's still there, Sparhawk,' Kalten said as evening settled over the hidden valley. 'How are we going to get inside all those walls?'\n\nThe first wall's easy,' Talen said. 'We just walk in through the gate.'\n\n'How do you propose to do that without being challenged?' Kalten demanded.\n\n'People walk out of the city every morning and back again every evening, don't they?'\n\n'Those are slaves.'\n\n'Exactly.'\n\nKalten stared at him.\n\n'We want to get into the city, don't we? That's the easiest way.'\n\n'What about the other walls?' Bevier objected.\n\n'One wall at a time, Sir Knight,' Talen said gaily, 'one wall at a time. Let's get through the outer one first. _Then_ we'll worry about the other two.'\n\nDaiya the Peloi came riding hard back across the gravelly desert about mid-morning the next day. 'We've found them, your Reverence,' he reported to Bergsten as he reined in. 'The Cynesgan cavalry tried to lead us away from where they're hiding, but we found them anyway. They're in those hills just ahead of us.'\n\n'More of those big ones with masks on their faces?' Heldin asked.\n\n'Some of those, friend Heldin,' Daiya replied. 'But there are others as well \u2013 wearing old-fashioned helmets and carrying spears.'\n\n'Cyrgai,' Bergsten grunted. 'Vanion mentioned them. Their tactics are so archaic that they won't be much of a problem.'\n\n'Where exactly are they, friend Daiya?' Heldin asked.\n\n'They're in a large canyon on the east side of those hills, friend Heldin. My scouts saw them from the canyon-rim.'\n\n'We definitely don't want to go into that canyon after them, your Grace,' Heldin cautioned. 'They're infantry, and close quarters are made to order for their tactics. We'll have to devise some way to get them to come out into the open.'\n\nAtana Maris asked Neran a question in Tamul, and he replied at some length. She nodded, spoke briefly to him, and then she ran off toward the south.\n\n'Where's she going?' Bergsten demanded.\n\n'She said that your enemies have laid a trap for you, your Grace,' Neran replied with a shrug. 'She's going to go spring it.'\n\n'Stop her, Heldin!' Bergsten said sharply.\n\nIt must be said in Sir Heldin's defense that he _did_ try to catch up to the lithe, fleet-footed Atan girl, but she merely glanced back over her shoulder, laughed, and ran even faster, leaving him far behind, flogging at his horse and muttering curses.\n\nBergsten's curses were _not_ muttered. He blistered the air around him. 'What is she _doing?'_ he demanded of Neran.\n\n'They're planning an ambush, your Grace,' Neran replied calmly. 'It won't work if somebody sees them hiding in that canyon. Atana Maris is going to run into the canyon, let them see her, and then run out again. They'll have to try to catch her. That'll bring them out into the open. You might want to give some thought to picking up your pace just a bit. She'll be terribly disappointed in you if you're not in position when she leads them out.'\n\nPatriarch Bergsten looked out across the desert at the golden Atana running smoothly to the south with her long black hair flying behind her. Then he swore again, rose up in his stirrups, and bellowed, 'Charge!'\n\nEkrasios and his comrades reached Synaqua late in the afternoon just as the sun broke through the heavy cloud-cover which had obscured the sky for the past several days.\n\nThe ruins of Synaqua were in much greater disrepair than had been the case with Panem-Dea and Norenja. The entire east wall had been undercut by one of the numerous streams which flowed sluggishly through the soggy delta of the Arjun River, and it had collapsed at some unknown time in the past. When Scarpa's rebels had moved in to occupy the ruin, they had replaced it with a log palisade. The construction was shoddy, and the palisade was not particularly imposing.\n\nEkrasios considered that as he sat alone moodily watching the sun sinking into a cloud-bank off to the west. A serious problem had arisen following their disastrous assault on Norenja. It had _seemed_ that there were many gates through which the panic-stricken rebels could flee, but their commander had blocked off those gates with heaps of rubble as a part of his defenses. The terrified soldiers had been trapped inside the walls, and had therefore had no choice but to turn and fight. Hundreds had died in unspeakable agony before Ekrasios had been able to divert his men into the uninhabited parts of the ruin so that the escape-route through the main gate was open. Many of the Delphae had wept openly at the horror they had been forced to inflict on men who were essentially no more than misguided peasants. It had taken Ekrasios two days and all of his eloquence to keep half his men from abandoning the cause and returning immediately to Delphaeus.\n\nAdras, Ekrasios' boyhood friend and his second-in-command, was among the most profoundly disturbed. Adras now avoided his leader whenever possible, and the few communications that passed between them were abrupt and official. And so it was that Ekrasios was somewhat surprised when Adras came to him unsummoned in the ruddy glow of that fiery sunset.\n\n'A word with thee, Ekrasios,' he asked tentatively.\n\n'Of course, Adras. Thou knowest that it is not needful for thee to ask.'\n\n'I must advise thee that I will not participate in this night's work.'\n\n'We are bound by our pledge to Anakha, Adras,' Ekrasios reminded him. 'Our Anari hath sworn to this, and we are obliged to honor his oath.'\n\n'I cannot, Ekrasios!' Adras cried, sudden tears streaming down his face. 'I cannot _bear_ what I have done and must do again should I enter yon city. Surely Edaemus did not intend for us to so use his dreadful gift.'\n\nThere were a dozen arguments Ekrasios might have raised, but he knew in his heart that they were all spurious. 'I will not insist, Adras. That would not be the act of a friend.' He sighed. 'I am no less unquiet than thou, I do confess. We are not suited for war, Adras, and the curse of Edaemus makes _our_ way of making war more horrible than the casual bloodletting of other races, and, since we are not fiends, the horror doth tear at our souls.' He paused. 'Thou art not alone in this resolve, art thou, Adras? There are others as well, are there not?'\n\nAdras nodded mutely.\n\n'How many?'\n\n'Close to a hundred and fifty, my friend.'\n\nEkrasios was shaken. Nearly a third of his force had quite literally defected. 'You trouble me, Adras,' he said. I _will_ not command thee to forswear the dictates of thy conscience, but thine absence and that of they who feel similarly constrained do raise doubts about our possible success this night. Let me think on't.' He began to pace up and down in the muddy forest clearing, considering various possibilities. 'We may yet salvage some measure of victory this night,' he said finally. 'Let me probe the extent of thy reluctance, my friend. I do concede that thou canst not in conscience enter the ruin which doth lie before us, but wilt thou abandon me utterly?'\n\n'Never, Ekrasios.'\n\n'I thank thee, Adras. Yet mayest thou and thy fellows further our design without injury to thy sensibilities. As we discovered at Norenja, the curse of Edaemus extends its effects to things other than flesh.'\n\n'Truly,' Adras agreed. 'The gates of that mournful ruin did collapse in decay at our merest touch.'\n\n'The east wall of Synaqua is constructed of logs. Might I prevail upon thee and thy fellows to pull it down whilst I and the remainder of our force do enter the city?'\n\nThe mind of Adras was quick. His sudden grin erased the estrangement which had marred their friendship for the past several days. 'Thou wert born to command, Ekrasios,' he said warmly. 'My friends and I will most happily perform this task. Do thou and thy cohorts enter Synaqua by the front gate whilst I and mine do open a huge back gate to the east that they who reside within yon city may freely depart. Both ends are thus served.'\n\n'Well said, Adras,' Ekrasios approved. 'Well said.'\n\n# _Chapter 27_\n\nThey're out of sight now,' Talen hissed. 'Go grab their cart.'\n\nKalten and Sparhawk rose from the bushes, appropriated the half-full wood-cart, and pulled it back out of sight. It was about noon.\n\n'I still think this is a really stupid idea,' Kalten grumbled. 'Assuming that we don't get stopped when we try to go through the gate, how are we going to unload our weapons and mail-shirts without being seen? And how are we going to get out of the slave-pen to pick them up?'\n\n'Trust me.'\n\n'This boy's making me old, Sparhawk,' Kalten complained.\n\n'We might be able to pull it off, Kalten,' Bevier said. 'Xanetia told us that the Cynesgan overseers don't pay much attention to the slaves. Right now, though, we'd better get this cart away from here before the fellows it belongs to come back and find that it's gone.'\n\nThey pulled the wobbly, two-wheeled cart along the narrow track toward the spot where Xanetia and Mirtai were concealed in the bushes. 'Lo,' Mirtai said dryly from her hiding place, 'our heroes return with the spoils of war.'\n\n'I love you, little sister,' Sparhawk retorted, 'but you've got an overly clever mouth. Kalten's got a point, Talen. The Cynesgan overseers themselves might be too stupid to notice what we're doing, but the other slaves probably will, and the first one to open his mouth about it will probably get a lot of attention.'\n\n'I'm a-workin' on that port, Sporhawk,' the boy replied. He dropped to his knees and scrutinized the underside of the cart. 'No problem,' he said confidently, rising and brushing off his bare knees. They had modified the Cynesgan robes they had bought in Vigayo by removing the sleeves and hoods and cutting the tails off just above the knees. The resulting garments now resembled the smocks worn by the slaves who labored in the fields and woods surrounding Cyrga.\n\nWhile the rest of them fanned out through the woods to pilfer firewood from the stacks cut by the slaves, Talen remained behind, working at something on the underside of the cart. They had amassed a sizeable pile by the time he had finished. Sparhawk returned once more with an armload of wood to find the boy just finishing up. 'Do you want to take a look at this, Sparhawk?' he asked from under the cart.\n\nSparhawk knelt to examine the young thief's handiwork. Talen had wedged the ends of slender tree-limbs between the floorboards of the cart and then had woven them into a shallow basket that fit snugly under the bottom of the stolen conveyance. 'Are you sure it won't come apart if we hit a bump?' he asked dubiously. 'It might be a little embarrassing to have all our weapons and our mail-shirts come spilling out just as we're passing through the gate.'\n\n'I'll ride in it myself, if you want,' Talen replied.\n\nSparhawk grunted. 'Tie the swords together so that they won't rattle, and stuff grass in around the mail-shirts to muffle the clinking.'\n\n'Yes, oh glorious leader. And how many other things that I already know did you want to tell me?'\n\n'Just do it, Talen. Don't make clever speeches.'\n\n'I'm not trying to be offensive, Mirtai,' Kalten was saying. 'It's just that your legs are prettier than mine.'\n\nMirtai lifted the bottom of her smock a little and looked critically at her long, golden legs. Then she squinted at Kalten's. 'They are rather, aren't they?'\n\n'What I'm getting at is that they won't be quite as noticeable if you smear some mud on them. I don't think the gate guards are blind, and if one of them sees the dimples on your knees, he'll probably realize that you aren't a man, and he might decide to investigate further.'\n\n'He'd better not,' she replied in a chill tone.\n\n'There are not so many of the dens of the man-things in this place as there were in the place Sopal or the place Arjun,' Bhlokw noted as he and Ulath looked down at the village of Zhubay. It had _seemed_ that they had been travelling for several days, but they all knew better.\n\n'No,' Ulath agreed. 'It is a smaller place with fewer of the man-things.'\n\n'But there are many of the dens-of-cloth on the other side of the water hole,' the Troll added, pointing at the large tent city on the far side of the oasis.\n\n'Those are the ones we hunt,' Ulath told him.\n\n'Are you certain that we are permitted to kill and eat those?' Bhlokw asked. 'You and Tin-in would not let me do that in the place Sopal or the place Arjun or even in the place Nat-os.'\n\n'It is permitted here. We have put bait out to bring them to this place so that we can hunt them for food.'\n\n'What bait do you use to lure the man-things?' Bhlokw asked curiously. 'If the minds of the Gods ever get well again and they let us go back to hunting the man-things, it would be good to know this.'\n\nThe bait is thought, Bhlokw. The man-things in the dens-of-cloth have come to this place because certain of our pack-mates put it in their thought that the tall man-things with the yellow skin will be here. The ones in the dens-of-cloth have come here to fight the tall ones with yellow skin.'\n\nBhlokw's face contorted into a hideous approximation of a grin. 'That is good bait, U-lat,' he said. 'I will summon Ghworg and Ghnomb and tell them that we will go to the hunt now. How many of them may we kill and eat?'\n\n'All, Bhlokw. All.'\n\n'That is not a good thought, U-lat. If we kill and eat them all, they will not breed, and there will not be new ones to hunt in the next season. The good thought is to always let enough run away so that they can breed to keep the numbers of their herd the same. If we eat them all now, there will be none to eat by-and-by.'\n\nUlath considered that as Bhlokw cast the brief Troll-spell that summoned Ghworg and the others. He decided not to make an issue of it. The Trolls were hunters, not warriors, and it would take far too long to explain the concept of total war to them.\n\nBhlokw conferred at some length with the enormous presences of his Gods in the grey light of No-Time, and then he raised his brutish face and bellowed his summons to the rest of the herd.\n\nThe great shaggy mass flowed down the hill toward the village and the forest of tents beyond the oasis in the steely light of frozen time as Ulath and Tynian watched from the hilltop. The Trolls divided, went around the village, and moved in among the Cynesgan tents, fanning out as each of the great beasts selected its prey. Then, evidently at a signal from Bhlokw, the chill light flickered and the sunlight returned.\n\nThere were screams, of course, but that was to be expected. Very few men in the entire world will _not_ scream when a full-grown Troll suddenly steps out of nowhere immediately in front of them.\n\nThe carnage in that vast slaughtering-ground beyond the oasis was ghastly, since the Trolls were bent not on fighting the Cynesgans but on tearing them to pieces in preparation for the feast to follow.\n\n'Some of them are getting away,' Tynian observed, pointing at a sizeable number of panic-stricken Cynesgans desperately flogging their horses southward.\n\nUlath shrugged. 'Breeding stock,' he said.\n\n'What?'\n\n'It's a Trollish concept, Tynian. It's a way to guarantee a continuing food-supply. If the Trolls eat them all today, there won't be any left when supper-time rolls around tomorrow.'\n\nTynian shuddered with revulsion. 'That's a _horrible_ thought, Ulath!' he exclaimed.\n\n'Yes,' Ulath agreed, 'moderately horrible, but one should always respect the customs and traditions of one's allies, wouldn't you say?'\n\nAt the end of a half-hour, the tents were all flattened, the breeding stock had been permitted to escape, and the Trolls settled down to eat. The Cynesgan threat in the north had been effectively eliminated, and now the Trolls were free to join the march on Cyrga.\n\nKhalad sat up suddenly, throwing off his blankets. 'Berit,' he said sharply.\n\nBerit came awake instantly, reaching for his sword.\n\n'No,' Khalad told him. 'It's nothing like that. Do you know what firedamp is?'\n\n'I've never heard of it.' Berit yawned and rubbed at his eyes.\n\n'I'm going to have to talk with Aphrael then \u2013 personally. How long will it take you to teach me the spell?'\n\n'That depends, I guess. Can't you pass what you have to tell her through me?'\n\n'No. I need to ask her some questions, and you wouldn't understand what I'm talking about. I've got to talk with her myself. It's very important, Berit. I don't have to understand the language to just repeat the words, do I?'\n\nBerit frowned. 'I'm not sure. Sephrenia and the Styric who replaced her at Demos wouldn't let us do it that way, because they said we had to think in Styric'\n\n'That could just be _their_ peculiarity, not Aphrael's. Let's try it and find out if I can reach her.'\n\nIt took them almost two hours, and Berit, sandy-eyed and definitely in need of more sleep, began to grow grouchy toward the end.\n\n'I'm going to be mispronouncing words,' Khalad said finally. There's no way I'll ever be able to twist my mouth around to make some of those sounds. Let's try it and see what happens.'\n\n'You'll make her angry,' Berit warned.\n\n'She'll get over it. Here goes.' Khalad began to haltingly pronounce the spell, and his fingers faltered as he moved them in the accompanying gestures.\n\n'What on _earth_ are you doing, Khalad?' Her voice almost crackled in his ears.\n\n'I'm sorry, Flute,' he apologized, 'but this is urgent.'\n\n'Berit's not hurt, is he?' she demanded with a note of concern.\n\n'No. He's fine. It's just that I need to talk with you personally. Do you know what firedamp is?'\n\n'Yes. It sometimes kills coal-miners.'\n\n'You said that Kl\u00e6l's soldiers breathe something like marsh-gas.'\n\n'Yes. Where are we going with this? I'm sort of busy just now.'\n\n'Please be patient, Divine One. I'm still groping my way toward this. Berit told you that we saw some of those aliens run into a cave, didn't he?'\n\n'Yes, but I still don't \u2013'\n\n'I thought that Kl\u00e6l might have filled the cave with marsh-gas so that his soldiers could go there to breathe, but now I'm not so sure. Maybe the gas was already there.'\n\n'Would you _please_ get to the point?'\n\n'Is it possible that firedamp and marsh-gas are anything at all alike?'\n\nShe sighed one of those infuriating long-suffering sighs. 'Very much alike, Khalad \u2013 which sort of stands to reason, since they're the same thing.'\n\n'I _do_ love you, Aphrael,' he said with a delighted laugh.\n\n'What brought that on?'\n\n'I _knew_ there had to be a connection of some kind. This is a desert, and there aren't any swamps here. I couldn't for the life of me figure out where Kl\u00e6l might be getting marsh-gas to fill that cave. But he didn't have to, did he? If marsh-gas is the same thing as firedamp, all he had to do was find a cave with a seam of coal in it.'\n\n'All right, now that I've answered your question and satisfied your scientific curiosity, can I go?'\n\n'In a minute, Divine Aphrael,' he said, rubbing his hands together gleefully. 'Is there some way that you can blow some of _our_ air into that cave so that it'll mix with the firedamp those soldiers are breathing?'\n\nThere was another of those long pauses. 'That's _dreadful,_ Khalad!' she exclaimed.\n\n'And what happened to Lord Abriel and Lord Vanion's knights _wasn't?'_ he demanded. 'This is war, Aphrael, and it's a war we absolutely _have_ to win. If Kl\u00e6l's soldiers can run into those caves to catch their breath, they'll be coming out and attacking our friends every time we turn around. We have to come up with a way to neutralize them, and I think this is it. Can you take us back to that cave where we saw those soldiers?'\n\n'All right.' Her tone was a little sulky.\n\n'What were you talking with her about?' Berit asked.\n\n'A way to win the war, Berit. Let's gather up our things. Aphrael's going to take us back to that cave.'\n\n'Are they still coming?' Vanion called back to Sir Endrik, who was trailing behind the other knights.\n\n'Yes, my Lord,' Endrik shouted. 'Some of them are starting to fall behind, though.'\n\n'Good. They're beginning to weaken.' Vanion looked out across the rocky barrens lying ahead. 'We've got plenty of room,' he told Sephrenia. 'We'll lead them out onto those flats and run them around for a while.'\n\n'This is cruel, Vanion,' she reproved him.\n\n'They don't _have_ to follow us, love.' He rose up in his stirrups. 'Let's pick up the pace, gentlemen,' he called to his knights. 'I want those monsters to really run.'\n\nThe knights pushed their horses into a gallop and moved out onto the barren flats with a vast, steely jingling sound.\n\n'They're breaking off!' Endrik called from behind after about half an hour.\n\nVanion raised his steel-clad arm to call a halt. Then he reined in and looked back.\n\nThe masked giants had given up their pursuit and were running due west now, staggering toward an outcropping of rocky hills several miles away.\n\n_'That's_ the part that has everybody baffled,' he told Sephrenia. 'From what Aphrael told me, the others have encountered the same thing. Kl\u00e6l's soldiers chase after us for a while, and then they break off and run toward the nearest cluster of hills. What can they possibly hope to find that's going to do them any good?'\n\n'I have no idea, dear one,' she replied.\n\n'This is all very fine, I suppose,' Vanion said with a worried frown, 'but when we begin our final advance on Cyrga, we won't have time to run those brutes into exhaustion. Not only that, Kl\u00e6l will probably start massing them in units larger than these regiments we've been coming across out here in the open. If we don't come up with some way to neutralize them permanently, our chances of getting to Cyrga alive aren't very good.'\n\n'Lord Vanion!' one of the knights cried out in alarm. 'There are more of them coming!'\n\n'Where?' Vanion looked around.\n\n'From the west!'\n\nVanion peered after the fleeing monsters. And then he saw them. There were _two_ regiments of Kl\u00e6l's soldiers out there on the flats. The one they had encountered earlier was reeling and staggering toward the hills jutting up from the horizon. The other was coming toward them _from_ the hills, and the second regiment showed no signs of the exhaustion which had incapacitated their fellows.\n\n'This is ridiculous,' Talen muttered, examining the lock on his chain with sensitive fingertips.\n\n'You said you could unlock them,' Kalten accused in a hoarse whisper.\n\n'Kalten, _you_ could unlock these. They're the worst locks I've ever seen.'\n\n'Just open them, Talen,' Sparhawk told him quietly. 'Don't give lectures. We still have to get out of this pen.'\n\nThey had merged with the other woodcutters and had passed unchallenged through the gates of Cyrga just as the sun was setting. Then they had followed the slaves to an open square near the gate, unloaded their cart onto one of the stacks of wood piled there, and leaned the cart against a rough stone wall with the others. Then, like docile cattle, they had gone into the large slave-pen and allowed the Cynesgan overseers to chain them to rusty iron rings protruding from the rear wall of the pen.\n\nThey had been fed a thin, watery soup and had then bedded down in piles of filthy straw heaped against the wall to wait for nightfall. Xanetia was not with them. Silent and unseen, she roamed the streets outside the pen instead.\n\n'Hold your leg still, Kalten,' Talen hissed. 'I can't get the chain off when you're flopping around like that.'\n\n'Sorry.'\n\nThe boy concentrated for a moment, and the lock snapped open. Then he moved on, crawling through the rustling straw.\n\n'Don't get so familiar,' Mirtai's voice muttered in the darkness.\n\n'Sorry. I was looking for your ankle.'\n\n'It's on the other end of the leg.'\n\n'Yes. I noticed that myself. It's dark, Atana. I can't see what I'm doing.'\n\n'What are you men doing there?' It was a whining, servile kind of voice coming from somewhere in the straw beyond where Kalten lay.\n\n'It's none of your business,' Kalten rasped. 'Go back to sleep.'\n\n'I want to know what you're doing. If you don't tell me, I'll call the overseers.'\n\n'You'd better shut him up, Kalten,' Mirtai muttered. 'He's an informer.'\n\n'I'll deal with it,' Kalten replied darkly. He slipped away through the rustling straw.\n\n'What are you doing?' the slave with the whining voice demanded. 'How did you \u2013' The voice broke off, and there was a sudden thrashing in the straw and a kind of wheezy gurgling.\n\n'What's going on out there?' A harsh voice called from the overseer's barracks. The barracks doorway poured light out into the yard.\n\nThere was no answer, only a few spasmodic rustles in the straw. Kalten was breathing a little hard when he returned to his place, quickly wrapped his chain around his ankle again and covered it with straw.\n\nThey waited tensely, but the Cynesgan overseer evidently decided not to investigate. He went back inside, closing the door behind him and plunging the yard into darkness again.\n\n'Does that happen often \u2013 among slaves, I mean?' Bevier whispered to Mirtai as Talen was unchaining him.\n\n'All the time,' she murmured. 'There's no loyalty among slaves. One slave will betray another for an extra crust of bread.'\n\n'How sad.'\n\n'Slavery? I could find harsher words than sad.'\n\n'Let's go,' Sparhawk told them.\n\n'How are we going to find Xanetia?' Kalten whispered as they crossed the pen.\n\n'We can't. She's going to have to find us.'\n\nIt took Talen only a moment to unlock the gate, and they all slipped out into the dark street beyond. They crept along that street to the large square where the firewood was stacked and stopped before stepping out into the open.\n\n'Take a look, Talen,' Sparhawk suggested.\n\n'Right.' The young thief melted away into the darkness. The rest of them waited tensely.\n\n'It's all clear,' Talen's whisper came to them after a few minutes. 'The carts are over here.'\n\nThey followed the sound of his hushed voice and soon reached the line of wood-carts leaning against the wall.\n\n'Did you see any guards?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Who's going to stay up all night to guard a wood pile?' Talen dropped down onto his stomach and wormed his way under the cart. There was a faint creaking of the tightly-woven limbs of the makeshift basket. 'Here,' Talen said. A sword-tip banged against sparhawk's shin.\n\nSparhawk took the sword, handed it to Kalten and then leaned down. 'Pass them out hilt-first,' he instructed. 'Don't poke me with the sharp end of a sword that way.'\n\n'Sorry.' Talen continued to pass out weapons and then followed them with their mail-shirts and tunics. They all felt better once they were armed again.\n\n'Anakha?' The voice was soft and very light.\n\n'Is that you, Xanetia?' Sparhawk realized how foolish the question was almost before it left his lips.\n\n'Verily,' she replied. 'Come away, I prithee. The whisper is the natural voice of stealth, and it doth carry far by night. Let us away ere they who watch this sleeping city come hither in search of the source of our incautious conversation.'\n\n'We're going to have to wait a bit,' Khalad said. 'Aphrael has to blow air into that cave.'\n\n'Are you sure this is going to work?' Berit asked dubiously.\n\n'No, not really, but it's worth a try, isn't it?'\n\n'You don't even know for sure that they're still inside the cave.'\n\n'That doesn't really matter. Either way they won't be able to hide in the cave any more.' Khalad began to carefully wrap a length of oil-soaked rag around one of his crossbow bolts. Then, being careful to conceal the sparks with his body, he began striking his flint and steel together. After a moment, his tinder caught, he lit his stub of a candle, and brushed the fire out of his tinder. Then he carefully put the candle behind a fair-sized rock.\n\n'Aphrael seems to be unhappy about this, Khalad,' Berit said as a chill breeze came up.\n\n'I wasn't too happy about what happened to Lord Abriel either,' Khalad replied bleakly. 'I had a great deal of respect for that old man, and these monsters with yellow blood tore him to pieces.'\n\n'You're doing this for revenge then?'\n\n'No. Not really. This is just the most practical way to get rid of them. Ask Aphrael to let me know when there's enough air in the cave.'\n\n'How long is that likely to take?'\n\n'I have no idea. All the coal-miners who've ever seen it up close are dead.' Khalad scratched at his beard. 'I'm not entirely sure what's going to happen here, Berit. When marsh-gas catches on fire, it just burns off and goes out. Firedamp's a little more spectacular.'\n\n'What's all this business about blowing air into the cave?' Berit demanded.\n\nKhalad shrugged. 'Fire's a living thing. It has to be able to breathe.'\n\n'You're just guessing about this, aren't you? You don't have any idea at all whether or not it's going to work \u2013 or if it does, what's going to happen.'\n\nKhalad gave him a tight grin. 'I've got a good working theory.'\n\n'I think you're insane. You could set the whole desert on fire with this silly experiment of yours.'\n\n'Oh, that probably won't happen.'\n\n_'Probably?'_\n\n'It's very unlikely. I can just make out that cave mouth. Why don't I try it?'\n\n'What happens if you miss?'\n\nKhalad shrugged. 'I'll shoot again.'\n\n'That's not what I meant. I was \u2013' Berit broke off, listening intently. 'Aphrael says that the mixture's right now. You can shoot whenever you're ready.'\n\nKhalad held the point of his crossbow bolt in the candle-flame, turning it slowly to make certain that the oily rag was evenly ablaze. Then he set the burning bolt in place, laid the forestock of his crossbow on a rock, and took careful aim. 'Here goes,' he said, slowly pressing the lever.\n\nThe crossbow gave a ringing thud, and the burning arrow streaked through the darkness and disappeared into the narrow cave mouth.\n\nNothing happened.\n\n'So much for your good working theory,' Berit said sardonically.\n\nKhalad swore, banging his fist on the gravel. 'It _has_ to work, Berit. I did everything exactly \u2013'\n\nThe sound was beyond noise when the hill exploded, and a ball of fire hundreds of feet across seethed skyward out of the crater that had suddenly replaced the hill. Without thinking, Khalad threw himself across Berit's head, covering the back of his own neck with his hands.\n\nFortunately, what fell on them was small gravel for the most part. The larger rocks fell much further out into the desert.\n\nIt continued to rain gravel for several minutes, and the two young men, battered and shaken, lay tensely clenched, enduring the cataclysmic results of Khalad's experiment.\n\nGradually, the stinging rain subsided.\n\n_'You idiot!'_ Berit screamed. 'You could have killed us both!'\n\n'I must have miscalculated just a little,' Khalad conceded, shaking the dirt out of his hair. 'I'll have to work on it a bit before we try it again.'\n\n_'Try it again? What are you talking about?'_\n\n'It _does_ work, Berit,' Khalad said in his most reasonable tone of voice. 'All I have to do is fine-tune it a little bit. Every experiment's got a few rough places around the edges.' He stood up, banging the side of his head with the heel of his hand to shake the ringing out of his ears. 'I'll get it perfected, my Lord,' he promised, helping Berit to his feet. 'The next time won't be nearly so bad. Now, why don't you ask Aphrael to take us back to camp? We're probably being watched, so let's not arouse any suspicions.'\n\n# _Chapter 28_\n\n'We're inside the city, Aphrael,' Sparhawk announced silently after he had cast the spell.\n\n'How did you manage that?' She sounded surprised.\n\n'It's a long story. Tell Khalad that I've marked the passageway that leads into the valley. He'll know what to look for.'\n\n'Have you found out where they're keeping Mother yet?'\n\n'Speculatively.'\n\nThere was a long pause. 'I'd better come there,' she decided.\n\n'How will you find us?'\n\n'I'll use you as a beacon. Just keep talking to me.'\n\n'I don't think it's a good idea. We're right in Cyrgon's lap here. Won't he be able to sense you?'\n\n'Xanetia's there, isn't she?'\n\n'Yes.'\n\n'Then Cyrgon won't feel a thing. That's why I sent her along.' She paused again. 'Who came up with a way to get you inside the city?'\n\n'It was Talen's idea.'\n\n'You see? And you wanted to argue with me about taking him with you. When _will_ you learn to trust me, Father? Keep talking. I've almost got you located. Tell me how Talen managed to get you inside the walls of Cyrga.'\n\nHe described the subterfuge at some length.\n\n'All right,' she said from just behind him. 'That's enough. I get the general drift.' He turned and saw her in Xanetia's arms. She looked around. 'I see that the Cyrgai haven't discovered fire yet. It's darker than the inside of an old boot here. Exactly where are we?'\n\n'In the outer city, Divine One,' Bevier said softly. 'I suppose you could call it the commercial district. The slave-pens are here and various warehouses. It's guarded by Cynesgans, and they're not particularly alert.'\n\n'Good. Let's get out of the street.'\n\nTalen groped his way along one of the barn-like storehouses until he found a door. 'Over here,' he whispered.\n\n'Isn't it locked?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Not any more.'\n\nThey joined him and went inside.\n\n'Would you mind, dear?' Aphrael asked Xanetia. 'I can't see a thing in this place.'\n\nXanetia's face began to glow, a soft light that faintly illuminated the area around them.\n\n'What do they keep in here?' Kalten asked, peering into the dimness. 'Food maybe?' His tone was hopeful. 'That slop they fed us in the slave-pens wasn't very filling.'\n\n'I don't think it's a food warehouse,' Talen told him. 'It doesn't smell quite right.'\n\n'You can go exploring some other time,' Aphrael told him crisply. 'We have other things to do now.'\n\n'How are the others making out?' Sparhawk asked her.\n\n'Bergsten's captured Cynestra,' she reported, 'and he's coming south with the Church Knights. Ulath and Tynian took the Trolls to Zhubay, and the Trolls ate about half of the Cynesgan cavalry. Betuana and Engessa are marching southwest with the Atans. Vanion and Sephrenia are out in the desert laying down false hints that you're with them. Kring and Tikume are allowing themselves to be chased all over the desert west of Sarna by Cyrgai, Cynesgan cavalry, and Kl\u00e6l's overgrown soldiers \u2013 although I don't think _those_ brutes are going to be a problem for much longer. Khalad's devised a way to neutralize them.'\n\n'All by himself?' Talen sounded surprised.\n\n'Kl\u00e6l outsmarted himself. He found caves where his soldiers could breathe, and they were hiding in the caves and then coming out to attack us. Khalad's come up with a way to set the caves on fire. The results are fairly noisy.'\n\n'That's my brother for you,' Talen said proudly.\n\n'Yes,' the Child Goddess said critically. 'He's inventing new horrors at every turn. Stragen and Caalador have managed to convince that Dacite in Beresa that we've got an invasion force off the south coast and \u2013' she stopped. 'You know about all this already, Sparhawk. Why am I wasting time describing it to you?'\n\n'It's all going according to plan, then?' he asked her. 'No setbacks? No new surprises?'\n\n'Not for _us._ Cyrgon's not having such a good time, though. The Delphae have almost completely dispersed Scarpa's army, so the danger to Matherion's pretty much evaporated. I've enlisted some of my family to lend a hand. They're compressing time and distance. As soon as Ehlana's safe, I'll pass the word, and we'll have whole armies knocking at the gates of Cyrga.'\n\n'Did you get word of Khalad's invention to the others?' Talen asked her.\n\n'My cousin Setras is taking care of it for me. Setras is a little vague sometimes, but I went over it with him several times. I don't think he'll garble it _too_ badly. Everything's in place. The others are simply waiting for word from us to start moving, so let's get down to business. Has anyone had a chance to look around here at all?'\n\n'I have explored the outer city to some degree, Divine Aphrael,' Xanetia replied. 'Anakha deemed it unwise for me to share their captivity in the slave-pens.'\n\nThe Child Goddess handed Talen a large sheet of stiff, crackling parchment and a pencil. 'Here,' she said to him, 'earn your keep.'\n\n'Where did you get these?' he asked curiously.\n\n'I had them in one of my pockets.'\n\n'You don't _have_ any pockets, Flute.'\n\nShe gave him one of those long-suffering looks.\n\n'Oh,' he said. I keep forgetting that for some reason. All right, Anarae, you describe the city, and I'll draw it.'\n\nThe sketch that emerged was fairly detailed \u2013 as far as it went. 'I was not able to penetrate the wall which doth encircle the inner city,' Xanetia apologized. 'The gates are perpetually locked, for the Cyrgai do hold themselves aloof from their Cynesgan hirelings and from the slaves whose toil supports them.'\n\n'This should be enough to work with for now,' Flute said, pursing her lips as she examined Talen's drawing. 'All right, Bevier, you're the expert on fortifications. Where's the weak spot?'\n\nThe Cyrinic studied the sketch for several minutes. 'Did you see any wells, Anarae?' he asked.\n\n'Nay, Sir Knight.'\n\n'They've got a lake right outside the front gate, Bevier,' Kalten reminded him.\n\n'That wouldn't do much good if the city were under siege,' Bevier replied. 'There has to be some source of water inside the walls \u2013 either a well or some kind of a cistern. A siege ends rather quickly when the defenders run out of water.'\n\n'What makes you think that the place was built to hold off a siege?' Mirtai asked. 'Nobody's supposed to be able to find it.'\n\n'The walls are a little too high and thick to be purely ornamental, Atana. Cyrga's a fortified city, and that means that it was built to withstand a siege. The Cyrgai aren't very bright, but _nobody's_ stupid enough to build a fort without water inside. That's my best guess, Divine Aphrael. Find out how they're getting water \u2013 both here in the outer city and in the inner city as well. There might be a weakness there. If not, we may have to tunnel under the inner wall or try to scale it.'\n\n'Let's hope it doesn't come to that,' Aphrael said. 'We're inside the enemy city, and the longer we putter around, the more chance there is of being discovered. If it's in any way possible, we want to free Ehlana and Alean tonight. I'll send out word and start the others moving. Nobody's going to get much sleep tonight, but that can't be helped. All right then, Xanetia, let's go look for water. The rest of you stay here. We don't want to have to go looking for you when we come back.'\n\n'Are you mad, Gardas?' Bergsten demanded of the massively armored Alcione knight. The Thalesian Patriarch refused to look at the pleasant-faced young man standing beside the knight. 'I'm not even supposed to admit that he exists, much less sit down and talk with him.'\n\n'Aphrael said you might be tedious about this, Bergsten,' the person Sir Gardas had escorted into the Patriarch's tent noted. 'Would it help at all if I did something miraculous?'\n\n'God!' Bergsten said. 'Please don't do that! I'm probably in trouble already!'\n\n'Dolmant had some problems when I visited him, too,' Aphrael's cousin observed. 'You servants of the Elene God have some strange ideas. _He_ doesn't get excited about us, so why should you? Anyway, the normal rules are all more or less suspended until this crisis is over. We've even enlisted Edaemus and the Atan God \u2013 and they haven't spoken to any of the rest of us for eons. Aphrael wants me to tell you about something having to do with the soldiers Kl\u00e6l brought with him. Somebody named Khalad has devised a means of destroying them.'\n\n'Tell Gardas about it,' Bergsten suggested. 'He can pass it on to me, and I won't get into trouble.'\n\n'I'm sorry, Bergsten, but Aphrael insisted that I say it directly to you. Just pretend that I'm a dream or something.' Setras' face grew slightly puzzled, and his large, luminous eyes revealed a frightening lack of comprehension. 'I don't entirely understand this,' he confessed. 'Aphrael's much cleverer than I am \u2013 but we love each other, so she doesn't throw my stupidity into my face very often. She's terribly polite. She's even nice to _your_ God, and he can be extremely tedious sometimes \u2013 where was I?'\n\n'Ah \u2013' Sir Gardas said gently, 'you were going to tell his Grace about Kl\u00e6l's soldiers, Divine Setras.'\n\n'I was?' The large eyes were blank. 'Oh, yes. I was, wasn't I? You mustn't let me ramble on like that, Gardas. You _know_ how easily I get distracted.'\n\n'Yes, Divine Setras. That _had_ occurred to me.'\n\n'Anyway,' Setras pushed on, 'this Khalad person \u2013 a frightfully clever young man, I gather \u2013 realized that there might be some similarity between the awful stuff Kl\u00e6l's soldiers breathe and something he calls \"firedamp\". Have you any idea at all of what he was talking about, Bergsten?' Setras hesitated. 'Am I supposed to call you \"your Grace\" the way Gardas did? Are you really that graceful? You look awfully large and clumsy to me.'\n\n'It's a formal mode of address, Divine One,' Sir Gardas explained.\n\n'Oh. We don't have to be formal with each other, do we Bergsten? We're almost old friends now, aren't we?'\n\nThe Patriarch of Emsat swallowed very hard. Then he sighed. 'Yes, Divine Setras,' he said. I suppose we are. Why don't you go ahead and tell me about this strategy Sparhawk's squire has devised?'\n\n'Of course. Oh, there's one other thing, too. We have to be at the gates of Cyrga by morning.'\n\n'Please, Atana Liatris,' Baroness Melidere said patiently to Sarabian's Atan wife, 'we _want_ them to make the attempt.'\n\n'It is too dangerous,' Liatris said stubbornly. 'If I go ahead and kill Chacole and Torellia, the others will run away and that will be the end of it.'\n\n'Except that we'll never find out who else is involved,' Patriarch Emban explained. 'And we can't know for certain that they won't try again.'\n\nPrincess Danae sat a little apart from them with Mmrr curled up in her lap. Her vision was strangely doubled with one image superimposed on the other. It seemed that the dark streets of Cyrga lay just behind the others here in the sitting-room.\n\n'I'm touched by your concern, Liatris,' Sarabian was saying, 'but I'm not nearly as helpless as I seem.' He flourished his rapier.\n\n'And we _will_ have guards nearby,' Foreign Minister Oscagne added. 'Chacole and Torellia almost _have_ to be getting help from somebody inside the government \u2013 some leftover from that coup-attempt, most likely.'\n\n'I will wring his identity from them before I kill them,' Liatris declared.\n\nSarabian winced at the word 'wring'.\n\n'We are near, Divine Aphrael.' Xanetia's voice seemed at once a long way away and very close. 'Methinks I do smell water.' The dark, narrow street they followed opened out into some kind of square a hundred feet further on.\n\n'Let's catch them all, Liatris,' Elysoun urged her sister-empress. 'You might be able to beat one or two names out of Chacole and Torellia, but if we can catch the assassins in the actual attempt, we'll be able to sweep the palace compound clean. If we don't, our husband's going to have to go through the rest of his life with a drawn rapier.'\n\n'Hark!' Xanetia whispered in that other city. 'I do hear the sound of running water.'\n\nDanae concentrated very hard. It was exhausting to keep things separate.\n\n'I really hate to have to put it this way, Liatris,' Sarabian said regretfully, 'but I forbid you to kill either Chacole or Torellia. We'll deal with them _after_ their assassins try to kill me.'\n\n'As my husband commands,' Liatris responded automatically.\n\n'What I want you to do is to protect Elysoun and Gahennas,' he continued. 'Gahennas is probably in the greater danger right now. Elysoun's still useful to the people involved in this, but Gahennas knows more than they want her to. I'm sure they'll try to kill her, so let's get her out of the Women's Palace tonight.'\n\n'It is beneath the street, Divine One,' Xanetia said. 'Methinks there is some volume of water passing under our feet.'\n\n'Truly,' the Child Goddess replied. 'Let's follow the sound back to its source. There has to be _some_ way to get to the water here in the outer city.'\n\n'How did you become involved in this, Elysoun?' Liatris was asking.\n\nElysoun shrugged. 'I have more freedom of movement than the rest of you,' she replied. 'Chacole needed somebody she trusted to carry messages out of the Women's Palace. I pretended to fall in with her plan. It wasn't too hard to deceive Chacole. She _is_ a Cynesgan, after all.'\n\n'It is here, Divine One,' Xanetia whispered, laying her hand on a large iron plate set into the cobblestones. 'Thou canst feel the urgent rush of water through the very iron.'\n\n'I'll take your word for it, Anarae,' Aphrael replied, cringing back from the notion of touching iron. 'How do they get it open?'\n\n'These rings do suggest that the plate can be lifted.'\n\n'Let's go back and get the others. I think this might be the weakness Bevier was looking for.'\n\nDanae yawned. Everything seemed to be under control, so she curled up in her chair, nestled Mmrr in her arms, and promptly fell asleep.\n\n'Couldn't you have just \u2013 well \u2013?' Talen wiggled his fingers.\n\n'It's iron, Talen,' Flute said with exaggerated patience.\n\n'So? What's that got to do with it?'\n\nShe shuddered. 'I can't bear the touch of iron.'\n\nBevier looked intently at her. 'Bhelliom suffers from the same affliction,' he observed.\n\n'Yes. So what?'\n\n'That would suggest a certain kinship.'\n\n'Your grasp of the obvious is positively dazzling, Bevier.'\n\n'Behave yourself,' Sparhawk chided.\n\n'What's so unpleasant about iron?' Talen asked. 'It's cold, it's hard, you can pound it into various shapes, and it gets rusty.'\n\n'That's a nice scholarly description. Do you know what a lodestone is?'\n\n'It's a piece of iron ore that sticks to other iron, isn't it? I seem to remember Platime talking about something called magnetism once.'\n\n'And you actually listened? Amazing.'\n\n_'That's_ why Bhelliom had to congeal itself into a sapphire!' Bevier exclaimed. 'It's the magnetism of iron, isn't it? Bhelliom can't bear it \u2013 and neither can _you,_ isn't that so?'\n\n'Please, Bevier,' Aphrael said weakly. 'Just thinking about it makes my flesh crawl. Right now we don't want to talk about iron. We want to talk about water. There's a stream or river of some kind running under the streets here in the outer city, and it's flowing in the direction of the inner wall. There's a large iron plate set in the middle of the street not far from here, and you can hear the water running beneath it. I think that's the weakness you were looking for. The water's running through a tunnel of some kind, and that tunnel goes under the wall of the inner fortress \u2013 at least I hope so. I'll go find out as soon as you gentlemen lift off that iron plate for me.'\n\n'Did you see any patrols in the streets?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Nay, Sir Knight,' Xanetia replied. 'Centuries of custom have clearly dulled the alertness of the Cynesgans responsible for the defense of the outer city.'\n\n'A burglar's dream,' Talen murmured. 'I could get rich in this town.'\n\n'What would you steal?' Aphrael asked him. 'The Cyrgai don't believe in gold and silver.'\n\n'What do they use for money?'\n\n'They don't. They don't need money. The Cynesgans provide them with everything they need, so they don't even think about money.'\n\n'That's monstrous!'\n\n'We can discuss economics some other time. Right now I want to investigate their water supply.'\n\n* * *\n\n'You idiot!' Queen Betuana raged at her general.\n\n'We had to find out, Betuana-Queen,' Engessa explained. 'And I will not send another where I will not go.'\n\n'I am most displeased with you, Engessa-Atan!' Betuana's retreat into ritualized mourning had vanished. 'Did your last encounter with the Kl\u00e6l-beasts teach you nothing? They could have been lurking just inside the cave, and you would have faced them alone again.'\n\n'It is not reasonable to suppose that they would have,' he replied stiffly. 'Aphrael's messenger told us that the Kl\u00e6l-beasts take shelter in caves that they might breathe a different air. The air at the entrance to this cave will be the same as the air outside. It is of no moment, however. It is done, and no harm came from it.'\n\nShe controlled her anger with an obvious effort. 'And what did you prove by your foolish venture, Engessa-Atan?'\n\n'The Kl\u00e6l-beasts have sealed the cave, Betuana-Queen,' he replied. 'Some hundred paces within stands a steel wall. It is reasonable to suppose that it may in some fashion be opened. The Kl\u00e6l beasts retreat beyond the barrier, close it behind them and are then able to breathe freely for a time. Then they emerge again and attack us once more.'\n\n'Was this information worth the risk of your life?'\n\n'We have yet to discover that, my Queen. The tactics devised by Kring-Domi keep us out of the reach of the Kl\u00e6l-beasts, but I do not like this running away.'\n\nBetuana's eyes hardened. 'Nor do I,' she conceded. 'I dishonor my husband's memory each time I turn and flee.'\n\n'Aphrael's cousin told us that Khalad-squire had found that the air which the Kl\u00e6l-beasts breathe will burn when it mixes with _our_ air.'\n\n'I have not seen air burn before.'\n\n'Nor have I. If the trap that I have set for the Kl\u00e6l-beasts works, we may both see it happen.'\n\n'What sort of trap, Engessa-Atan?'\n\n'A lantern, my Queen \u2013 well hidden.'\n\n'A lantern? That's all?'\n\n'If Khalad-squire was right, it should be enough. I closed the lantern so that the Kl\u00e6l-beasts will see no light when they open their steel door to come out again. All unseen, their air will join with ours, and the mix will find its way to the candle burning inside my lantern. Then we will discover if Khalad-squire was right.'\n\n'Then we must wait until they open that door. I will not leave them behind us until I know without any doubt that this burning of air will kill them. As Ulath-Knight says, only a fool leaves live enemies behind him.'\n\nThey concealed themselves behind an outcropping of rock and waited, intently watching the cave-mouth faintly visible in the light of the stars. 'It may be some time before they open their door, my Queen,' Engessa noted.\n\n'Engessa-Atan,' Betuana said firmly, 'I have long thought that this formality of yours is out of place. We are soldiers, and comrades. Please address me as such.'\n\n'As you wish, Betuana-Atana.'\n\nThey waited patiently, watching the sizeable peak and the dark mouth of the cave. Then, like a deep, subterranean thunder, a stunning sound shattered the silence, shaking the ground, and a great billow of boiling fire blasted out of the cave-mouth, searing the few scrubby thorn-bushes growing nearby. The fire spewed out of the cave for what seemed hours, and then it gradually subsided.\n\nEngessa and his Queen, shocked by that violent eruption, could only stare in wonder. Finally, Betuana rose to her feet. 'Now I have seen air burn,' she noted in a cool sort of way. 'It was worth the wait, I suppose.' Then she smiled at her still-shaken comrade. 'You lay good traps, Engessa-Atan, but now we must hurry to rejoin the Trolls. Ulath-Knight says that we must reach Cyrga by morning.'\n\n'Whatever you say, Betuana-Atan,' he replied.\n\n'When I say, \"lift\",' Sparhawk instructed, settling his hands into place around the ring, 'and don't let it clank when we set it down. All right, lift.'\n\nKalten, Bevier, Mirtai, and Sparhawk all rose slowly, straining to lift the rusty iron plate up out of its place among the worn cobblestones.\n\n'Be careful,' Talen said to Mirtai. 'Don't fall in.'\n\n'Do you want to do this?' she asked.\n\nThe four of them shuffled around slightly and moved the ponderous weight to one side so that the large square hole was partially uncovered. 'Set it down,' Sparhawk said from between his clenched teeth. 'Easy,' he added.\n\nThey slowly lowered the cover to the stones.\n\n'It'd be easier to pick up a house,' Kalten wheezed.\n\n'Turn your backs,' Flute instructed.\n\n'Do you have to do that?' Talen asked. 'Is it like flying?'\n\n'Just turn around, Talen.'\n\n'Don't forget the clothes,' Sparhawk told her.\n\n'They'd just be in my way. If you don't like it, don't look.' Her voice was already richer.\n\nBevier had his eyes tightly closed, and his lips were moving. He was obviously praying \u2013 very hard.\n\n'I'll be right back,' the Goddess promised. 'Don't go away.'\n\nThey waited for what seemed to be hours. Then they heard a faint splashing down below. The splashing was accompanied by muffled laughter.\n\nTalen knelt at the edge of the rectangular shaft. 'Are you all right?' he whispered.\n\n'Im fine.'\n\n'What's so funny?'\n\n'The Cyrgai. You wouldn't _believe_ how stupid they are.'\n\n'What did they do now?'\n\n'The water comes from a large artesian spring right near the outer wall. The Cyrgai built a sort of cistern around it. Then they built a tunnel that goes under the inner wall to carry water to a very large pool that lies underneath the mountain they've built their main city on.'\n\n'What's wrong with that?'\n\n'Nothing \u2013 as far as it goes. They seem to have realized the same thing that Bevier did. Their water-source is a weakness. They very carefully built a stone lattice at the mouth of the tunnel. Nobody can get into the tunnel from the cistern.'\n\n'I still don't see anything to laugh about.'\n\n'I'm just coming to that. This shaft that leads down to the tunnel seems to have been added later \u2013 probably so that they could get into the tunnel to clean it.'\n\n'That doesn't sound like such a bad idea. It _is_ supposed to be drinking water, after all.'\n\n'Yes, but when they dug the shaft, they forgot something. The other end of the tunnel \u2013 the one that's inside their second wall \u2013 is completely open. There aren't any bars, no lattice, no chains, nothing.'\n\n'You're not serious!'\n\n'May muh tongue turn green iff'n I ain't.'\n\n'This is going to be easier than I thought,' Kalten said. He leaned over and peered down into the darkness. 'Is that current very swift?' he called down softly.\n\n'Swift enough,' Aphrael replied. 'But that's all right. It speeds you right straight through, so you won't have to hold your breath so long.'\n\n'Do what?' His voice was choked.\n\n'Hold your breath. You have to swim under water.'\n\n'Not me,' he said flatly.\n\n'You _do_ know how to swim, don't you?'\n\n'I can swim in full armor if I have to.'\n\n'What's the problem, then?'\n\n'I _don't_ swim under water. It sends me into a panic.'\n\n'He's right, Aphrael,' Sparhawk called down softly. 'As soon as Kalten's head goes under water, he starts screaming.'\n\n'He can't do that. He'll drown.'\n\n'Exactly. I used to have to stand on his chest to squeeze the water out of him. It happened all the time when we were boys.'\n\n'Oh, dear,' she said. 'I hadn't counted on this.'\n\n# _Chapter 29_\n\nThe moon was almost full, and it stained the eastern horizon before it rose in a pallid imitation of dawn. It slid slowly into view, rising ponderously above the brittle white salt-flats.\n\n'Good God!' Berit exclaimed, staring at the horror all around them. What had seemed to be round white rocks by the faint light of the stars were revealed as bleached skulls, nesting in jumbles of bones and staring in mute accusation at the heavens.\n\n'It looks as if we've come to the right place,' Khalad observed. 'The note Sparhawk left us talked about a \"Plain of Bones\".'\n\n'It goes on forever!' Berit gasped, looking off toward the west.\n\n'Let's hope not. We have to cross it.' Khalad stopped, peering intently toward the west. 'There it is,' he said, pointing at a gleaming spot of reflected light in the center of a low range of dark hills some distance beyond the ghastly plain.\n\n'There what is?'\n\n'Our landmark. Sparhawk called it the \"Pillars of Cyrgon\". Something out there's catching the moonlight. We're supposed to ride toward that spot.'\n\n'Who's that?' Berit hissed, pointing at a figure walking toward them out of the bone-littered desert.\n\nKhalad loosened his sword in its sheath. 'Another note from Krager, maybe,' he muttered. 'Let's start being a little careful, my Lord. I think we're getting very close to the place where we'll have outlived our usefulness.'\n\nThe figure coming out of the desert seemed to be moving at no more than a casual stroll, and as he came closer, they were able to make out his features.\n\n'Watch yourself, Khalad!' Berit hissed sharply. 'He's not human!'\n\nKhalad felt it as well. It was nothing really definable, just an overpowering sense of presence, an aura that no human had. The figure appeared to be that of an extraordinarily handsome young man. He had tightly-curled hair, classic features and very large, almost luminous eyes. 'Ah, there you are, gentlemen,' he said urbanely in flawless Elenic. 'I've been looking all over for you.' He glanced around. 'This is a really _wretched_ place, don't you think? Exactly the sort of place you'd expect the Cyrgai to inhabit. Cyrgon's terribly warped. He adores ugliness. Have you ever met him? Frightful fellow. No sense of beauty whatsoever.' He smiled, a radiant, slightly vague smile. 'My cousin Aphrael sent me. She'd have come herself, but she's a little busy right now \u2013 but then, Aphrael's _always_ busy, isn't she? She can't stand to just sit quietly.' He frowned. 'She wanted me to tell you something.' His frown intensified. 'What was it now? I have the worst memory lately.' He held up one hand. 'No,' he said, 'don't tell me. It'll come to me in a moment. It's terribly important, though, and we're supposed to hurry. I'll probably think of it as we go along.' He looked around. 'Do you gentlemen by any chance happen to know which way we're supposed to go?'\n\n'It won't work, Aphrael,' Kalten said morosely. 'I've tried it when I was dead drunk and the same thing happens. I go crazy when I feel the water closing over my head.'\n\n'Just try it, Kalten,' the minimally dressed Goddess urged. 'It really will relax you.' She pushed the tankard into his hand.\n\nHe sniffed suspiciously. 'It _smells_ good. What is it?'\n\n'We drink it at parties.'\n\n'The beer of the Gods?' His eyes brightened. 'Well, now.' He took a cautious sip. _'Well_ now,' he said enthusiastically. 'That's the way it's _supposed_ to taste.'\n\n'Drink it all,' she instructed, watching him intently.\n\n'Gladly.' He drained the tankard and wiped his lips. 'That's _really_ good. If a man had the recipe for _that,_ he could \u2013' he broke off, his eyes glazed.\n\n'Lay him down,' Aphrael ordered. 'Quickly, before he stiffens up. I don't want him all twisted into a pretzel when I drag him through the tunnel.'\n\nTalen was doubled over with both hands tightly over his mouth to stifle his laughter.\n\n'What's _your_ problem?' the Goddess demanded tartly.\n\n'Nothing,' he gasped. 'Nothing at all.'\n\n'I've got a long way to go with that one,' Aphrael muttered to Sparhawk.\n\n'Is this going to work?' Sparhawk asked her. 'Kalten, I mean? Can you really drag an unconscious man underwater for any distance without drowning him?'\n\n'I'll stop his breathing.' She looked around at the others. I don't want any of you to try to help me,' she cautioned. 'You just concentrate on getting through yourselves. I don't have to breathe, but you do, and I don't want to have to spend an hour fishing you out of that pool one by one after we get there. Now, does anybody _else_ have any problems you haven't told me about? This is the time to talk about them \u2013 _before_ we're all under water.' She looked pointedly at Bevier. 'Is there something _you'd_ like to tell me, Sir Knight? You seem to be having a crisis of some sort.'\n\n'It's nothing, Divine One,' he mumbled. 'I'll be fine. I swim like a fish.' He deliberately avoided looking at her.\n\n'What's bothering you, then?'\n\n'I'd really rather not say.'\n\nShe sighed. 'Men.' Then she climbed into the shaft leading down toward the unseen water rushing toward the inner wall. 'Bring Kalten,' she ordered, 'and let's get at this.'\n\n'I'd really like to do something about that,' Sephrenia murmured to Vanion as they peered over the top of the gravel mound at the encampment of the slavers.\n\n'So would I, love,' Vanion replied, 'but I think we'd better wait until later. If everything goes the way it's supposed to, we'll be waiting for them when they reach Cyrga.' He raised himself a bit higher. 'I think that's the salt-flats just beyond that trail they're following.'\n\n'We'll be able to tell for certain when the moon rises,' she replied.\n\n'Have you heard anything at all from Aphrael?'\n\n'Nothing I can make any sense of. The echoes are very confusing when she's in two places at the same time. I gather that things are coming to a head in Matherion, and she and Sparhawk are swimming.'\n\n'Swimming? This is a desert, Sephrenia.'\n\n'Yes, I noticed that. They've found _something_ to swim in, though.' She paused. 'Does Kalten know how to swim?' she asked.\n\n'He splashes a great deal, but he manages to drag himself through the water. I wouldn't call him graceful, by any means. Why do you ask?'\n\n'She's having some sort of problems with him, and it has to do with swimming. Let's go back and join the others, dear one. Just the sight of those slavers is setting my blood to boiling.'\n\nThey slid back down the gravel-strewn mound and walked along a shallow gully toward their armored soldiers.\n\nThe Cyrinic knight, Sir Launesse, stood somewhat diffidently beside a burly, intricately curled and massively eyebrowed personage with heavy shoulders and a classical demeanor. 'Sephrenia!' the clearly non-human being said in a voice that could probably have been heard in Thalesia. 'Well-met!'\n\n'Well-met indeed, Divine Romalic,' she replied with just a trace of a weary sigh.\n\n'Please, dear,' Vanion murmured, 'ask him to lower his voice.'\n\n'Nobody else can hear him,' she assured him. 'The Gods speak loudly \u2013 but only to certain ears.'\n\n'Thy sister bids me give thee greetings,' Romalic announced in a voice of thunder.\n\n'Thou art kind to bear those greetings, Divine One.'\n\n'Kindness and courtesy aside, Sephrenia,' the huge God declaimed, combing his beard with enormous fingers, 'art thou yet prepared to serve us all and to assume thy proper place?'\n\n'I am unworthy, Divine One,' she replied modestly. 'Surely there are others wiser and better suited.'\n\n'What's this?' Vanion asked.\n\n'It's been going on for a long time, dear one,' she explained. 'I've been avoiding it for centuries. Romalic always has to bring it up, though.'\n\nIt all fell into place in Vanion's mind. 'Sephrenia!' he gasped. 'They want you to be Over-Priestess, don't they?'\n\n'It's Aphrael, Vanion, not me. They think they can get around her by offering this to me. I don't really want it, and they don't really want to give it to me, but they're afraid of her, and this is their way to placate her.'\n\n'Aphrael bids thee to make haste,' Romalic proclaimed. 'Ye must all be at the gates of Cyrga ere dawn, for this is the night of decision, when Cyrgon and, yea, even Kl\u00e6l, must be confronted and, we may hope, confounded. E'en now doth Anakha move ghost-like through the streets of the Hidden City towards his design. Let us hasten.' He lifted his voice and thundered, 'On to Cyrga!'\n\n'Is he always like this?' Vanion murmured.\n\n'Romalic?' Sephrenia said. 'Oh, yes. He's perfectly suited to the Cyrinic Knights. Come along, dear one. Let's go to Cyrga.'\n\nThere were dim, flickering lights far above, but the pool was sunk in inky blackness when Sparhawk surfaced and explosively blew out the breath he had been holding.\n\n'Kalten,' he heard Aphrael saying, 'wake up.'\n\nThere was a startled cry and a great deal of splashing.\n\n'Oh, stop that,' the Goddess told Sparhawk's friend. 'It's all over, and you came through it just fine. Xanetia, dear, could we have a little light?'\n\n'Of a certainty, Divine One,' the Anarae replied, and her face began to glow.\n\n'Are we all here?' Aphrael asked quietly, looking around. As Xanetia's light gradually increased, Sparhawk saw that the Goddess appeared to be no more than waist-deep in the pool, and she was holding Kalten up by the back of his tunic.\n\n'Do you want to give me a hand with this, Sparhawk?' Bevier said.\n\n'Right.' Sparhawk swam over to join the Cyrinic, and together they hauled in the slender rope Bevier had trailed behind him as they had come through the tunnel. At the other end of the rope were their tightly-bundled mail-shirts and swords.\n\n'Wait a minute,' Bevier said when the rope suddenly went taut. 'It's caught on something.' He drew in several deep breaths, plunged under the surface, and went hand-over-hand back along the rope.\n\nSparhawk waited, unconsciously holding his own breath. Then the rope came free, and he hauled it in quickly. Bevier popped to the surface again, blowing out air.\n\n'Are you sure you aren't part fish?' Sparhawk asked him.\n\n'I've always had good lungs,' Bevier replied. 'Do you think we should get out our swords?'\n\n'Let's see what Aphrael says first,' Sparhawk decided, peering around. 'I don't see any place to climb up out of the water yet.'\n\n'Now what?' Talen was asking the Goddess. 'We're swimming around at the bottom of a well here.' He looked up at the sheer sides of the shaft rising from the pool. 'There are some openings up there, but there's no way to get to them.'\n\n'Did you bring it, Mirtai?' Aphrael asked.\n\nThe giantess nodded. 'Excuse me a moment,' she said, and she sank beneath the surface and began to pull off her tunic.\n\n'What's she doing?' Talen asked, peering down through the clear water.\n\n'She's taking off her clothes,' Aphrael replied, 'and she doesn't need any help from you. Keep your eyes where they belong.'\n\n_'You_ run around naked all the time,' he protested. 'Why should you care if we watch Mirtai get undressed?'\n\n'It's entirely different,' she replied in a lofty tone. 'Now do as you're told.'\n\nTalen thrust himself around in the water until he had his back to Mirtai. 'I'm never going to understand her,' he grumbled.\n\n'Oh, yes you will, Talen,' she told him in a mysterious little voice. 'But not quite yet. I'll explain it all to you in a few more years.'\n\nThen Mirtai rose to the surface holding the coil of rope that had been slung over her shoulder under her tunic. 'I'll need something to stand on, Aphrael,' she said, hefting the grappling hook attached to one end of the rope. 'I won't be able to throw this while I'm treading water.'\n\n'All right, gentlemen,' Aphrael said primly, 'eyes front.'\n\nSparhawk's smile was concealed in the dimness. Talen was right. Aphrael seemed almost unaware of her own nakedness, but Mirtai's was an entirely different matter. He heard the sound of water trickling off the sleek limbs of the golden giantess as she rose to stand, he surmised, on its very surface.\n\nThen he heard the whistling sound of the grappling hook as Mirtai swung it in wider and wider circles. Then the whistling stopped for an interminable, breathless moment. There was the clink of steel on stone high above, followed by a grating sound as the points dug in.\n\n'Good cast,' Aphrael said.\n\n'Lucky,' Mirtai replied. 'It usually takes two or three throws.'\n\nSparhawk felt a touch on his shoulder. 'Here,' Mirtai said, handing him the rope. 'Hold this while I get dressed. Then we'll climb up and go find your wife.'\n\n'What on _earth_ are you doing, Bergsten?'\n\nThe Patriarch of Emsat started violently and jerked his head around to stare at the God who had just walked up behind him.\n\n'You're supposed to be hurrying, you know,' Setras chided him. 'Aphrael wants everybody to be in place by morning.'\n\n'We came across some of Kl\u00e6l's soldiers, Divine One,' Sir Heldin rumbled. 'They're inside that cave.' He pointed at a barely visible opening in the hillside across the shallow gully.\n\n'Why didn't you deal with them? I told you how to do it.'\n\n'We put a lantern in there, but there's a door inside the cave, Setras-God,' Atana Maris advised him.\n\n'Well, _open_ it, dear lady,' Setras said. 'We really _must_ reach Cyrga by morning. Aphrael will be terribly vexed with me if we're late.'\n\n'We'd gladly open it if we knew how, Divine One,' Bergsten told him, 'but late or not, I _won't_ ride away from here and leave those monsters behind me, and if that vexes Aphrael, that's just too bad.' The handsome, stupid God irritated Bergsten for some reason.\n\n'Why do I have to do everything myself?' Setras sighed. 'Wait here. I'll deal with this, and then we'll be able to move on. We're terribly behind schedule, you know. We'll have to get cracking if we're going to make it by morning.' He strolled on across the rocky gully and entered the cave.\n\n'That young fellow's _really_ trying my patience,' Bergsten muttered. 'Trying to explain something to him is like talking to a brick. How _can_ he be so \u2013' Bergsten pulled up short just this side of heresy.\n\n'He's coming back out,' Atana Maris said.\n\n'I thought he might,' Bergsten said with some satisfaction. 'Apparently he didn't have any better luck with that door than we did.'\n\nSetras was strolling toward them humming a Styric melody when the entire hill vanished in a great, fiery explosion that shook the very earth. The fire billowed out with a dreadful, seething roar, hurling Bergsten and the others to the ground and engulfing Aphrael's cousin.\n\n'Dear God!' Bergsten gasped, staring at the boiling fire.\n\nThen Setras, with not so much as a hair out of place, came sauntering out of the fire. 'There now,' he said mildly, 'that wasn't so difficult, was it?'\n\n'How did you get the door open, Divine One?' Heldin asked curiously.\n\n'I didn't, old boy,' Setras smiled. 'Actually, they opened it for me.'\n\n'Why would they do that?'\n\n'I knocked, dear boy. I knocked. Even creatures like that have _some_ manners. Shall we be going, then?'\n\n'They are much feared by the other Cyrgai,' Xanetia reported, 'and all do give way to them.'\n\n'That would be useful \u2013 if it weren't for the racial differences,' Bevier noted.\n\n'Such differences do not pose an insurmountable obstacle, Sir Knight,' Xanetia assured him. 'Should it prove needful, thy features and those of thy companions may once more be altered. Divine Aphrael can doubtless serve in her sister's stead in the combining of the two spells which disguised ye previously.'\n\n'We can talk about that in a moment,' Flute said. 'First, though, I think we should all get some idea of how this part of the city's laid out.' The Goddess had resumed her more familiar form, and Bevier for one seemed much relieved.\n\n'Methinks this mount is not of natural origin, Divine One,' Xanetia told her. 'The sides are of uniform steepness, and the avenues which do ascend to the top are more stairways than streets. Cross-streets, however, do encircle the hill at regular intervals.'\n\n'Unimaginative, aren't they?' Mirtai observed. 'Are there many of them wandering around out there?'\n\n'Nay, Atana. 'Tis late, and most have long since sought their beds.'\n\n'We _could_ chance it,' Kalten mused. 'If Flute and Xanetia can make us look like Cyrgai, we could just march right up the hill.'\n\n'Not in _these_ clothes we can't,' Sparhawk disagreed.\n\nTalen slipped out of the shadows to re-enter the passageway leading back to the central shaft of the well. In many ways the agile young thief could be nearly as invisible as Xanetia. 'More soldiers coming,' he whispered.\n\n'Those patrols could get to be a nuisance,' Kalten said.\n\n'These aren't like those others,' Talen told him. 'They aren't patrolling the side-streets. They're just climbing the stairs toward the top of the city. They aren't wearing the same kind of armor either.'\n\n'Describe them, young master Talen,' Xanetia said intently.\n\n'They're wearing cloaks, for one thing,' Talen replied, 'and they've got a sort of emblem on their breastplates. Their helmets are different, too.'\n\n'Temple Guards then,' Xanetia said, 'the ones of which I spake earlier. I did glean from the thought of such few as I encountered that other Cyrgai do avoid them insofar as they might, and that all are obliged to bow down when they pass.'\n\nSparhawk and Bevier exchanged a long look. 'There are the clothes you wanted, Sparhawk,' Bevier said.\n\n'How many are there?' Sparhawk asked Talen.\n\n'I counted ten.'\n\nSparhawk considered it. 'Let's do it,' he decided, 'but try to keep the noise down.' And he led them out of the passageway into the street.\n\n'Good God, Ulath!' Itagne exclaimed, 'don't do that! My heart almost stopped!'\n\n'Sorry, Itagne,' the big Thalesian apologized. 'There's no really graceful way to come out of No-Time. Let's go talk with Betuana and Engessa.'\n\nThey rode back to join the Queen and her general.\n\n'Sir Ulath just arrived with news, your Majesty,' Itagne said politely.\n\n'Ah,' she said. 'Good news or bad news, Ulath-Knight?'\n\n'A little of each, your Majesty,' he replied. The Trolls are a couple of miles east of here.'\n\n'And what's the good news?'\n\nHe smiled slightly. 'That _is_ the good news. The bad news is that there's another large force of Kl\u00e6l's soldiers waiting in ambush just south of here. They'll probably hit you within the hour. They're in our way, and we have to hurry. Sparhawk and the others are going to rescue Ehlana and her maid tonight, and he wants us all to converge on the city by morning.'\n\n'We must fight the Kl\u00e6l-beasts then,' she said.\n\n'That could be troublesome,' Itagne murmured.\n\n'Tynian and I have worked out a solution of sorts,' Ulath continued, 'but we don't want to offend you, your Majesty, so we thought I should stop by and talk it over first. Kl\u00e6l's troops are preparing to ambush _you._ I know you'd prefer to deal with that yourself, but in the interests of expediency, would you be willing to forgo the pleasure?'\n\n'I'd be willing to _listen,_ Ulath-Knight,' she said.\n\n'There are ways we could just slip around that ambush, but Kl\u00e6l can probably do the same kinds of things to time and distance that Aphrael and her cousins can, and I don't think we want those brutes coming up behind us.'\n\n'What's your solution then, Ulath-Knight?'\n\n'I've got a sizeable force at my disposal, your Majesty,' he replied, 'and they're hungry. Since we're too busy right now for an extended romp through the desert, why don't we just let the Trolls have Kl\u00e6l's soldiers for breakfast?'\n\nSir Anosian looked a little shaken as he rode forward to speak with Kring and Tikume.\n\n'What's the matter, friend Anosian?' Tikume asked the black-armored Pandion. 'You look as if you just saw a ghost.'\n\n'Worse, friend Tikume,' Anosian replied. 'I've just been reprimanded by a God. Most men don't survive that experience.'\n\n'Aphrael again?' Kring guessed.\n\n'No, friend Kring. This time it was her cousin Hanka. He's very abrupt. The Genidian Knights rely on him for assistance with their spells.'\n\n'He was unhappy with you?' Tikume asked. 'What did you do this time?'\n\nAnosian made a sour face. 'Sometimes my spells are a little sloppy,' he admitted. 'Aphrael's generous enough to forgive me. Her cousin isn't.' He shuddered. 'Divine Hanka's going to hurry us along just a bit.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'We have to be at the gates of Cyrga by morning.'\n\n'How far is it?' Kring asked him.\n\n'I have no idea,' Anosian admitted, 'and under the circumstances, I didn't think it would be prudent to ask. Hanka wants us to ride west from here.'\n\nTikume frowned. 'If we don't know how far it is, how can we be sure we'll get there by morning?'\n\n'Oh, we'll get there all right, friend Tikume,' Anosian assured him. 'I think we'd better start moving, though. Divine Hanka's notoriously short-tempered. If we don't start riding west very soon, he might just decide to pick us up and _throw_ us from here to Cyrga.'\n\nThe Temple Guardsman assumed a warlike posture \u2013 a rather stiff, formalized pose such as one occasionally sees on a frieze carved by an indifferently talented sculptor. Kalten brushed the man's sword aside and slammed his fist against the side of his helmet. The guardsman reeled away and fell heavily onto the cobblestones. He was struggling to rise again when Kalten kicked him solidly in the face.\n\n'Quietly, Kalten!' Sparhawk said in a hoarse whisper.\n\n'Sorry. I guess I got carried away.' Kalten bent and peeled back the fallen guardsman's eyelid. 'He'll sleep till noon,' he said. He straightened and looked around. 'Is that all of them?'\n\n'That was the last,' Bevier whispered. 'Let's get them out of the middle of the street. The moon's finally starting to come up down in this basin, and it'll soon be as bright as day here.'\n\nIt had been a short, ugly little fight. Sparhawk and his friends had rushed out of a dark side-street and had fallen on the detachment from the rear. Surprise had accounted for much of their success, and what surprise had not accomplished had been more than made up for by the ineptitude of the ceremonial troops. Sparhawk concluded that the Cyrgai _looked_ impressive, but that their training over the centuries had become so formalized and detached from reality that it had almost turned into a form of dance instead of a preparation for real combat. Since the Cyrgai could not cross the Styric curse-line, they had not been involved in any real fights for ten thousand years, and so they were hopelessly unprepared for all the nasty little tricks that crop up from time to time in close, hand-to-hand fighting.\n\n'I still don't see how we're going to pull this off,' Talen puffed as he dragged an inert guardsman back into the shadows. 'One look will tell the gate-guards that we're not Cyrgai.'\n\n'We've already discussed that while you were out scouting,' Sparhawk told him. 'Xanetia and Aphrael are going to mix spells again \u2013 the way the Anarae and Sephrenia did back in Matherion. We'll look enough like Cyrgai to get us through the gate \u2013 particularly if the rest of the Cyrgai are as much afraid of these Temple Guardsmen as Xanetia says they are.'\n\n'As long as the subject's come up,' Kalten said, 'after we've bluffed our way past those gate-guards, I want my own face back. We stand a fair chance of getting killed tonight, and I'd like to have my own name on my tombstone. Besides, even if by some chance we succeed, I don't want to startle Alean by coming at her with a stranger's face. After what she's been through, she's entitled to see the real me.'\n\n'I don't have any problem with that,' Sparhawk agreed.\n\n# _Chapter 30_\n\nCaptain Jodral returned just after dark, his loose robe flapping and his eyes wide as he desperately flogged at his horse. 'We're doomed, my General' he shrieked.\n\n'Get control of yourself Jodral!' General Piras snapped. 'What did you see?'\n\n'There are millions of them, General!' Jodral was still on the verge of hysteria.\n\n'Jodral, you've never seen a million of anything! Now, what's out there?'\n\n'They're coming across the Sarna, General,' Jodral replied, trying his best to control his quavering voice. 'The reports about that fleet are true. I saw the ships.'\n\n'Where? We're ten leagues from the coast.'\n\n'They've sailed up the River Sarna, General Piras, and they've lashed their ships together side by side to form bridges.'\n\n'Absurd! The Sarna's five miles wide down here! Talk sense, man!'\n\n'I know what I saw, General. The other scouts will be along shortly to confirm it. Kaftal's in flames. You can see the light of the fire from here.' Jodral turned and pointed south toward a huge, flickering orange glow in the sky above the low coastal hills standing between the Cynesgan forces and the sea.\n\nGeneral Piras swore. This was the third time this week that his scouts had reported a crossing of the lower Sarna or the Verel River, and he had not thus far seen any sign of hostile forces. Under normal circumstances, he'd have simply had his scouts flogged or worse, but these were not normal circumstances. The enemy force that had been harrying the southern coast was made up of the Knights of the Church of Chyrellos \u2013 sorcerers to a man \u2013 who were quite capable of vanishing and then reappearing miles to his rear. Still muttering curses, he summoned his adjutant. 'Sallat!' he snapped. 'Wake up the troops. Tell them to prepare themselves! If those accursed knights _are_ crossing the Sarna here, we'll have to engage them before they can establish a foothold on this side of the river.'\n\n'It's just another ruse, my General,' his adjutant said, looking at Captain Jodral with contempt. 'Every time some idiot sees three fishermen in a boat, we get a report of a crossing.'\n\n'I _know,_ Sallat,' Piras replied, 'but I _have_ to respond. King Jaluah will have my head if I let the Knights get across those rivers.' The General spread his hands helplessly. 'What else can I do?' He swore again. 'Sound the charge, Sallat. Maybe _this_ time we'll find somebody real when we reach the river.'\n\nAlean was trembling violently when Zalasta returned the two captives to the small but now scrupulously clean cell following yet another of those hideous, silent interviews with the bat-winged Kl\u00e6l, but Ehlana felt drained of all emotion. There was a perverse seductiveness to the strangely gentle probing of that infinite mind, and Ehlana always felt violated and befouled when it was over.\n\n'That will be the last time, Ehlana,' Zalasta told her apologetically. 'If it's any comfort to you, he's still baffled by your husband. He cannot understand how any creature with such power would willingly subordinate himself to \u2013' He hesitated.\n\n'To a mere woman, Zalasta?' she suggested wearily.\n\n'No, Ehlana, that's not it. Some of the worlds Kl\u00e6l dominates are wholly ruled by females. Males are kept for breeding purposes only. He simply cannot understand the relationship between you and Sparhawk.'\n\n'You might explain the meaning of love to him, Zalasta,' She paused. 'But you don't understand it yourself, do you?'\n\nHis face went cold. 'Good night, your Majesty,' he said in an unemotional tone. Then he turned and left the cell, closing and locking the door behind him.\n\nEhlana had her ear pressed to the door before the clanging echo of its closing had subsided.\n\n'I do not fear them,' she heard King Santheocles declare.\n\n'Then you're a bigger fool than I thought,' Zalasta told him bluntly. 'All of your allies have been systematically neutralized, and your enemies have you surrounded.'\n\n'We are Cyrgai,' Santheocles insisted. 'No one can stand against us.'\n\nThat may have been true ten thousand years ago when your enemies dressed in furs and charged your lines with flint-tipped spears. Now you face Church Knights armed with steel; you face Atan warriors who can kill your soldiers with their fingertips; you face Peloi who ride through your ranks like the wind; you face Trolls, who not only kill your soldiers, but also eat them. If that weren't bad enough, you face Aphrael, who can stop the sun or turn you to stone. Worst of all, you face Anakha and Bhelliom, and that means that you face obliteration.'\n\n'Mighty Cyrgon will protect us.' Santheocles' voice was set in a willful note of stubborn imbecility.\n\n'Why don't you go talk with Otha of Zemoch, Santheocles?' There was a sneer in Zalasta's voice. 'He'll tell you how the Elder God Azash squealed when Anakha destroyed him.' Zalasta suddenly broke off. _'He comes!'_ he choked. 'Closer than we'd ever thought possible!'\n\n'What are you talking about?' Ekatas demanded.\n\n'Anakha is here!' Zalasta exclaimed. 'Go to your generals, Santheocles! Tell them to call out their troops and order them to scour the streets of Cyrga, for Anakha is within your walls! Hurry, man! Anakha is here, and our deaths stalk the streets with him! Come with me, Ekatas! Cyrgon must be warned, and eternal Kl\u00e6l! The night of decision is upon us!'\n\n_And thou, oh Blue, all cares and griefs shall ban_\n\n_And lift our hearts to heights unknown to mortal man_\n\nElron ticked off the count on his fingers and swore. No matter how he slurred or compressed the words of that last line, it still had one beat too many. He hurled his quill-pen across the room and sank his face into his hands in an artful pose of poetic despair. Elron did that frequently when composing verse.\n\nThen he hopefully raised his face as a thought came to him. He _was_ nearing the final stanzas of his masterpiece, after all, and an Alexandrine _would_ add emphasis. What would the critics say?\n\nElron agonized over the decision. He cursed the day when he had chosen to cast the most important work of his career in heroic couplets. He _hated_ iambics. They were so mercilessly regular and unforgiving, and pentameter was like a chain around his neck, jerking him up short at the end of every line. 'Ode to Blue' hung in the balance while her creator struggled with the sullen intransigencies of form and meter.\n\nElron could not be sure how long the screaming had been going on or exactly when it had started. His mind, caught up in a creative frenzy, had blotted out everything external to that one maddeningly recalcitrant line. The poet rose irritably to his feet and went to the window to look out at the torch-lit streets of Natayos. What _were_ they screaming about?\n\nScarpa's soldiers, ignorant, unwashed serfs for the most part, were running, bawling in terror like so many bleating sheep. What had set them off _this_ time?\n\nElron leaned slightly out to look back up the street. There seemed to be a different kind of light coming from the part of the ruined city that was still buried in tangled brush and creeping vines. Elron frowned. It was most definitely not torchlight. It seemed to be a pale white glow instead, steady, unwavering, and coming from dozens of places at the same time.\n\nThen Elron heard Scarpa's voice rising over the screams. The crazy charlatan was shouting orders of some kind in his most imperial voice. The rabble in the streets, however, were ignoring him. The army was streaming along the cobbled streets of ruined Natayos toward the main gate, pushing, howling, jamming together and struggling to get through that hopelessly clogged gateway. Beyond the gate, Elron saw winking torches streaming off into the surrounding jungle. What in God's name was going on here?\n\nThen his blood suddenly froze. He gaped in horror at the glowing figures emerging from the side-streets of the ruin to stalk implacably along the broad avenue that led to the gate. The Shining Ones who had depopulated Panem-Dea, Norenja and Synaqua had finally descended on Natayos!\n\nThe poet stood frozen for only a moment, and then his mind moved more quickly than he'd have thought possible. Flight was clearly out of the question. The gate was so completely jammed that even those who had already reached it had little chance of forcing their way through. Elron dashed to his writing-table and swatted his candle with the flat of his hand, plunging the room into darkness. If there were no lights in the windows of this upper floor, the horrors that stalked the streets would have no reason to search. Frantically, stumbling in the darkness, he ran from room to room, desperately searching for any other burning candles that might betray his location.\n\nThen, certain that he was safe for the moment at least, the one known throughout Astel as Sabre crept back to his room to fearfully peer around the edge of the window-frame at the street below.\n\nScarpa stood atop a partially-collapsed wall issuing contradictory commands to regiments that evidently only he could see. His threadbare velvet cloak was draped over his shoulders and his makeshift crown was slightly askew.\n\nNot far from where he stood, Cyzada was saying something in his hollow voice \u2013 an incantation of some kind, Elron guessed \u2013 and his fingers were weaving intricate designs in the air. Louder and louder he spoke in guttural Styric, summoning God only knew what horrors to face the silent, glowing figures advancing on him. His voice rose to a screech, and he pawed at the air, frantically exaggerating the gestures.\n\nAnd then one of the incandescent intruders reached him. Cyzada screamed and flinched back violently, but it was too late. The glowing hand had already touched him. He reeled back as if that almost gentle touch had been some massive blow. Staggering, he turned as if to flee, and Elron saw his face.\n\nThe poet retched, clamping his hands over his mouth to hold in any sound that might give away his presence. Cyzada of Esos was dissolving. His already unrecognizable face was sliding down the front of his head like melted wax, and a rapidly-spreading stain was discoloring the front of his white Styric robe. He staggered a few steps toward the still-raving Scarpa, his arms reaching hungrily out toward the madman even as the flesh slid away from those skeletal, outstretched hands. Then the Styric slowly collapsed to the stones, bubbling, seething, his decaying body oozing out through the fabric of his robe.\n\n'Archers to the front!' Scarpa commanded in his rich, theatrical voice. 'Sweep them with arrows!'\n\nElron fell to the floor and scrambled away from the window.\n\n'Cavalry to the flanks!' he heard Scarpa command. 'Sabers at the ready!'\n\nElron crawled toward his writing-table, groping in the dark.\n\n'Imperial guardsmen!' Scarpa bellowed. 'Quicktime, march!'\n\nElron found the leg of the table, reached up and frantically began grabbing at the sheets of paper lying on the table-top.\n\n'First Regiment \u2013 charge!' Scarpa commanded in a great voice.\n\nElron knocked over the table, whimpering in his desperate haste.\n\n'Second Regiment \u2013' Scarpa's voice broke off suddenly, and Elron heard him scream.\n\nThe poet spread his arms, trying to gather the priceless pages of 'Ode to Blue' out of the darkness.\n\nScarpa's voice was shrill now. 'Mother!' he shrieked. 'Pleasepleaseplease!' The resonant voice had become a kind of liquid screech. 'Pleasepleaseplease!' It sounded almost like a man trying to cry out from under water. 'Pleasepleaseplease!' And then the voice wheezed off into a dreadful gurgling silence.\n\nClutching the pages he had found, Sabre abandoned his search for any others, scurried across the room on his hands and knees, and hid under the bed.\n\nBhlokw's expression was reproachful as he shambled back across the night-shrouded gravel. 'Wickedness, U-Iat,' he accused. 'We are pack-mates, and you said a thing to me that was not so.'\n\n'I would not do that, Bhlokw,' Ulath protested.\n\n'You put the thought into my mind-belly that the big things with iron on their faces were good-to-eat. They are _not_ good-to-eat.'\n\n'Were they bad-to-eat, Bhlokw?' Tynian asked sympathetically.\n\n_'Very_ bad-to-eat, Tin-in. I have not tasted anything so bad-to-eat before.'\n\n'I did not know this, Bhlokw,' Ulath tried to apologize. 'It was my thought that they were big enough that one or two might fill your belly.'\n\n'I only ate one,' Bhlokw replied. 'It was so bad-to-eat that I did not want to eat another. Not even Ogres would eat those, and Ogres will eat anything. It makes me not-glad that you said the thing that was not so to me, U-lat.'\n\n'It makes me not-glad as well,' Ulath confessed. 'I said a thing which I did not know. It was wicked of me to do this.'\n\nQueen Betuana drew Tynian aside. 'How long will it take us to reach the Hidden City, Tynian-Knight?' she asked.\n\n'Is your Majesty talking about how long it's really going to take or how long it's going to seem?'\n\n'Both.'\n\n'It's going to _seem_ like weeks, Betuana-Queen, but in actual time, it'll be instantaneous. Ulath and I left Matherion just a few weeks ago in real time, but it seems that we've been on the road for nearly a year. It's very strange, but you get used to it after a while.'\n\n'We must start soon if we are to reach Cyrga by morning.'\n\n'Ulath and I'll have to talk with Ghnomb about that. He's the one who stops time, but he's also the God of Eat. He may not be happy with us. The idea of letting the Trolls kill Kl\u00e6l's soldiers was a good one, but Ghnomb expects them to eat what they kill, and they don't like the taste.'\n\nShe shuddered. 'How can you stand to be around the Troll-beasts, Tynian-Knight? They're horrible creatures.'\n\n'They aren't really so bad, your Majesty,' Tynian defended them. 'They're very moral creatures, you know. They're fiercely loyal to their own packs; they don't even know how to lie; and they won't kill anything unless they intend to eat it \u2013 or unless it attacks them. As soon as Ulath finishes apologizing to Bhlokw, we'll summon Ghnomb and talk with him about stopping time so that we can get to Cyrga.' Tynian made a face. _'That's_ what's going to take a while. You have to be patient when you're trying to explain something to the Troll-Gods.'\n\n'Is that what Ulath-Knight is doing?' she asked curiously. 'Apologizing?'\n\nTynian nodded. 'It's not as easy as it sounds, your Majesty. There's nothing in Trollish that even comes close to \"I'm sorry\", probably because Trolls never do anything that they're ashamed of.'\n\n_'Will_ you be still?' Liatris hissed at the protesting Gahennas. ' They're in the next room right now.'\n\nThe three empresses were hiding in a dark antechamber adjoining the Tegan's private quarters. Liatris stood at the door with her dagger in her hand.\n\nThey waited in tense apprehension.\n\n'They're gone now,' Liatris said. 'We'd better wait for a little while, though.'\n\n'Will you _please_ tell me what's going on?' Gahennas asked.\n\n'Chacole sent some people to kill you,' Elysoun told her. 'Liatris and I found out about it, and came to rescue you.'\n\n'Why would Chacole do that?'\n\n'Because you know too much about what she's planning.'\n\n'That silly plan to implicate Cieronna in a spurious assassination plot?'\n\n'The plot wasn't spurious, and Cieronna wasn't even remotely connected with it. Chacole and Torellia are planning to kill our husband.'\n\n'Treason!' Gahennas gasped.\n\n'Probably not. Chacole and Torellia are members of royal houses currently at war with the Tamul Empire, and they're getting orders from home. The assassination of Sarabian could technically be called an act of war.' Elysoun stopped as a wave of nausea swept over her. 'Oh, dear,' she said in a sick little voice.\n\n'What's wrong?' Liatris demanded.\n\n'It's nothing. It'll pass.'\n\n'Are you sick?'\n\n'Sort of. It's nothing to worry about. I should have eaten something when you woke me up, that's all.'\n\n'You're white as a sheet. What's wrong with you?'\n\n'I'm pregnant, if you really have to know.'\n\n'It was _bound_ to happen eventually, Elysoun,' Gahennas said smugly. 'I'm surprised it didn't happen earlier, the way you carry on. Have you any idea at all of who the father is?'\n\n'Sarabian,' Elysoun replied with a shrug of her shoulders. 'Do you think it's safe to leave now, Liatris? I think we'd better get to our husband as quickly as we can. Chacole wouldn't have sent people to kill Gahennas unless this was the night when she was planning her attempt on Sarabian.'\n\n'She'll have people watching all the doors,' Liatris said.\n\n'Not _all_ the doors, dear,' Elysoun smiled. 'I know of at least three that she's not aware of. You see, Gahennas, there are _some_ advantages to having an active social life. Check the hallway, Liatris. Let's get Gahennas out of here before Chacole's assassins come back.'\n\nThe Cyrgai at the bronze gate stood back fearfully as Sparhawk led the others up the last few steps. _'Yala Cyrgonl'_ the officer in charge said, smashing his fist against his breastplate in a kind of formal salute.\n\n'Respond, Anakha,' Xanetia's voice murmured in Sparhawk's ear. \"Tis customary.'\n\n_'Yala Cyrgonl'_ Sparhawk said, also banging on his chest and being careful not to allow the cloak he'd removed from the unconscious Temple Guardsman to open and reveal the fact that he was wearing his mail-shirt rather than an ornate breastplate.\n\nThe officer seemed not to notice. Sparhawk and the others marched through the gate and moved along a broad street toward a kind of central square. 'Is he still watching?' Sparhawk muttered.\n\n'Nay, Anakha,' Xanetia replied. 'He and his men have returned to the guardroom beside the gate.'\n\nIt had appeared from below that the only buildings within the walls at the summit of Cyrga were the fortress-palace and the temple, but that was not entirely true. There were other structures as well, low, utilitarian-looking buildings, storehouses for the most part, Sparhawk guessed. 'Talen,' he said back over his shoulder, 'ease over to the side of the street. Find a door you can get open in a hurry. Let's get out of sight while Xanetia scouts around.'\n\n'Right,' Talen replied. He ducked into the shadows and a moment later they heard his whisper and quickly moved to the door he was holding open for them.\n\n'Now what?' Kalten asked.\n\n'Xanetia and I go looking for Ehlana and Alean,' Aphrael's voice replied out of the darkness.\n\n'Where were you?' Talen asked curiously. 'When we were coming up the hill, I mean?'\n\n'Here and there,' she replied. 'My family's moving all the others into position, and I wanted to be sure everything's going according to schedule.'\n\n'Is it?'\n\n'It is now. There were a couple of problems, but I took care of them. Let's get at this, Xanetia. We still have a lot to do before morning.'\n\n'Ah, _there_ they are,' Setras said. 'I wasn't really all _that_ far off, now was I?'\n\n'Are you _sure_ this time?' Bergsten demanded.\n\n'You're cross with me, aren't you, Bergsten?'\n\nBergsten sighed, and decided to let it pass. 'No, Divine One,' he replied. 'We all make mistakes, I guess.'\n\n'That's frightfully decent of you, old boy,' Setras thanked him. 'We were moving in _generally_ the right direction. I was just off a few degrees, that's all.'\n\n'Are you _certain_ those are the right peaks this time, Divine One?' Heldin rumbled.\n\n'Oh, absolutely,' Setras said happily. 'They're exactly as Aphrael described them. You notice how they glow in the moonlight?'\n\nHeldin squinted across the desert at the two glowing spires rearing up out of the dark jumble of broken rock. 'They _look_ about right,' he said dubiously.\n\n'I have to go find the gate,' Setras told them. 'It's supposed to be exactly on a line from the gap between the two peaks.'\n\n'Are you _sure,_ Divine One?' Bergsten asked. 'It's that way on the south side, but do we know for certain that it's the same here on the north?'\n\n'You've never met Cyrgon, have you, old boy? He's the most rigid creature you've ever seen. If there's a gate on the south, there'll be one on the north as well, believe me. Don't go away. I'll be right back.' He turned and strolled off across the desert toward the two peaks glowing in the moonlight.\n\nAtana Maris was standing to one side of Bergsten and Heldin with a slightly troubled look on her face.\n\n'What's the matter, Atana?' Heldin asked her.\n\n'I think there is something I do not understand, Heldin-Knight,' she replied, struggling to put her thought into Elenic. The Setras person is a God?'\n\n'A Styric God, yes.'\n\n'If he is a God, how did he get lost?'\n\n'We're not certain, Atana Maris.'\n\n'That is what I do not understand. If Setras-God were a human, I would say that he is stupid. But he is a God, so he cannot be stupid, can he?'\n\n'I think you'd better take that up with his Grace here,' Heldin replied. 'I'm only a soldier. He's the expert on theology.'\n\n'Thanks, Heldin,' Bergsten said in a flat tone of voice.\n\n'If he _is_ stupid, Bergsten-Priest, how can we be certain that he's brought us to the right place?'\n\n'We have to trust Aphrael, Atana. Setras may be a little uncertain about things, but Aphrael isn't, and she talked with him for quite some time, as I recall.'\n\n'Speaking slowly,' Heldin added, 'and using short, simple words.'\n\n'Is it possible, Bergsten-Priest?' Maris asked insistently. _'Can_ a God be stupid?'\n\nBergsten looked at her helplessly. _'Ours_ isn't,' he evaded, 'and I'm sure yours isn't either.'\n\n'You didn't answer my question, Bergsten.'\n\n'You're right, Atana,' he replied. 'I didn't \u2013 and I'm not going to, either. If you're really curious, I'll take you to Chyrellos when this is all over, and you can ask Dolmant.'\n\n'Bravely spoken, Lord Bergsten,' Heldin murmured.\n\n'Shut up, Heldin.'\n\n'Yes, your Grace.'\n\nSparhawk, Bevier and Kalten stood at a small, barred window in the musty-smelling warehouse looking out at the fortress-like palace rearing above the rest of the city. 'That's really archaic,' Bevier said critically.\n\n'It looks strong enough to me,' Kalten said.\n\n'They've built the main structure of the palace right up against the outer wall, Kalten. It saves building two walls, but it compromises the structural integrity of the fortress. Give me a couple of months and some good catapults, and I could pound the whole thing to pieces.'\n\n'I don't think catapults had been invented when they built it, Bevier,' Sparhawk said. 'It was probably the strongest fort in the world ten thousand years ago.' He looked out at the gloomy, rearing pile. As Bevier had noted, the main structure was backed up against the wall that separated this part of Cyrga from the rest of the city. Shorter towers stair-stepped up to the large central tower that shouldered high above the rest of the palace and grew, or so it seemed, out of the wall itself. It appeared that the palace had not been built to look out over the city, but rather to face the white limestone temple. The Cyrgai clearly looked at their God, and turned their backs on the rest of the world.\n\nThe door which Talen had unlocked to provide them entry into this storehouse creaked as it opened and then closed. Then the soft glow of Xanetia's face once again dimly illuminated the area around her.\n\n'We've found them,' the Child Goddess said as the Anarae set her down on the flagstoned floor.\n\nSparhawk's heart leaped. 'Are they all right?'\n\n'They haven't been treated very well. They're tired and hungry and very much afraid. Zalasta took them to see Kl\u00e6l, and that's enough to frighten anybody.'\n\n'Where are they?' Mirtai demanded intently.\n\n'At the very top of that highest tower at the back of the palace.'\n\n'Did you talk with them?' Kalten asked intently.\n\nAphrael shook her head. 'I didn't think it was a good idea. What they don't know about, they can't talk about.'\n\n'Anarae,' Bevier said thoughtfully, 'would the soldiers in the palace let Temple Guardsmen move around freely in there?'\n\n'Nay, Sir Knight. The Cyrgai are much driven by custom, and Temple Guardsmen have little cause to enter the palace.'\n\n'I guess we can discard these, then,' Kalten said, pulling off the ornate bronze helmet and dark cloak he had purloined in the lower city. He touched his cheek. 'We still look like Cyrgai. We could steal some different uniforms and then just march in, couldn't we?'\n\nXanetia shook her head. 'The soldiers within the palace are all kinsmen, members of the royal clan, and are all known to one another. Subterfuge would be far too perilous.'\n\n'We've _got_ to come up with a way to get into that tower!' Kalten said desperately.\n\n'I already have,' Mirtai told him calmly. 'It's dangerous, but I think it's the only way.'\n\n'Go ahead,' Sparhawk told her.\n\n'We might be able to sneak up through the palace, but if we're discovered, we'd have to fight, and that'd put Ehlana and Alean in immediate danger.'\n\nSparhawk nodded bleakly. 'It's just too dangerous to risk,' he agreed.\n\n'All right, then. If we can't go _through_ the palace, we'll have to go up the outside.'\n\n'You mean climb the tower?' Kalten asked incredulously.\n\n'It's not as difficult as it sounds, Kalten. Those walls aren't built of marble, so they aren't smooth. They're rough stone blocks, and there are plenty of hand-holds and places to put your feet. I could climb that back wall like a ladder, if I had to.'\n\n'I'm not really very graceful, Mirtai,' he said dubiously. 'I'll do anything at all to rescue Alean, but I won't be much good to her if I make a misstep and fall five hundred feet into the lower city.'\n\n'We have ropes, Kalten. I'll keep you from falling. Talen can scamper up a wall like a squirrel, and I can climb almost as well. If we had Stragen and Caalador along, they'd be halfway up the side of that tower by now.'\n\n'Mirtai,' Bevier said in a pained voice, 'we're wearing mail-shirts. Climbing a sheer wall with seventy pounds of steel hanging from your shoulders might be a little challenging.'\n\n'Then take the mail-shirt off, Bevier.'\n\n'I might need it when I get up on top.'\n\n'No problem,' Talen assured him. 'We'll bundle them all together and pull them up behind us. I _do_ sort of like it, Sparhawk. It's quiet; it's fairly fast; and there probably won't be any guards going hand-over-hand around the outside of the tower looking for intruders. Mirtai's had training from Stragen and Caalador, and I was born for burglary. She and I can do the real climbing. We'll drop ropes down to the rest of you at various stages along the way, and you can haul up the mail-shirts and swords behind you. We can get to the top of that tower in no time at all. We can do it, Sparhawk. It'll be easy.'\n\n'I can't really think of any alternatives,' Sparhawk conceded dubiously.\n\n'Let's do it then,' Mirtai said abruptly. 'Let's get Ehlana and Alean out of there, and once they're safe, we can start to take this place apart.'\n\n_'After_ I get my real face back,' Kalten added adamantly. 'Alean's entitled to _that_ much consideration.'\n\n'Let's do that right now, Xanetia,' Aphrael said. 'Kalten will nag us about it all night if we don't.'\n\n'Nag?' Kalten objected.\n\n'What color was your hair again, Kalten? Purple, wasn't it?' she asked him with an impish little smile.\n\n# _Chapter 31_\n\nThere were deep shadows along the western side of the Women's Palace when Elysoun, Liatris and Gahennas emerged through the little-used door and moved quickly through the darkness to take cover in a nearby grove of ornamental evergreens. 'This is going to be the dangerous part,' Liatris cautioned in a low voice. 'Chacole knows by now that her assassins weren't able to find Gahennas, and she's certain to have her people out to try to prevent us from reaching Ehlana's castle.'\n\nElysoun looked out at the moon-drenched lawn. 'That's impossible,' she said. 'It's just too bright. There's a path that goes on through this grove. It comes out near the Ministry of the Interior.'\n\n'That's the wrong direction, Elysoun,' Gahennas protested. 'The Elene castle's the other way.'\n\n'Yes, I know, but there's no cover. There's nothing between here and the castle but open lawn. We'd better stick to the shadows. If we go around on the other side of Interior, we'll be able to go through the grounds of the Foreign Ministry. It's only about fifty yards from there to the drawbridge of the castle.'\n\n'What if the drawbridge has been raised?'\n\n'We'll worry about that when we get there, Gahennas. But we have to get into the gardens around the Foreign Ministry first.'\n\n'Let's go then, ladies,' Liatris said abruptly. 'We're not accomplishing anything by standing around talking. Let's go find out what we're up against.'\n\n'Back here,' Talen whispered to them, coming out of a narrow alleyway. 'The palace wall runs back to the place where it joins the outer fortifications at the end of this alley. The right angle where the two walls meet is perfect for climbing.'\n\n'Will you need this?' Mirtai asked, holding her grappling hook out to him.\n\n'No. I can make it to the top without it, and we'd better not risk having some sentry up there hear the hook banging on the stones.' He led them back along the alley to the cul-de-sac where the palace wall butted up against the imposing fortifications separating the compound from the rest of the city.\n\n'How high would you say it is?' Kalten asked, squinting upward. It was strange to see Kalten's face again after all the weeks it had been disguised. Sparhawk tentatively touched his own face and immediately recognized the familiar contours of his broken nose.\n\n'Thirty feet or so,' Bevier replied softly to Kalten's question.\n\nMirtai was examining the angle formed by the joining of the two walls. 'This won't be very difficult,' she whispered.\n\n'The whole structure's poorly designed,' Bevier agreed critically.\n\n'I'll go up first,' Talen said.\n\n'Don't do anything foolish up there,' Mirtai cautioned.\n\n'Trust me.' He set his foot up on one of the protruding stones of the outer wall and reached for a hand-hold on the palace wall. He went up quickly.\n\n'We'll check for sentries when we get up there,' Mirtai quietly told the others. 'Then we'll drop a rope down to you.' She reached up and began to follow the young thief up the angle between the two walls.\n\nBevier leaned back and looked upward. \"The moon's all the way up now,' he said.\n\n'Thinkest thou that it might reveal us?' Xanetia asked him.\n\n'No, Anarae. We'll be climbing the north side of the tower, so we'll be in shadow the whole way to the top.'\n\nThey waited tensely, craning their necks to watch the climbers creeping upward.\n\n'Somebody's coming!' Kalten hissed. 'Up there \u2013 along the battlements!'\n\nThe climbers stopped, pulling back into the shadows of the sharp angle between the two walls.\n\n'He's got a torch,' Kalten whispered. 'If he holds it out over those battlements \u2013' he left it hanging.\n\nSparhawk held his breath.\n\n'It's all right now,' Bevier said. 'He's going back.'\n\n'We might want to deal with him when we get up there,' Kalten noted.\n\n'Not if we can avoid it,' Sparhawk disagreed. 'We don't want somebody else to come looking for him.'\n\nTalen had reached the battlements. He clung to the rough stones for a moment, listening. Then he slipped over the top and out of sight. After several interminable moments, Mirtai followed him.\n\nSparhawk and the others waited in the darkness.\n\nThen Mirtai's rope came slithering down the wall.\n\n'Let's go,' Sparhawk said tensely. 'One at a time.'\n\nThe building-blocks were of rough, square-fractured basalt, and they protruded unevenly from the walls, making climbing much simpler than it appeared. Sparhawk didn't even bother to use the rope. He reached the top and clambered over the battlements. 'Do the sentries have any kind of set routine up here?' he asked Mirtai.\n\n'It seems that each one has his own section of wall,' she replied. 'The one at this end doesn't walk very fast. I'm guessing, but I'd say that it'll be a quarter of an hour before he comes back.'\n\n'Is there any place where we can take cover before then?'\n\n'There's a door in that first tower,' Talen said, pointing at the squat structure rising at the end of the parapet. 'It opens onto a stairwell.'\n\n'Have you taken a look at the back wall yet?'\n\nTalen nodded. 'There's no parapet along that side, but there's a ledge a couple of feet wide where the outer wall joins the back of the palace. We'll be able to make our way along that until we get on that central tower. Then we get to start climbing.'\n\n'Does the sentry look back there when he reaches this end of the parapet?'\n\n'He didn't last time,' Mirtai said.\n\n'Let's look at that stairwell, then,' Sparhawk decided. 'As soon as the others are up, we'll hide in there until the sentry reaches this end and starts back. That should give us a half-hour to crawl along that ledge to the central tower. Even if he looks around the corner next time, we should be out of the range of his torch by then.'\n\n'He's right on top of these things, isn't he?' Talen said gaily to Mirtai.\n\n'What _is_ this boy's problem?' Sparhawk demanded of the golden giantess.\n\n'There's a certain kind of excitement involved in this, Dorlin',' Mirtai replied. 'It sets the blood to pounding.'\n\n'Dorlin'?'\n\n'Professional joke, Sparhawk. You probably wouldn't understand.'\n\nVanion's scouts had returned about sunset to report contact with Kring to the south and Queen Betuana's Atans to the north. The ring of steel around the Forbidden Mountains was drawing inexorably tighter. The moon was rising over the desert when Betuana and Engessa came running in from Vanion's right flank and Kring and Tikume rode in from the left.\n\n'Tynian-Knight will be along soon, Vanion-Preceptor,' Engessa reported. 'He and Ulath-Knight have spoken with Bergsten-Priest on _their_ right. Ulath-Knight has remained with the Trolls to try to prevent incidents.'\n\n'Incidents?' Sephrenia asked.\n\n'The Trolls are hungry. Ulath-Knight gave them a regiment of the Kl\u00e6l-beasts to eat, but the flavor did not please the Trolls. Ulath-Knight tried to apologize, but I am not sure if the Trolls understood.'\n\n'Have you seen Berit and Khalad yet, friend Vanion?' Kring asked.\n\n'No, but Aphrael said that they're just ahead of us. Her cousin guided them to the spot where that hidden gate's supposed to be.'\n\n'If they know where the gate is, we could go on in,' Betuana suggested.\n\n'We'd better wait, dear,' Sephrenia replied. 'Aphrael will let me know as soon as Sparhawk rescues Ehlana and Alean.'\n\nTynian came riding across the vast open graveyard. 'Bergsten's in place,' he reported, swinging down out of his saddle. He looked at Itagne. I have a message for you, your Excellency.'\n\n'Oh? From whom?'\n\n'Atana Maris is with Bergsten. She wants to talk with you.'\n\nItagne's eyes widened. 'What's _she_ doing here?' he exclaimed.\n\n'She said that your letters must have gone astray. Not a single one of them reached her. You _did_ write to her, didn't you, your Excellency?'\n\n'Well \u2013 I was intending to.' Itagne looked slightly embarrassed. 'Something always seemed to come up, though.'\n\n'I'm sure she'll understand,' Tynian's face was blandly expressionless. 'Anyway, after she handed the city of Cynestra over to Bergsten, she decided to come looking for you.'\n\nItagne's expression was slightly worried. 'I hadn't counted on that,' he confessed.\n\n'What's this?' Betuana asked curiously.\n\n'Ambassador Itagne and Atana Maris became good friends while he was in Cynestra, your Majesty,' Sephrenia explained. _'Very_ good friends, actually.'\n\n'Ah,' Betuana said. 'It's a little unusual, but it's not unheard of, and Maris has always been an impulsive girl.' Although the Atan Queen still wore deep mourning, she seemed to have abandoned her ritual silence. 'A word of advice, Itagne-Ambassador \u2013 if you'd care to hear it.'\n\n'Of course, your Majesty.'\n\n'It's not at all wise to toy with the affections of an Atan woman. It might not seem so, but we're very emotional. Sometimes we form attachments that aren't really appropriate.' She did not look at Engessa as she said it. 'Appropriate or not, however, those emotions are extremely powerful, and once the attachment is formed, there's very little we can do about it.'\n\n'I see,' he said. 'I'll definitely keep that in mind, your Majesty.'\n\n'Do you want me to go find Berit and Khalad and bring them back here, friend Vanion?' Kring asked.\n\nVanion considered it. 'We'd better stay away from that gate,' he decided. 'The Cyrgai might be watching. Berit and Khalad are _supposed_ to be there, but we aren't. Let's not stir anything up until Sparhawk sends word that his wife's safe. Then we'll _all_ go in. There are a number of accounts that are long past due, and I think the time's coming when we'll want to settle up.'\n\n* * *\n\nThe ledge that ran along the back of the palace made reaching the central tower a matter of hardly more than a casual stroll. It still took time, however, and Sparhawk was acutely aware of the fact that the night was already more than half over. Mirtai and Talen moved up the side of the tower quickly, but the rest of them, roped together for safety, made much slower progress.\n\nSparhawk was peering upward when Kalten joined him. 'Where's Aphrael?' the blond Pandion asked quietly.\n\n'Everywhere. Didn't she tell you?'\n\n'Very funny, Sparhawk.' Kalten looked off toward the east. 'Are we going to make it before it starts getting light?'\n\n'It could be close. There seems to be some kind of balcony just above us \u2013 and lit windows.'\n\n'Are we going around them?'\n\n'I'll have Talen take a look. If there aren't too many Cyrgai in the room, we might be able to finish this climb inside.'\n\n'Let's not take chances, Sparhawk. I'll climb all the way to the moon if I have to. Go on up. I've got the rope tied off.'\n\n'Right.' Sparhawk started up again. A slight breeze had come up, brushing the basalt wall with tenuous fingers. It was not strong enough to pose any dangers as yet, but Sparhawk definitely didn't want it getting any stronger.\n\n'You're out of condition, Sparhawk,' Mirtai told him critically when he reached the spot just below where she and Talen clung to the wall.\n\n'Nobody's perfect. Can you make out any details of that balcony yet?'\n\n'I was just going to swing over and have a look,' Talen replied. He untied the rope from about his waist and began working his way across the wall toward the balcony.\n\n'You're making me cross, Sparhawk.' Aphrael's voice seemed very loud in the silence of his mind. 'I have plans for that young man, and they _don't_ include scraping him up off a street five hundred feet below.'\n\n'He knows what he's doing. You worry too much. As long as you're here, could you give me a few details about the top of this tower?'\n\n'There's a separate building up there \u2013 probably an afterthought of some kind. It's got three rooms: a guardroom for the platoon or so of ceremonial troops, the cell where Mother and Alean are being held, and a large room across the front. Santheocles spends most of his time there.'\n\n'Santheocles?'\n\n'The King of the Cyrgai. He's an idiot. They all are, but he's worse than most.'\n\n'Is there a window in Ehlana's cell?'\n\n'A small one. It's barred, but you couldn't get through it anyway. The building up there is smaller than the rest of this tower, so there's a kind of parapet that runs all the way round it.'\n\n'Do those guards patrol it?'\n\n'No. There's no real need for that. It's the highest place in the city, and the notion that somebody might scale the tower has never occurred to the Cyrgai.'\n\n'Is Santheocles up there right now?'\n\n'He _was,_ but I think he might have left since I looked in through the window. Zalasta was with him \u2013 and Ekatas. There was some sort of gathering they were planning to attend.'\n\nThere was a low whistle, and Sparhawk looked toward the balcony. Talen was motioning to him. 'I'm going to go and have a look,' Sparhawk told Mirtai.\n\n'Don't be too long,' she cautioned. 'The night's starting to run out on us.'\n\nHe grunted and started across toward the balcony.\n\n* * *\n\nThe drawbridge was down, and no one was standing watch. 'How very convenient,' Elysoun said as she, Liatris and Gahennas crossed the bridge into the courtyard of the castle. 'Chacole thinks of everything, doesn't she?'\n\n'I thought there were supposed to be Church Knights on guard here,' Gahennas said. 'Chacole couldn't bribe _them,_ could she?'\n\n'Lord Vanion took his knights with him,' Liatris replied. 'The responsibility for guarding the castle's been turned over to ceremonial troops from the main garrison. Some officer is probably quite a bit richer than he was yesterday. You've been here before, Elysoun. Where can we find our husband?'\n\n'He's usually up on the second floor. There are royal apartments there.'\n\n'We'd better get up there in a hurry. That unguarded gate makes me very nervous. I doubt that we'd be able to find a guard anywhere in the castle, and that means that Chacole's assassins have free access to Sarabian.'\n\nThe balcony appeared not to have been used for at least a generation. Dust lay deep in the corners, and the thick crust of bird-droppings on the floor was undisturbed. Talen was crouched beside the window, peering round the edge, when Sparhawk came up over the stone balustrade. 'Is there anybody in there?' the big Pandion whispered.\n\n'A whole crowd,' Talen whispered back. 'Zalasta just came in with a couple of Cyrgai.'\n\nSparhawk joined his young friend and looked in.\n\nThe room appeared to be some kind of torch-lit audience hall or throne-room. The balcony where Sparhawk and Talen crouched was above the level of the floor and was reached from the inside by a flight of stone stairs. There was a slightly raised dais at the far end of the room with a throne carved from a single rock at the back of it. A well-muscled, handsome man in an ornate breastplate and a short leather kirtle sat on the throne surveying the men around him with an imperious expression. Zalasta stood to one side of the man on the throne, and a wrinkled man in an ornamented black robe was at the front of the dais speaking in his own language. Sparhawk swore and quickly cast the spell.\n\n'Now what?' Aphrael's voice sounded in his mind.\n\n'Can you translate for me?'\n\n'I can do better than that.'\n\nHe seemed to hear a faint buzzing sound and felt a momentary giddiness.\n\n'... and even now those forces do surround the sacred city,' the wrinkled man was saying in a language Sparhawk now understood.\n\nA man with iron-grey hair and powerfully muscled arms stepped forward from the gathering before the dais. 'What is there to fear, Ekatas?' he asked in a booming voice. 'Mighty Cyrgon clouds the eyes of our enemies as he has for a hundred centuries. Let them crouch among the bones beyond our valley and seek vainly the Gates of Illusion. They are as blind men and pose no danger to the Hidden City.'\n\nThere was a murmur of agreement from the others standing before the dais.\n\n'General Ospados speaks truth,' another armored man declared, also stepping forward. 'Let us, as we have always, ignore these puny foreigners at our gates.'\n\n'Shameful!' another bellowed, stepping to the front some distance from the two who had already spoken. 'Will we hide from inferior races? Their presence at our gates is an affront that must be punished!'\n\n'Can you make out what they're saying?' Talen whispered.\n\n'They're arguing,' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'Really?' Talen's tone was sardonic. 'Could you be a little more specific, Sparhawk?'\n\n'Evidently Aphrael's cousins have managed to get everybody here. From what the fellow in the black robe was saying, the city's surrounded.'\n\n'It's a comfort to have friends nearby. What do these people plan to do about it?'\n\nThat's what they're arguing about. Some of them want to just sit tight. Others want to attack.'\n\nThen Zalasta came to the front of the dais. 'Thus says Eternal Kl\u00e6l,' he declared. 'The forces beyond the Gates of Illusion are as nothing. The danger is here within the walls of the Hidden City. Anakha is even now within the sound of my voice.'\n\nSparhawk swore.\n\n'What's wrong?' Talen demanded.\n\n'Zalasta knows we're here.'\n\n'How did he find _that_ out?'\n\n'I have no idea. He says that he's speaking for Kl\u00e6l, and Kl\u00e6l can probably feel Bhelliom.'\n\n'Even through the gold?'\n\n'The gold might hide Bhelliom from Cyrgon, but Bhelliom and Kl\u00e6l are brothers. They can probably feel each other halfway across the universe \u2013 even when there are whole suns burning between them.' Sparhawk held up his hand. 'He's saying something else.' He leaned closer to the window.\n\n'I know you can hear me, Sparhawk!' Zalasta said in a loud voice, speaking in Elenic. 'You're Bhelliom's creature, and that gives you a certain amount of power. But I am Kl\u00e6l's now, and that gives me just as much as you have.' Zalasta sneered. 'The disguises were very clever, but Kl\u00e6l saw through them immediately. You should have done as you were told, Sparhawk. You've doomed your two young friends, and there's not a single thing you can do about it.'\n\nThere were a half-dozen men in nondescript clothing in the hallway outside the door to the room where the Emperor had been the last time Elysoun had visited him. Elysoun did not even think. 'Sarabian!' she shouted. 'Lock your door!'\n\nThe Emperor, of course, did not. After a momentary shocked pause while the assassins froze in their tracks and Liatris blistered the air around her with curses even as she drew her daggers, the door burst open and Sarabian, dressed in Elene hose, a full-sleeved linen shirt, and with his long, black hair tied back, lunged out into the hallway, rapier in hand.\n\nSarabian was tall for a Tamul, and his first lunge pinned an assassin to the wall opposite the door. The Emperor whipped his sword free of the suddenly collapsing body with a dramatic flourish.\n\n'Quit showing off!' Liatris snapped at her husband as she neatly ripped one of the assassins up the middle. 'Pay attention!'\n\n'Yes, my love,' Sarabian said gaily, crouching again into _en garde._\n\nElysoun had only a small, neat dagger with a five-inch blade. It was long enough, though. An Arjuni assassin with a foot-long poniard parried Sarabian's next thrust and, snarling spitefully, rushed forward with his needle-like dagger directed at the Emperor's very eyes. Then he arched back with a choked cry. Elysoun's little knife, sharp as any razor, had plunged smoothly into the small of his back, ripping into his kidneys.\n\nIt was Gahennas, however, who startled and shocked them all. Her weapon was a slim, curved knife. With a shrill scream, the jug-eared Tegan Empress flew into the middle of the fray, slashing at the faces of Chacole's hired killers. Screeching, Gahennas hacked at the startled assailants, and Sarabian took advantage of every lapse. His thin blade whistled as he danced the deadly dance of thrust and recover. This is not to say that the Emperor of Tamuli was a master swordsman. He _was_ fairly skilled, but Stragen might have found room for criticism. In truth, it was the wives who carried the day \u2013 or night, in this case.\n\n'Inside, my dear ones,' Sarabian said, thrusting his savage women toward the door while he slashed at the empty air over the fallen assassins. 'I'll cover your backs.'\n\n'Oh, dear,' Liatris murmured to Elysoun and Gahennas. 'He's such a baby.'\n\n'Yes, Liatris,' Elysoun replied, wrapping one arm affectionately about her ugly Tegan sister, 'but he's ours.'\n\n'Kring's coming,' Khalad said quietly, pointing at the shadowy horseman galloping across the bone-littered gravel in the moonlight.\n\n'That's not a good idea,' Berit said, frowning. 'Somebody might be watching.'\n\nThe Domi reached them and reined in sharply 'Come away!' he hissed.\n\n'What's wrong?' Berit demanded.\n\n'The Child Goddess says for you to come back to where the others are! The Cyrgai are coming out to kill you.'\n\n'I was wondering how long it was going to take them to decide to try that,' Khalad said, swinging up into his saddle. 'Let's go, Berit.'\n\nBerit nodded, reaching for Faran's reins. 'Is Lord Vanion going to do anything when the Cyrgai come out?' he asked Kring.\n\nKring's answering grin was wolfish. 'Friend Ulath has a little surprise for them when they come through the gate,' he replied.\n\nBerit looked around. 'Where is he?' he asked. 'I don't see him.'\n\n'Neither will the Cyrgai \u2013 until it's too late. Let's get back away from this cliff. We'll let them see us. They've been ordered to kill you, so they'll come running after us. Friend Ulath has six or eight very hungry Trolls with him, and they'll be right on top of the Cyrgai when they come out.'\n\n'Did he know where you were?' Kalten asked tensely as they clung to the wall.\n\n'I don't think so,' Sparhawk replied. 'He knows that I'm somewhere in the city, but there are several ways I could be listening to him. I don't think he realized just how close I was when he started making threats.'\n\n'Are Berit and Khalad going to be all right?'\n\nSparhawk nodded. 'Aphrael was with me when Zalasta made his little speech. She's taking care of it.'\n\n'All right, Sparhawk,' Mirtai called from above them, 'here comes the rope.'\n\nThe free end of the rope came slithering down out of the dimness above them, and Sparhawk quickly climbed up. 'How much further?' he asked quietly when he reached Mirtai's side.\n\n'About one more climb,' she replied. 'Talen's already up there.'\n\n'He should have waited,' Sparhawk fumed. 'I'm going to have to have a talk with that boy.'\n\n'It won't do any good. Talen likes to take chances. Is Kalten still dragging our equipment behind him? I'd hate to get up there and have to deal with things with my fingernails.'\n\n'He's hauling it up \u2013 stage by stage.' Sparhawk peered up the wall.\n\n'Why don't you let me go on ahead this time? Get the others up there as quickly as you can. We've still got a lot left to do, and this night won't last forever.'\n\nShe gestured up the rough stone wall. 'Feel free,' she said.\n\n'I don't know if I've ever said this,' he told her, 'but I'm glad you came along. You're probably the best soldier I've ever known.'\n\n'Don't get emotional, Sparhawk. It's embarrassing. Are you going to go up the wall? Or did you want to wait for the sun to come up?'\n\nHe started up, moving carefully. It was to their advantage that the north side of the tower was in shade, but the deep shadows made it necessary to feel for each hand-hold and to carefully probe with his toes for places to put his feet. He concentrated on the climbing and resisted the impulse to lean back to look at the wall above and the sharp line of the edge of the parapet some fifty feet further up.\n\n'What kept you?' Talen whispered as the big Pandion clambered over the top of the balustrade marking the edge of the parapet.\n\n'I stopped to smell the flowers,' Sparhawk replied acidly. He looked quickly toward the east and saw the faint light of false dawn outlining the mountains. They had at most one more hour of darkness left. 'No sentries, I gather?' he whispered.\n\n'No,' Talen replied quietly. 'The Cyrgai evidently feel that they need their sleep.'\n\n'Sparhawk?' Kalten's whisper came from below.\n\n'Up here.'\n\n'Take the baggage.' A coil of rope came unwinding up out of the darkness.\n\n'Give me a hand with this, Talen.' He leaned over the stone railing. 'Get clear of it,' he called down softly to Kalten. 'We're going to pull it up.'\n\nKalten grunted, and they could hear him moving across the wall to one side. Then Sparhawk and Talen slowly pulled the awkward, bulky bundle up to the top of the tower, being careful not to let it bang against the stones of the wall. Sparhawk quickly retrieved his sword and then fumbled through the mail-shirts, searching for his own.\n\nKalten was puffing as he climbed up over the railing. 'Why did you let me get so badly out of shape, Sparhawk?' he asked accusingly.\n\nSparhawk shrugged. 'Careless, I guess. Ah, here it is.' He lifted his own mail-shirt free of the others.\n\n'How can you tell?' Talen asked curiously. 'In the dark, I mean?'\n\n'I've worn it for over twenty years. Believe me, I recognize it. See how the others are coming.'\n\nTalen went to the rail and helped Xanetia onto the parapet while Bevier and Mirtai clambered over on their own.\n\nIt took only a couple of minutes for the knights to re-arm themselves. 'Where did Talen go?' Kalten whispered, looking around.\n\n'He's snooping,' Mirtai replied, settling her sword-belt into place.\n\n'I think it's called scouting,' Bevier corrected her.\n\nShe shrugged. 'Whatever.'\n\nThen Talen came back. 'I think I found what we're looking for,' he said softly. 'There's a small window with a sort of iron grate over it. It's up high, so I didn't look in.'\n\n'Is Aphrael coming back?' Bevier asked. 'Should we wait for her?'\n\nSparhawk shook his head. 'It's going to start getting light before long. Aphrael knows what we're doing. She's making sure the others are all in place.'\n\nTalen led them around to the east side of the tower. 'Up there,' he whispered, pointing at a small, barred window about ten feet up the side of the rough wall.\n\n'Do any of the windows on the front side have bars?' Sparhawk asked him.\n\n'No, and they're bigger and closer to the floor.'\n\n'That's it then.' Sparhawk fought back an urge to shout with exultation. 'Aphrael described that window to me.'\n\nKalten squinted up at the iron-grated window high in the wall. 'Let's make sure of this before we start to celebrate.' He braced his hands on the wall and set his feet wide apart. 'Climb up and take a look, Sparhawk.'\n\n'Right.' Sparhawk put his hands on his friend's arms and climbed up his broad back. He set his feet carefully on Kalten's shoulders and slowly straightened, reaching up to grasp the rusty grating that covered the window. He pulled his face up and peered into the darkness. 'Ehlana?' he called softly.\n\n_'Sparhawk?'_ Her voice was startled.\n\n'Please keep your voice down. Are you all right?'\n\n'I am now. How did you get here?'\n\n'It's a long story. Is Alean there too?'\n\n'Right here, Prince Sparhawk,' the girl's silvery voice replied. 'Is Kalten with you?'\n\n'I'm standing on his shoulders right now. Can you make a light of any kind?'\n\n'Absolutely not!' Ehlana's voice was stricken.\n\n'What's wrong?'\n\n'They've cut off all my hair, Sparhawk!' she moaned. I don't want you to look at me!'\n\n# _Chapter 32_\n\nTalen dropped back to the parapet from the small window. 'I can get through it,' he whispered confidently.\n\n'What about that iron grate?' Kalten demanded.\n\n'It's ornamental. It wasn't very good to begin with, and it's been there for at least a couple of centuries. It won't take long to work it loose.'\n\n'Let's hold off until Xanetia gets back,' Sparhawk decided. 'I want to know what we're up against before we start crashing around.'\n\n'I'm not trying to be offensive,' Mirtai said softly to Talen, 'but I don't see what good it's going to do us to have you inside the cell when the fighting starts and half a dozen Cyrgai rush into the cell to kill Ehlana and Alean.'\n\n'It's on accounta the fact that they ain't a-gonna _git_ in the cell, Dorlin',' he said with an outrageous grin. 'The door's locked.'\n\n'They've got a key.'\n\n'Give me about a half a minute with the lock, and their key won't fit. They won't get in; trust me.'\n\n'Are there alternatives?' Bevier asked.\n\n'Not in the amount of time we've got left before it starts getting light,' Sparhawk replied with a worried glance at the eastern horizon. 'Kalten, go up and have a look at that grating.'\n\n'Right.' The blond Pandion climbed up to the small window, took hold of the ancient iron lattice in both hands and started to heave on it. Crumbs and fragments of mortar began to shower down on the rest of them.\n\n'Quietly!' Mirtai hissed at him.\n\n'It's already loose,' he reported in a hoarse whisper. 'The mortar's rotten.' He stopped wrenching at the bars and leaned closer to the window. 'Ehlana wants to talk to you, Sparhawk,' he called down softly.\n\nSparhawk climbed back up to the window. 'Yes, love?' he whispered into the darkness.\n\n'What are you planning, Sparhawk?' she murmured, her voice so near that it seemed he could almost touch her.\n\n'We're going to pull the bars loose, and then Talen's going to crawl through the window. He'll jam the lock so the people outside can't get into the cell. Then the rest of us will rush the guards. Is Zalasta out there anywhere?'\n\n'No. He and Ekatas went to the temple. He knows that you're here, Sparhawk. He sensed you somehow. Santheocles has men searching the city for you right now.'\n\n'I think we're ahead of them. I don't believe they realize that we're already up here.'\n\n'How _did_ you get up here, Sparhawk? All the stairways are guarded.'\n\n'We climbed up the outside of the tower. When do those guards out there start stirring around?'\n\n'When it begins to get light, usually. They cook what passes for food around here in the guardroom. Then a couple of them bring breakfast to Alean and me.'\n\n'Your breakfast might be a little late this morning, love,' he whispered with a tight grin. 'I think the cooks might have other things on their minds before long.'\n\n'Be careful, Sparhawk.'\n\n'Of course, my Queen.'\n\n'Sparhawk,' Mirtai called up softly. 'Xanetia's back.'\n\n'I have to run now, dear,' he whispered into the darkness. 'We'll have you out of there shortly. I love you.'\n\n'What a lovely thing to say.'\n\nSparhawk quickly climbed back down to the parapet. 'Welcome back Anarae,' he greeted Xanetia.\n\n'Thou art in a peculiar humor, Anakha,' she replied in a slightly puzzled tone.\n\n'I just had a chat with my wife, Anarae,' he said. 'That always brightens my day. How many guards will we have to deal with?'\n\n'I do fear me that they number some score or more, Anakha.'\n\n'That could be a problem, Sparhawk,' Bevier noted. 'They're Cyrgai and none too bright, but twenty of them might give us some trouble.'\n\n'Maybe not,' Sparhawk disagreed. 'Aphrael said that there are only three rooms up here \u2013 the main room, the cell where Ehlana and Alean are, and the guardroom. Was she right, Anarae?'\n\n'Indeed,' she replied. 'The cell and the guardroom are here on this north side. The main room is on the south, overlooking the Temple of Cyrgon. I did glean from the sleepy thought of such Cyrgai who were awake that this ultimate tower is the customary retreat of King Santheocles, for he doth take some pleasure in surveying his domain from the parapet \u2013 and above all in receiving the adulation of his subjects in the city below.'\n\n'Stupid,' Mirtai muttered. 'Doesn't he have anything better to do?'\n\nXanetia smiled faintly. 'Much else would be quite beyond him, Atana. His guardsmen, limited though they themselves are, do hold their King's understanding in low regard. But his wits, or lack thereof, are of little moment. Santheocles is the descendant of the royal house, and his sole function is to wear the crown.'\n\n'A hat-rack could do that,' Talen noted.\n\n'Truly.'\n\n'Do the guardsmen have any kind of set routine?' Bevier asked.\n\n'Nay, Sir Knight. They do but hold themselves in readiness to respond to the commands of their King, nothing more. In truth, they are trumpeteers rather than warriors. Their primary duty is to announce with brazen notes to their fellow citizens that Santheocles will appear on the parapet to accept the adulation of the Cyrgai.'\n\n'And they do their waiting in the guardroom?' sparhawk pressed.\n\n'Save only for the pair who stand guard at the door to thy Queen's prison and the other pair who bar the stairway which doth lead down into the lower levels of this tower.'\n\n'Can they get into the Queen's cell from the guardroom?' Bevier asked intently.\n\n'Nay. There is but one door.'\n\n'And how wide is the doorway between the guardroom and the main room?'\n\n'Wide enough for one man only, Sir Bevier.'\n\n'Kalten and I can hold that one, Sparhawk.'\n\n'Are there any other doors to the guardroom?' Kalten asked.\n\nXanetia shook her head.\n\n'Any large windows?'\n\n'One window only \u2013 the mate to this one above us \u2013 though it is not barred.'\n\n'That narrows the opposition down to just those four guards in the main room then,' Kalten said. 'Bevier and I can keep the rest of them penned in for a week, if we have to.'\n\n'And Sparhawk and I can deal with the ones at the cell door and the top of the stairs,' Mirtai added.\n\n'Let's get Talen inside that cell,' Sparhawk said, looking again toward the east, where a faint lessening of the darkness had begun.\n\nKalten scrambled back up the wall to the window and began digging at the mortar with his heavy dagger.\n\n'Slip around and keep watch, Anarae,' Sparhawk whispered. 'Let us know if anybody comes up those stairs.'\n\nShe nodded and went on back round the corner of the tower.\n\nSparhawk climbed up and attacked the mortar on the left side of the iron lattice while his friend continued to dig at the right. After a few moments Kalten took hold of the rusty iron and pulled. 'The bottom's loose,' he muttered. 'Let's get the top.'\n\n'Right.' The two of them went to the top of the window and began to chip away the mortar there. 'Be careful when it breaks away,' Sparhawk cautioned. 'We don't want it clanging down on that parapet.'\n\n'This side's free,' Kalten whispered. 'I'll hold it while you dig your side loose.' He reached inside, found a secure hand-hold with his right hand, and grasped the grating with his left.\n\nSparhawk dug harder, sending a shower of chunks and dust to the parapet below. 'I think that's got it,' he whispered.\n\n'We'll see.' Kalten's shoulders heaved and there was a grinding sound as the ancient grate tore loose from the wall. Then, with the same movement, Sparhawk's burly friend hurled the heavy obstruction out beyond the balustrade.\n\n'What are you _doing?'_ Sparhawk choked.\n\n'Getting rid of it.'\n\n'Do you know how much noise that thing's going to make when it hits the ground?'\n\n'So what? It's five hundred feet down. Let it make all the noise it wants to. If some Cyrgai or Cynesgan slave-driver's standing under it, he's in for a nasty surprise, though. But we can live with that, can't we?'\n\nSparhawk pushed his head through the now unobstructed opening. 'Ehlana?' he whispered. 'Are you there?'\n\n'Where else _would_ I be, Sparhawk?'\n\n'Sorry. Stupid question, I suppose. The bars are out of the way now. We're sending Talen in. Shout or something as soon as he gets the lock jammed so that the guards can't get through the door.'\n\n'Get out of the way, Sparhawk,' Talen said abruptly from just below. I can't get in there with you filling up the whole window.'\n\nSparhawk swung himself clear of the opening, and the agile boy began to wriggle his way through. Suddenly he stopped. 'It's not working,' he muttered. 'Pull me back out.'\n\n'What's wrong?' Kalten demanded.\n\n'Just pull me back out, Kalten. I don't have time to explain.'\n\nSparhawk's heart sank as he and Kalten hauled the young thief back.\n\n'Hold on for a minute.' Talen turned until he was on his side, and then he extended his arms until they were stretched out above his head. 'All right then, push.'\n\n'You'll just get stuck again,' Kalten objected.\n\n'Then you'll have to shove harder. This is what comes of all that wholesome food, exercise, and clean living you keep pushing on me, Sparhawk. I've grown so much that I can't get my shoulders through.' He began to wriggle through the opening again. 'Push, gentlemen!' he instructed.\n\nThe two of them pushed their hands against the soles of his feet.\n\n'Harder!' he grunted.\n\n'You'll tear all your skin off,' Kalten warned.\n\n'I'm young. I heal fast. Push!'\n\nThe two shoved at his feet, and, with a great deal of squirming and a few muttered oaths, he was through.\n\n'Is he all right?' Sparhawk whispered hoarsely through the window.\n\n'I'm fine, Sparhawk,' Talen whispered back. 'You'd better get moving. This won't take me very long.'\n\nSparhawk and Kalten dropped back to the parapet. 'Let's go,' Sparhawk said shortly, and the three knights and the Atan giantess moved quickly around the narrow parapet to the south side of the tower.\n\n'Quietly, Anakha.' Xanetia's voice seemed to come out of nowhere.\n\n'Are they stirring yet, Anarae?' Bevier whispered.\n\n'Some few sounds do emanate from the guardroom,' her voice replied.\n\nThere were two large, unglazed windows at the front of the tower, one on each side of the broad door. Sparhawk cautiously raised his head above the lower edge of one of them and peered inside. The room, as Aphrael had reported, was fairly large. It was sparsely furnished with benches, a few backless chairs, a couple of low tables, and it was lit with primitive oil lamps. There was a narrow door on the right side of the rear wall with two statue-like Cyrgai, one on each side, guarding it. The stairway on the left-hand side of the room, also guarded, was enclosed on three sides by a low wall. The second doorway, the one leading into the guardroom, was also on the left side, not far from the top of the stairs.\n\nSparhawk looked intently at the guards, closely studying their weapons and equipment. They were well-muscled men in archaic breastplates, crested helmets and short leather kilts. Each had a large round shield strapped to his left arm, and each grasped an eight-foot spear in his right. They all had swords and heavy daggers belted at their waists.\n\nSparhawk moved his head away from the window. 'You'd all better take a look,' he whispered to his friends.\n\nOne by one, Kalten, Bevier, and Mirtai raised up slightly to peer into the room.\n\n'Is this locked, Anarae?' Sparhawk whispered, pointing at the door leading out onto the parapet.\n\n'I did not think it wise to try it, Anakha. Cyrgai construction is crude, and methinks no door-latch in the city may be attempted soundlessly.'\n\n'You're probably right,' he breathed. 'Let's pull back around the corner,' he told the others, leading them round to the east side.\n\n'It's getting lighter,' Kalten noted, pointing toward the horizon.\n\nSparhawk grunted. 'We'll go in through the windows,' he told them. 'We'd just jam up if we tried to go through the doorway anyhow. Bevier, you and Mirtai go through the one on the far side of the door. Kalten and I'll go through the one on this side. Be careful. Those spears seem to be their primary weapon, so they've probably had lots of training with them. Get in close and fast. Take them down in a hurry and then block that door to the guardroom. We're going to have to hold those stairs, too.'\n\n'I'll do that, Sparhawk,' Mirtai assured him. 'You concentrate on getting our friends out of that cell.'\n\n'Right,' he agreed. 'As soon as they're free, I'll unleash the Bhelliom. That should change the odds up here significantly.'\n\nAnd then a clear voice raised in aching song that soared out above the sleeping city.\n\n'That's the signal!' Kalten told them. 'That's Alean! Talen's finished up! Let's go!'\n\n'You heard him!' Sparhawk said, stepping back so that Bevier and Mirtai could get past. 'I'll give the word, and we'll all go in at the same time!'\n\nBevier and Mirtai crouched low as they ran past the window on the near side to take positions under the window beyond the door. 'Stay clear of this, Anarae,' Sparhawk murmured to the invisible Xanetia. 'It's not your kind of fight.' He frowned. There was no sense of her presence nearby. 'All right, Kalten,' he said then, 'let's get to work.'\n\nThe two of them silently crept forward, swords in hand, to crouch beneath the broad window. Sparhawk raised slightly to look along the parapet. Bevier and Mirtai waited tensely under the far window. He drew in a deep breath and set himself. 'Now!' he shouted, setting his hand on the window-ledge and vaulting through into the room.\n\nThere had been four Cyrgai inside before. Now there were ten.\n\n'They're changing the guard, Sparhawk!' Bevier shouted, swinging his deadly lochaber in both hands.\n\nThey still had the element of surprise, but the situation had drastically changed. Sparhawk swore and cut down a Cyrgai carrying a pail of some kind \u2013 the captives' breakfast, most likely. Then he rushed the four confused guards milling in front of the cell door. One of them was fighting with the lock while the other three tried to get into position. They were disciplined, there was no question about that, and their long spears _did_ raise problems.\n\nSparhawk swore a savage oath and swung his heavy broadsword, chopping at the spears. Kalten had moved to one side, and he was also swinging massive blows at the spears. There were sounds of fighting coming from the other side of the room, but Sparhawk was too intent on breaking through to the guard who was trying to force the cell door, to turn and look.\n\nTwo of the spears were broken now, and the Cyrgai had discarded them and drawn their swords. The third, his spear still intact, had stepped back to protect the one feverishly struggling with the lock.\n\nSparhawk risked a quick glance at the other side of the room, just in time to see Mirtai lift a struggling guard over her head and hurl him bodily down the stairs with a great clattering sound. Two other Cyrgai lay dead or dying nearby. Bevier, even as he had in Otha's throne-room in Zemoch, held the door to the guardroom while Mirtai, like some great, golden cat, savaged the remaining guards at the top of the stairs. Sparhawk quickly turned his attention back to the men he faced.\n\nThe Cyrgai were indifferent swordsmen, and their oversized shields seriously hindered their movements. Sparhawk made a quick feint at the head of one, and the man instinctively raised his shield. Instantly recovering, Sparhawk drove his sword into the gleaming breastplate. The Cyrgai cried out and fell back with blood gushing from the sheared gash in his armor.\n\nIt was not enough. The Cyrgai at the cell door had abandoned his efforts to unlock it and had begun slamming his shoulder against it. Sparhawk could clearly hear the splintering of wood. Desperately, he renewed his attack. Once the Cyrgai broke through that door \u2013\n\nAnd then, without even being forced, the door swung inward. With a triumphant shout, the Cyrgai who had been battering at the door drew his sword.\n\nAnd then he screamed as a new light flooded the room.\n\nXanetia, blazing like the sun, stood in the doorway with one deadly hand extended.\n\nThe Cyrgai screamed again, falling back, tangling himself in the struggles of his two comrades. Then he broke free, ran to the window and plunged through.\n\nHe was still running when he went over the balustrade with a long despairing scream.\n\nThe other two Cyrgai at the cell door also fled, scurrying around the room like frightened mice. 'Mirtai!' sparhawk roared. 'Stand clear! Let them go!'\n\nThe Atana had just raised another struggling warrior over her head. She threw him down the stairs and turned sharply. Then she dodged clear to allow the demoralized Cyrgai to escape.\n\n'Stand aside, Sir Knight!' Xanetia commanded Bevier. 'I will bar that door, and I do vouchsafe that none shall pass!'\n\nBevier took one look at her glowing face and stepped away from the guardroom door.\n\nThe Cyrgai inside the room also looked at her, and then they slammed the door shut.\n\n'It's all right now, Ehlana,' Sparhawk called.\n\nTalen came out first, and his face was pale and shaken. The boy's tunic was ripped in several places, and a long, bleeding scrape on one arm spoke of his struggle to get through the narrow window. He was staring in awe at Xanetia. 'She came through the window in a puff of smoke, Sparhawk!' he choked.\n\n'Mist, young Talen,' Xanetia corrected in a clinical tone. She was still all aglow and facing the guardroom door. 'Smoke would be impractical for human flesh.'\n\nThere was a great deal of noise coming from the guardroom. 'They seem to be moving furniture in there, Sparhawk,' Bevier laughed. 'Piling it against the door, I think.'\n\nThen Alean came running out of the cell to hurl herself into Kalten's arms, and, immediately behind her, Ehlana emerged from her prison. She was even more pale than usual, and there were dark circles under her eyes. Her clothing was tattered, and her head was tightly bound in a bandage-like wimple. 'Oh, Sparhawk!' she cried out in a low voice, holding her arms out to him. He went to her and enfolded her in a rough embrace.\n\nFrom far below there came a savage bellow.\n\n'Anakha!' Bhelliom's voice roared in Sparhawk's mind. 'Cyrgon hath awakened to his peril! Release me.'\n\nSparhawk jerked the pouch out from under his tunic and fumbled with the drawstring.\n\n'What's that shouting?' Talen demanded.\n\n'Cyrgon knows that we've released Ehlana!' Sparhawk replied tensely, drawing Kurik's box out of the pouch. 'Open!' he commanded.\n\nThe lid raised, and the blue radiance of the Bhelliom blazed forth. Sparhawk carefully lifted out the jewel.\n\n'They're coming up the stairs, Sparhawk!' Mirtai warned.\n\n'Get clear!' he said sharply. 'Blue Rose!' he said then. 'Canst thou bar the way to our enemies, who even now rush up yon stairway?'\n\nThe Bhelliom did not answer, but the waist-high wall surrounding the head of the stairs collapsed inward, crashing down into the stairwell with a great clattering and a billowing cloud of dust.\n\n'Advise Aphrael that her mother is safe.' Bhelliom's voice was crisp. 'Let the attack begin.'\n\nSparhawk cast the spell. 'Aphrael!' he said sharply. 'We've got Ehlana! Tell the others to move in!'\n\n'Can Bhelliom break Cyrgon's illusion?' she asked in a tone every bit as crisp as the Sapphire Rose's had been.\n\n'Blue Rose,' Sparhawk said silently, 'the illusion of Cyrgon doth still impede the advance of our friends upon the city. Canst thou dispel it that they may bring their forces to bear upon this accursed place?'\n\n'It shall be as thou wouldst have it, my son.'\n\nThere was a momentary pause, and then the earth seemed to shudder slightly, and a vast shimmer ran in waves across the sky.\n\nFrom the leprous white temple far below there came a shrill screech of pain.\n\n'My goodness,' Flute said mildly as she suddenly appeared in the center of the room. 'I've never had a ten-thousand-year-old spell broken. I'll bet it hurts like anything. Poor Cyrgon's having an absolutely _dreadful_ night.'\n\n'The night is not yet over, Child Goddess,' Bhelliom spoke through Kalten's lips. 'Save thine unseemly gloating until all danger is past.'\n\n'Well, _really!'_\n\n'Hush, Aphrael. We must look to our defenses, Anakha. What Cyrgon knoweth, Kl\u00e6l doth also know. The contest is at hand. We must make ready.'\n\n'Truly,' Sparhawk agreed. He looked around at his friends. 'Let's go,' he told them. 'We'll spread out along the parapet, and keep your eyes open. Kl\u00e6l's coming, and I don't want him creeping up behind me. Is that stairway completely blocked?'\n\n'A mouse couldn't get through all that rubble,' Mirtai told him.\n\n'We can forget about the guards,' Bevier announced, removing his ear from the guardroom door. 'They're still rearranging the furniture.'\n\n'Good.' Sparhawk went to the door leading out to the parapet. It opened with a shrill protest of rusty hinges. 'Don't start getting brave,' he cautioned his friends. 'The fight's between Bhelliom and Kl\u00e6l. Spread out and keep watch.'\n\nThe eastern sky was pale with the approach of day as they came out onto the parapet, and Cyrgon's agonized shrieking still echoed through the Hidden City.\n\n'There,' Talen said, pointing toward the basalt escarpment beyond the lake to the south.\n\nA mass of figures, tiny in the distance and still dark in the dawn-light, were streaming out of 'the Glen of Heroes', moving into the basin before the gates of Cyrga.\n\n'Who are they?' Ehlana cried, suddenly gripping Sparhawk's arm.\n\n'Vanion,' Sparhawk told her, 'along with just about everybody else \u2013 Betuana, Kring, Ulath and the Trolls, Sephrenia \u2013'\n\n_'Sephrenia?'_ Ehlana exclaimed. 'She's dead!'\n\n'You didn't really think I'd let Zalasta kill my sister, did you, Ehlana?' Flute said.\n\n'But \u2013 he said that he'd stabbed her in the heart!'\n\nThe Child Goddess shrugged. 'He did, but Bhelliom cured it. Vanion's going to take steps.'\n\nTalen came running round the parapet from the back of the tower. 'Bergsten's coming in from the other side,' he reported. 'His knights just trampled about three regiments of Cyrgai under foot without even slowing down.'\n\n'Are we going to be caught in the middle of a siege here?' Kalten asked with a worried expression.\n\n'Not too likely,' Bevier replied. 'The defenses of this place are pitifully inadequate, and Patriarch Bergsten tends to be a very abrupt sort of man.'\n\nThere was a sudden eruption far below, and the roof of the pale temple exploded, hurling chunks of limestone in all directions as the infinite darkness of Kl\u00e6l shouldered his way up out of the House of Cyrgon. His vast, leathery wings spread wide, and his blazing, slitted eyes looked about wildly.\n\n'Prithee, Anakha, hold me aloft that my brother may behold me.' The voice coming from Kalten's lips was detached.\n\nSparhawk's hand was shaking as he raised the Sapphire Rose over his head.\n\nKalten, moving somewhat woodenly, gently put Alean's clinging arms aside and stepped to the stone rail at the front of the parapet. He spoke in a tongue no human mouth could have produced, and his words could quite probably have been heard in Chyrellos, half a world away.\n\nEnormous Kl\u00e6l, waist-deep in the ruins of Cyrgon's Temple, raised his triangular face and roared his reply, his fanged mouth dripping flame.\n\n'Attend closely, Anakha,' Bhelliom's voice in Sparhawk's mind was very quiet. 'I will continue to taunt mine errant brother, and all enraged will he come to do battle with me. Be thou steadfast in the face of that approaching horror, for our success or failure do hang entire upon thy courage and the strength of thine arm.'\n\n'I do not take thy meaning, Blue Rose. Am I to smite Kl\u00e6l?'\n\n'Nay, Anakha. Thy task is to free me.'\n\nThe beast of darkness below savagely kicked aside the limestone rubble and advanced on the palace with hungry arms outstretched. When he reached the massive gates, he brushed them from his path with a whip of lightning clutched in one enormous fist.\n\nKalten continued his deafening taunts, and Kl\u00e6l continued to howl his fury as he crushed his way through the lower wings of the palace, destroying everything that lay in the path of his relentless drive toward the tower.\n\nAnd then he reached it, and, seizing its rough stones in his two huge hands, he began to climb, his wings clawing at the morning air as he mounted up and up.\n\n'How am I to free thee, Blue Rose?' Sparhawk asked urgently.\n\n'My brother and I must be briefly recombined, my son,' Bhelliom replied, 'to become one again, as we once were, else must I forever be imprisoned within this azure crystal \u2013 even as Kl\u00e6l must remain in his present monstrous form. In our temporary combination will we both be freed.'\n\n'Combine? How?'\n\n'When he doth reach this not inconsiderable height and doth exult with resounding bellow of victory, must thou hurl me straightway into his gaping maw.'\n\n_'Do what?'_\n\n'He would with all his soul devour me. Make it so. In the moment of our recombination shall Kl\u00e6l and I both be freed of our present forms, and then shall our contest begin. Fail not, my son, for _this_ is thy purpose and the destiny for which I made thee.'\n\nSparhawk drew in a deep breath. 'I _will_ not fail thee, Father,' he pledged with all his heart.\n\nStill raging and with his leathery wings clawing at the air, Kl\u00e6l mounted higher and higher up the front of the palace tower. Sparhawk felt a sense of odd, undismayed detachment come over him. He looked full into the face of the King of Hell and felt no fear. His task was simplicity in itself. He had only to hurl the Sapphire Rose into that gaping maw, and, should a suitable opportunity for that not present itself, to hurl himself \u2013 with Bhelliom in his outstretched fist instead. He felt no regret nor even sadness as the unalterable resolve settled over him. Better this than to die in a meaningless, unremembered skirmish on some disputed frontier as so many of his friends had. This had significance, and for a soldier, that was the best one could hope for.\n\nAnd still Kl\u00e6l came, climbing higher and higher, reaching hungrily for his hated brother. No more than a few yards below now, his slitted eyes blazed in cruel triumph and his jagged fangs dripped fire as he roared his challenge.\n\nAnd then Sparhawk leapt atop the ancient battlement to stand poised with Bhelliom aloft in his fist. 'For God and my Queen!' He bellowed his defiance.\n\nKl\u00e6l reached up with one awesome hand.\n\nThen, like the sudden uncoiling of some tightly-wound spring, Sparhawk struck. His arm snapped down like a whip. 'Go!' he shouted, as he released the blazing jewel.\n\nAs true as an arrow the Sapphire Rose flew from his hand even as Kl\u00e6l's mouth gaped wider. Straight it went to vanish in the flaming maw.\n\nThe tower trembled as a shudder ran through the glossy blackness of the enormity clinging to its side, and Sparhawk struggled to keep his balance on his precarious perch.\n\nKl\u00e6l's wings stiffened to their fullest extent, quivering with awful tension. The great beast swelled, growing even more enormous. Then he contracted, shriveling.\n\nAnd then he exploded.\n\nThe detonation shook the very earth, and Sparhawk was hurled back from the battlement to fall heavily on the parapet. He rolled quickly, came to his feet, and rushed back to the battlements.\n\nTwo beings of light, one a glowing blue, the other sooty red, grappled with each other on insubstantial air not ten feet away. Their struggle was elemental, a savage contesting of will and strength. They were featureless beings, and their shapes were only vaguely human. Heaving back and forth, they clung to each other like wrestlers in some rude village square, each bending all his will and force to subdue his perfectly-matched opponent.\n\nSparhawk and his friends lined the battlements, frozen, awed, able only to watch that primeval struggle.\n\nAnd then the two broke free of each other and stood, backs bowed and arms half-extended, each facing his immortal brother in some inconceivable communion.\n\n'It falls to thee, Anakha,' Bhelliom's voice in sparhawk's mind was calm. 'Should Kl\u00e6l and I continue, this world shall surely be destroyed, as hath oft-time come to pass before. Thou art of this world and must therefore be my champion. Constraints are upon thee which do not limit me. Kl\u00e6l's champion is also of this world and is similarly constrained.'\n\n'It shall be even as thou has said, my father,' Sparhawk replied. 'I will serve as thy champion if it must needs be. With whom must I contend?'\n\nA great roar of rage came from far below, and a living flame surged up out of the shattered ruins of the chalk-white temple.\n\n'There is thine opponent, my son,' the azure spirit replied. 'Kl\u00e6l hath called him forth to do battle with thee.'\n\n_'Cyrgon?'_\n\n'Even so.'\n\n'But he is a God!'\n\n'And art thou not?'\n\nSparhawk's mind reeled.\n\n'Look within thyself, Anakha. Thou art my son, and I made thee to be the receptacle of my will. I now release that will to thee that thou mayest be the champion of this world. Feel its power infuse thee.'\n\nIt was like the opening of a door that had always been closed. Sparhawk felt his mind and will expanding infinitily as the barrier went down, and with that expanding there came an unutterable calm.\n\n'Now art thou _truly_ Anakha, my son!' Bhelliom exulted. 'Thy will is now _my_ will. _All_ things are now possible for thee. It was _thy_ will which vanquished Azash. I was but thine instrument. In _this_ occasion, however, shalt thou be _mine._ Bend thine invincible will to the task. Seize it in thine hands and mold it. Forge weapons with thy mind and confront Cyrgon. If thine heart be true, he cannot prevail against thee. Now go. Cyrgon awaits thee.'\n\nSparhawk drew in a deep breath and looked down at the rubble-littered square far below. The flame which had emerged from the ruins had coalesced into a blazing man-shape standing before the wreck of the temple. 'Come, Anakha!' it roared. 'Our meeting hath been foretold since before time began! _This_ is thy destiny! Thou art honored above all others to fall by _my_ hand.'\n\nSparhawk deliberately pushed aside the windy pomposity of archaic expression. 'Don't start celebrating until after you've won, Cyrgon!' he shouted his reply. 'Don't go away! I'll be right down!' Then he set one hand atop the battlement and lightly vaulted over it.\n\nHe stopped, hanging in mid-air. 'Let go, Aphrael,' he said.\n\n'What are you _doing?'_ she exclaimed.\n\n'Just do as you're told. Let me go.'\n\n'You'll fall.'\n\n'No, actually I won't. I can handle this. Don't interfere. Cyrgon's waiting for me, so please let go.'\n\nIt was not actually flying, although Sparhawk was certain that he _could_ fly if he needed to. He felt a peculiar lightness as he drifted down toward the ruins of the House of Cyrgon. It was not that he had no weight; it was more that his weight had no meaning. His will was somehow stronger than gravity. Sword in hand, he settled down and down like a drifting feather.\n\nCyrgon waited below. The burning figure of the ancient God drew his fire about him, congealing the incandescent flame into the antique armor customarily worn by those who worshipped him \u2013 a burnished steel cuirass, a crested helmet, a large round shield and a sword in his fist.\n\nA peculiar insight came to Sparhawk as he slid down through the dawn-cool air. Cyrgon was not so much stupid as he was conservative. It was change that he hated, change that he feared. Thus he had frozen his Cyrgai eternally in time and had erased any potential for change or innovation from their minds. The Cyrgai, unmoved by the winds of time, would remain forever as they had been when their God had first conceived of them. He had wrought an ideal and fenced it all about with law and custom and an innate hatred of change, and frozen thus, they were doomed \u2013 and had been since the first of them had placed one sandaled foot on the face of the ever-changing world.\n\nSparhawk smiled faintly. Cyrgon, it appeared, needed instruction in the benefits of change, and his first lesson would be in the advantages of modern equipment, weaponry, and tactics. Sparhawk thought, 'Armor', and he was immediately encased in black-enameled steel. He almost casually discarded his plain working sword and filled his hand with his heavier and longer ceremonial blade. Now he was a fully-armed Pandion Knight, a soldier of God \u2013 of several Gods, he rather ruefully amended that thought \u2013 and he was, almost by default, the champion not only of his Queen, his Church and his God \u2013 but also, if he read Bhelliom's thought correctly, of his fair and sometimes vain sister, the world.\n\nHe drifted down and settled to earth amidst the wreck of the destroyed temple. 'Well-met, Cyrgon,' he said with profoundest formality.\n\n'Well-met, Anakha,' the God replied. 'I had misjudged thee. Thou art suitable now. I had despaired of thee, fearing that thou wouldst never have realized thy true significance. Thine apprenticeship hath been long and methinks, hindered by thine inappropriate affiliation with Aphrael.'\n\n'We're wasting time, Cyrgon,' Sparhawk cut through the flowery courtesies. 'Let's get at this. I'm already late for breakfast.'\n\n'So be it, Anakha!' Cyrgon's classic features were set in an expression of approval. 'Defend thyself!' And he swung a huge sword stroke at Sparhawk's head.\n\nBut Sparhawk had already begun his stroke, and so their swords clashed harmlessly in the air between them.\n\nIt was good to be fighting again. There was no politics here, no confusion of dissembling words or false promises, just the clean, sharp ring of steel on steel and the smooth flow of muscle and sinew over bone.\n\nCyrgon was quick, as quick as Martel had been in his youth, and, despite his hatred of innovation, he learned quickly. The intricate moves of wrist and arm and shoulder that marked the master swordsman seemed to come unbidden, almost in spite of himself, to the ancient God. 'Invigorating, isn't it?' Sparhawk panted through a wolflike grin, lashing a stinging cut at the God's shoulder. 'Open your mind, Cyrgon. Nothing is set in stone \u2013 not even something as simple as this.' And he lashed out with his sword again, flicking another cut onto Cyrgon's sword-arm.\n\nThe immortal rushed at him, forcing the oversized round shield against him, trying with will and main strength to overcome his better-trained opponent.\n\nSparhawk looked into that flawless face and saw regret and desperation there. He bunched his shoulder, as Kurik had taught him, and locked his shield-arm, forming an impenetrable barrier against the ineffectual flailing of his opponent. He parried only with his lightly held sword. 'Yield, Cyrgon,' he said, 'and live. Yield, and Kl\u00e6l will be banished. We are of _this_ world, Cyrgon. Let Kl\u00e6l and Bhelliom contend for other worlds. Take thy life and thy people and go. I would not slay even thee.'\n\n'I spurn thine insulting offer, Anakha!' Cyrgon half-shrieked.\n\n'I guess that satisfies the demands of knightly honor,' Sparhawk muttered to himself with a certain amount of relief. 'God knows what I'd have done if he'd accepted.' He raised his sword again. 'So be it then, brother,' he said. 'We weren't meant to live in the same world together anyway.' His body and will seemed to swell inside his armor. 'Watch, brother,' he grated through clenched teeth. 'Watch and learn.'\n\nAnd then he unleashed five hundred years of training, coupled with his towering anger, at this poor, impotent Godling, who had ripped asunder the peace of the world, a peace toward which Sparhawk had yearned since his return from exile in Rendor. He ripped Cyrgon's thigh with the classic _'Pas-four'._ He slashed that perfect face with Martel's innovative 'parry-pas-nine'. He cut away the upper half of Cyrgon's oversized round shield with Vanion's 'Third feint-and-slash'. Of all the Church Knights, the Pandions were the most skilled swordsmen, and of all the Pandions, Sparhawk stood supreme. Bhelliom had called him the equal of a God, but Sparhawk fought as a man \u2013 superbly trained, a little out of condition and really too old for this kind of thing \u2013 but with an absolute confidence that if the fate of the world rested in his hands, he was good for at least one more fight.\n\nHis sword blurred in the light of the new-risen sun, flickering, weaving, darting. Baffled, the ancient Cyrgon tried to respond.\n\nThe opportunity presented itself, and Sparhawk felt the perfect symmetry of it. Cyrgon, untaught, had provided the black-armored Pandion precisely the same opening Martel had given him in the temple of Azash. Martel had fully understood the significance of the series of strokes. Cyrgon, however, did not. And so it was that the thrust which pierced him through came as an absolute surprise. The God stiffened and his sword fell from his nerveless fingers as he lurched back from that fatal thrust.\n\nSparhawk recovered from the thrust and swept his bloody sword up in front of his face in salute. 'An innovation, Cyrgon,' he said in a detached sort of voice. 'You're really very good, you know, but you ought to try to stay abreast of things.'\n\nCyrgon sagged to the flagstoned court, his immortal life spilling out through the gash in his breastplate. 'And wilt thou take the world now, Anakha?' he gasped.\n\nSparhawk dropped to his haunches beside the stricken God. 'No, Cyrgon,' he replied wearily. 'I don't want the world \u2013 just a quiet little corner of it.'\n\n'Then why earnest thou against me?'\n\n'I didn't want you to have it either, because if you had, my little part wouldn't have been safe.' He reached out and took the pallid hand. 'You fought well, Cyrgon. I have respect for you. Hail and farewell.'\n\nCyrgon's voice was only a whisper as he replied, 'Hail and farewell, Anakha.'\n\nThere was a great despairing howl of frustration and rage. Sparhawk looked up and saw a man-shape of sooty red streaking upward into the dawn sky as Kl\u00e6l resumed his endless journey toward and beyond the farthest star.\n\n# _Chapter 33_\n\nThere was fighting somewhere \u2013 the ring of steel on steel and shouts and cries \u2013 but Ehlana scarcely heard the sounds as she stared down at the square lying between the ruins of the temple and the only slightly less ruined palace.\n\nThe sun was above the eastern horizon now, and it filled the ancient streets of Cyrga with harsh, unforgiving light. The Queen of Elenia was exhausted, but the ordeal of her captivity was over, and she yearned only to lose herself in her husband's embrace. She did not understand much of what she had just witnessed, but that was not really important. She stood at the battlements holding the Child Goddess in her arms, gazing down at her invincible champion far below.\n\n'Do you think it might be safe for us to go down?' she asked the small divinity in her arms.\n\n'The stairway's blocked, Ehlana,' Mirtai reminded her.\n\n'I can take care of that,' Flute said.\n\n'Maybe we'd better stay up here,' Bevier said with a worried frown. 'Cyrgon and Kl\u00e6l are gone, but Zalasta's still out there somewhere. He might try to seize the Queen again so that he can use her to bargain his way out of here.'\n\n'He'd better not,' the Child Goddess said ominously. 'Ehlana's right. Let's go down.'\n\nThey went back inside, reached the head of the stairs and peered down through billowing clouds of dust. 'What did you do?' Talen asked Flute. 'Where did all the rocks go?'\n\nShe shrugged. 'I turned them into sand,' she replied.\n\nThe stairway wound downward along the inside of the tower walls. Kalten and Bevier, swords in hand, led the way, prudently investigating each level as they reached it. The top three or four levels were empty, but as they began the descent to a level about midway down the inside of the tower, Xanetia hissed sharply, 'Someone approaches!'\n\n'Where?' Kalten demanded. 'How many?'\n\n'Two, and they do mount the stairs toward us.'\n\n'I'll deal with them,' he muttered, gripping his sword-hilt even more tightly.\n\n'Don't do anything foolish,' Alean cautioned.\n\n'It's the fellows coming up the stairs who are being foolish, love. Stay with the Queen.' He started on ahead.\n\n'I'll go with him,' Mirtai said. 'Bevier, it's your turn to guard Ehlana.'\n\n'But \u2013'\n\n'Hush!' she commanded. 'Do as you're told.'\n\n'Yes, ma'am,' he surrendered with a faint smile.\n\nA murmured sound of voices came echoing up the stairs.\n\n'Santheocles!' Ehlana identified one of the speakers in a short, urgent whisper.\n\n'And the other?' Xanetia asked.\n\n'Ekatas.'\n\n'Ah,' Xanetia said. Her pale brow furrowed in concentration. 'This is not exact,' she apologized, 'but it seemeth me that they are unaware of thy release, Queen of Elenia, and they do rush to thy former prison, hoping that by threatening thy life might they gain safe conduct through the ranks of their enemies.'\n\nThere was a landing perhaps twenty steps down the narrow stairway, and Kalten and Mirtai stopped there, stepping somewhat apart to give themselves room.\n\nSantheocles, wearing his gleaming breastplate and crested helmet, came bounding up the stairs two at a time with his sword in his hand. He stopped suddenly when he reached the landing, staring at Kalten and Mirtai in stupefied disbelief. He waved his sword at them and issued a peremptory command in his own language.\n\n'What did he say?' Talen demanded.\n\n'He ordered them to get out of his way,' Aphrael replied.\n\n'Doesn't he realize that they're his enemies?'\n\n'\"Enemy\" is a difficult concept for someone like Santheocles,' Ehlana told him. 'He's never been outside the walls of Cyrga, and I doubt that he's seen more than ten people who weren't Cyrgai in his entire life. The Cyrgai obey him automatically, so he hasn't had much experience with open hostility.'\n\nEkatas came puffing up the stairs behind Santheocles. His eyes were wide with shock and his wrinkled face ashen. He spoke sharply to his king, and Santheocles placidly stepped aside. Ekatas drew himself up and began speaking sonorously, his hands moving in the air before him.\n\n'Stop him!' Bevier cried. 'He's casting a spell!'\n\n'He's _trying_ to cast a spell,' Aphrael corrected. I think he's in for a nasty surprise.'\n\nThe High Priest's voice rose in a long, slow crescendo and he suddenly leveled one arm at Kalten and Mirtai.\n\nNothing happened.\n\nEkatas held his empty hand up in front of his face, gaping at it in utter astonishment.\n\n'Ekatas,' Aphrael called sweetly to him, 'I hate to be the bearer of bad tidings, but now that Cyrgon's dead, your spells won't work any more.'\n\nHe stared up at her, comprehension and recognition slowly dawning on his face. Then he spun and bolted through the door on the left side of the landing and slammed it behind him.\n\nMirtai moved quickly after him. She briefly tried the door, then stepped back and kicked it to pieces.\n\nKalten advanced on the sneering King of the Cyrgai. Santheocles struck a heroic pose, his oversized shield extended, his sword raised, and his head held high.\n\n'He's no match for Kalten,' Bevier said. 'Why doesn't he run?'\n\n'He doth believe himself invincible, Sir Bevier,' Xanetia replied. 'He hath slain many of his own soldiers on the practice-field, and thus considers himself the paramount warrior in all the world. In truth, however, his subordinates would not strike back or even defend themselves, because he was their king.'\n\nKalten, grim-faced and vengeful, fell on the feeble-minded monarch like an avalanche. The face of Santheocles was filled with shock and outrage as, for the first time in his life, someone actually raised a weapon against him.\n\nIt was a short, ugly fight, and the outcome was quite predictable. Kalten battered down the oversized shield, parried a couple of stiffly formal swings at his head and then buried his sword up to the hilt in the precise center of the burnished breastplate. Santheocles stared at him in sheer astonishment. Then he sighed, toppled backward off the blade, and clattered limply back down the stairs.\n\n_'Yes!'_ Ehlana exulted in a savage voice as the most offensive of her persecutors died.\n\nFrom beyond the splintered door came a long, despairing scream fading horribly away, and Mirtai emerged with an expression of bleak satisfaction.\n\n'What did you do to him?' Kalten asked curiously.\n\n'I defenestrated him,' she replied with a shrug.\n\n_'Mirtai!'_ he gasped. 'That's _awful!'_\n\nShe gave him a baffled look. 'What are you talking about?'\n\n'That's a _terrible_ thing to do to a man!'\n\n'Throw him out of a window? I can think of much worse things to do to somebody.'\n\n'Is _that_ what that word means?'\n\n'Of course. Stragen used to talk about it back in Matherion.'\n\n'Oh.' Kalten flushed slightly.\n\n'What did you think it meant?'\n\n'Ah \u2013 never mind, Mirtai. Just forget I said anything.'\n\n'You must have thought it meant _something.'_\n\n'Can we just drop it? I misunderstood, that's all.' He looked up at the others. 'Let's go on down,' he suggested. I don't think there'll be anybody else in our way.'\n\nEhlana suddenly burst into tears. I _can't!'_ she wailed. 'I can't face Sparhawk like this!' She put one hand on the wimple that covered her violated scalp.\n\n'Are you still worrying about that?' Aphrael asked.\n\n'I look so _awful!'_\n\nAphrael rolled her eyes upward. 'Let's go into that room,' she suggested. 'I'll fix it for you \u2013 if it's so important.'\n\n'Could you?' Ehlana asked eagerly.\n\n'Of course.' The Child Goddess squinted at her. 'Would you like to have me change the color?' she asked. 'Or maybe make it curly?'\n\nThe Queen pursed her lips. 'Why don't we talk about that a little?' she said.\n\nThe Cynesgans who manned the outer wall of the Hidden City were not particularly good troops in the first place, and when the Trolls came leaping out of No-Time to scramble up the walls toward them, they broke and ran.\n\n'Did you tell the Trolls to open the gates for us?' Vanion asked Ulath.\n\n'Yes, my Lord,' the Genidian replied, 'but it might be a little while before they remember. They're hungry right now. They'll eat breakfast first.'\n\n'We _have_ to get inside, Ulath,' Sephrenia said urgently. 'We have to protect the slave-pens.'\n\n'Oh, Lord,' he said. I forgot about that. The Trolls won't be able to distinguish slaves from Cynesgans.'\n\n'I'll go have a look,' Khalad volunteered. He swung down from his horse and ran forward to the massively timbered gates. After a couple of moments he came back. 'It's no particular problem, Lady Sephrenia,' he reported. 'Those gates would fall apart if you sneezed on them.'\n\n'What?'\n\nThe timbers are very old, my Lady, and they're riddled with dry-rot. With your permission, Lord Vanion, I'll take some men and rig up a battering-ram. We'll knock down the gate so that we can get inside.'\n\n'Of course,' Vanion replied.\n\n'Come along then, Berit,' Khalad told his friend.\n\n'That young man always manages to make me feel inadequate,' Vanion muttered as they watched the pair ride back to rejoin the knights massed some yards to the rear.\n\n'As I remember, his father had the same effect on you,' Sephrenia said.\n\nKring came galloping back around the wall. 'Friend Bergsten's preparing to assault the north gate,' he reported.\n\n'Send word to him to be careful, friend Kring,' Betuana advised. 'The Trolls are already inside the city \u2013 and they're hungry. It might be better if he delayed his attack just a little.'\n\nKring nodded his agreement. 'Working with Trolls changes the complexion of things, doesn't it, Betuana-Queen? They're very good allies in a fight, but you don't want to let them get hungry.'\n\nAbout ten minutes later, Khalad and a few dozen knights dragged a large log into place before the gate, suspended it on ropes attached to several makeshift tripods, and began to pound on the rotting timbers. The gate shuddered out billows of powdery red dust and began to crumble and fall apart.\n\n'Let's go!' Vanion called tersely to his oddly assorted army and led the way into the city. At Sephrenia's insistence, the knights went straight to the pens, freed the shackled slaves, and escorted them to safety outside the walls. Then Vanion's force moved directly to the inner wall that protected the steep hill rising in the middle of Cyrga.\n\n'How long is that likely to last, Sir Ulath?' Vanion said, gesturing toward a cluster of ravening Trolls.\n\n'It's a little hard to say, Lord Vanion,' Ulath replied. I don't think we'll get much co-operation from them as long as there are still Cynesgans running up and down the streets here in the outer city, though.'\n\n'Maybe it's just as well,' Vanion decided. 'I think _we_ want to get to Sparhawk and the others before the Trolls do.' He looked around. 'Khalad,' he called, 'tell your men to drag that battering ram up here. Let's pound down the gate to the inner city and go find Sparhawk.'\n\n'Yes, my Lord,' Khalad replied.\n\nThe gates to the inner wall were more substantial, and Khalad's ram was pounding out great booming sounds when Patriarch Bergsten came riding along the wall, accompanied by the veteran Pandion, Sir Heldin, a Peloi whom Vanion did not recognize, and a tall, lithe Atan girl. Vanion was a bit startled to see that the Styric God Setras was also with them. 'What do you think you're doing, Vanion?' Bergsten roared.\n\n'Knocking down this gate, your Grace,' Vanion replied.\n\nThat's not what I'm talking about. What in God's name possessed you to let the Trolls make the initial assault?'\n\n'It wasn't really a question of \"let\", your Grace. They didn't exactly ask for permission.'\n\n'We've got absolute chaos here in the outer city. My knights can't concentrate on this inner wall because they keep running into Trolls. They're in a feeding-frenzy, you know. Right now they'll eat anything that moves.'\n\n'Must you?' Sephrenia murmured with a shudder.\n\n'Hello, Sephrenia,' Bergsten said. 'You're looking well. How much longer are you going to be with this gate, Vanion? Let's get our people into the inner city where all we have to worry about are the Cyrgai. Your allies are making my men very nervous.' He looked up at the top of the inner wall, sharply outlined against the dawn sky. 'I thought the Cyrgai were supposed to be soldiers. Why aren't they manning this wall?'\n\n'They're a little demoralized right now,' Sephrenia explained. 'Sparhawk just killed their God.'\n\n'He _did?_ I thought Bhelliom was going to do that.'\n\nShe sighed. 'In a certain sense it did,' she said. 'It's a little hard to separate the two of them at this point. Aphrael isn't entirely sure where Bhelliom leaves off and Sparhawk begins right now.'\n\nBergsten shuddered. 'I don't think I want to know about that,' he confessed. 'I'm in enough theological trouble already. What about Kl\u00e6l?'\n\n'He's gone. He was banished as soon as Sparhawk killed Cyrgon.'\n\n'Oh, fine, Vanion,' Bergsten said with heavy sarcasm. 'You make me ride a thousand leagues in the dead of winter, and the fighting's all over before I even get here.'\n\n'The exercise was probably good for you, your Grace.' Vanion raised his voice. 'How much longer, Khalad?' he called.\n\n'Just a few more minutes, my Lord,' Sparhawk's squire replied. 'The timbers are starting to crack.'\n\n'Good,' Vanion said bleakly. 'I want to locate Zalasta. He and I have some things to talk about \u2013 at great length.'\n\n'They've all bolted, Sparhawk,' Talen reported, returning from his quick survey of the ruined palace. 'The gates are standing wide open, and we're the only people up here.'\n\nSparhawk nodded wearily. It had been a long night, and he was emotionally as well as physically drained. He could still, however, feel that enormous calm that had settled over him when he had at last understood the true significance of his strange relationship with Bhelliom. There were some fleeting temptations \u2013 curiosity perhaps more than anything else \u2013 a desire to experiment and test the limits of newly-recognized capabilities. He deliberately repressed them.\n\n_'Go ahead, Sparhawk,'_ Flute's voice in his mind had a slight challenge in it. He turned his head to look quizzically at the ageless child, standing beside his wife. Ehlana's face was serene as she ran her fingers through her long, pale-blonde hair. _'What did you want me to do?'_ he sent the thought back.\n\n_'Anything that comes into your mind.'_\n\n_'Why?'_\n\n_'Aren't you just the least bit curious? Wouldn't you like to find out if you can turn a mountain inside out?'_\n\n_'I can,'_ he replied. _'I don't see any reason to do something like that, though\/_\n\n_'You're hateful, Sparhawk!'_ she suddenly flared.\n\n_'What's your problem, Aphrael?'_\n\n_'You're such a lump!'_\n\nHe smiled gently at her. _'I know, but you love me anyway, don't you?'_\n\n'Sparhawk,' Kalten called from the ornate bronze gate, 'Vanion's coming up the hill. He's got Bergsten with him.'\n\nVanion had known Sparhawk since his novitiate, but the weary-looking man in black armor seemed to be almost a stranger. There was something about his face and in his eyes that had never been there before. The Preceptor approached his old friend with Patriarch Bergsten and Sephrenia with a sense of something very close to awe.\n\nAs soon as Ehlana saw Sephrenia, she ran to her with a low cry and embraced her fiercely.\n\n'I see that you've wrecked another city, Sparhawk,' Bergsten said with a broad grin. 'That's getting to be a habit, you know.'\n\n'Good morning, your Grace,' Sparhawk replied. 'It's good to see you again.'\n\n'Did you do all this?' Bergsten gestured at the ruined temple and the half-collapsed palace.\n\n'Kl\u00e6l did most of it, your Grace.'\n\nThe hulking churchman squared his shoulders. 'I've got orders for you from Dolmant,' he said. 'You're supposed to turn the Bhelliom over to me. Why don't you do that now \u2013 before we both forget?'\n\n'I'm afraid that isn't possible, your Grace,' Sparhawk sighed. I don't have it any more.'\n\n'What did you do with it?'\n\n'It no longer exists \u2013 at least not in the shape it was before. It's been freed from its confinement to continue its journey.'\n\n'You released it without consulting the Church? You're in trouble, Sparhawk.'\n\n'Oh, _do_ be serious, Bergsten,' Aphrael told him. 'Sparhawk did what had to be done. I'll explain to Dolmant later.'\n\nVanion, however, had something else on his mind. 'This is all very interesting,' he said bleakly, 'but right now I'm far more concerned about finding Zalasta. Does anybody have any idea of where I might find him?'\n\n'He might be under all that, Vanion,' Ehlana told him, pointing at the ruined temple. 'He and Ekatas were going there when they discovered that Sparhawk was here inside the walls of Cyrga. Ekatas escaped, and Mirtai killed him, but Zalasta might have been crushed when Kl\u00e6l exploded the place.'\n\n'No,' Aphrael said shortly. 'He's nowhere in the city.'\n\n'I _really_ want to find him, Divine One,' Vanion said.\n\n'Setras, dear,' Aphrael said sweetly to her cousin, 'would you see if you can find Zalasta for me? He has a great deal to answer for.'\n\n'I'll see what I can do, Aphrael,' the handsome God promised, 'but I really ought to get back to my studio. I've been letting my own work slide during all this.'\n\n'Please, Setras,' she wheedled, unleashing that devastating little smile.\n\nHe laughed helplessly. 'Do you see what I was talking about, Bergsten?' he said to the towering Patriarch. 'She's the most dangerous creature in the universe.'\n\n'So I've heard,' Bergsten replied. 'You'd probably better go ahead and do as she asks, Setras. You'll do it in the end anyway.'\n\n'Ah, there you are, Itagne-Ambassador,' Vanion heard Atana Maris say in a deceptively pleasant tone of voice. He turned and saw the lithe young commander of the garrison at Cynestra descending on the clearly apprehensive Tamul diplomat. 'I've been looking all over for you,' she continued. 'We have a great deal to talk about. Somehow, not one of your letters reached me. I think you should reprimand your messenger.'\n\nItagne's face took on a trapped expression.\n\nBetuana dispatched runners to Matherion just before noon, when the last of the demoralized Cyrgai capitulated. Sir Ulath made an issue of the fact that what had happened to the Cynesgans in the outer city might have influenced that decision to some degree. Patriarch Bergsten had taken to looking at his countryman with a critical and speculative eye. Bergsten was a rough-and-ready churchman, willing to bend all sorts of rules in the name of expediency, but he choked just a bit on Ulath's unbridled ecumenicism. 'He's just a little too enthusiastic, Sparhawk,' the huge Patriarch declared. 'All right, I'll grant you that the Trolls were useful, but \u2013' He groped for a way to express his innate prejudices.\n\n'There's a rather special kinship between Ulath and Bhlokw, your Grace,' Sparhawk sidestepped the issue. 'How much have we got left to do here? I'd sort of like to get my wife back to civilization.'\n\n'You can leave now, Sparhawk,' Bergsten said with a shrug. 'We can take care of cleaning up here. You didn't leave very much for the rest of us to worry about. I'll stay here with the knights to finish rounding up the Cyrgai; Tikume will take his Peloi back to Cynestra to help Itagne and Atana Maris set up the occupation; and Betuana's going to send her Atans into Arjuna to re-establish imperial authority.' He made a sour face. 'There's nothing really left but all the niggling little administrative details. You've robbed me of a very good fight, Sparhawk.'\n\n'I can send for more of Kl\u00e6l's soldiers if you want, your Grace.'\n\n'No. That's all right, Sparhawk,' Bergsten replied quickly. 'I can live without any more of _those_ fights. You'll be going straight back to Matherion?'\n\n'Not straight back, your Grace. Courtesy obliges us to escort Anarae Xanetia back to Delphaeus.'\n\n'She's a very strange lady,' Bergsten mused. 'I keep catching myself just on the verge of genuflection every time she enters a room.'\n\n'She has that effect on people, your Grace. If you really don't need us here, I'll talk with the others, and we'll get ready to leave.'\n\n'What actually happened, Sparhawk?' Bergsten asked directly. 'I have to make a report to Dolmant, and I can't make much sense out of what the others have been telling me.'\n\n'I'm not sure I can explain it, your Grace,' Sparhawk replied. 'Bhelliom and I were sort of combined for a while. It needed my arm, I guess.' It was an easy answer, and it evaded a central issue that Sparhawk was not yet fully prepared to even think about.\n\n'You were just a tool, then?' Bergsten's look was intent.\n\nSparhawk shrugged. 'Aren't we all, your Grace? We're the instruments of God. That's what we get paid for.'\n\n'Sparhawk, you're right on the verge of heresy here. Don't throw the word \"God\" around like that.'\n\n'No, your Grace,' Sparhawk agreed. 'It's just a reflection of the limitations of language. There are things that we don't understand and don't have names for. We just lump them all together, call it \"God\", and let it go at that. You and I are soldiers, Patriarch Bergsten. We get paid to hit the ground running when somebody blows a trumpet. Let Dolmant sort it out. That's what _he_ gets paid for.'\n\nSparhawk and his friends, accompanied by Kring, Betuana and Engessa, rode out of shattered Cyrga shortly after dawn the following morning, bound for Sarna. Sparhawk had neither seen nor heard from Bhelliom since his encounter with Cyrgon, and he felt a peculiar sense of disappointment about that. The Troll-Gods had also departed with their children \u2013 all except for Bhlokw, who shambled along between Ulath and Tynian. Bhlokw was evasive about his reasons for accompanying them.\n\nThey rode northeasterly across the barren wastes of Cynesga, traveling in easy stages. The urgent need for haste was gone now. Sephrenia and Xanetia, once again working in concert, had returned all the faces to their rightful owners, and things were slowly settling back to normal.\n\nIt was about mid-morning ten days after they had left Cyrga and when they were but a few leagues from Sarna that Vanion rode forward to join Sparhawk at the head of the column. \"A word with you, Sparhawk?' he said.\n\n'Of course.'\n\n'It's sort of private.'\n\nSparhawk nodded, turned the column over to Bevier and nudged Faran into a rolling canter. He and Vanion slowed again when they were about a quarter of a mile ahead of the others. 'Sephrenia wants us to get married,' Vanion said, cutting past any preamble.\n\n'You're asking my permission?'\n\nVanion gave him a long, steady look.\n\n'Sorry,' Sparhawk apologized. 'You took me by surprise. There are problems with that, you know. The Church will never approve, and neither will the Thousand of Styricum. We're not quite as hide-bound as we used to be, but the notion of interracial or interfaith marriage still raises some hackles.'\n\n'I know,' Vanion said glumly. 'Dolmant probably wouldn't have any personal objections, but his hands are tied by Church law and doctrine.'\n\n'Who are you going to get to officiate, then?'\n\n'Sephrenia's already solved that problem. Xanetia's going to perform the ceremony.'\n\nSparhawk nearly choked on that.\n\n'She is a priestess, Sparhawk.'\n\n'Well \u2013 technically, I suppose,' Then Sparhawk suddenly broke out laughing.\n\n'What's so funny?' Vanion demanded truculently.\n\n'Can you imagine the look on Ortzel's face when he hears that a Preceptor of one of the four orders, a Patriarch of the Church, has been married to one of the Thousand of Styricum by a Delphaeic priestess?'\n\n'It _does_ violate a few rules, doesn't it?' Vanion conceded with a wry smile.\n\n_'A few?_ Vanion, I doubt that you could find any single act that'd violate more.'\n\n'Do you object, too?'\n\n'Not me, old friend. If this is what you and Sephrenia want, I'll back the two of you all the way up to the Hierocracy.'\n\n'Would you stand up with me, then? During the ceremony, I mean?'\n\nSparhawk clapped him on the shoulder. 'I'd be honored, my friend.'\n\n'Good. That'll keep it all in the family. Sephrenia's already spoken to your wife about it. Ehlana's going to stand with her.'\n\n'Somehow I almost knew that was coming,' Sparhawk laughed.\n\nThey passed through Sarna and proceeded north along a snow-clogged mountain trail toward Dirgis in southern Atan. After they left Dirgis, they turned westward again and rode higher into the mountains.\n\n'We're leaving a very wide trail behind us, Sparhawk,' Bevier said late one snowy afternoon. 'And the trail's leading directly to Delphaeus.'\n\nSparhawk turned and looked back. 'You've got a point,' he conceded. 'Maybe I'd better have a talk with Aphrael. Things have changed a bit, but I don't think the Delphae are _quite_ ready to welcome crowds of sightseers,' He turned Faran around and rode back to join the ladies. Aphrael, as usual, rode with Sephrenia. 'A suggestion, Divine One?' Sparhawk said tentatively.\n\n'You sound just like Tynian.'\n\nHe ignored that. 'How good are you with weather?' he asked.\n\n'Did you want it to be summer?'\n\n'No. Actually I want a moderate-sized blizzard. We're leaving tracks in the snow behind us, and the tracks are pointing straight at Delphaeus.'\n\n'What difference does that make?'\n\n'The Delphae might not want unannounced visitors.'\n\n'There won't be any \u2013 announced or otherwise. You promised to seal their valley, didn't you?'\n\n'Oh, God!' he said. 'I'd forgotten about that! This is going to be a problem. I don't have Bhelliom any more.'\n\n'Then you'd better try to get in touch with it, Sparhawk. A promise is a promise, after all. Xanetia's kept her part of the bargain, so you're morally obliged to keep yours.'\n\nSparhawk was troubled. He rode off some distance into a thick grove of spindly sapling pines and dismounted. 'Blue Rose,' he said aloud, not really expecting an answer. 'Blue Rose.'\n\n'I hear thee, Anakha,' the voice in his mind responded immediately. I had thought thou might be in some way discontent with me.'\n\n'Never that, Blue Rose. Thou hast fulfilled \u2013 or exceeded \u2013 all that I did require of thee. Our enemies are overthrown, and I am content. I did, however, pledge mine honor to the Delphae in exchange for their aid. I am obliged to seal up their valley that none of this world may come upon them.'\n\n'I do recall thy pledge, Anakha. It was well-given. Soon, however, it will not be needful.'\n\nThy meaning escapes me.'\n\n'Watch then, my son, and learn.' There was a lengthy pause. 'It is not mine intent to offend, but why hast thou brought this to me?'\n\n'I gave my word that I would seal their valley, Father.'\n\n'Then seal it.'\n\n'I was not certain that I could still speak with thee to entreat thine aid.'\n\nThou hast no need of aid, Anakha \u2013 not mine nor that of any other. Did not thine encounter with Cyrgon convince thee that _all_ things are possible for thee? Thou art Anakha and my son, and there is none other like thee in all the starry universe. It was needful to make thee so, that my design might be accomplished. Whatsoever thou couldst do through me, thou couldst as easily have done with thine own hand.' The voice paused. 'I am, however, somewhat pleased that thou wert unaware of thine ability, for it did give me an opportunity to come to know thee. I shall think often of thee in my continuing journey. Let us then proceed to Delphaeus, where thy comrade Vanion and our dearly-loved Sephrenia will be joined, and where thou wilt behold a wonder.'\n\n'Which particular wonder is that, Blue Rose?'\n\n''Twould hardly be a wonder for thee shouldst thou know of it in advance, my son.' There were faint traces of amusement in the voice as the sense of Bhelliom's presence faded.\n\nIt was early on a snowy evening when they crested a ridge and looked down into the valley where the glowing lake, misty in the swirling snowflakes, shone with a light almost like that of the moon. Ancient Cedon awaited them at the rude gate to this other hidden city, and standing beside him was Itagne's friend, Ekrasios.\n\nThey talked until quite late, for there was much to share, and it was mid-morning of the following day before Sparhawk awoke in the oddly sunken bedroom he shared with his wife. It was one of the peculiarities of Delphaeic construction that the floors of most of their rooms were below ground-level. Sparhawk didn't give it much thought, but Khalad seemed quite intrigued by the notion.\n\nSparhawk gently kissed his still-sleeping wife, slipped quietly from their bed, and went looking for Vanion. He remembered his own wedding day, and he was quite sure that his friend was going to need some support.\n\nHe found the silvery-haired Preceptor talking with Talen and Khalad in the makeshift stable. Khalad's face was bleak. 'What's the problem?' Sparhawk asked as he joined them.\n\n'My brother's a little unhappy,' Talen explained. 'He talked with Ekrasios and the other Delphae who dispersed Scarpa's army down in Arjuna, and nobody could tell him one way or the other about what happened to Krager.'\n\n'I'm going to operate on the theory that he's still alive,' Khalad declared. 'He's just too slippery not to have escaped.'\n\n'We have plans for you, Khalad,' Vanion told him. 'You're too valuable to spend your whole life trying to chase down a weasely drunkard who may or may not have gotten out of Natayos alive.'\n\n'It won't take him all that long, Lord Vanion,' Talen said. 'As soon as Stragen and I get back to Cimmura, we'll talk with Platime, and he'll put out the word. If Krager's still alive \u2013 anywhere in the world \u2013 we'll find out about it.'\n\n'What are the ladies doing?' Vanion asked nervously.\n\n'Ehlana's still asleep,' Sparhawk replied. 'Are you and Sephrenia going back to Matherion with us when we leave here?'\n\n'Briefly,' Vanion responded. 'Sephrenia wants to speak with Sarabian about a few things. Then we'll go back to Atan with Betuana and Engessa. It's only a short trip from there to Sarsos. Have you noticed what's going on between Betuana and Engessa, by the way?'\n\nSparhawk nodded. 'Evidently Betuana's decided that the Atans need a king. Engessa's suitable, and he's probably a great deal more intelligent than Androl was.'\n\n'That's not saying too much for him, Sparhawk,' Talen said with a broad grin. 'Androl wasn't a great deal more intelligent than a brick.'\n\nThe ladies, of course, made extended preparations. The knights, on the other hand, did what they could to keep Vanion's mind occupied.\n\nAn obscure tenet of the Delphaeic faith dictated that the ceremony take place on the shore of the glowing lake just at dusk. Sparhawk dimly perceived why this might be appropriate for the Shining Ones, but the wedding of Vanion and Sephrenia had little if anything to do with the covenant between the Delphae and their God. Courtesy, however, dictated that he keep his opinions to himself. He _did_ offer to clothe Vanion in traditional black Pandion armor, but the Preceptor chose instead to wear a white Styric robe. 'I've fought my last war, Sparhawk,' he said, a bit sadly. 'Dolmant won't have any choice but to excommunicate me and strip me of my knighthood after this. That makes me a civilian again. I never really enjoyed wearing armor all that much anyway.' He looked curiously at Ulath and Tynian, who were talking earnestly with Bhlokw just outside the stable door. 'What's going on there?'\n\n'They're trying to explain the concept of a wedding to their friend. They aren't making very much headway.'\n\n'I don't imagine that Trolls set much store in ceremonies.'\n\n'Not really. When a male feels that way about a female, he takes her something \u2013 or somebody \u2013 to eat. If she eats it, they're married.'\n\n'And if she doesn't?'\n\nSparhawk shrugged. 'They usually try to kill each other.'\n\n'Do you have any idea of why Bhlokw didn't go off with the rest of the Trolls?'\n\n'Not a clue, Vanion. We haven't been able to get a straight answer out of him. Evidently there's something the Troll-Gods want him to do.'\n\nThe afternoon dragged on, and Vanion grew more and more edgy with each passing moment. Inevitably, however, the grey day slid into a greyer evening, and dusk settled over the hidden valley of Delphaeus.\n\nThe path from the city gate to the edge of the lake had been carefully cleared, and Aphrael, who was not above cheating on occasion, had strewn it with flower petals. The Delphae, all aglow and singing an ancient hymn, lined the sides of the path. Vanion waited at the edge of the lake with Sparhawk, and the other members of their party stood in smiling anticipation as Sephrenia, with Ehlana at her side, emerged from the city to walk down to the shore.\n\n'Courage, my son,' Sparhawk murmured to his old friend.\n\n'Are you trying to be funny?'\n\n'Getting married doesn't really hurt, Vanion.'\n\nIt happened when the bride and her attendant were perhaps halfway to the lake-shore. A sudden cloud of inky darkness appeared at the edge of the snow-covered meadow, and a great voice bellowed, _'NO!'_ Then a spark of incandescent light emerged from the center of the cloud and began to swell ominously, surging and surrounded by a blazing halo of purplish light. Sparhawk recognized the phenomenon.\n\n'I forbid this abomination!' the great voice roared.\n\n'Zalasta!' Kalten exclaimed, staring at the rapidly expanding sphere.\n\nThe Styric was haggard and his hair and beard were matted. He wore his customary white robe and held his polished staff in his trembling hands. He stood inside the glowing sphere, surrounded by its protective nimbus. Sparhawk felt an icy calm descending over him as he prepared his mind and spirit for the inevitable confrontation.\n\n'I have lost you, Sephrenia!' Zalasta declared. 'But I _will_ not permit you to wed this Elene!'\n\nAphrael dashed to her sister, her long black hair flying and a look of implacable determination on her small face.\n\n'Fear not, Aphrael,' Zalasta said, speaking in formal Styric. 'I have not come to this accursed place to pit myself against thee or thine errant sister. I speak for Styricum in this matter, and I have come to prevent this obscene sham of a ceremony which will befoul our entire race.' He straightened and pointed an accusing finger at Sephrenia. 'I adjure thee, woman. Turn away from this unnatural act! Go out from here, Sephrenia of Ylara! This wedding shall not take place!'\n\n'It _will!'_ Sephrenia's voice rang out. 'You cannot prevent it! Go away, Zalasta! You lost all claim on me when you tried to kill me!' She raised her chin. 'And have you come to try again?'\n\n'No, Sephrenia of Ylara. That was the result of a madness that came over me. There is yet another way to prevent this abomination.' And he quickly turned, leveling his deadly staff at Vanion. A brilliant spark shot from the tip of the staff, sizzling in the pale evening light, straight as an arrow it flew, carrying death and all Zalasta's hatred.\n\nBut vigilant Anakha was ready, having already surmised at whom Zalasta would direct his attack. The sizzling spark flew straight, and agile Anakha stretched forth his hand to subdue it. He grasped the spark and saw its fury spurting out between his fingers. Then like a small boy throwing a stone at a bird, he hurled it back to explode against the surface of the blazing sphere.\n\n'Well done, my son,' Bhelliom's voice applauded.\n\nZalasta flinched violently within his protective sphere. Pale and shaken, he stared at the dreadful form of Bhelliom's Child.\n\nMethodical Anakha raised his hand, palm outward, and began to chip away at the blazing envelope which protected the desperate Styric with bolt after bolt of the kind of force that creates suns, noting almost absently as he did that the wedding-guests were scattering and that Sephrenia was rushing to Vanion's side. As he whipped that force out again and again, curious Anakha studied it, testing its power, probing for its limits.\n\nHe found none.\n\nImplacable Anakha advanced on the deceitful Styric who had been ultimately the cause of a lifetime of suffering and woe. He knew that he could obliterate the now-terrified sorcerer with a single thought.\n\nHe chose not to.\n\nVengeful Anakha moved forward, savaging the Styric's last desperately erected defenses, cutting them away bit by bit and brushing aside Zalasta's pitiful efforts to respond.\n\n'Anakha! It is not right!' The voice spoke in Trollish.\n\nPuzzled Anakha turned to look.\n\nIt was Bhlokw, and Bhelliom's Child had respect for the shaggy priest of the Troll-Gods.\n\n'This is the last of the wicked ones!' Bhlokw declared. 'It is the wish of Khwaj to cause hurt to it! Will the Child of the Flower-Gem hear the words of Khwaj?'\n\nTroubled Anakha considered the words of the priest of the Troll-Gods. 'I will hear the words of Khwaj,' he said. 'It is right that I should do this, for Khwaj and I are pack-mates.'\n\nThe enormity of the Fire-God appeared, steaming away the snow covering the meadow around him. 'Will Bhelliom's Child be bound by the word of his pack-mate, Ulath-from-Thalesia?' he demanded in a voice that roared like a furnace.\n\n'The word of Ulath-from-Thalesia is my word, Khwaj,' honorable Anakha conceded.\n\n'Then the wicked one is mine!'\n\nRegretful Anakha curbed his wrath. 'The words of Khwaj are right words,' he agreed. 'If Ulath-from-Thalesia has given the wicked one to Khwaj, then I will not say that it shall not be so.' He looked at the terrified Styric, who was struggling desperately to retain some small measure of defense. 'It is yours, Khwaj. It has caused me much hurt, and I would cause hurt to it in return, but if Ulath-from-Thalesia has said that it is the place of Khwaj to cause hurt to it, then so be it.'\n\n'Bhelliom's Child speaks well. You have honor, Anakha.' The Fire-God looked accusingly at Zalasta. 'You have done great wickedness, one-called-Zalasta.'\n\nZalasta stared at Khwaj in terrified incomprehension.\n\n'Say to it what I have said, Anakha,' Khwaj requested. 'It must know why it is being punished.'\n\nCourteous Anakha said, 'I will, Khwaj.' He looked sternly at the dishevelled Styric. 'You have caused me much pain, Zalasta,' he said in a dreadful voice, speaking in Styric. 'I was going to repay you for all those friends of mine you destroyed or corrupted, but Khwaj here has laid claim to you, and for various reasons I'm going to honor his claim. You should have stayed away, Zalasta. Vanion would have hunted you down eventually, but death is a little thing, and once it's over, it's over. What Khwaj is going to do to you will last for eternity.'\n\n'Does it understand?' Khwaj demanded.\n\n'In some measure, Khwaj.'\n\n'In time it will understand more, and it has much time. It has always.' And the dreadful Fire-God blew away Zalasta's last pitiful defenses and laid a strangely gentle hand on the cringing Styric's head. 'Burn!' he commanded. 'Run and burn until the end of days!'\n\nAnd, all aflame, Zalasta of Styricum went out from that place shrieking and engulfed in endless fire.\n\nCompassionate Anakha sighed as he watched the burning man run out across the snowy meadow, growing smaller and smaller in the distance and with his cries of agony and woe and unspeakable loneliness receding with him as he began the first hour of his eternal punishment.\n\n# _Epilogue_\n\nThe following day dawned clear and cold. The sun on the snow-fields blanketing the surrounding mountains was dazzling, and the lake at the center of the hidden Valley of Delphaeus steamed. The wedding had, of course, been postponed, and was now to take place this evening.\n\nThere had been questions, naturally, but Sparhawk had put them to rest by explaining that everything that had happened had been Bhelliom's doing, and that he had only been its instrument \u2013 which was not _exactly_ a lie.\n\nThey spent the day quietly and gathered again as the sun went down and the shadows of evening settled over the valley. A strange sense of anticipation had nagged at Sparhawk all afternoon. Something was going to happen here. Bhelliom had told him that he would behold a wonder, and that was not the kind of word Bhelliom would use lightly.\n\nThe shadows of evening deepened, and Sparhawk and the other men escorted Vanion down to the shore of the glowing lake to await the bride's party while the Shining Ones once again sang the ancient hymn which had been so abruptly broken off the previous evening.\n\nThen the bride appeared at the gate with the Queen of Elenia at her side and the other ladies close behind them. The Child Goddess, whirling and dancing in the air and with her clear voice raised in flute-song, preceded them, again strewing their path with flower petals.\n\nSephrenia's face was serene as she came down the path to the lake. As the small Styric bride approached the man whom two major religions had forbidden her to marry, her personal Goddess provided a visible symbol that _she,_ at least, approved. The stars had just begun to appear overhead, and one of them seemed to have lost its way. Like a tiny comet, a brilliant spark of light descended over the radiant Sephrenia and settled gently on her head as a glowing garland of spring flowers.\n\nSparhawk smiled gently. The similarity to the crowning of Mirtai during her rite of passage was a little too obvious to miss.\n\n'Critic,' Aphrael's voice accused.\n\n'I didn't say anything.'\n\n'Well, don't.'\n\nSephrenia and Vanion joined hands as the Delphaeic hymn swelled to a climax. And then Xanetia, all aglow and accompanied by two other glowing forms, one white and the other blue, came walking across the lake. A yearning kind of murmur passed through the Delphae, and, as one, they sank reverently to their knees.\n\nThe Anarae tenderly embraced her Styric sister and kissed Vanion chastely on the cheek. 'I have entreated Beloved Edaemus to join with us here and to bless this most happy union,' she told the assemblage, 'and he hath brought with him this other guest, who also hath some interest in our ceremony.'\n\n'Is that blue one who I think it is?' Kalten muttered to Sparhawk.\n\n'Oh, yes,' Sparhawk replied. 'That's the form it took back in Cyrga, remember? \u2013 After I stuffed it down Kl\u00e6l's throat.'\n\n'I was a little distracted at that point. Is that what it _really_ looks like? After you peel off all the layers of sapphire, I mean?'\n\n'I don't really think so. Bhelliom's a spirit, not a form. I think this particular shape is just a courtesy \u2013 for our benefit.'\n\n'I thought it had already left.'\n\n'No, not quite yet.'\n\nThe glowing form of Edaemus straightened, somehow managing to look uncomfortable. Xanetia's face hardened and her eyes narrowed.\n\n'I had thought ill of thee, Sephrenia of Ylara,' the God of the Delphae admitted. 'Mine Anarae hath persuaded me that my thought was in error. I do entreat thee to forgive me.' Gentle Xanetia, it appeared, was not above a certain amount of bullying.\n\nSephrenia smiled benignly. 'Of course I forgive thee, Divine Edaemus. I was not entirely blameless myself, I do confess.'\n\n'Let us all then pray to our separate Gods to bless the union of this man and this woman,' Xanetia said in formal tones, 'for methinks it doth presage a new birth of understanding and trust for all of mankind.'\n\nSparhawk was a little dubious about that, but like the others, he bowed his head. He did not, however, direct his words to his Elene God. 'Blue Rose,' he sent out his thought.\n\n'Art thou praying, my son?' The answering voice sounded slightly amused.\n\n'Consulting, Blue Rose,' Sparhawk corrected. 'Others will direct our entreaty to our Elene God, and I do perceive that the time fast approaches when thou and I must part.'\n\n'Truly.'\n\n'I thought to take this opportunity to ask a boon of thee.'\n\n'If it be within my power.'\n\n'I have seen the extent of thy power, Blue Rose \u2013 and in some measure shared it. It is uncandid of thee to suggest that there are _any_ limits to what thou canst do.'\n\n'Be nice,' Bhelliom murmured. It seemed quite fond of that particular phrase. 'What is this boon, my son?'\n\n'I do entreat thee to take _all_ thy power with thee when thou dost depart. It is a burden I am unprepared to accept. I am thy son, Blue Rose, but I am also a man. I have neither the patience nor the wisdom to accept responsibility for what thou hast bestowed upon me. This world which thou hast made hath Gods in plenty. She doth not need another.'\n\n'Think, my son. Think of what thou dost propose to surrender.'\n\n'I have, my father. I have been Anakha, for it was needful.' Sparhawk struggled for a way to put his feelings into archaic Elenic. 'When I did as Anakha confront the Styric Zalasta, I did feel a great detachment within myself, and that detachment abideth within me still. It seemeth me that thy gift hath altered me, making me more \u2013 or less \u2013 than a man. I would, an it please thee, no longer be \"patient Anakha\" or \"curious Anakha\" or \"implacable Anakha\". Anakha's task is finished. Now, with all my heart, I would be Sparhawk again. To be \"loving Sparhawk\" or even \"irritated Sparhawk\" would please me far more than the dreadful emptiness which is Anakha.'\n\nThere was a long pause. 'Know that I am well-pleased with thee, my son.' There was pride in the silent voice in Sparhawk's mind. 'I find more merit in thee in this moment than in any other. Be well, Sparhawk.' And the voice was gone.\n\nThe wedding ceremony was strange in some ways and very familiar in others. The celebration of the love that existed between Vanion and Sephrenia was there, but the preaching which so marred the Elene ritual was not. At the conclusion, Xanetia gently laid her hands in loving benediction upon the heads of the two she had just joined. The gesture seemed to proclaim that the ceremony was at an end.\n\nBut it was not.\n\nThe second of the two figures which had accompanied Xanetia across the luminous waters of the lake stepped forward, all glowing blue, to add its own benediction. It raised its hands over the man and the woman, and for a brief moment they shared its azure incandescence. And when the light faded, Sephrenia had subtly changed. The cares and weariness which had marked her face in a dozen tiny ways were gone, and she appeared to be no older than Alean. The changes Bhelliom's glowing touch had wrought on Vanion were more visible and pronounced. His shoulders, which had imperceptibly slumped over the years, were straight again. His face was unlined, and his silvery hair and beard were now the dark auburn Sparhawk dimly remembered from the days of his novitiate. It was Bhelliom's final gift, and nothing could have pleased Sparhawk more.\n\nAphrael clapped her hands together with a squeal of delight and flew into the arms of the nebulous, glowing figure which had just rejuvenated her sister and Vanion.\n\nSparhawk rather carefully concealed a smile. The Child Goddess had finally maneuvered Bhelliom into a position where she could unleash the devastating effects of her kisses upon it. The kisses _could,_ of course, have been pure, effusive gratitude \u2013 but they probably weren't.\n\nThe wedding was at an end, but the glowing Delphae did not return to their empty city. Xanetia placed one supporting arm around Anari Cedon's frail old shoulders and guided him instead out onto the radiant surface of the lake, and the Shining Ones followed, raising a different hymn as incandescent Edaemus hovered in the air above them. The light of the lake grew brighter and brighter, and the ethereal glow of the Delphae seemed to merge, and individual figures were no longer distinguishable. Then, like the point of a spear, Edaemus streaked skyward, and all of his children streamed upward behind him. When Sparhawk and his friends had first come to Delphaeus, Anari Cedon had told them that the Delphae journeyed toward the light and that they would _become_ the light, but that there were yet impediments. Bhelliom had evidently removed those barriers. The Delphae marked the starry sky like a comet as they rose together on the first step of their inconceivable journey.\n\nThe pale, clear radiance of the lake was gone, but it was not dark. An azure spark hung over it as Bhelliom surveyed what it had wrought and found that it was good. Then it too rose from the earth to rejoin the eternal stars.\n\nThey stayed that night in deserted Delphaeus, and sparhawk awoke early as usual. He dressed himself quietly and left the simple bedroom and his tousled, sleeping wife to go outside to check the weather.\n\nFlute joined him when he reached the city gate. 'Why don't you put some shoes on?' he asked her, noting that her bare, grass-stained little feet were sunk in the snow.\n\n'What do I need with shoes, Father?' She held out her arms, and he picked her up.\n\n'It was quite a night, wasn't it?' he said, looking up at the cloudy sky.\n\n'Why did you do that, Sparhawk?'\n\n'Do what?'\n\n'You know what I mean. Do you realize what you could have done? You could have turned this world into a paradise, but you threw it all away.'\n\n'I don't think that would have been a good idea, Aphrael. My idea of paradise would probably have been different from other people's.' He sniffed at the chill air. 'I think we've got weather coming,' he observed.\n\n'Don't change the subject. You had ultimate power. Why did you give it up?'\n\nHe sighed. 'I didn't really like it all that much. There wasn't any effort involved in it, and when you get something without working for it, it doesn't really have any value. Besides, there are people who have claims on me.'\n\n'What's that got to do with it?'\n\n'What could I have done if Ehlana had decided that she wanted Arcium? Or if Dolmant had decided that he wanted to convert Styricum? Or all of Tamuli? I have loyalties and obligations, Aphrael, and sooner or later, I'd have made bad decisions because of them. Trust me. I made the right choice.'\n\n'I think you're going to regret it.'\n\n'I've regretted lots of things. You learn to live with it. Can you get us to Matherion?'\n\n'You could have done it yourself, you know.'\n\n'Don't beat it into the ground, Aphrael. If you don't want to, then we'll just plow our way through the snow. We've done it before.'\n\n'You're hateful, Sparhawk. You _know_ I won't let you do that.'\n\n_'Now_ do you see what I mean about the power of loyalties and obligations?'\n\n'Don't start lecturing me. I'm in no mood for it. Go wake up the others, and let's get started.'\n\n'Whatever you say, Divine One.'\n\nThey located the rather large communal kitchen in which the Delphae had prepared all their meals and the storerooms where the food was kept. Despite their eons of enmity, the dietary prejudices of the Styrics and Delphae were remarkable similar. Sephrenia found the breakfast much to her liking, but Kalten grumbled a great deal. He _did_ eat three helpings, however.\n\n'Whatever happened to friend Bhlokw?' Kring asked, pushing back his plate. 'I just realized that I haven't seen him since Zalasta took fire.'\n\n'He went off with his Gods, Domi,' Tynian replied. 'He did what they sent him to do. and now he and the rest of the Trolls are on their way back to Thalesia. He wished us all good hunting. That's about as close as a Troll can come to saying goodbye.'\n\n'It might sound a little strange,' Kring admitted, 'but I liked him.'\n\n'He's a good pack-mate,' Ulath said. 'He hunts well, and he's willing to share what he kills with the others in the pack.'\n\n'Oh, yes,' Tynian agreed with a shudder. 'If it wasn't a freshly-killed dog, it was a haunch of raw Cyrgai.'\n\n'It was what he had, Tynian,' Ulath defended his shaggy friend, 'and he was ready to share it. You can't ask more than that, can you?'\n\n'Sir Ulath,' Talen said, 'I've just eaten. Do you suppose we could talk about something else?'\n\nThey saddled their horses and rode out of Delphaeus.\n\nAs he left, Khalad reined in, dismounted, and closed the gate. 'Why did you do that?' Talen asked him. 'The Delphae aren't coming back, you know.'\n\n'It's the proper thing to do,' Khalad said as he remounted. 'Leaving it open would have been disrespectful.'\n\nSince they all knew who she really was, Flute made no attempt to conceal her tampering this time. The horses plodded along, as horses will if they aren't being pushed, but every few minutes the horizon flickered and changed. Once, somewhat east of Dirgis, Sparhawk rose in his stirrups to look to the rear. Their clearly visible trail stretched back to the middle of an open meadow where it stopped abruptly, almost as if the horses and riders had been dropped there out of the sky.\n\nThey reached the now-familiar hilltop overlooking fire-domed Matherion and its harbor just as evening was approaching, and they rode on down to the city gratefully. They had all been long on the road, and it was good to be home again. Sparhawk rather quickly amended that thought in his mind. Matherion was not really home. Home was a dank, unlovely city on the Cimmura River, half a world away.\n\nThere were some startled looks at the gate of the imperial compound, and yet more startled looks at the drawbridge to Ehlana's castle. Vanion had stubbornly rejected his wife's urgings to conceal his head and face with the hood of his cloak and quite literally flaunted the fact that some thirty-odd years had somehow fallen away. Vanion was like that sometimes.\n\nThere were some visible changes inside the castle as well. They found the Emperor in the blue-draped sitting-room on the second floor, and in addition to Baroness Melidere, Emban and Oscagne, three of his wives, Elysoun, Gahennas, and Liatris were also present. Elysoun was probably the most notable, since she was now modestly dressed.\n\n'Good God, Vanion!' Emban exclaimed when he saw the Pandion Preceptor. 'What's happened to you?'\n\n'I got married, your Grace,' Vanion replied. He smoothed back his mahogany-colored hair. 'This was one of the wedding presents. Do you like it?'\n\n'You look ridiculous!'\n\n'Oh, I wouldn't say that,' Sephrenia disagreed. 'I rather like it.'\n\n'I gather that congratulations are in order,' Sarabian said urbanely. There was a marked difference in the Tamul Emperor. He had a self-confidence and a commanding presence that had not been there before. 'Considering the enormous religious barriers, who performed the ceremony?'\n\n'Xanetia did, your Majesty,' Vanion replied. 'Delphaeic doctrine didn't have any objections.'\n\nSarabian looked around. 'Where _is_ Xanetia?' he asked.\n\nSephrenia pointed upward with one finger. 'Out there,' she replied rather sadly, 'with the rest of the Delphae.'\n\n'What?' The Emperor's expression was baffled.\n\n'Edaemus took them, Sarabian,' Flute explained. 'Evidently he and Bhelliom made some sort of arrangement.' She looked around. 'Where's Danae?'\n\n'She's in her room, Divine One,' Baroness Melidere said. 'She was a little tired, so she went to bed early.'\n\n'I'd better go tell her that her mother's home,' the Child Goddess said, going toward the door leading back into the rest of the apartment.\n\n'We've received any number of reports,' Foreign Minister Oscagne said, 'but they were all couched in generalities \u2013 \"the war's over, and we won\" \u2013 that sort of thing. No offense intended, Queen Betuana. Your Atans are excellent messengers, but it's hard to get details out of them.'\n\nShe shrugged. 'Perhaps it's a racial flaw, Oscagne-Excellency.' As she always did now, Betuana stood very close to the silent Engessa. She seemed reluctant to let him get very far away from her side.\n\n'The thing that puzzles me the most is the rather garbled message I got from my brother,' Oscagne confessed.\n\n'Itagne-Ambassador has a great deal on his mind just now,' Betuana said blandly.\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'He and Atana Maris became quite friendly when he was posted to Cynestra last fall. _He_ didn't take it too seriously, but _she_ did. She came looking for him. She found him in Cyrga and took him back with her to Cynestra.'\n\n'Really?' Oscagne said, his face betraying no hint of a smile. Then he shrugged. 'Oh, well,' he added, 'it's time that Itagne settled down anyway. As I recall, Atana Maris is a very vigorous young woman.'\n\n'Yes, Oscagne-Excellency, and very determined. I think your clever brother's days as a bachelor are numbered.'\n\n'What a shame,' Oscagne sighed. 'Pardon me a moment.' He went rather quickly into the next room, and they all heard the sounds of muffled laughter coming from there.\n\nAnd then Danae, her black hair flying, came running into the room to hurl herself into her mother's arms.\n\nSarabian's face went bleak. 'Who finally killed Zalasta?' he asked. 'He was at the bottom of all this, when you get right down to it.'\n\n'Zalasta isn't dead,' Sephrenia said sorrowfully, lifting Flute into her lap.\n\n'He _isn't?_ How did he manage to get away?'\n\n'We let him go, your Majesty,' Ulath replied.\n\n'Are you mad? You _know_ the kind of trouble he can stir up.'\n\n'He won't be causing any more trouble, your Majesty,' Vanion said. 'Unless he happens to start a few grass-fires.'\n\n'He won't do that, Vanion,' Flute said. 'It's a spiritual fire, not a real one.'\n\n'Will somebody _please_ tell me what happened?' Sarabian said.\n\n'Zalasta shewed up at Sephrenia's wedding, your Majesty,' Ulath told him. 'He tried to kill Vanion, but Sparhawk stopped him. Then our friend here was just about to do something fairly permanent about Zalasta, but Khwaj asserted a prior claim. Sparhawk considered the politics of the situation and agreed. Then Khwaj set Zalasta on fire.'\n\n'What a gruesome idea,' Sarabian shuddered. Then he looked at Sephrenia. 'I thought you said that he isn't dead. Yet Sir Ulath just told me that he'd been burned to death.'\n\n'No, your Majesty,' Ulath corrected, 'I just said that Khwaj set fire to him. The same thing happened to Baron Parok.'\n\n'The Trollish notion of justice sort of appeals to me,' Sarabian said with a bleak smile. 'How long will they burn?'\n\n'Forever, your Majesty,' Tynian replied somberly. 'The fire is eternal.'\n\n'Good God!'\n\n'It's further than I'd have gone,' Sparhawk conceded, but as Ulath said, there were political considerations involved.'\n\nThey talked until quite late, providing details of the campaign, the rescue of Ehlana and Alean, the freeing of Bhelliom, and the final confrontation between Sparhawk and Cyrgon. Sparhawk rather carefully stressed his surrogacy in that particular event and made some issue of the fact that he was no longer Anakha. He wanted that particular book permanently closed with no doubts remaining in anyone's mind that there was absolutely no way to reopen it.\n\nAlso during the course of that long conversation, Sarabian told them of the attempt on his life by Chacole and Torellia. 'They might have actually pulled it off if it hadn't been for Elysoun,' he concluded, looking fondly at his now-demure Valesian wife.\n\nMirtai looked at Elysoun with one questioningly-raised eyebrow. 'Why the change of costume?' she asked bluntly.\n\nElysoun shrugged. 'I'm with child,' she replied. 'I guess my days of adventuring are over.' She looked at Mirtai's puzzled expression. 'It's a Valesian custom,' she explained. 'We're allowed a certain amount of freedom until our first pregnancy. After that, we're supposed to behave ourselves.' She smiled. 'I'd more or less exhausted the potentials of the imperial compound anyway,' she added. 'Now it's time to settle down \u2013 and catch up on my sleep.'\n\n'Has anybody heard from Stragen and Caalador?' Talen asked.\n\n'Viscount Stragen and Duke Caalador came back to Matherion a week ago,' Sarabian replied.\n\n'New embellishments?' Ehlana asked with some surprise.\n\n'Rewards for services rendered, Ehlana,' Sarabian smiled. 'It seemed appropriate. Duke Caalador's accepted a position in the Ministry of the Interior, so he's gone back to Lebas to settle up his affairs there.'\n\n'And Stragen?'\n\n'He's on his way to Astel, your Majesty,' Baroness Melidere replied with a bleak smile. 'He said that he wants to have a few words with Elron.'\n\n'Did Elron manage to get out of Natayos alive?' Kalten sounded surprised. 'Ekrasios said that the Shining Ones had obliterated the place.'\n\n'The word Caalador picked up was that Elron hid out somewhere while the Shining Ones were dissolving Scarpa and Cyzada. Then, after they were gone, he crept out of the ruins and bolted for home. Stragen's going to look him up.' The Baroness looked at Khalad. 'Krager got out as well,' she told him. 'Caalador found out that he was bound for Zenga in eastern Cammoria. There's something you should know about Krager, though.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'Do you remember how King Wargun died?'\n\n'His liver finally gave out on him, didn't it?'\n\nShe nodded. 'The same thing's happening to Krager. Caalador talked with a man named Orden in the town of Delo. Krager was completely out of his head when they put him on the ship bound for Zenga.'\n\n'He's still alive, though, isn't he?' Khalad asked bleakly.\n\n'If you can call it that,' she sighed. 'Let it go, Khalad. He wouldn't even feel it if you ran your sword through him. He wouldn't know who you were or why you were killing him.'\n\n'Thank you, Baroness,' Khalad said, 'but I think that when we get back to Eosia, Berit and I'll run on down to Zenga just to make sure. Krager's gotten away from us just a few too many times to take any chances. I want to see him in the ground.'\n\n'Can I come too?' Talen asked eagerly.\n\n'No,' Khalad replied.\n\n'What do you mean, no?'\n\n'It's time for you to start your novitiate.'\n\n'That can wait.'\n\n'No, it can't. You're already a half a year late. If you don't start training now, you'll never become proficient.'\n\nVanion looked approvingly at Sparhawk's squire. 'Don't forget what we talked about earlier, Sparhawk,' he said. 'And pass my recommendation on to Dolmant.'\n\n'What's this?' Khalad asked.\n\n'I'll tell you about it later,' Sparhawk replied.\n\n'Oh, by the way, Ehlana,' Sarabian said, 'as long as the subject's come up anyway, would you be put out with me if I bestowed a title on your little song-bird here?' He smiled fondly at Alean. 'I certainly hope not, dear heart, because I'm going to do it anyway \u2013 for outstanding service to the Empire, if nothing else.'\n\n'What a splendid idea, Sarabian!' Ehlana exclaimed.\n\n'I can't really take much credit for the notion of the titles, I'm afraid.' he admitted a bit ruefully. 'Actually, they were your daughter's idea. Her Royal Highness is a very strong-minded little girl.'\n\nSparhawk glanced briefly at his daughter and then at Flute. They wore identical expressions of smug self-satisfaction. Divine Aphrael clearly would not let anything stand in the way of her match-making. Sparhawk smiled briefly and then cleared his throat. 'Ah \u2013 your Majesty,' he said to the Emperor, 'it's growing rather late, and we're all tired. I'd suggest that we continue this tomorrow.'\n\n'Of course, Prince Sparhawk,' Sarabian agreed, rising to his feet.\n\n'A word with you, Sparhawk?' Patriarch Emban said as the others started to file out.\n\n'Of course.' They waited until they were alone in the room.\n\n'What are we going to do about Vanion and Sephrenia?' Emban asked.\n\n'I don't exactly follow you, your Grace.'\n\n'This so-called marriage is going to put Dolmant in a very difficult position, you know.'\n\n'It's not a \"so-called marriage\", Emban,' Sparhawk said firmly, cutting across the formalities.\n\n'You know what I mean. The conservatives in the Hierocracy will probably try to use it to weaken Sarathi's position.'\n\n'Why tell them, then? It's none of their business. A lot of things that our theology can't explain have happened here in Tamuli, your Grace. The Empire's outside the jurisdiction of our Church, so why tell the Hierocracy anything about them?'\n\n'I can't just lie to them, Sparhawk.'\n\n'I didn't suggest that. Just don't talk about it.'\n\n'I _have_ to report to Dolmant.'\n\n'That's all right. He's flexible.' Sparhawk considered it. 'That's probably your best course anyway. We'll take Dolmant off to one side and tell him about everything that's happened here. We'll let _him_ decide how much to tell the Hierocracy.'\n\n'You're putting an awful burden on him, Sparhawk.'\n\nSparhawk shrugged. 'That's what he gets paid for, isn't it? Now if you'll excuse me, your Grace, there's a family reunion going on that I should probably attend.'\n\nThere was a melancholy sense of endings for the next several weeks. They were all fully aware of the fact that once the weather broke, most of them would be leaving Matherion. The likelihood that they would ever gather again was very slight. They savored their moments together, and there were frequent private little interludes when two or perhaps three of them would gather in out-of-the way places, ostensibly to talk at great length about inconsequential matters, but in fact to cement faces, the sounds of voices, and very personal connections forever in their memories.\n\nSparhawk entered the sitting-room one blustery morning to find Sarabian and Oscagne with their heads together over a bound book of some kind. There was a certain outrage in their expressions. 'Trouble?' Sparhawk asked.\n\n'Politics,' Sarabian said sourly. 'That's always trouble.'\n\n'The Contemporary History Department at the University has just published their version of recent events, Prince Sparhawk,' Oscagne explained. 'There's very little truth in it \u2013 particularly in light of the fact that Pondia Subat, our esteemed Prime Minister, turns out to be a hero.'\n\n'I should have deleted Subat as soon as I found out about his activities,' Sarabian said moodily. 'Who would be the best one to answer this tripe, Oscagne?'\n\n'My brother, your Majesty,' the Foreign Minister replied promptly. 'He _is_ a member of the faculty, and he has a certain reputation. Unfortunately, he's in Cynestra just now.'\n\n'Send for him, Oscagne. Get him back here before Contemporary History contaminates the thinking of a whole generation.'\n\n'Maris will want to come too, your Majesty.'\n\n'Fine. Your brother's too clever by half. Let's keep Atana Maris nice and close to him. She might be able to teach him humility.'\n\n'What are we going to do with the Cyrgai, your Majesty?' Sparhawk asked. 'Sephrenia says that the curse that confined them was lifted when Cyrgon died, and even though it's not actually their fault, there really isn't any place for them in the modern world.'\n\n'I've been brooding about that myself,' the Emperor admitted. 'I think we'll want to keep them away from normal human beings. There's an island about five hundred leagues east of Tega. It's fairly fertile and it has a more or less acceptable climate. Since the Cyrgai are so fond of isolation, it should turn the trick. How long do you think it might take them to invent boats?'\n\n'Several thousand years, your Majesty. The Cyrgai aren't very creative.'\n\nSarabian grinned at him. 'I'd say that's the perfect place, then.'\n\nSparhawk grinned back. 'Sounds good to me,' he agreed.\n\nSpring came to eastern Tamuli in a rush that year. A sudden warm, wet wind blew in off the Tamul sea, cutting the snow off the sides of nearby mountains in a single night. The streams ran bank-full, of course, so it was still too early for travel. Sparhawk's impatience grew with each lingering day. It was not so much that he had anything pressing to attend to, but more that this prolonged farewell was extremely painful.\n\nThere _was_ one fairly extended argument. Ehlana insisted at first that they should all journey to Atan to celebrate the wedding of Mirtai and Kring.\n\n'You're being ignorant again, Ehlana,' Mirtai told her with characteristic bluntness. 'You've seen weddings before, and you've got a kingdom to run. Go back to Cimmura where you belong.'\n\n'Don't you want me to be present?' Ehlana's eyes filled with tears.\n\nMirtai embraced her. 'You _will_ be, Ehlana,' she said. 'You're in my heart forever now. Go back to Cimmura. I'll come by after Kring and I get settled in Pela \u2013 or wherever we decide to live.'\n\nVanion and Sephrenia decided to accompany Queen Betuana's party as far as Atana and then to proceed on to Sarsos. 'It's probably the best place for us, dear one,' Sephrenia told Sparhawk. 'I have a certain status there, and I can shout down the fanatics who'll try to object to the fact that Vanion and I are married now.'\n\n'Well put,' Sparhawk said. Then he sighed. 'I'm going to miss you, little mother,' he told her. 'You and Vanion won't ever be able to come back to Eosia, you know.'\n\n'Don't be absurd, Sparhawk,' she laughed. 'I've always gone anyplace I wanted to go, and I always will. There are ways I can disguise Vanion's face \u2013 and mine \u2013 so we'll stop by from time to time. I want to keep an eye on your daughter, if nothing else.' Then she kissed him. 'Run along now, dear one. I have to go talk with Sarabian about Betuana.'\n\n'Oh?'\n\n'She's been muttering some nonsense about abdicating so that she can marry Engessa. The Atans are subject to the imperial crown, so I have to persuade Sarabian to keep her from doing something foolish. Engessa will make a very good co-ruler, and Sarabian needs stability in Atan.'\n\nAs the spring run-off began to recede and the soggy fields around the capital began to dry out, Sparhawk went down to the harbor looking for Captain Sorgi. There were less battered and more luxurious ships swinging at anchor in the crowded harbor, but sparhawk trusted Sorgi, and to sail home with him would provide a comforting sense of continuity to the conclusion of this whole business. He found the curly-haired sea-captain in a neat, well-lit wharfside tavern that was quite obviously run by an Elene proprietor.\n\n'There'll be thirteen of us, Captain,' Sparhawk said, 'and seven horses.'\n\n'We'll be a bit crowded, Master Cluff,' Sorgi replied, squinting at the ceiling, 'but I think we can manage. Are you going to be covering the cost of the passage yourself?'\n\nSparhawk grinned. 'The Emperor has graciously offered to defray the expense,' he said. 'He's a friend, so please don't bankrupt him.'\n\nSorgi grinned back. 'I wouldn't think of it, Master Cluff.' He leaned back in his chair. 'It's been an interesting time, and the Tamul Empire's an interesting place, but it'll be good to get back home again.'\n\n'Yes,' Sparhawk agreed. 'Sometimes it seems that I've spent my whole life trying to get back home.'\n\n'I'll reckon up the cost of the voyage and have my bo'sun bring it up to the imperial compound to you. I almost lost him down in Beresa, you know.'\n\n'Your bo'sun?'\n\nSorgi nodded. 'A couple of rascals waylaid him in an alleyway. He barely got out alive.'\n\n'Imagine that,' Sparhawk said blandly. Evidently Valash had tried to cut some corners on the hiring of assassins as well as on everything else.\n\n'When exactly did you want to sail, Master Cluff?'\n\n'We haven't quite decided yet \u2013 sometime in the next week or so. I'll let you know. Some of our friends are leaving to go overland to Atan. It might be best if we sailed on the same day.'\n\n'Good idea,' Sorgi approved. 'It's always best not to drag out the farewells. Sailors have learned how to say goodbye in a hurry. When the time comes to leave, we always have to catch the tide, and it won't wait.'\n\n'Well put, Sorgi,' Sparhawk smiled.\n\nNot unsurprisingly it was Betuana who made the decision. 'We'll leave tomorrow,' she declared flatly at the dinner table a week later.\n\n'So soon?' Sarabian's voice sounded slightly stricken.\n\n'The streams are down, and the fields are dry, Sarabian-Emperor,' she pointed out. 'Why should we linger?'\n\n'Well \u2013' he let it trail off.\n\n'You're too sentimental, Sarabian,' she told him bluntly. 'You know that we're going to leave. Why prolong it? Come to Atan next fall, and we'll go boar-hunting. You spend too much time penned up here in Matherion.'\n\n'It's pretty hard for me to get away,' he said dubiously. 'Somebody has to stay here and mind the store.'\n\n'Let Oscagne do it. He's honorable, so he won't steal too much.'\n\n'Your Majesty!' Oscagne protested.\n\nShe smiled at him. 'I was only teasing you, Oscagne,' she told him. 'Friends can do that without giving offense.'\n\nThere was little sleep for any of them that night. There was packing, of course, and a myriad of other preparations, but the bulk of the night was spent running up and down the hallways with urgent messages that were all basically the same: 'Promise that we'll keep in touch.'\n\nAnd they all did promise, of course, and they all really meant it. The fading of that resolve would not begin for at least a year \u2013 or maybe even two.\n\nThey gathered in the castle courtyard just as dawn was breaking over the Tamul Sea. There were all the customary kisses and embraces and gruff handshakes.\n\nIt was finally Khalad, good, solid, dependable Khalad, who looked appraisingly at the eastern sky, cleared his throat, and said, 'We'd better get started, Sparhawk. Sorgi'll probably charge you for an extra day if you make him miss the morning tide.'\n\n'Right,' Sparhawk agreed. He lifted Ehlana up into the open carriage Sarabian had provided and in which Emban, Talen, Alean and Melidere were already seated. Then he looked around and saw Danae and Flute speaking quietly together. 'Danae,' he called his daughter, 'time to go.'\n\nThe Crown Princess of Elenia kissed the Child Goddess of Styricum one last time and obediently came across the courtyard to her father.\n\n'Thanks for stopping by, Sparhawk,' Sarabian said simply, holding out his hand.\n\nSparhawk took the hand in his own. 'My pleasure, Sarabian,' he replied. Then he swung himself up into Faran's saddle and led the way across the drawbridge and out onto the still-shadowy lawns.\n\nIt took perhaps a quarter of an hour to reach the harbor, and another half-hour to load the horses in the forward hold. Sparhawk came back up on deck where the others waited and looked toward the east, where the sun had not yet risen.\n\n'All ready, Master Cluff?' Sorgi called from the quarterdeck at the stern of his ship.\n\n'That's it, Captain Sorgi,' Sparhawk called back. 'We've done what we came to do. Let's go home.'\n\nThe self-important bo'sun strutted up and down the deck unnecessarily supervising the casting off of all lines and the raising of the sails.\n\nThe tide was moving quite rapidly, and there was a good following breeze. Sorgi skillfully maneuvered his battered old ship out through the harbor to the open sea.\n\nSparhawk lifted Danae in one arm and put the other about Ehlana's shoulders, and they stood at the port rail looking back at the city the Tamuls called the center of the world. Sorgi swung his tiller over to take a southeasterly course to round the peninsula, and just as the sails bellied out in the breeze, the sun slid above the eastern horizon.\n\nMatherion had been pale in the shadows of dawn, but as the sun rose, the opalescent domes took fire, and shimmering, rainbow-colored light played across the gleaming surfaces. Sparhawk and his wife and daughter stood at the rail, their eyes filled with the wonder of the glowing city that seemed somehow to be bidding them its own farewell and wishing them a safe voyage home.\nDavid Eddings\n\nDomes of Fire\n\nBook one of _The Tamuli_\n\nPRINCE SPARHAWK AND THE TROLL-GODS\n\nQueen Ehlana and the Pandion Knight Sir Sparhawk are married, their kingdom peaceful at last, their union blessed with a very special daughter named Danae. But soon trouble sweeps westward from the Tamul Empire to disrupt not only the living of Eosia but the dead: horrific armies are being raised from the dust of the long-past Age of Heroes, threatening the peace won at such cost in Zemoch.\n\nPrince Sparhawk is called upon to help the Tamuli nations defeat these ancient horrors. Perhaps the Troll-Gods are once more loose in the world! With Ehlana and a retinue of Pandion Knights, Sparhawk will make the hazardous journey to the Tamul Empire... only to discover in fire-domed Matherion, the incandescent Tamul capital, that the enemy is already within its gates.\n\nFull of marvels and humour, romance and shrewdness, above all full of magic, the resources of the epic form are mined deep by the greatest of modern fantasy writers.\n\nISBN 0 00 721706 4\nDavid Eddings\n\nThe Shining Ones\n\nBook two of _The Tamuli_\n\nHAVOC AND WAR\n\nPrince Sparhawk is pledged to fight the enemies of the Tamul Emperor Sarabian with all the skill and cunning of a Pandion Knight. Meanwhile his Queen, Ehlana, educates Sarabian in the art of ruthless statesmanship. Sarabian is transformed from a mere puppet ruler into a formidable politician. But still Trolls, vampires, werewolves, zombies, ghouls and Ogres form a vast conspiracy to take over the Empire. Most disturbing of all are reported sightings of the Shining Ones amongst the hordes. These luminous beings inspire more fear than the rest combined. And Sparhawk and his companions must resurrect the sacred jewel of the Troll-Gods to combat them.\n\nThe enemies of the Empire know that possession of the jewel makes Sparhawk as dangerous as any god. But gods are among his foes. And while Sparhawk defends the far-flung Tamul Empire, he cannot also protect his beautiful Queen.\n\nDavid Eddings, the greatest of modern fantasy writers, unveils the hidden powers at work in the story of Sparhawk and the Tamul Empire, an epic for our times.\n\nISBN 0 00 721707 2\nDavid Eddings\n\nThe Diamond Throne\n\nBook One of _The Elenium_\n\nIntroducing the Pandion Knight Sparhawk and his sleeping queen, and a jewel that can save her...\n\nAfter a long spell of exile, Sparhawk, Pandion Knight and the Queen's champion, returns to his native land to find it overrun with evil and intrigue \u2013 and his young Queen grievously ill. Indeed, Ehlana lies magically entombed within a block of crystal, doomed to die unless a cure can be found within a year. But as Sparhawk and his allies -who include Sephrenia, the ageless sorceress, and Flute, the strange and powerful girl-child \u2013 seek to save Ehlana and the land, they discover that the evil is even greater and more pervasive than they feared...\n\nTruly a gem of epic fantasy from the modern master of the genre, THE DIAMOND THRONE is a must for Eddings fans \u2013 and an excellent introduction for those who have yet to discover the delights of his work.\n\n0-586-20372-9\n**The Elder Gods**\n\nThe Dreamers: Book One\n\nDavid and Leigh Eddings\n\nThey are called the Dreamers. They look like sleeping children. They are, in fact, Gods.\n\nThere are eight elder Gods, four awake, four asleep, by turns. When they sleep, they sleep for eons. The only time the Gods are vulnerable is when the sleepers first awake.\n\nKnowing this, the Ruler of the Wasteland, ambitious to become a God by destroying Gods, watches and waits, marshalling troops for war. But the coming of the Dreamers passes unnoticed in the Wasteland. The world is soon out of kilter. It is being dreamed, and the awakening of Gods is no simple transition.\n\nThe sleeping Gods are stirring. When they wake, the battle will begin.\n\nThere will be trickery and deception. Tribes of humans, creatures of the deep, the sea itself and the earth, the weather and the divinities, all will play their part in the epic struggle against the Ruler of the Wasteland.\n\nISBN: 0-00-715760-6\nThe No 1 BESTSELLER\n\nDavid and Leigh Eddings\n\nBelgarath the Sorcerer\n\n'This sixth volume in the Belgariad tells the full story of the legendary sorcerer Belgarath with all the verve and pace we've come to expect from these authors'\n\n_The Dark Side_\n\nEagerly awaited for a decade, here at last is the full epic story of Belgarath, the great sorcerer learned in the Will and the Word on whom the fate of the world depends. Only Belgarath can tell of those near-forgotten times when Gods still walked the land: he is the Ancient One, the Old Wolf, his God Aldur's first and most-favoured disciple. Using powers learned over the centuries Belgarath himself records the story of conflict between two mortally opposed Destinies that split the world asunder.\n\nA hugely entertaining work of great daring, wit, grandeur and excitement that confirms the role of Belgarath the Sorcerer as one of the mightiest fantasy creations of the century.\n\n'Nobody writes modern fantasy like Eddings or as well... Eddings is at the top with the very best'\n\n_Vector_\n\nISBN 0 586 21315 5\n**By David Eddings**\n\n**THE ELENIUM**\n\nBook One: _The Diamond Throne_  \nBook Two: _The Ruby Knight_  \nBook Three: _The Sapphire Rose_\n\n**THE TAMULI**\n\nBook One: _Domes of Fire_  \nBook Two: _The Shining Ones_  \nBook Three: _The Hidden City_\n\n**By David and Leigh Eddings**  \n_  \n_\n\n_Belgarath the Sorcerer_  \n_Polgara the Sorceress_  \n_The Rivan Codex_  \n_The Redemption of Althalus_\n\n**THE DREAMERS**\n\nBook One: _The Elder Gods_  \nBook Two: _The Treasured One_  \nBook Three: _Crystal Gorge_\n\n# About the Author\n\nTHE HIDDEN CITY\n\nDavid Eddings was born in Washington State and grew up near Seattle. He graduated from the University of Washington and went on to serve in the United States Army. Subsequently, he worked as a buyer for the Boeing Company, and taught college-level English. His first novel, _High Hunt,_ was a contemporary adventure story, but he soon began a spectacular career as a fantasy writer with his best-selling series _The Belgariad._ He consolidated his immediate success with three further enormously popular series, _The Malloreon, The Elenium_ and _The Tamuli._ Writing with his wife Leigh, three final volumes rounded off the Belgariad: _Belgarath the Sorcerer, Polgara the Sorceress_ and _The Rivan Codex._ These were followed by the epic standalone fantasy _The Redemption of Althalus,_ and his latest series of books, _The Dreamers._\n\nFor automatic updates on David and Leigh Eddings visit www.voyager-books.co.uk\/Eddings and register for Author Tracker.\n\nVisit www.AuthorTracker.com for exclusive information on your favorite HarperCollins author.\n\n# Copyright\n\n_Voyager_  \nAn Imprint of HarperCollins _Publishers_  \n77-85 Fulham Palace Road,  \nHammersmith, London W6 8JB\n\nwww.voyager-books.co.uk\n\nThis paperback edition 2006  \n4\n\nPreviously published in paperback by Voyager 1996, reprinted twelve times.\n\nFirst published in Great Britain by  \nHarperCollins Science Fiction and Fantasy 1995\n\nCopyright \u00a9 David Eddings 1994\n\nThe Author asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work\n\nISBN-13 978 0 00 721708 3  \nISBN-10 0 00 721708 0\n\nAll rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, down-loaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.\n\nEPub Edition \u00a9 MARCH 2011 ISBN: 978-0-007-36805-1\n\n# About the Publisher\n\n**Australia**  \nHarperCollins Publishers (Australia) Pty. Ltd.  \n25 Ryde Road (PO Box 321)  \nPymble, NSW 2073, Australia  \nhttp:\/\/www.harpercollinsebooks.com.au\n\n**Canada**  \nHarperCollins Canada  \n2 Bloor Street East \u2013 20th Floor  \nToronto, ON, M4W 1A8, Canada  \nhttp:\/\/www.harpercollinsebooks.ca\n\n**New Zealand**  \nHarperCollinsPublishers (New Zealand) Limited  \nP.O. Box 1 Auckland,  \nNew Zealand  \nhttp:\/\/www.harpercollinsebooks.co.nz\n\n**United Kingdom**  \nHarperCollins Publishers Ltd.  \n77-85 Fulham Palace Road  \nLondon, W6 8JB, UK  \nhttp:\/\/www.harpercollinsebooks.co.uk\n\n**United States**  \nHarperCollins Publishers Inc.  \n10 East 53rd Street  \nNew York, NY 10022  \nhttp:\/\/www.harpercollinsebooks.com\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nGreat Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP\n\nOxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York\n\nAuckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto\n\nWith offices in\n\nArgentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam\n\nOxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries\n\nPublished in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York\n\n\u00a9 Mark Maslin 2009\n\nThe moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker)\n\nFirst Published as a Very Short Introduction 2004\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above\n\nYou must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer\n\nBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available\n\nISBN 978\u20130\u201319\u2013954824\u20138\n\n1 3 5 7 9 1 0 8 6 4 2\n\nTypeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain by Ashford Colour Press Ltd, Gosport, Hampshire\n**Very Short Introductions available now:**\n\nADVERTISING \u2022 Winston Fletcher\n\nAFRICAN HISTORY \u2022 John Parker and Richard Rathbone\n\nAGNOSTICISM \u2022 Robin Le Poidevin\n\nAMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS \u2022 L. Sandy Maisel\n\nTHE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY \u2022 Charles O. Jones\n\nANARCHISM \u2022 Colin Ward\n\nANCIENT EGYPT \u2022 Ian Shaw\n\nANCIENT PHILOSOPHY \u2022 Julia Annas\n\nANCIENT WARFARE \u2022 Harry Sidebottom\n\nANGLICANISM \u2022 Mark Chapman\n\nTHE ANGLO-SAXON AGE \u2022 John Blair\n\nANIMAL RIGHTS \u2022 David DeGrazia\n\nANTISEMITISM \u2022 Steven Beller\n\nTHE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS \u2022 Paul Foster\n\nARCHAEOLOGY \u2022 Paul Bahn\n\nARCHITECTURE \u2022 Andrew Ballantyne\n\nARISTOCRACY \u2022 William Doyle\n\nARISTOTLE \u2022 Jonathan Barnes\n\nART HISTORY \u2022 Dana Arnold\n\nART THEORY \u2022 Cynthia Freeland\n\nATHEISM \u2022 Julian Baggini\n\nAUGUSTINE \u2022 Henry Chadwick\n\nAUTISM \u2022 Uta Frith\n\nBARTHES \u2022 Jonathan Culler\n\nBESTSELLERS \u2022 John Sutherland\n\nTHE BIBLE \u2022 John Riches\n\nBIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY \u2022 Eric H. Cline\n\nBIOGRAPHY \u2022 Hermione Lee\n\nTHE BOOK OF MORMON \u2022 Terryl Givens\n\nTHE BRAIN \u2022 Michael O'Shea\n\nBRITISH POLITICS \u2022 Anthony Wright\n\nBUDDHA \u2022 Michael Carrithers\n\nBUDDHISM \u2022 Damien Keown\n\nBUDDHIST ETHICS \u2022 Damien Keown\n\nCAPITALISM \u2022 James Fulcher\n\nCATHOLICISM \u2022 Gerald O'Collins\n\nTHE CELTS \u2022 Barry Cunliffe\n\nCHAOS \u2022 Leonard Smith\n\nCHOICE THEORY \u2022 Michael Allingham\n\nCHRISTIAN ART \u2022 Beth Williamson\n\nCHRISTIAN ETHICS \u2022 D. Stephen Long\n\nCHRISTIANITY \u2022 Linda Woodhead\n\nCITIZENSHIP \u2022 Richard Bellamy\n\nCLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY \u2022 Helen Morales\n\nCLASSICS \u2022 Mary Beard and John Henderson\n\nCLAUSEWITZ \u2022 Michael Howard\n\nTHE COLD WAR \u2022 Robert McMahon\n\nCOMMUNISM \u2022 Leslie Holmes\n\nCONSCIOUSNESS \u2022 Susan Blackmore\n\nCONTEMPORARY ART \u2022 Julian Stallabrass\n\nCONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY \u2022 Simon Critchley\n\nCOSMOLOGY \u2022 Peter Coles\n\nTHE CRUSADES \u2022 Christopher Tyerman\n\nCRYPTOGRAPHY \u2022 Fred Piper and Sean Murphy\n\nDADA AND SURREALISM \u2022 David Hopkins\n\nDARWIN \u2022 Jonathan Howard\n\nTHE DEAD SEA SCROLLS \u2022 Timothy Lim\n\nDEMOCRACY \u2022 Bernard Crick\n\nDESCARTES \u2022 Tom Sorell\n\nDESERTS \u2022 Nick Middleton\n\nDESIGN \u2022 John Heskett\n\nDINOSAURS \u2022 David Norman\n\nDIPLOMACY \u2022 Joseph M. Siracusa\n\nDOCUMENTARY FILM \u2022 Patricia Aufderheide\n\nDREAMING \u2022 J. Allan Hobson\n\nDRUGS \u2022 Leslie Iversen\n\nDRUIDS \u2022 Barry Cunliffe\n\nTHE EARTH \u2022 Martin Redfern\n\nECONOMICS \u2022 Partha Dasgupta\n\nEGYPTIAN MYTH \u2022 Geraldine Pinch\n\nEIGHTEENTH-CENTURY BRITAIN \u2022 Paul Langford\n\nTHE ELEMENTS \u2022 Philip Ball\n\nEMOTION \u2022 Dylan Evans\n\nEMPIRE \u2022 Stephen Howe\n\nENGELS \u2022 Terrell Carver\n\nENGLISH LITERATURE \u2022 Jonathan Bate\n\nEPIDEMIOLOGY \u2022 Roldolfo Saracci\n\nETHICS \u2022 Simon Blackburn\n\nTHE EUROPEAN UNION \u2022 John Pinder and Simon Usherwood\n\nEVOLUTION \u2022 Brian and Deborah Charlesworth\n\nEXISTENTIALISM \u2022 Thomas Flynn\n\nFASCISM \u2022 Kevin Passmore\n\nFASHION \u2022 Rebecca Arnold\n\nFEMINISM \u2022 Margaret Walters\n\nFILM MUSIC \u2022 Kathryn Kalinak\n\nTHE FIRST WORLD WAR \u2022 Michael Howard\n\nFORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY \u2022 David Canter\n\nFORENSIC SCIENCE \u2022 Jim Fraser\n\nFOSSILS \u2022 Keith Thomson\n\nFOUCAULT \u2022 Gary Gutting\n\nFREE SPEECH \u2022 Nigel Warburton\n\nFREE WILL \u2022 Thomas Pink\n\nFRENCH LITERATURE \u2022 John D. Lyons\n\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION \u2022 William Doyle\n\nFREUD \u2022 Anthony Storr\n\nFUNDAMENTALISM \u2022 Malise Ruthven\n\nGALAXIES \u2022 John Gribbin\n\nGALILEO \u2022 Stillman Drake\n\nGAME THEORY \u2022 Ken Binmore\n\nGANDHI \u2022 Bhikhu Parekh\n\nGEOGRAPHY \u2022 John Matthews and David Herbert\n\nGEOPOLITICS \u2022 Klaus Dodds\n\nGERMAN LITERATURE \u2022 Nicholas Boyle\n\nGERMAN PHILOSOPHY \u2022 Andrew Bowie\n\nGLOBAL CATASTROPHES \u2022 Bill McGuire\n\nGLOBAL WARMING \u2022 Mark Maslin\n\nGLOBALIZATION \u2022 Manfred Steger\n\nTHE GREAT DEPRESSION AND THE NEW DEAL \u2022 Eric Rauchway\n\nHABERMAS \u2022 James Gordon Finlayson\n\nHEGEL \u2022 Peter Singer\n\nHEIDEGGER \u2022 Michael Inwood\n\nHIEROGLYPHS \u2022 Penelope Wilson\n\nHINDUISM \u2022 Kim Knott\n\nHISTORY \u2022 John H. Arnold\n\nTHE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY \u2022 Michael Hoskin\n\nTHE HISTORY OF LIFE \u2022 Michael Benton\n\nTHE HISTORY OF MEDICINE \u2022 William Bynum\n\nTHE HISTORY OF TIME \u2022 Leofranc Holford-Strevens\n\nHIV\/AIDS \u2022 Alan Whiteside\n\nHOBBES \u2022 Richard Tuck\n\nHUMAN EVOLUTION \u2022 Bernard Wood\n\nHUMAN RIGHTS \u2022 Andrew Clapham\n\nHUME \u2022 A. J. Ayer\n\nIDEOLOGY \u2022 Michael Freeden\n\nINDIAN PHILOSOPHY \u2022 Sue Hamilton\n\nINFORMATION \u2022 Luciano Floridi\n\nINNOVATION \u2022 Mark Dodgson and David Gann\n\nINTELLIGENCE \u2022 Ian J. Deary\n\nINTERNATIONAL MIGRATION \u2022 Khalid Koser\n\nINTERNATIONAL RELATIONS \u2022 Paul Wilkinson\n\nISLAM \u2022 Malise Ruthven\n\nISLAMIC HISTORY \u2022 Adam Silverstein\n\nJOURNALISM \u2022 Ian Hargreaves\n\nJUDAISM \u2022 Norman Solomon\n\nJUNG \u2022 Anthony Stevens\n\nKABBALAH \u2022 Joseph Dan\n\nKAFKA \u2022 Ritchie Robertson\n\nKANT \u2022 Roger Scruton\n\nKEYNES \u2022 Robert Skidelsky\n\nKIERKEGAARD \u2022 Patrick Gardiner\n\nTHE KORAN \u2022 Michael Cook\n\nLANDSCAPES AND CEOMORPHOLOGY \u2022 Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles\n\nLAW \u2022 Raymond Wacks\n\nTHE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS \u2022 Peter Atkins\n\nLEADERSHIP \u2022 Keth Grint\n\nLINCOLN \u2022 Allen C. Guelzo\n\nLINGUISTICS \u2022 Peter Matthews\n\nLITERARY THEORY \u2022 Jonathan Culler\n\nLOCKE \u2022 John Dunn\n\nLOGIC \u2022 Graham Priest\n\nMACHIAVELLI \u2022 Quentin Skinner\n\nMARTIN LUTHER \u2022 Scott H. Hendrix\n\nTHE MARQUIS DE SADE \u2022 John Phillips\n\nMARX \u2022 Peter Singer\n\nMATHEMATICS \u2022 Timothy Gowers\n\nTHE MEANING OF LIFE \u2022 Terry Eagleton\n\nMEDICAL ETHICS \u2022 Tony Hope\n\nMEDIEVAL BRITAIN \u2022 John Gillingham and Ralph A. Griffiths\n\nMEMORY \u2022 Jonathan K. Foster\n\nMICHAEL FARADAY \u2022 Frank A. J. L. James\n\nMODERN ART \u2022 David Cottington\n\nMODERN CHINA \u2022 Rana Mitter\n\nMODERN IRELAND \u2022 Senia Paseta\n\nMODERN JAPAN \u2022 Christopher Goto-Jones\n\nMODERNISM \u2022 Christopher Butler\n\nMOLECULES \u2022 Philip Ball\n\nMORMONISM \u2022 Richard Lyman Bushman\n\nMUSIC \u2022 Nicholas Cook\n\nMYTH \u2022 Robert A. Segal\n\nNATIONALISM \u2022 Steven Grosby\n\nNELSON MANDELA \u2022 Elleke Boehmer\n\nNEOLIBERALISM \u2022 Manfred Steger and Ravi Roy\n\nTHE NEW TESTAMENT \u2022 Luke Timothy Johnson\n\nTHE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE \u2022 Kyle Keefer\n\nNEWTON \u2022 Robert Iliffe\n\nNIETZSCHE \u2022 Michael Tanner\n\nNINETEENTH-CENTURY BRITAIN \u2022 Christopher Harvie and H. C. G. Matthew\n\nTHE NORMAN CONQUEST \u2022 George Garnett\n\nNORTHERN IRELAND \u2022 Marc Mulholland\n\nNOTHING \u2022 Frank Close\n\nNUCLEAR WEAPONS \u2022 Joseph M. Siracusa\n\nTHE OLD TESTAMENT \u2022 Michael D. Coogan\n\nPARTICLE PHYSICS \u2022 Frank Close\n\nPAUL \u2022 E. P. Sanders\n\nPENTECOSTALISM \u2022 William K. Kay\n\nPHILOSOPHY \u2022 Edward Craig\n\nPHILOSOPHY OF LAW \u2022 Raymond Wacks\n\nPHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE \u2022 Samir Okasha\n\nPHOTOGRAPHY \u2022 Steve Edwards\n\nPLANETS \u2022 David A. Rothery\n\nPLATO \u2022 Julia Annas\n\nPOLITICAL PHILOSOPHY \u2022 David Miller\n\nPOLITICS \u2022 Kenneth Minogue\n\nPOSTCOLONIALISM \u2022 Robert Young\n\nPOSTMODERNISM \u2022 Christopher Butler\n\nPOSTSTRUCTURALISM \u2022 Catherine Belsey\n\nPREHISTORY \u2022 Chris Gosden\n\nPRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY \u2022 Catherine Osborne\n\nPRIVACY \u2022 Raymond Wacks\n\nPROGRESSIVISM \u2022 Walter Nugent\n\nPSYCHIATRY \u2022 Tom Burns\n\nPSYCHOLOGY \u2022 Gillian Butler and Freda McManus\n\nPURITANISM \u2022 Francis J. Bremer\n\nTHE QUAKERS \u2022 Pink Dandelion\n\nQUANTUM THEORY \u2022 John Polkinghorne\n\nRACISM \u2022 Ali Rattansi\n\nTHE REAGAN REVOLUTION \u2022 Gil Troy\n\nTHE REFORMATION \u2022 Peter Marshall\n\nRELATIVITY \u2022 Russell Stannard\n\nRELIGION IN AMERICA \u2022 Timothy Beal\n\nTHE RENAISSANCE \u2022 Jerry Brotton\n\nRENAISSANCE ART \u2022 Geraldine A. Johnson\n\nROMAN BRITAIN \u2022 Peter Salway\n\nTHE ROMAN EMPIRE \u2022 Christopher Kelly\n\nROMANTICISM \u2022 Michael Ferber\n\nROUSSEAU \u2022 Robert Wokler\n\nRUSSELL \u2022 A. C. Grayling\n\nRUSSIAN LITERATURE \u2022 Catriona Kelly\n\nTHE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION \u2022 S. A. Smith\n\nSCHIZOPHRENIA \u2022 Chris Frith and Eve Johnstone\n\nSCHOPENHAUER \u2022 Christopher Janaway\n\nSCIENCE AND RELIGION \u2022 Thomas Dixon\n\nSCOTLAND \u2022 Rab Houston\n\nSEXUALITY \u2022 V\u00e9ronique Mottier\n\nSHAKESPEARE \u2022 Germaine Greer\n\nSIKHISM \u2022 Eleanor Nesbitt\n\nSOCIAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY \u2022 John Monaghan and Peter Just\n\nSOCIALISM \u2022 Michael Newman\n\nSOCIOLOGY \u2022 Steve Bruce\n\nSOCRATES \u2022 C. C. W. Taylor\n\nTHE SOVIET UNION \u2022 Stephen Lovell\n\nTHE SPANISH CIVIL WAR \u2022 Helen Graham\n\nSPANISH LITERATURE \u2022 Jo Labanyi\n\nSPINOZA \u2022 Roger Scruton\n\nSTATISTICS \u2022 David J. Hand\n\nSTUART BRITAIN \u2022 John Morrill\n\nSUPERCONDUCTIVITY \u2022 Stephen Blundell\n\nTERRORISM \u2022 Charles Townshend\n\nTHEOLOGY \u2022 David F. Ford\n\nTHOMAS AQUINAS \u2022 Fergus Kerr\n\nTOCQUEVILLE \u2022 Harvey C. Mansfield\n\nTRAGEDY \u2022 Adrian Poole\n\nTHE TUDORS \u2022 John Guy\n\nTWENTIETH-CENTURY BRITAIN \u2022 Kenneth O. Morgan\n\nTHE UNITED NATIONS \u2022 Jussi M. Hanhim\u00e4ki\n\nTHE U.S. CONCRESS \u2022 Donald A. Ritchie\n\nUTOPIANISM \u2022 Lyman Tower Sargent\n\nTHE VIKINGS \u2022 Julian Richards\n\nWITCHCRAFT \u2022 Malcolm Gaskill\n\nWITTGENSTEIN \u2022 A. C. Grayling\n\nWORLD MUSIC \u2022 Philip Bohlman\n\nTHE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION \u2022 Amrita Narlikar\n\nWRITING AND SCRIPT \u2022 Andrew Robinson\n\n**AVAILABLE SOON** :\n\nLATE ANTIQUITY \u2022 Gillian Clark\n\nMUHAMMAD \u2022 Jonathan A. Brown\n\nGENIUS \u2022 Andrew Robinson\n\nNUMBERS \u2022 Peter M. Higgins\n\nORGANIZATIONS \u2022 Mary Jo Hatch\n\n**VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS**\n\n_VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS are for anyone wanting a stimulating and accessible way in to a new subject. They are written by experts, and have been published in more than 25 languages worldwide_.\n\n_The series began in 1995, and now represents a wide variety of topics in history, philosophy, religion, science, and the humanities. The VSI Library now contains over 200 volumes-a Very Short Introduction to everything from ancient Egypt and Indian philosophy to conceptual art and cosmology-and will continue to grow to a library of around 300 titles_.\n\nVERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS AVAILABLE NOW\n\nFor more information visit our web site  \nwww.oup.co.uk\/general\/vsi\/\nMark Maslin\n\n# Global Warming\n\nA Very Short Introduction\n\nGlobal Warming: A Very Short Introduction\n\n## **Contents**\n\nAcknowledgements\n\nPreface to Second Edition\n\nAbbreviations\n\nList of illustrations\n\nList of tables\n\nIntroduction\n\n1 What is global warming?\n\n2 A brief history of the global warming debate\n\n3 What is the evidence for climate change?\n\n4 How do you model the future?\n\n5 What are the possible future impacts?\n\n6 Surprises\n\n7 Politics\n\n8 Solutions\n\n9 Visions of a zero-carbon future\n\n 10 Conclusion\n\nFurther reading\n\nIndex\nTo Chris Pace (1968\u20132006) and Nick Shackleton (1937\u20132006), who never saw problems, only solutions.\n\n## **Acknowledgements**\n\nThe author would like to thank the following people: Johanna, Alexandra, and Abbie Maslin for being there; Marsha Filion and Emma Simmons for their excellent editing and the skill of finally extracting the first edition of this book from me, and James Thompson for persuading me to do a second edition; all the staff in the UCL Environment Institute, UCL Department of Geography, TippingPoint, and Cape Farewell; Cathy D'Alton and Miles Irving for excellent illustrations; Richard Betts and Eric Wolff for their insightful and extremely helpful reviews; and all my colleagues in climatology, palaeoclimatology, social science, economics, engineering, arts, and humanities who continue to strive to understand, predict, and mitigate our influence on climate.\n\n## **Preface to Second Edition**\n\nThe great thing I have been told about writing a preface is that no one reads it, so I can be as radical as I like. In my opinion, global warming is good for humanity. This may seem a very strange statement, so let me explain before you throw the book away in disgust. There are two major problems facing humanity in the 21st century: global poverty and global warming. Let's consider global poverty. At the moment we live in a world of plenty where 800 million people go to bed hungry and 15 million children starve to death each year. Fundamentally global poverty is about unequal distribution of global wealth and resources. To alleviate global poverty, we need to help poor countries to develop as quickly as possible. The golden rule of development is that it is always accompanied by an expansion of the amount of energy used. If these countries use the cheapest route, then their energy will be produced using carbon-based technologies such as coal, gas, and oil. For example, China is building a new coal-fired power station every four days. This of course will accelerate global warming. So to deal with global warming, we must deal with developing countries, and thus we must for the first time in humanity's history tackle the unequal distribution of global wealth. Hence global warming is making us face the forgotten billions of people on the planet, and we must make the world a fairer place. In the 21st century we must deal with both global poverty and global warming.\n\n## **Abbreviations**\n\nAABW | Antarctic Bottom Water\n\n---|---\n\nAO | Arctic Oscillation\n\nAOGCM | Atmosphere\u2013Ocean General Circulation Model\n\nAOSIS | Alliance of Small Island States\n\nBINGO | Business and Industry Non-Governmental Organization\n\nCDM | Clean Development Mechanism\n\nCFCs | chlorofluorocarbons\n\nCOP | Conference of the Parties\n\nENGO | Environmental Non-Governmental Organization\n\nENSO | El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation\n\nETS | European Trading Scheme\n\nGCM | General circulation model\n\nGCR | galactic cosmic ray\n\nGHCM | Global Historical Climate Network\n\nIPCC | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\n\nJUSSCANNZ | Japan, USA, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway, and New Zealand\n\nMAT | marine air temperature\n\nNADW | North Atlantic Deep Water\n\nNAO | North Atlantic Oscillation\n\nNGO | non-governmental organization\n\nNRC | National Research Council (USA)\n\nOECD | Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development\n\nOPEC | Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries\n\nPETM | Palaeocene\u2013Eocene Thermal Maximum\n\nppbv | parts per billion by volume\n\nppmv | parts per million by volume\n\nSRES | Special Report on Emission Scenarios by the IPCC (2000)\n\nSSS | sea-surface salinity\n\nSST | sea-surface temperature\n\nTHC | thermohaline circulation\n\nUNCTAD | United Nations Conference on Trade and Development\n\nUNFCCC | United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\n\nVBD | vector-borne disease\n\n## **List of illustrations**\n\n The Earth's annual global mean energy balance\n\nIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, _Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001), fig. 1.2, Page 90, from Kiehl and Trenberth, 'Earth's Annual Mean Energy Budget', _Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society_ , 78 (1997), 197\u2013208\n\n Greenhouse gases and temperature for the last four glacial cycles recorded in the Vostok ice core\n\nPetit, J. R. et al., 'Climate and Atmospheric History of the Past 420,000 Years from the Vostok Ice Core, Antartica', _Nature_ , 399 (1999), 429\u201336. By permission of PAGES\n\n Indicators of the human influence on the atmosphere composition during the industrial era\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001), fig. 2, 6\n\n4a CO2 emissions from industrial processes\n\n\u00a9 Change information kit, UNEP IUC, 1997\n\n4b CO2 emissions from land-use change\n\n\u00a9 Change information kit, UNEP IUC, 1997\n\n Possible climate system responses to a linear-forcing\n\n\u00a9 Mark Maslin\n\n Variation of the Earth's surface temperature\n\n\u00a9 2008, Climatic Research Unit\n\n Newspaper coverage of global warming 1985\u201397\n\n\u00a9 Anabela Carvalho\n\n The anatomy of past climatic changes\n\nWilson, R. C. L. et al., _The Great Ice Age_ (Routledge\/OpenUniversity, 2000), fig. 6.1, 114. Fig. a: IPCC, from Houghton, J. T. et al., _Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment_ (Cambridge University Press, 1990); figs. b to f: Duff, P., _Principles of Physical Geology_ (Edward Arnold, 1994). Reproduced by permission of Hodder Arnold\n\n Northern hemisphere temperature reconstruction for the last 1,000 years\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001), fig. 5, 29\n\n Temperature, sea level, and snow cover for the last 150 years\n\nIPCC, 2007, Summary for Policymakers, in _Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2007)\n\n Simulated annual global mean surface temperatures compared to observed temperatures\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001), fig. 4, 11\n\n The development of climate models, past, present, and future\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001), box 3, fig. 1, 48\n\n A simplified version of the present carbon cycle\n\n_<_<http:\/\/www.climatearth.org\/vital.13.htm> _>_\n\n Global, annual-mean radiative forcings due to a number of agents for the period from pre-industrial to present\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001), fig. 9, 37\n\n Global temperatures the 21st century\n\nAdapted from IPCC, 2007, Summary for Policymakers, in _Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis_ (Cambridge University Press, 2007)\n\n Climate change risks as a function of increasing global temperatures\n\nAdapted from IPCC, _Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, Vulnerability_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001)\n\n Climate change, society's coping range, and extreme events\n\nAdapted from diagram of Glen McGregor (2006)\n\n Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans in August 2005\n\n\u00a9 Getty Images\n\n The 2003 European heat wave killed an estimated 35,000 people\n\n\u00a9 Martin Gerten epa\/Corbis\n\n Comparison of the 2003 heat, El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation wave with past and future summer temperatures\n\nP. A. Stott, D. A. Stone, and M. R. Allen, _Nature_ , vol. 432 (2004) pp. 610\u201314\n\n Description of the El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation: a) El Ni\u00f1o conditions, and b) La Ni\u00f1a conditions\n\n\u00a9 Mark Maslin\n\n The deep circulation of the ocean, termed the oceanic conveyor belt\n\nDrake, F., _Global Warming_ (Adapted from Hodder Arnold, 2000). Reproduced by permission of Hodder Arnold; after Duxbury, A. and Duxbury, A. B., _An Introduction to the World's Oceans_ (Wm. C. Brown, 1996)\n\n Different possible circulation of the deep ocean depending on sea-surface salinity\n\nAdapted from Seidov et al., 'The Oceans and Rapid Climate Change, Past, Present and Future', _Geophysical Monograph_ , 126 (2001), fig. 3. \u00a9 2004 American Geophysical Union. Reproduced by permission of AGU\n\n Bifurcation of the climate system\n\n\u00a9 Mark Maslin\n\n Met Office model of carbon dioxide concentration and mean temperature over time\n\n\u00a9 Met Office, British Crown Copyright\n\n Predicted range of global temperature rise based on the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere\n\nAdapted from G. Walker and D. King, _The Hot Topic_ (Bloomsbury, 2008)\n\n Historic and predicted global carbon dioxide emissions\n\n\u00a9 UK Government Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs\n\n Predicted carbon dioxide emissions for business-as-usual and stabilization at atmospheric concentrations of either 550ppm or 450ppm\n\nAdapted from UK Government Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs\n\n Predicted carbon emissions in the USA following a business-as-usual or California model\n\nAdapted from diagram of Daniel M. Kammen (2006)\n\n Chinese carbon emissions and energy efficiency\n\nAdapted from Zeng, N., Y. Ding, J. Pan, M. Wang, J. Gregg, _Science_ , vol. 319 (2008), 730\u20131\n\n Model response strategies for future sea-level rise\n\nAdapted from IPCC _Climate Change: Impacts, Adaptation, Vulnerability_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001)\n\n Lead times for response strategies to combat climate change\n\nAdapted from IPCC, _Climate Change: Impacts, Adaptation Vulnerability_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001)\n\n Stabilization wedges to achieve an atmospheric concentration of 450ppm carbon dioxide\n\nAdapted from S. Pacala and R. Socolow, _Science_ , vol. 205 (2004), 968\u201372\n\n Potential climate change tipping points\n\n\u00a9 Mark Maslin\n\n Is global warming all bad?\n\n\u00a9 Mark Maslin\n\nThe publisher and the author apologize for any errors or omissions in the above list. If contacted they will be pleased to rectify these at the earliest opportunity.\n\n## **List of tables**\n\n Main greenhouse gases and their comparative ability to warm the atmosphere\n\n Impacts of global warming with increasing global average temperatures\n\n Comparison of selected countries' Kyoto Protocol legal target and their 2004 emissions\n\n Princeton stabilization wedges\n\n## **Introduction**\n\nGlobal warming is the most important science issue of the 21st century, challenging the very structure of our global society. The problem is that global warming is not just a scientific concern, but encompasses economics, sociology, geopolitics, local politics, and individuals' choice of lifestyle. Global warming is caused by the massive increase of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere, resulting from the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. There is clear evidence that we have already elevated concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide to their highest level for the last half million years and perhaps even longer. Scientists believe that this is causing the Earth to warm faster than at any other time during, at the very least, the past 2,000 years. The most recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), amounting to nearly 3,000 pages of detailed review and analysis of published research, declares that the scientific uncertainties of global warming are essentially resolved. This report states that there is clear evidence for a 0.75\u00b0C rise in global temperatures and 22cm rise in sea level during the 20th century. The IPCC synthesis also predicts that global temperatures could rise further by between 1.1\u00b0C and 6.4\u00b0C by 2100, and sea level could rise by between 28cm and 79cm, more if the melting of Greenland and Antarctica accelerates. In addition, weather patterns will become less predictable and the occurrence of extreme climate events, such as storms, floods, heat waves, and droughts, will increase.\n\nThis book tries to unpick the controversies that surround the global warming hypothesis and hopefully provides an incentive to read more on the subject. It starts with an explanation of global warming and climate change, and this is followed by a review of how the global warming hypothesis was developed. The book examines the evidence showing that global warming is already occurring and the science behind the dramatic future predictions. The potentially devastating effects of global warming on human society, including drastic changes in health, agriculture, the economy, water resources, coastal regions, storms and other extreme climate events, and biodiversity, are evaluated. For each of these areas, scientists and social scientists have made estimates of the potential direct impacts and these are discussed.\n\nThere are also potential surprises that the global climate system might have in store for us, exacerbating future climate change. These include the very real possibility that Greenland and\/or the Antarctic could melt, raising sea level by metres. Or the North Atlantic-driven deep-ocean circulation could change, producing extreme seasonal weather in Europe. There is the possibility of the Amazon rainforest burning in the future, accelerating global warming. Finally, there is a deadly threat lurking beneath the oceans: huge reserves of methane which could be released in 'giant burps of death' if the oceans warm up sufficiently \u2013 again, accelerating the warming of the planet.\n\nThe final chapters of the book look at global politics and possible solutions to global warming. The Stern Report in 2007 suggested that a global reduction in carbon emissions would cost about 1% of World Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to achieve, compared to the consequences, which could cost up to 20% of World GDP. This is a call to arms, shouting at us that we must quickly make the global economy more flexible and responsive to the challenge of a zero-carbon world economy. The last chapter provides a vision of what a zero-carbon world would look like.\n\nIn this book, I have tried to introduce the reader to the complexities of both the science and the politics of climate change. This is not a self-help, 'what can I do to make it better' book: if you want to alleviate your guilt, there are plenty of books out there for you. I am not against individuals taking concerted action to deal with global warming; rather, this book is about the large picture. I, however, believe the fundamental solutions to global warming will be at the global political and economic level. Global warming provides us with a unique opportunity to restructure global economics and at the same time provide a mechanism to alleviate poverty around the world. Current economic development is always accompanied by a massive expansion in a country's energy requirement. The cheapest way to meet this is through a carbon-based economy. So rapid industrial development and poverty alleviation lead to an acceleration in global warming. The twin problems of global warming and global poverty challenge our current concepts of the nation-state versus global responsibility. They challenge the short-term vision of our political leaders. Be under no illusion: if global warming is not taken seriously, we will all suffer, but of course it will be the poorest people in our global community who, as usual, suffer most.\n\n## [Chapter 1  \n **What is global warming?**](ch00-fm05.html#ch01a)\n\n### The Earth's natural greenhouse\n\nThe temperature of the Earth is determined by the balance between the input from energy from the Sun and the reflection of some of this energy back into space. Certain atmospheric gases are critical to this temperature balance and are known as greenhouse gases. The energy received from the Sun is in the form of short-wave radiation, that is in the visible spectrum and ultraviolet radiation. On average, about one-third of this solar radiation that hits the Earth is reflected back to space. Of the remainder, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, but most is absorbed by the land and oceans. The Earth's surface becomes warm and as a result emits long-wave 'infrared' radiation. The greenhouse gases trap and re-emit some of this long-wave radiation, and warm the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and nitrous oxide, and together they create a natural greenhouse or blanket effect. Without this natural greenhouse effect, the Earth would be at least 35\u00b0C colder. Even though the greenhouse gases are often depicted in diagrams as one layer, to demonstrate their 'blanket effect', they are in fact mixed throughout the atmosphere (see Figure 1).\n\n**1. The Earth's annual global mean energy balance**\n\n### Past climate and the role of carbon dioxide\n\nOne of the ways in which we know that atmospheric carbon dioxide is important in controlling global climate is through the study of our past climate. Over the last two and a half million years the Earth's climate has cycled between the great ice ages, with ice sheets over 3km thick over North America and Europe, to conditions that were even milder than they are today. These changes are extremely rapid if compared to other geological variations, such as the movement of continents around the globe, where we are looking at a time period of millions of years.\n\nBut how do we know about these massive ice ages and the role of carbon dioxide? The evidence mainly comes from ice cores drilled in both Antarctica and Greenland. As snow falls, it is light and fluffy and contains a lot of air. When this is slowly compacted to form ice, some of this air is trapped. By extracting these air bubbles trapped in the ancient ice, scientists can measure the percentage of greenhouse gases that were present in the past atmosphere. Scientists have drilled over two miles down into both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, which has enabled them to reconstruct the amount of greenhouse gases that occurred in the atmosphere over the last half a million years. By examining the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in the ice core, it is possible to estimate the temperature at which the ice was formed. The results are striking, as greenhouse gases such as atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) co-vary with temperatures over the last 650,000 years (see Figure 2). This strongly supports the idea that the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere and global temperature are closely linked, that is, when CO2 and CH4 increase, the temperature is found to increase and vice versa. This is our greatest concern for future climate: if levels of greenhouse gases continue to rise, so will the temperature of our atmosphere. The study of past climate, as we will see throughout this book, provides many clues about what could happen in the future. One of the most worrying results from the study of ice cores, and lake and deep-sea sediments, is that past climate has varied regionally by at least 5\u00b0C in a few decades, suggesting that climate follows a non-linear path. Hence we should expect sudden and dramatic surprises when greenhouse gas levels reach an as yet unknown trigger point in the future.\n\n**2. Greenhouse gases and temperature for the last four glacial cycles recorded in the Vostok ice core**\n\n### The rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide during the industrial period\n\nOne of the few claims of the global warming debate that seems to be universally accepted is that there is clear proof that levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide have been rising ever since the beginning of the industrial revolution. The first measurements of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere started in 1958 at an altitude of about 4,000 metres, on the summit of Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii. The measurements were made here to be remote from local sources of pollution. What they have clearly shown is that atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have increased every single year since 1958. The mean concentration of approximately 316 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1958 rose to approximately 379ppmv in 2005 (see Figure 3). The annual variations in the Mauna Loa observatory are mostly due to CO2 uptake by growing plants. The uptake is highest in the northern hemisphere springtime; hence every spring there is a drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide which unfortunately does nothing to the overall trend towards ever higher values.\n\nThis carbon dioxide data from the Mauna Loa observatory can be combined with the detailed work on ice cores to produce a complete record of atmospheric carbon dioxide since the beginning of the industrial revolution. What this shows is that atmospheric CO2 has increased from a pre-industrial concentration of about 280ppmv to nearly 380ppmv at present, which is an increase of 160 billion tonnes, representing an overall 30% increase. To put this increase into context, ice core evidence shows that over the last 650,000 years the natural change in atmospheric carbon dioxide has been between 180 and 300ppmv. The variation between warm and cold periods is about 80ppmv \u2013 almost the same as the CO2 pollution that we have put into the atmosphere over the last 100 years. At the end of the last ice age, this carbon dioxide increase of 80ppmv was accompanied by a global warming of 6\u00b0C. Though the ultimate cause of the end of the last ice age was changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, scientists studying past climates have realized the central role atmospheric carbon dioxide has as a climate feedback translating these external variations into the waxing and waning of ice ages. It demonstrates that the level of pollution that we have already caused in one century is comparable to the natural variations which took thousands of years.\n\n**3. Indicators of the human influence on the atmosphere composition during the industrial era**\n\n### The enhanced greenhouse effect\n\nThe debate surrounding the global warming hypothesis is whether the additional greenhouse gases being added to the atmosphere will enhance the natural greenhouse effect. Global warming sceptics argue that though levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are rising, this will not cause global warming, as either the effects are too small or there are other natural feedbacks which will counter major warming. Even if one takes the view of the majority of scientists and accepts that burning fossil fuels will cause warming, there is a different debate over exactly how much temperatures will increase. Then there is the discussion about whether global climate will respond in a linear manner to the extra greenhouse gases or whether there is a climate threshold waiting for us. These issues are tackled later in the book.\n\n### Who produces the pollution?\n\nThe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was created to produce the first international agreement on reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. However, this task is not as simple as it first appears, as carbon dioxide emissions are not evenly produced by countries. The first major source of carbon dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels, since four-fifths of global carbon dioxide emissions comes from energy production, industrial processes, and transport. These are not evenly distributed around the world because of the unequal distribution of industry and wealth; North America, Europe, and Asia emit over 90% of the global industrially produced carbon dioxide (Figure 4a). Moreover, historically the developed nations have emitted much more than less-developed countries.\n\nThe second major source, accounting for one-fifth of global carbon dioxide emissions, is as a result of land-use changes. These emissions come primarily from the cutting down of forests for the purposes of agriculture, urbanization, or roads. When large areas of rainforests are cut down, the land often turns into less productive grassland with considerably reduced capacity for storing CO2. Here the pattern of carbon dioxide emissions is different, with South America, Asia, and Africa being responsible for over 90% of present-day land-use change emissions (see Figure 4b). This raises important ethical issues because it is difficult to tell these countries to stop deforesting when historically this has already occurred in much of North America and Europe before the beginning of the 20th century. In terms of the amount of carbon dioxide released, industrial processes still significantly outweigh land-use changes.\n\nSo who are the bad guys in causing this increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide? Of course, it is the developed countries who historically have emitted most of the anthropogenic (man-made) greenhouse gases, as they have been emitting since the start of the industrial revolution in the latter half of the 18th century. But this is quickly becoming irrelevant because according to International Energy Authority projections, between 2000 and 2030 the world will emit more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than between 1750 and 2000. This is because mature industrialized economies are energy-hungry and burn more and more fossil fuels. While less-developed countries are striving to increase their populations' standard of living, thereby also increasing their emissions of greenhouse gases at a huge rate, since economic development is closely associated with energy production. For example, China has now become the biggest emitter of carbon dioxide in the world, overtaking the USA in 2007. However, when considered per capita, the Chinese emissions are four times lower than those of the USA, who are top of the per capita list. So all the draft international agreements concerning cutting emissions since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 have for moral reasons not included the developing world, as this is seen as an unfair brake on its\n\n**4a. CO 2 emissions from industrial processes**\n\n**4b. CO 2 emissions from land-use change**\n\neconomic development. However, as we will see later in this book, this is a significant issue because, for example, both China and India are rapidly industrializing, and with a combined population of over 2.3 billion people they will produce a huge amount of pollution. Therefore any agreement after 2012 will have to include the developing world.\n\n### What is the IPCC?\n\nThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 jointly by the United Nations Environmental Panel and World Meteorological Organization because of worries about the possibility of global warming. The purpose of the IPCC is the continued assessment of the state of knowledge on the various aspects of climate change, including scientific, environmental, and socioeconomic impacts and response strategies. The IPCC does not undertake independent scientific research, rather it brings together all key research published in the world and produces a consensus.\n\nThe IPCC is, thus, recognized as the most authoritative scientific and technical voice on climate change, and its assessments have had a profound influence on the negotiators of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol. The meetings in The Hague in November 2000 and in Bonn in July 2001 were the second and third attempts to ratify (i.e. to make legal) the Protocols laid out in Kyoto in 1998. Unfortunately, President Bush pulled the USA out of the negotiations in March 2001. However, 191 other countries recognized by the UN made history in July 2001 by agreeing the most far-reaching and comprehensive environmental treaty the world has ever seen. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force finally on 16 February 2005. It could only come into effect when Russia ratified the treaty, thereby meeting the requirement that at least 55 countries, representing 55% of the global emissions, signed up to it. In December 2007, the newly elected Labour Prime Minister Kevin Rudd of Australia signed the Kyoto Protocol, an act which was met with a standing ovation at the Bali meeting. As of April 2008, 178 countries out of a total of 192 recognized by the UN have ratified the treaty, leaving the USA as the only major country not to have signed up to Kyoto.\n\nThe IPCC is organized into three working groups plus a task force to calculate the amount of greenhouse gases produced by each country. Each of these four bodies has two co-chairmen (one from a developed and one from a developing country) and a technical support unit. Working Group I assesses the scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change; Working Group II addresses the vulnerability of human and natural systems to climate change, the negative and positive consequences of climate change, and options for adapting to them; and Working Group III assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise mitigating climate change, as well as economic issues. Hence the IPCC also provides governments with scientific, technical, and socioeconomic information relevant to evaluating the risks and to developing a response to global climate change. The latest reports from these three working groups were published in 2007, and approximately 400 experts from some 120 countries were directly involved in drafting, revising, and finalizing the IPCC reports, while another 2,500 experts participated in the review process. The IPCC authors are always nominated by governments and by international organizations, including non-governmental organizations. These reports are essential reading for anyone interested in global warming and are listed in the Further reading section at the end of the book. In 2008, the IPCC was jointly awarded, with Al Gore, the Noble Peace Prize, to acknowledge all the work the IPCC has done over the past 20 years.\n\nThe IPCC also compiles research on the main greenhouse gases: where they come from, and the current consensus concerning their warming potential (see below). The warming potential is calculated in comparison with carbon dioxide, which is allocated a warming potential of one. This way, the different greenhouse gases can be compared with each other relatively instead of in absolute terms. The global warming potential is calculated over both a 20- and 100-year period. This is because different greenhouse gases have different residence times in the atmosphere because of how long they take to break down or to be absorbed in the ocean or terrestrial biosphere. As you can see from Table 1, there are other greenhouse gases that are much more dangerous mass for mass than carbon dioxide and are much more effective at warming the atmosphere, but these exist in very low concentrations in the atmosphere, and therefore most of the debate concerning global warming still centres on the role and control of atmospheric carbon dioxide.\n\n### What is climate change?\n\nMany scientists believe that the human-induced, or anthropogenic-enhanced, greenhouse effect will cause climate change in the near future. Even some of the global warming sceptics argue that though global warming may be a minor influence, natural climate change does occur on human timescales and we should be prepared to adapt to it. But what is climate change, and how does it occur? Climate change can manifest itself in a number of ways, for example changes in regional and global temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, expansion and contraction of ice sheets, and sea-level variations. These regional and global climate changes are responses to external and\/or internal forcing mechanisms. An example of an internal forcing mechanism is the variations in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere modulating the greenhouse effect, while a good example of an external forcing mechanism is the long-term variations in the Earth's orbits around the Sun, which alter the regional distribution of solar radiation to the Earth. This is thought to cause the waxing and waning of the ice ages. So in terms of looking for the evidence for global warming and predicting the future, we need to take account of all the natural external and internal forcing mechanisms.\n\n**Table 1. Main greenhouse gases and their comparative ability to warm the atmosphere**\n\nWe can also try to abstract the way the global climate system responds to an internal or external forcing agent by examining different scenarios (see Figure 5). In these scenarios, I am assuming that there is only one forcing mechanism which is trying to change the global climate. What is important is how the global climate system will react to the mechanism. For example, is the relationship like a person trying to push a car up a hill which, strangely enough, produces very little response? Or is it more like a person pushing a car downhill, which, once the car starts to move, is very difficult to stop? There are four possible relationships, and this is the central question in the global warming debate \u2013 which is most applicable to the future?\n\n(a) Linear and synchronous response (Figure 5a). In this case, the forcing produces a direct response in the climate system whose magnitude is in proportion to the forcing. In terms of global warming, an extra million tonnes of carbon dioxide would cause a certain predictable temperature increase. This can be equated to pushing a car along a flat road: most of the energy put into pushing is used to move the car forward.\n\n(b) Muted or limited response (Figure 5b). In this case, the forcing may be strong, but the climate system is in some way buffered and therefore gives very little response. Many global warming sceptics and politicians argue that the climate system is insensitive to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide so very little will happen in the future. This is the 'pushing the car up the hill' analogy: you can spend as much energy as you like trying to push the car, but it will not move very far.\n\n(c) Delayed or non-linear response (Figure 5c). In this case, the climate system may have a slow response to the forcing thanks to being buffered in some way. After an initial period, the climate system responds to the forcing but in a non-linear way. This is a real possibility when it comes to global warming and why it is argued that only a small amount of warming has been observed over the last 100 years. This scenario can be equated to the car on the top of a hill: it takes some effort and thus time to push the car to the edge of the hill; this is the buffering effect. Once the car has reached the edge, it takes very little to push the car over, and then it accelerates down the hill with or without help. Once it reaches the bottom, the car then continues for some time, which is the overshoot, and then slows down of its own accord and settles into a new state.\n\n**5. Possible climate system responses to a linear-forcing**\n\n(d) Threshold response (Figure 5d). In this case, initially, there is no or very little response in the climate system to the forcing; however, all the response takes place in a very short period of time in one large step or threshold. In many cases, the response may be much larger than one would expect from the size of the forcing and this can be referred to as a 'response overshoot'. This is the scenario that most worries scientists, as thresholds are very difficult to model and thus predict. However, thresholds have been found to be very common in the study of past climates, with rapid regional climate changes of over 5\u00b0C occurring within a few decades. This scenario equates to the bus hanging off the cliff at the end of the film _The Italian Job_ ; as long as there are only very small changes, nothing happens at all. However, a critical point (in this case weight) is reached and the bus (and the gold) plunge off the cliff into the ravine below.\n\nThough these are purely theoretical models of how the global climate system can respond, they are important to keep in mind when reviewing the possible scenarios for future climate change. An added complication when assessing climate change is the possibility that climate thresholds contain bifurcations. This means the forcing required to go one way through the threshold is different from the reverse (see Figure 5e). This implies that once a climate threshold has occurred, it is a lot more difficult to reverse it. The bifurcation of the climate system has been inferred from ocean models which mimic the impact of fresh water in the North Atlantic ocean on the global deep-water circulation, and we will discuss this can of worms in great detail in Chapter 6.\n\n### Linking global warming with climate change\n\nWe have seen that there is clear evidence that greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have been rising since the industrial revolution in the 18th century. The current scientific consensus is that changes in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere do cause global temperature change. However, the biggest problem with the global warming hypothesis is understanding how sensitive the global climate is to increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Even if we establish this, predicting climate change is complex because it encompasses many different aspects which respond differently when the atmosphere warms up, including regional temperature changes, melting glaciers and ice sheets, relative sea-level change, precipitation changes, storm intensity and tracks, El Ni\u00f1o, and even ocean circulation. This linkage between global warming and climate change is further complicated by the fact that each part of the global climate system has different response times. For example, the atmosphere can respond to external or internal changes within a day, but the deep ocean may take decades to respond; while vegetation can alter its structure within a few weeks (e.g. change the amount of leaves), its composition (e.g. evolving plant types) can take up to a century to change. Then, add to this the possibility of natural forcing which may be cyclic; for example, there is good evidence that variations in solar output can affect climate over both a decadal and a century timescale.\n\nThere is also evidence that since the beginning of our present interglacial period, the last 10,000 years, there have been climatic coolings every 1,500 \u00b1500 years, of which the Little Ice Age was the last. The Little Ice Age began in the 17th and ended in the 18th century and was characterized by a fall of 0.5\u20131\u00b0C in Greenland temperatures, significant shift in the currents around Iceland, and a sea-surface temperature fall of 4\u00b0C off the coast of West Africa, and 2\u00b0C off the Bermuda Rise, all of which were due to natural climate change. But interestingly enough, the Little Ice Age was a regional effect and does not show up on global records. So we need to disentangle natural climate variability from global warming. We need to understand how the different parts of the climate system interact, remembering that they all have different response times. We need to understand what sort of climatic change will be caused, and whether it will be gradual or catastrophic. We also need to understand how different regions of the world will be affected; for example, it is suggested that additional greenhouse gases will warm up the poles more than the tropics. All these themes concerning an understanding of the climate system and the difficulty of future climate prediction are returned to in Chapters 3 and .\n\nSo if you are reading this book for the first time and are primarily interested in the science of global warming, then I would suggest you read Chapters 3 to . However, I would encourage you also to read Chapters 2 and , which look at the social, historic, economic, and political aspects of global warming, since global warming, as far as I am concerned, cannot be seen solely as a scientific problem; rather, it is a problem for our global society. Then Chapter 8 concentrates on possible solutions for global warming and Chapter 9 is my vision of a zero-carbon world.\n\n## [Chapter 2  \n **A brief history of the global warming debate**](ch00-fm05.html#ch02a)\n\n### Historical background\n\nScientists are predicting that global warming could warm the planet by between 1.1 and 6.4\u00b0C in the next 100 years, which economists suggest could cost as much as 20% of World GDP to deal with. In the face of such a threat, it is essential to understand the history of the global warming theory and the evidence that supports it. Below I will show that the whole debate over global warming clearly demonstrates how science is deeply influenced by society and vice versa. What we discover is that the essential science of global warming was carried out 50 years ago under the perceived necessity of geosciences during the Cold War, but it was not taken seriously as a theory until the late 1980s. I hope to give you some insight into why there was such a significant delay, and why global warming has now become one of the biggest political problems facing humanity.\n\nIt is now over 100 years since global warming was officially discovered. The pioneering work in 1896 by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius, and the subsequent independent confirmation by Thomas Chamberlin, calculated that human activity could substantially warm the Earth by adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. This conclusion was the by-product of other research, its major aim being to offer a theory whereby decreased carbon dioxide would explain the causes of the great ice ages, a theory that still stands today but which had to wait until 1987 for the Antarctic Vostok ice-core results to confirm the pivotal role of atmospheric CO2 in controlling past global climate. However, no one else took up the research topic, so both Arrhenius and Chamberlin turned to other challenges. This was because scientists at that time felt there were so many other influences on global climate, from sunspots to ocean circulation, that minor human influences were thought insignificant in comparison to the mighty forces of astronomy and geology. This idea was reinforced by research during the 1940s, which developed the theory that changes in the orbit of the Earth around the Sun controlled the waxing and waning of the great ice ages. A second line of argument was that because there is 50 times more carbon dioxide in the oceans than in the atmosphere, 'The sea acts as a vast equalizer': in other words, the ocean would mop up our pollution.\n\nThis dismissive view took its first blow when in the 1940s there was a significant improvement in infrared spectroscopy, the technique used to measure long-wave radiation. Up until the 1940s, experiments had shown that carbon dioxide did block the transmission of infrared 'long-wave' radiation of the sort given off by the Earth. However, the experiments showed there was very little change in this interception if the amount of carbon dioxide was doubled or halved. This meant that even small amounts of carbon dioxide could block radiation so thoroughly that adding more gas made very little difference. Moreover, water vapour, which is much more abundant than carbon dioxide, was found to block radiation in the same way and, therefore, was thought to be more important.\n\nThe Second World War saw a massive improvement in technology and the old measurements of carbon dioxide radiation interception were revisited. In the original experiments sea-level pressure was used, but it was found that at the rarefied upper atmosphere pressures the general absorption did not occur and, therefore, radiation was able to pass through the upper atmosphere and into space. This proved that increasing the amount of carbon dioxide did result in absorption of more radiation. Moreover, it was found that water vapour absorbed other types of radiation rather than carbon dioxide, and to compound it all, it was also discovered that the stratosphere, the upper atmosphere, was bone dry. This work was brought together in 1955 by the calculations of Gilbert Plass, who concluded that adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere would intercept more infrared radiation, preventing it being lost to space and thus warming the planet.\n\nThis still left the argument that the oceans would soak up the extra anthropogenically produced carbon dioxide. The first new evidence came in the 1950s and showed that the average lifetime of a carbon dioxide molecule in the atmosphere before it dissolved in the sea was about ten years. As the ocean overturning takes several hundreds of years, it was assumed the extra carbon dioxide would be safely locked in the oceans. But Roger Revelle, director of Scripps Institute of Oceanography in California, realized that it was necessary not only to know that a carbon dioxide molecule was absorbed after ten years but to ask what happened to it after that. Did it stay there or diffuse back into the atmosphere? How much extra CO2 could the oceans hold? Revelle's calculations showed that the complexities of surface ocean chemistry are such that it returns much of the carbon dioxide that it absorbs. This was a great revelation, and showed that because of the peculiarities of ocean chemistry, the oceans would not be the complete sink for anthropogenic carbon dioxide that was first thought. This principle still holds true, although the exact amount of anthropogenic carbon dioxide taken up per year by the oceans is still in debate. It is thought to be about 2 gigatonnes, nearly one-third of the annual total anthropogenic production.\n\nCharles Keeling, who was hired by Roger Revelle, produced the next important step forward in the global warming debate. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Keeling used the most modern technology available to measure the concentration of atmospheric CO2 in Antarctica and Mauna Loa. The resulting Keeling CO2 curves have continued to climb ominously each year since the first measurement in 1958 and have become one of the major icons of global warming.\n\n### Cold War science\n\nSpencer Weart, the director of the Center of History of Physics at the American Institute of Physics, contends that all the scientific facts about enhanced atmospheric CO2 and potential global warming were assembled by the late 1950s to early 1960s. He argues that it was only due to the physical geosciences being favoured financially in the Cold War environment that so much of the fundamental work on global warming was completed. Gilbert Plass published an article in 1959 in _Scientific American_ declaring that the world's temperature would rise by 3\u00b0C by the end of the century. The magazine editors published an accompanying photograph of coal smoke belching from factories and the caption read, 'Man upsets the balance of natural processes by adding billions of tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere each year.' This resembles thousands of magazine articles, television news items, and documentaries that we have all seen since the late 1980s. So why was there a delay between the science of global warming being accepted and in place in the late 1950s and early 1960s and the sudden realization of the true threat of global warming during the late 1980s?\n\n### Why the delay in recognizing global warming?\n\nThe key reasons for the delay in recognizing the global warming threat were, first, the power of the global mean temperature data set and, second, the need for the emergence of global environmental awareness. The global mean temperature data set is calculated using the land-air and sea-surface temperatures. From 1940 until the mid-1970s, the global temperature curve seems to have had a general downward trend. This provoked many scientists to discuss whether the Earth was entering the next great ice age. This fear developed in part because of increased awareness in the 1970s of how variable global climate had been in the past. The emerging subject of palaeoceanography (study of past oceans) demonstrated from deep-sea sediments that there were at least 32 glacial\u2013interglacial (cold\u2013warm) cycles in the last two and a half million years, not four as had been previously assumed. The time resolution of these studies was low, so that there was no possibility of estimating how quickly the ice ages came and went, only how regularly. It led many scientists and the media to ignore the scientific revelations of the 1950s and 1960s in favour of global cooling. As Ponte (1976) summarized:\n\nSince the 1940s the northern half of our planet has been cooling rapidly. Already the effect in the United States is the same as if every city had been picked up by giant hands and set down more than 100 miles closer to the North Pole. If the cooling continues, warned the National Academy of Sciences in 1975, we could possibly witness the beginning of the next Great Ice Age. Conceivably, some of us might live to see huge snow fields remaining year-round in northern regions of the United States and Europe. Probably, we would see mass global famine in our life times, perhaps even within a decade. Since 1970, half a million human beings in northern Africa and Asia have starved because of floods and droughts caused by the cooling climate.\n\nIt was not until the early 1980s, when the global annual mean temperature curve started to increase, that the global cooling scenario was questioned. By the late 1980s, the global annual mean temperature curve rose so steeply that all the dormant evidence from the late 1950s and 1960s was given prominence and the global warming theory was in full swing. What is intriguing is that some of the most vocal advocates for the global warming theory were also the ones responsible for creating concern over the impending ice age. In _The Genesis Strategy_ in 1976, Stephen Schneider stressed that the global cooling trend had set in; he is now one of the leading proponents of global warming. In 1990, he stated that 'the rate of change [warming] is so fast that I don't hesitate to call that kind of change potentially catastrophic for ecosystems'.\n\nWhy the hysteria? John Gribbin (1989) describes the transition very neatly in his book _In Hothouse Earth: The Greenhouse Effect and Gaia_ :\n\nIn 1981 it was possible to stand back and take a leisurely look at the record from 1880 to 1980.... In 1987, the figures were updated to 1985, chiefly for neatness of adding another half a decade to the records.... But by early 1988, even one more year's worth of data justified another publication in April, just four months after the last 1987 measurements were made, pointing out the record-breaking warmth now being reached. Even there, Hansen [James Hansen, head of the NASA team studying global temperature trends] and Lebedeff were cautious about making the connection with the greenhouse effect, merely saying that this was 'a subject beyond the scope of this paper'. But in the four months it had taken to get the 1987 data in print, the world had changed again; just a few weeks later Hansen was telling the US Senate that the first five months of 1988 had been warmer than any comparable period since 1880, and the greenhouse effect was upon us.\n\nJames Hansen's case had been made stronger by the fact that in 1986, British scientists Wigley and Jones also succeeded in compiling 134 years of GMT data to show an unprecedented global warming trend starting in 1980, with the first three years being the warmest on the record. They had used different data and methods from other groups and thus served to increase confidence within the scientific community that global warming was underway.\n\n**6. Variation of the Earth's surface temperature**\n\nIt seems, therefore, that the whole global warming issue was driven by the upturn in the global annual mean temperature data set, the so-called 'hockey stick'. This in itself is interesting because some scientists in the early 1990s still believed that this was a flawed data set because: (1) many of the land monitoring stations have subsequently been surrounded by urban areas, thus increasing the temperature records because of the urban heat island effect, (2) there have been changes in the ways ships measure the sea-water temperature, (3) there was not an adequate explanation for the cooling trend in the 1970s, (4) satellite data did not show a warming trend from the 1970s to the 1990s, and (5) the global warming models have overestimated the warming that should have occurred in the northern hemisphere over the last 100 years. Since the early 1990s, the urban heat island and variations in sea-temperature measurements have been taken into account. We now know that the cooling trend of the 1960s and 1970s is due to the decadal influence of the sunspot cycle and that pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide aerosols, cooled the industrial regions of the globe. In addition, the satellite results were spurious for a number of reasons, and a greater understanding of the system and recalibrated data show a significant warming trend. So the latest IPCC 2007 Science Report has reviewed and synthesized a wide range of data sets and shows that, essentially, the trend in the temperature data is correct, and that this warming trend has continued unstopped until the present day (see Figure 6). In fact, we know that 1998 and 2005 were globally the warmest years on record. The temperatures for these two years are so close that scientists are divided on which is the warmest. However, 1998 was an El Ni\u00f1o year, which we know adds up to 1\u00b0C on the average global temperatures. So we can say 2005 was the warmest normal year on record, with 2002, 2003, and 2004 respectively third, fourth, and fifth warmest. Indeed, the 12 warmest years on record have all occurred in the last 13 years. While a mild El Ni\u00f1o ensured that 2007 was the eighth warmest year on record.\n\nThe upturn in the global annual mean temperature data was not the sole reason for the appearance of the global warming issue. In the late 1970s and 1980s, there were significant advances in global climate modelling and a marked improvement in our understanding of past climates. Developments in general circulation models (GCMs) during this period included taking into account the role of particles and clouds in affecting the global climate. Despite the cooling effect thought to be associated with particle pollution, the new ocean\u2013atmosphere coupled GCM tools emerged with revised and higher estimates of the warming that would be associated with a doubling of CO2 in the atmosphere. By the 1980s, scientific concern had emerged about CH4 and other non-CO2 greenhouse gases as well as the role of the oceans as a carrier of heat. GCMs continued to improve, and the numbers of scientific teams working on such models increased over the 1980s and the 1990s. In 1992, a first overall comparison of results from 14 GCMs was undertaken; the results were all in rough overall agreement, confirming the prediction of global warming.\n\nIn terms of the study of palaeoclimate, during the 1980s there was also an intense drive to understand how and why past climate changed. Major advances were made in obtaining high-resolution past climate records from deep-sea sediments and ice cores. It was, thus, realized that glacial periods, or ice ages, take tens of thousands of years to occur, primarily because ice sheets are very slow to build up and are naturally unstable. In contrast, the transition to a warmer period, or interglacial, such as the present, is geologically very quick, in the order of a couple of thousand years. This is because once the ice sheets start to melt, there are a number of positive feedbacks that accelerate the process, such as sea-level rise which can undercut and destroy large ice sheets. The realization occurred in the palaeoclimate community that global warming is much easier and more rapid than cooling. It also put to rest the myth of the next impending ice age. As the glacial\u2013interglacial periods of the last two and half million years have been shown to be forced by the changes in the orbit of the Earth around the Sun, it would be possible to predict when the next glacial period will begin, if there were no anthropogenic effects involved. According to the model predictions by Berger and Loutre (2002) at the Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain in Belgium, we do not need to worry about another ice age for at least 5,000 years. Indeed, if their model is correct and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations double, then global warming would postpone the next ice age for another 45,000 years. Palaeoclimate work has also provided us with worrying insights into how the climate system works. Recent work on the ice cores and deep-sea sediments demonstrate that at least regional climate changes of 5\u00b0C can occur in a matter of decades. This work on reconstructing past climate seems to demonstrate that the global climate system is not benign but highly dynamic and prone to rapid changes.\n\n### The rise of the environmental social movement\n\nThe next change that occurred during the 1980s was a massive grass-roots expansion in the environmental movement, particularly in the USA, Canada, and the UK, partly as a backlash against the right-wing governments of the 1980s and the expansion of the consumer economy, and partly because of the increasing number of environment-related stories in the media. This heralded a new era of global environmental awareness and transnational NGOs (non-governmental organizations). The roots of this growing environmental awareness can be traced back to a number of key markers: these include the publication of Rachel Carson's _Silent Spring_ in 1962; the image of Earth seen from the Moon in 1969; the Club of Rome's 1972 report on _Limits to Growth_ ; the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor accident in 1979, and the nuclear accident at Chernobyl in 1986; and the Exxon Valdez oil spillage in 1989. But these environmental problems were all regional in effect, limited geographically to the specific area in which they occurred.\n\nIt was the discovery in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey of depletion of ozone over Antarctica which demonstrated the global connectivity of our environment. The ozone 'hole' also had a tangible international cause, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which led to a whole new area of politics, the international management of the environment. There followed a set of key agreements: the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer; the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; and the 1990 London and 1992 Copenhagen Adjustments and Amendments to the Protocol. These have been held up as examples of successful environmental diplomacy. Climate change has had a slower development in international politics and far less has been achieved in terms of regulation and implementation. This is, at its most simplistic level, because of the great inherent uncertainties of the science and the greater economic costs involved.\n\n### Global warming and the media\n\nThe other reason for the acceptance of the global warming hypothesis was the intense media interest throughout the late 1980s and 1990s. This is because the global warming hypothesis was perfect for the media: a dramatic story about the end of the world as we know it, with significant controversy about whether it was even true. Anabela Carvalho, now at the University of Minho (Braga, Portugal), has undertaken a fascinating study of the British quality (broadsheet) press coverage of the global warming issue between 1985 and 1997. She concentrated particularly on the _The Guardian_ and _The Times_ , and found throughout this period that they promoted very different worldviews. Interestingly, despite their differing views, the number of articles published per year by the British quality papers followed a similar pattern and peaked when key IPCC reports were published or international conferences on climate change were held (see Figure 7). But it is the nature of these articles that shows how the global warming debate was constructed in the media. From the late 1980s, _The Times_ , which published most articles on global warming in 1989, 1990, and 1992, cast doubt on the claims of climate change. There was a recurrent attempt to promote mistrust in science, through strategies of generalization, of disagreement within the scientific community, and, most importantly, discrediting scientists and scientific institutions. A very similar viewpoint was taken by the majority of the American media throughout much of the 1990s. In fact, it has been claimed that this approach in the American media has led to a barrier between scientists and the public in the USA.\n\nIn the UK, _The Guardian_ newspaper took the opposite approach to that of _The Times_. Although _The Guardian_ gave space to the technical side of the debate, it soon started to discuss scientific claims in the wider context. As scientific uncertainty regarding the enhanced greenhouse effect decreased during the 1990s, _The Guardian_ coherently advanced a strategy of building confidence in science, with an emphasis on consensus as a means of enhancing the reliability of knowledge. This was because _The Guardian_ understood and promoted one of the fundamental bases of science, which is that a theory, such as global warming, can only be accepted or rejected by the weight of evidence. So, as evidence from many different areas of science continues to support the theory of global warming, so correspondingly our confidence in the theory should increase. Far from painting science as 'pure' or 'correct', instead _The Guardian_ politicized it to demonstrate the bias that is inherent in all science. This clearly showed that many of the climate change claims were being eroded by lobbying pressure, mainly associated with the fossil-fuel industry. This politicizing of science allowed _The Guardian_ to strengthen its readers' confidence in science.\n\n**7. Newspaper coverage of global warming 1985\u20131997**\n\nMoreover, _The Guardian_ clearly conveyed the uncertainties within the science of global warming, and the paper's editors were, and still are, in favour of the precautionary principle. It was through this media filter that scientists attempted to advance their particular global warming view, by either making claims for more research or promoting certain political options. From the late 1980s onwards, scientists became very adept at staging their media performances, and it is clear that the general acceptance of the global warming hypothesis is in part due to their continued efforts to communicate their findings. Indeed, both the sceptical and the supportive stances of _The Times_ and _The Guardian_ , respectively, so legitimized the debate over global warming that the public became aware that this was not an overnight news story but something that was to become part of the very fabric of our society.\n\nIt seems that the media has also influenced our use of words. From 1988 onwards, the use of the phrases 'global warming' and 'climate change' gained support, while 'greenhouse effect' lost its appeal and by 1997 was rarely mentioned. The change in terminology is reflected in this book. The title is _Global Warming_ , as everyone knows what that means, and the major discussions in this book are about the climate change it might induce.\n\nAs mentioned, in the USA media coverage has been different. First, until recently there has been no pro-global warming media coverage equivalent to that delivered by _The Guardian_. Second, climate change sceptics have been very strong on using the media in the USA. For example, McInytre and McKitrick in 2003 attacked the global mean temperature 'hockey stick' by raising questions about the quality of data and accuracy of methods used to estimate trends in GMT. This debate has taken place between experts but in an unusually public manner. For example, one US scientist, Michael Mann, who has widely published on global mean temperature trends, has been the centre of the criticism and active in responding to it. Despite Mann's strong rebuttal and the weight of scientific evidence that brings into doubt the validity of the critique, both the media and US and British politicians have continued to bring attention to the questions raised by McInytre and McKitrick.\n\nThere are two possible explanations for this extraordinarily media-facilitated public scientific debate. First, political sceptics who do not want to see political action to address climate change may be using this debate about methods and scientific uncertainty as a convenient hook on which to hang their case for delay. The global mean temperature curve over the last millennium is a particularly important target for such criticism, owing to its emblematic role in the policy debate. Second, the media's ethical commitment to balanced reporting may unwittingly provide unwarranted attention to critical views, even if they are marginal and outside the realm of what is normally considered 'good' science. In the UK, _The Guardian_ opened up the critical coverage by examining the motivations behind the science, thus providing the contested space within which reporting takes place. This, however, did not occur in the US or elsewhere in the world until very recently. The McInytre and McKitrick case thus demonstrates the public nature of scientific enterprise, especially on issues that are politically relevant. When combined with greater ease of communication, from conventional media, such as newspapers, radio, and television, to more informal websites, what is normally a relatively private debate among scientists and experts can easily be shifted into the public arena. Overall, such exchanges contribute to a public impression that the science of global warming is 'contested', despite what many would argue is an overwhelmingly strong scientific case that global warming is occurring and human activity is a main driver of this change.\n\nIn the USA, perhaps more powerful than newspaper coverage have been other forms of media that rely on visual information, such as film, television, and the internet. Researchers have studied the effects of the 2004 Hollywood blockbuster film _The Day After Tomorrow_. With a huge viewing public (estimated at 21 million people in the USA alone), _The Day After Tomorrow_ was a commercial success and also appears to have helped to promote climate change from an obscure scientific issue to one of popular public concern. In addition, the media coverage in glossy magazines, for example in _Time Magazine_ in April 2006, and _Vanity Fair_ in May 2006, has begun to convey a greater sense of urgency about climate change. Finally, widespread media coverage of emblematic impacts of climate change has also been stimulated by the international release of the documentary film _An Inconvenient Truth_ by Al Gore, and by a growing number of television documentaries on climate change, such as _60 Minutes_ , ABC News and HBO documentaries, in 2006. This rise in 'visual' media coverage suggests that in the last decade the 'availability heuristics' for promoting public understanding of climate change have risen dramatically.\n\n### The economists wade in\n\nEconomists have been involved with studying climate change from the very beginning of the IPCC process. There are two landmark publications that have had very different effects on the global warming debate. First, there was the publication of the controversial book _The Skeptical Environmentalist_ by Bj\u00f8rn Lomborg in English in 2001. In this and subsequent books, he argues that the cost of cutting global greenhouse emissions is extremely high and that those who suffer most from the effects of climate change are those in the poorest countries. He argues that a better use of this money would be poverty alleviation and rapid development of the Third World. As he suggests, if you are starving, you are not worried about the state of the planet for your children, you are worrying solely about having them at all.\n\nThis view, as you can imagine, was highly controversial. The second major landmark was the publication of the UK government-commissioned Stern Report on _The Economics of Climate Change_ in 2006 (Cambridge University Press version first published in 2007). The report was led by Sir Nicholas Stern, then the adviser to the UK government on the economics of climate change and development reporting to the prime minister (then Tony Blair). The report states that if we do nothing, then the impacts of climate change could cost between 5% and 20% of world GDP every year. That means the whole world loses one-fifth of what it earns to address the impacts (discussed in Chapter 5). This of course puts climate change impacts on a completely different economic scale than was envisaged by Lomborg. This dire view of the future has been supported by a recent commentary by Martin Parry and colleagues in the journal _Nature_ (June 2008). But the Stern Report does present some good news, because if we do everything we can to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and ensure we adapt to the coming effects of climate change, this will cost us only 1% of world GDP every year. The Stern Report has been criticized on specifics by other economists \u2013 for example, does it use the right inherent discount rate? This is the rate economists use to take into account that consumption inherently has a lower value in the future than in the present. This is because future consumption should be discounted simply because it takes place in the future and people generally prefer the present to the future. For example William Nordhaus used inherent discount rates of up to 3 per cent, which means an environmental benefit occurring 25 years in the future is worth about half as much as the same benefit today. Stern argued that inherent discount rates were ethically inappropriate. The Stern Report has also been criticized for being overly optimistic about the costs of adapting to a low-carbon world. Roger Pielke Jr and colleagues in the journal _Nature_ (April 2008) present a case that emissions scenarios used by the IPCC 2007 are too low and thus the technological and political challenge, and thus the cost, would be much higher. In June 2008 Sir Nicholas Stern did revise his estimated costs up to 2% of World GDP, not because of the above criticism, but because global warming was occurring faster than expected.\n\nNevertheless, the Stern Report sent seismic waves around the world. In the UK, most of my colleagues see the Stern Report and the winter of 2006\/7 as the turning point when the public decided that climate change was real. It was as if people said to themselves, 'if the economists are worried about the cost of climate change, it must be real'.\n\n### Summary\n\nSo a combination of several factors \u2013 (1) the science of global warming essentially carried out by the mid-1960s, (2) the 'hockey stick' upturn in the global temperature data set which was first observed at the end of the 1980s, (3) our increased knowledge in the 1980s of how past climate has reacted to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, (4) our greater ability in the late 1970s and 1980s to model future changes in climate with supercomputers, (5) the emergence of global environmental awareness in the late 1980s, (6) the media's savage engagement in the confrontational nature of the debate and the huge interest in what some of my colleagues call 'climate porn', and (7) politicians and economists taking the threat of climate change seriously since the late 1990s \u2013 has led finally to recognition and acceptance of the global warming hypothesis.\n\nOver the same period, thousands of scientists have turned their attention to understanding global warming. Landmarks have been the setting up of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 by the United Nations Environmental Panel and World Meteorological Organization; the publication of key reports by the IPCC in 1990, 1996, 2001, and 2007; the formal signature of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992; the subsequent Conference of the Parties (COP) at Kyoto in 1998, where the UNFCCC Protocols were formally accepted, the agreement of the 'Kyoto' Protocols in Bonn in July 2001, and the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on the 16 February 2005.\n\n## [Chapter 3  \n **What is the evidence for climate change?**](ch00-fm05.html#ch03a)\n\n### Past climate change\n\nClimate change in the geological past has been reconstructed using a number of key archives, including marine and lake sediments, ice cores, cave deposits, and tree rings. These various records reveal that over the last 100 million years the Earth's climate has been cooling down, moving from the so-called 'greenhouse world' of the Cretaceous Period, when dinosaurs enjoyed warm and gentle conditions, through to the cooler and more dynamic 'ice house world' of today (see Figure 8). It may seem odd that in geological terms our planet is extremely cold, while this whole book is concerned with our great fears of global warming. This is because the very fact that there are huge ice sheets on both Antarctica and Greenland and nearly permanent sea ice in the Arctic Ocean makes the global climate very sensitive to changes in greenhouse gases.\n\nThis long-term, 100-million-year transition to colder global climate conditions was driven mainly by tectonic changes. These included the opening of the Tasmanian\u2013Antarctic gateway and the Drake Passage, which isolated Antarctica from the rest of the world, the uplift of the Himalayas, and the closure of the Panama ocean gateway. There is also geological evidence that this cooling has been accompanied by a massive drop in the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. For example, 100 million years ago, during the time of the dinosaurs, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels could have been as much as five times higher than today.\n\n**8. The anatomy of past climatic changes**\n\nThese changes culminated in the glaciation of Antarctica about 35 million years ago and then the great northern hemisphere ice ages, which began 2.5 million years ago. Since the beginning of the great northern ice ages, the global climate has cycled from conditions that were similar or even slightly warmer than today, to full ice ages, which caused ice sheets over 3km thick to form over much of North America and Europe. Between 2.5 and 1 million years ago, these glacial\u2013interglacial cycles occurred every 41,000 years, and since 1 million years ago they have occurred every 100,000 years. These great ice-age cycles are driven primarily by changes in the Earth's orbit with respect to the Sun. In fact, the world has spent over 80% of the last 2.5 million years in conditions colder than the present. Our present interglacial, the Holocene Period, started about 10,000 years ago and is an example of the rare warm conditions that occur between each ice age. The Holocene began with the rapid and dramatic end of the last ice age; in less than 4,000 years global temperatures increased by 6\u00b0C, relative sea level rose by 120m, atmospheric carbon dioxide increased by one-third, and atmospheric methane doubled.\n\nIt may seem strange in a book about global warming to suggest that we are currently in a geological 'ice house world'. This is, however, an important point when we look at the consequences of the world warming up, because, despite being in a relatively warm interglacial period, both poles are still glaciated, which is a rare occurrence in the geological history of our planet. Antarctica and Greenland are covered by ice sheets, and the majority of the Arctic Ocean is covered with sea ice. This means that there is a lot of ice that could melt in a warmer world, and, as we will see, this is one of the biggest unknowns that the future holds for our planet. The two glaciated poles also make the temperature gradient, or difference between the poles and the equator, extremely large, from an average of about +30\u00b0C at the equator down to \u221235\u00b0C or colder at the poles. This temperature gradient is one of the main reasons that we have a climate system, as excess heat from the tropics is exported both via the oceans and the atmosphere to the poles, which causes our weather. Geologically, we currently have one of the largest equator\u2013pole temperature gradients, which leads to a very dynamic climate system. So our 'ice house' conditions cause our very energetic weather system, which is characterized by hurricanes, tornadoes, extra-tropical (temperate) winter storms, and monsoons. James Lovelock in his book _The Ages of Gaia_ (new edition, 1995, p. 227) suggests that interglacials, like the Holocene Period, are the fevered state of our planet, which clearly over the last 2.5 million years prefers a colder average global temperature. Lovelock sees global warming as humanity just adding to the fever.\n\nClimate, however, has not been constant during our interglacial, that is over the last 10,000 years. Palaeoclimate evidence suggests that the early Holocene was warmer than the 20th century. Throughout the Holocene, there have been millennial-scale climate events, called Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles, which involve a local cooling of 2\u00b0C. These events have had a significant influence on classical civilizations; for example, the cold arid event about 4,000 years ago coincides with the collapse of many classical civilizations, such as the Old Kingdom in Egypt.\n\nThe last of these millennial climate cycles was the Little Ice Age. This event is really two cold periods; the first follows the Medieval Warm Period, which ended 1,000 years ago, and is often correspondingly referred to as the Medieval Cold Period. The Medieval Cold Period played a role in extinguishing Norse colonies on Greenland and caused famine and mass migration in Europe. It started gradually before AD 1200 and ended at about AD 1650. The second cold period, more classically referred to as the Little Ice Age, may have been the most rapid and largest change in the North Atlantic region during the late Holocene, as suggested by ice-core and deep-sea sediment records. However, it is clear from records around the globe that the Little Ice Age and the Medieval Warm Period occurred only in northern Europe, north-east America, and Greenland (see Figure 9). Whenever the Little Ice Age is mentioned so too are the symbolic Ice Fairs that were held on the River Thames. However, the freezing of the River Thames had as much to do with the sluggish flow of the river until the port of London was built in the 1800s as the colder temperatures. There are four main data sets which have attempted to reconstruct temperatures for the northern hemisphere over the last millennium: tree rings, corals, ice cores, and\/or the direct measurement of past temperatures from boreholes. First, it should be noted that the different data sets compare well with each other, which gives added confidence that we are seeing real temperature variations in these reconstructions. Second, the data show that the centuries before 1900 were much colder. They also show that the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age did occur, but that in much of the northern hemisphere little climate change can be seen, with the exception of northern Europe. Without this last millennium data the instrumental temperature data set for the last 150 years would have no context. As it is, it can now be clearly shown that temperatures, at least for the northern hemisphere, have been warmer in the 20th century than at any other time during the last 1,000 years, revealing the so-called 'hockey stick'.\n\n**9. Northern hemisphere temperature reconstruction for the last 1,000 years**\n\n### Recent climate change\n\nThe three main indicators of global warming are temperature, precipitation, and sea level. One of the key aims of scientists over the last couple of decades has been to estimate how these have changed since the industrial revolution and to see if there is any evidence for global warming being to blame. Below is the evidence for each of these parameters.\n\n#### Temperature\n\nAs we have seen, temperatures for the northern hemisphere have been reconstructed for the last 1,000 years, providing a context to the 20th century. Temperatures for the last 150 years have been estimated from a number of sources, both direct thermometer-based indicators and proxy-based. What is a proxy? As used here and elsewhere, it is short for 'proxy variable'. The term 'proxy' is commonly used to describe a stand-in or substitute, as in 'proxy vote' or 'fighting by proxy'. In the same way, 'proxy variable' in the parlance of climatology means a measurable 'descriptor' that stands in for a desired (but unobservable) variable, such as past ocean or land temperature. So there is an assumption that you can use the proxy variable to estimate a climatic variable that you cannot measure directly. So, as we will see below, you can use the thickness of tree rings as a way of estimating past land temperatures; in this case, the tree-ring thickness is a proxy for temperature.\n\nThermometer-based indicators include sea-surface temperature (SST), marine air temperatures (MAT), land surface-air temperature, and temperatures in the free atmosphere, such as those measured by sensors on balloons. Borehole temperature measurements are defined as proxy-based because, despite the use of direct measurements of temperatures, these have been altered over time. Mathematical inversion procedures are required to translate the modern temperature in the boreholes into changes of ground temperature back through time. Other proxy-based methods include infrared satellite measurements and tree-ring width and thickness.\n\nThermometer-based measurements of air temperature have been recorded at a number of sites in North America and Europe as far back as 1760. The number of observation sites does not increase to sufficient worldwide geographical coverage to permit a global land average to be calculated until about the middle of the 19th century. SST and marine air temperatures were systematically recorded by ships from the mid-19th century, but even today the coverage of the southern hemisphere is extremely poor. All these data sets require various corrections to account for changing conditions and measurement techniques. For example, for land data each station has been examined to ensure that conditions have not varied through time as a result of changes in the measurement site, instruments used, instrument shelters, or the way monthly averages were computed, or the growth of cities around the sites, which leads to warmer temperatures caused by the urban heat island effect. In the IPCC 2007 science report, the influence of the urban heat island is acknowledged as real but negligible for the global temperature compilation (less than 0.006\u00b0C).\n\nFor SST and MAT, there are a number of corrections that have to be applied. First, up to 1941 most SST temperature measurements were made in sea water hoisted on deck in a bucket. Since 1941, most measurements have been made at the ships' engine water intakes. Second, between 1856 and 1910 there was a shift from wooden to canvas buckets, which changes the amount of cooling caused by evaporation that occurs as the water is being hoisted on deck. In addition, through this period there was a gradual shift from sailing ships to steamships, which altered the height of the ship decks and the speed of the ships, both of which can affect the evaporative cooling of the buckets. The other key correction that has to be made is for the global distribution of meteorological stations through time, which has varied greatly since 1870. But by making these corrections it is possible to produce a continuous record of global surface temperature for the last 100 years (1906 to 2005), which shows a global warming of 0.74\u00b0C \u00b10.05\u00b0C over this period.\n\nWhat is so interesting about the 130-year temperature data set are the details, particularly as mentioned before the cooling observed in the 1960s and 1970s. One of the key tests for climate models, used to predict future climate changes, is whether they can reproduce the changes seen since 1870. These models are discussed in more detail in the next chapter but it should be noted that only by combining natural forcing (such as solar 11-year cycles and stratospheric aerosols from explosive volcanic eruptions), and anthropogenic forcing (greenhouse gases and sulphur aerosols) can the temperature record be simulated.\n\nFor the last 40 years, balloon data have been available. In 1958, an initial network of 540 stations was set up to release rawinsondes, or balloons, which were regularly released to measure temperature, relative humidity, and pressure through the atmosphere to a height of about 20km, where they burst. By the 1970s, the network had grown to 700\u2013800 stations reporting twice daily. The balloon data set shows a general surface and lower troposphere warming over the last 30 years of about 0.1\u20130.2\u00b0C per decade, which compares well with the instrumental record, which has a trend over the last 50 years of 0.13\u00b0C per decade.\n\nSatellite-based proxy records have been available for the last 20 years and have been the source of some key controversies in the global warming debate. The advantage of satellite-mounted microwave sensors is that they have a global coverage, unlike the balloons which are predominately land-based and in the northern hemisphere. There are, however, some major problems with the microwave data set. First, the temperature record is based on eight different satellites, and despite overlapping measurement times, intercalibration between different instruments is problematic. Second, there is a spurious warming trend after 1990 of 0.03\u20130.04\u00b0C which is due to a drift in the orbital times, and a spurious cooling trend of 0.12\u00b0C per decade due to the reduced altitude or height of the satellites caused by friction with the atmosphere. Third, the height within the atmosphere at which the microwave sensor measures temperature is affected by the amount of ice crystals and raindrops in the atmosphere. Hence, if the planet is warming up, moisture will be found at great altitude, and the microwave sensor would in fact measure temperature much higher in the atmosphere, that is in the colder parts of the troposphere, thus giving a smaller temperature increase than that which actually occurred. It is unsurprising that reports on satellite recorded global temperature trends for the last 30 years have changed, as every new paper published contains yet another correction that must be considered. For example, huge controversy occurred when Christy and colleagues in 1995 deduced a global mean cooling trend of 0.05\u00b0C\/decade for the period 1979\u201394, but obtained a warming trend of 0.09\u00b0C\/decade over this period by removing the effects of El Ni\u00f1o and the climatic effect of the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. When the data set is corrected for decreasing satellite altitude, the global mean cooling turns into a warming of 0.07\u00b0C\/decade. If the balloon, surface, and satellite data are compared, there is some agreement, and they show that the surface and lower troposphere have been warming up, while the stratosphere has been cooling down.\n\nThe IPCC collation of the published land-surface air and sea-surface temperatures from 1850 to 2005 includes all the corrections discussed above. These data are shown relative to the average temperature between 1961 and 1990 in Figure 10, and, as you can see, there has been a sharp warming from the start of the 1980s onwards. The mean global surface temperature has increased by 0.74\u00b0C \u00b10.05\u00b0C over the last 100 years (1906 to 2005), and by 0.76\u00b0C since 1850 if the average between 1850 and 1899 and 2001 and 2005 is taken. Indirect indicators, such as borehole temperatures and glacier shrinkage, provide independent support for the observed warming. It is also noted by the IPCC (2007) that the warming has not been globally uniform. Warming in the Arctic has been double the global rate in recent decades.\n\n**10. Temperature, sea level, and snow cover for the last 150 years**\n\n#### Precipitation\n\nThere are two global precipitation data sets: 'Hulme' and the 'Global Historical Climate Network' (GHCN). Unfortunately, unlike temperature, rainfall and snow data are not as well documented and the records have not been carried out for as long. It is also known that precipitation over land tends to be underestimated by up to 10\u201315% owing to the effects of airflow around the collecting dish. Without correction of this effect, there is a spurious upward trend in global precipitation; after correction, there seems to be no statistically significant increase of global precipitation. However, there is clear evidence that since the 1980s atmospheric water content has increased over the land and ocean as well as in the upper troposphere. This is consistent with the extra water vapour that the warmer atmosphere can hold.\n\nThough no discernible global trend in precipitation can be found at the moment, there is good evidence of significant regional changes. The IPCC reports that significant increases in precipitation have occurred in the eastern parts of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia. It seems that seasonality of precipitation is also changing, for example in the high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, with increased rainfall in the winter and a decrease in the summer. Long-term drying trends have been observed on Sahel, in the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and parts of southern Asia. It has also been observed that the amount of rain falling during heavy 'extreme' rain events has increased, for example in the USA, Europe, the former Soviet Union, and China.\n\n#### Relative global sea level\n\nThe IPCC has also put together a key data set of sea level. It shows that over the last 100 years, the global sea level has risen by about 12 to 22cm (Figure 10). Sea-level change is difficult to measure, as relative sea-level changes have been derived from two very different data sets \u2013 tide-gauges and satellites. In the conventional tide-gauge system, the sea level is measured relative to a land-based tide-gauge benchmark. The major problem is that the land surface is much more dynamic that one would expect, with a lot of vertical movements, and these become incorporated into the measurements. Vertical movements can occur as a result of normal geological compaction of delta sediments, the withdrawal of groundwater from coastal aquifers (both of which are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5, in the Coastline section), uplift associated with colliding tectonic plates (the most extreme of which is mountain-building such as in the Himalayas), or ongoing postglacial rebound and compensation elsewhere associated with the end of the last ice age. The latter is caused by the rapid removal of weight when the giant ice sheets melted, so that the land that has been weighed down slowly rebounds back to its original position. An example of this is Scotland, which is rising at a rate of 3mm per year, while England is still sinking at a rate of 2mm per year, despite the Scottish ice sheet having melted 10,000 years ago. In comparison, the simple problem with the satellite data is that it is too short, with the best data starting in January 1993, and this means it has to be combined with the tide-gauge data to look at long-term trends. However, the 1993 to 2007 data clearly show an increase of over 40mm in global sea level.\n\nIn summary, between 1961 and 2003 the global average sea level rose by 1.8mm per year, with the fastest rate being observed between 1993 and 2003 of 3.1mm per year. The 1993\u20132003 rate is made up of the following contributions: thermal expansion of the ocean contributed 1.6mm per year (~50%); Antarctic ice sheet 0.21mm (~7%); Greenland ice sheet 0.21mm (~7%); and glaciers and other ice caps 0.77mm per year (~25%); with approximately 0.3mm per year (10%) unaccounted for. These new data clearly show that the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have contributed to recent sea-level rise.\n\nThis is important because one of the biggest unknowns of global warming is how much the massive ice sheets over Greenland and Antarctica will melt. A key indicator of the expansion or contraction of these ice sheets is the sea ice that surrounds them. The state of the cryosphere (or the global ice) is extremely important, as shrinking of ice on land causes the sea level to rise. Unfortunately, submarines have already recorded a worrying thinning of the polar ice caps. Sea-ice draft is the thickness of the part of the ice that is submerged under the sea. In order to understand the effects of global warming on the cryosphere, it is important to measure how much ice is melting in the polar regions. Comparison of sea-ice draft data acquired on submarine cruises between 1993 and 1997 with similar data acquired between 1958 and 1976 indicates that the mean ice draft at the end of the melt season has decreased by about 1.3m in most of the deep-water portions of the Arctic Ocean, from 3.1m in 1958 to 1.8m in the 1990s. In summary, ice draft in the 1990s is over a metre thinner than four decades earlier. The main draft has decreased from over 3m to less than 2m, and the volume is down by some 40%. In addition, in 2000, for the first time in recorded history, a hole large enough to be seen from space opened in the sea ice above the North Pole. In 2007, satellites revealed the biggest retreat of arctic sea ice ever recorded. Moreover, measurements of the size of Greenland suggest that it is shrinking, by over 1,000 gigatonnes of ice since 2003, particularly at its coastal margins.\n\n### Other evidence for global warming\n\nOther evidence for global warming comes from permafrost regions and weather patterns such as certain storm records. Permafrost exists in high-latitude and high-altitude areas, where it is so cold that the ground is frozen solid to a great depth. During the summer months, only the top metre or so of the permafrost becomes warm enough to melt, and this is called the 'active layer'. Already in Alaska there seems to have been a 3\u00b0C warming down to at least a metre over the last 50 years, showing that the active layer has become deeper. The maximum area cover by seasonal ground has decreased by 7% in the northern hemisphere since 1900, with a decrease in the spring of up to 15%. With the massive increases in atmospheric CO2 predicted for the future, it is likely that there will be increases in the thickness of the active layer of the permafrost, or perhaps, in some areas, the complete disappearance of so-called discontinuous permafrost over the next century. This widespread loss of permafrost will produce a huge range of problems in local areas, as it will trigger erosion or subsidence, change hydrologic processes, and release into the atmosphere even more CO2 and methane trapped as organic matter in the frozen layers. Hence changes in permafrost will reduce the stability of slopes and thus increase incidence of slides and avalanches. A more dynamic cryosphere will increase the natural hazards for people, structures, and communication links. Already, buildings, roads, pipelines, such as the oil pipelines in Alaska, and communication links are under threat.\n\nThere is evidence too that our weather patterns are changing. For example, in recent years massive storms and subsequent floods have hit China, Italy, England, Korea, Bangladesh, Venezuela, and Mozambique. In England in 2000, floods classified as 'once-in-30-years events' occurred twice in the same month. Moreover, in Britain the winter of 2000\/1 was the wettest six months since records began in the 18th century, August 2008 was the wettest on record and British birds nest 12\u00b14 days earlier than 30 years previously. Insect species \u2013 including bees and termites \u2013 that need warm weather to survive are moving northward, and some have already reached England by crossing the Channel from France. While in the summer of 2003, 35,000 people died in an extreme heat wave in northern Europe, during which 100\u00b0F was recorded for the first time ever in Britain. In addition, glaciers in Europe are in retreat, particularly in the Alps and Iceland. Ice cover records from the Tornio River in Finland, which have been compiled since 1693, show that the spring thaw of the frozen river now occurs a month earlier.\n\nThere is also evidence that more storms are occurring in the northern hemisphere. Wave height in the North Atlantic Ocean has been monitored since the early 1950s, from lightships, Ocean Weather Stations, and more recently satellites. Between the 1950s and 1990s, the average wave height increased from 2.5m to 3.5m, an increase of 40%. Storm intensity is the major determinant of wave height, which provides evidence for an increase in storm activity over the last 40 years. This also fits with the observed increase in winter extra-tropical cyclones, that is those occurring in the mid-latitudes, which have increased markedly over the last 100 years, with significant rises in both the Pacific and Atlantic sectors since the early 1970s. There is also evidence for an increase in intense tropical hurricane activity since the 1970s in the North Atlantic.\n\n### What do the sceptics say?\n\nOne of the best ways to summarize the evidence for global warming and to persuade you, the reader, that there is evidence that humanity has already altered global climate, is to review what the sceptics say against the global warming hypothesis:\n\n1) Ice-core data suggest atmospheric carbon dioxide responds to global temperature, therefore, atmospheric carbon dioxide cannot cause global temperature changes.\n\nA detailed examination of the ice-core carbon dioxide data at the end of the last glacial period shows that the major stepwise increases occur at the same time as warming in Antarctica. It is known that during the last deglaciation, gradual warming in Antarctica occurred before steplike warming in the northern hemisphere. There is, therefore, excellent evidence that atmospheric carbon dioxide increases before overall global temperatures rise and the ice sheets begin to melt. In fact, there is clear evidence that Antarctic temperatures and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are in step, demonstrating the central role of carbon dioxide as a climate amplifier. Moreover, time-series analysis of the last four glacial\u2013interglacial cycles by the late Professor Sir Shackleton at the University of Cambridge suggests atmospheric carbon dioxide response up to 5,000 years before variations in global ice sheets. This has prompted many palaeoclimatologists to re-evaluate the role of atmospheric carbon dioxide, placing it now as a primary driving force of past climate instead of a secondary response and feedback.\n\n2) Every data set showing global warming has been corrected or tweaked to achieve this desired result.\n\nFor people who are not regularly involved in science, this seems to be the biggest problem with the whole 'global warming has happened' argument. As I have shown, all the data sets covering the last 150 years require some sort of adjustment. This, though, is part of the scientific process. For example, if great care had not been taken over the spurious trends in the global precipitation database we would now assume that global precipitation was increasing. Moreover, as science moves forward incrementally, it gains more and more understanding and insight into the data sets it is constructing. This constant questioning of all data and interpretations is the core strength of science: each new correction or adjustment is due to a greater understanding of the data and the climate system and thus each new study adds to the confidence that we have in the results. This is why the IPCC report refers to the 'weight of the evidence', since our confidence in science increases if similar results are obtained from very different sources.\n\n3) Solar output and sunspot activity control the past temperatures.\n\nThis is something both the sceptics and non-sceptics agree upon. Of course, sunspots and also volcanic activity have influenced past temperatures. For example, the cooling of the 1960s and 1970s is clearly linked to changes in the sunspot cycle. The difference between the two camps is that the sceptics put more weight on the importance of these natural variations. Though great care has been taken to understand how the minor variations in solar output affect global climate, this is still one of the areas which contain many unknowns and uncertainties. However, climate models combining our current state-of-the-art knowledge concerning all radiative forcing, including greenhouse gases (see Table 1) and sunspots, are able to simulate the global temperature curve for the last 130 years. Figure 11 shows the separate natural and anthropogenic forcing on global climate for the last 130 years and the combination of the two. This provides confidence in both models and also an understanding of the relative influence of natural versus anthropogenic forcing.\n\n4) Satellite data cast doubt on the models.\n\nAgain, before the satellite data were clearly understood, they did suggest that over the last 25 years there had been a slight cooling. The iterative process of science \u2013 the re-examination of data and assumptions concerning the data \u2013 clearly showed that there were some major inconsistencies within the satellite data: first, as a result of trying to compare the data from different instruments on different satellites; and, second, because of the need to adjust the altitude of the satellite as its orbit shrinks as a result of friction with the atmosphere. The final problem with the satellite data is that 20 years is just too short a time period to find a temperature trend with any confidence. This is because climatic cycles or events will have a major influence on the record and will not be averaged out: for example, the sunspot cycle is 11 years, El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation is 3\u20137 years, and the North Atlantic Oscillation is 10 years. So which of these cycles is picked up by the 20-year satellite data will strongly influence the direction of the temperature trend.\n\n**11. Simulated annual global mean surface temperatures compared to observed temperatures**\n\n### Summary\n\nOver the last 150 years, significant changes in climate have been recorded; including a 0.74\u00b0C increase in average global temperatures over the last 100 years, sea-level rise of over 40mm, significant shifts in the seasonality and intensities of precipitation, changing weather patterns, significant retreat of Arctic sea ice and nearly all continental glaciers. We know that in the last 150 years, the 12 warmest years on record have all occurred within the last 13 years, with 1998 the warmest year, followed by 2005, 2002, 2003, and 2004, while 2007 was the eighth warmest year on record. The IPCC 2007 report states that the evidence for global warming is unequivocal and there is very high confidence that this warming is due to human activity.\n\n## [Chapter 4  \n **How do you model the future?**](ch00-fm05.html#ch04a)\n\nYou may not believe this, but the whole of human society operates on knowing the future, particularly the weather. For example, a farmer in India knows when the monsoon rains will come next year and so when to plant his crops, while a farmer in Indonesia knows there are two monsoon rains next year so he can plant crops twice. This is based on their knowledge of the past, as the monsoons have always come at about the same time each year in living memory. But such a prediction goes deeper than this as it influences every part of our lives. Our houses are built for the local climate \u2013 in Britain that means central heating but no air-conditioning, while in the southern USA it is vice versa. Roads, railways, airports, offices, cars, trains, and so on are all designed for the local climate. This is why in the spring of 2003 a centimetre of snow one afternoon effectively shut down London, while Toronto can easily deal with and function with half a metre of snow. In Europe in 2003, 35,000 people died in the summer heat wave in temperatures that regularly occur in the tropics, while Australians go into shock if the temperature drops below 50\u00b0F. The problem with global warming is that it changes the rules. The past weather of an area cannot be relied upon to tell you what the future will hold. So we have to develop new ways of predicting the future, so that we can plan our lives and so that human society can continue to fully function. So we have to model the future.\n\nThere is a whole hierarchy of climate models, from relatively simple box models to the extremely complex three-dimensional general circulation models (GCMs). Each has a role in examining and furthering our understanding of the global climate system. However, it is the complex three-dimensional general circulation models which are used to predict future global climate. These comprehensive climate models are based on physical laws represented by mathematical equations that are solved using a three-dimensional grid over the globe. To obtain the most realistic simulations, all the major parts of the climate system must be represented in sub-models, including atmosphere, ocean, land surface (topography), cryosphere, and biosphere, as well as the processes that go on within them and between them. Most global climate models have at least some representation of each of these components. Models that couple together both the ocean and atmosphere components are called Atmosphere\u2013Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs). The development of climate models over the last two decades is shown in Figure 12. Models of different parts of the climate system are first developed separately and then coupled into the comprehensive climate models. For example, the Met Office Hadley Centre model is the first AOGCM which now has a fully coupled 'dynamic vegetation' model. This is important because it has long been known that vegetation has an influence on climate; thus climate changes can affect the vegetation and those changes in vegetation can have an effect on climate. For example, the Amazon rainforest recycles about half the precipitation that falls, maintaining a moist continental interior which would otherwise be dry.\n\nOne of the key aspects of climate models is the detail in which they can reconstruct the world; this is usually termed 'spatial resolution'. In general, the current generation of AOGCMs have a resolution or detail of the atmosphere of one point every 250km by 250km in the horizontal and about 1km in the vertical above the boundary layer. This would mean the atmosphere above the\n\n**12. The development of climate models, past, present, and future**\n\nBritish Isles would be represented by only 10 points. The resolution of a typical ocean model is about 200\u2013400m in the vertical and 125\u2013250km in the horizontal. Equations are typically solved for every simulated 'half hour' of a model run. Many physical processes, such as cloud and ocean convection, of course take place on a much smaller scale than the model can resolve. Therefore, the effects of small-scale processes have to be lumped together, and this is referred to as 'parametrization'. Many of these parametrizations are, however, checked with separate 'small-scale-process models' to validate the scaling up of these smaller influences. The reason that the spatial scale is limited is that comprehensive AOGCMs are very complex and use a huge amount of computer time to run. At the moment, much of the improvement in computer processing power that has occurred over the last decade has been used to improve the representation of the global climate system by coupling more models directly to the AOGCMs. It is important to run these models numerous times because, as discussed below, there are many parts of the climate system for which the future parameters are uncertain. For example, the future human greenhouse gas emissions, which are not fixed, as they will depend on many variables, such as the global economy, development of technology, political agreements, and personal lifestyles. Hence, you could produce the most complete model in the world taking two years to simulate the next 100 years, but you would have only one prediction of the future based on only one estimate of future emissions which might be completely wrong. Individual models are therefore run many times with different inputs to provide a range of changes in the future. In fact, the IPCC have consulted the results of multiple runs of 23 different AOGCMs to provide the basis for their predictions. Of course, as computer processing power continues to increase, both this representation of coupled climate systems and the spatial scale will continue to improve.\n\nSo what are the unknowns and why do we need to run many different model scenarios? Is there not just one view of the future? Unfortunately not, and below each of the unknowns is described in more detail, along with how they affect our model predictions for the future.\n\n### Carbon cycle\n\nOne of the fundamental considerations for the AOGCMs is not whether carbon dioxide influences global temperatures, but rather the extent to which it influences global temperatures. This is not only because of the direct effect of the carbon dioxide but also because of the many secondary influences and other climate feedbacks, such as aerosols, ocean circulation, and so on, which may even cool the climate system. The first problem is estimating how much of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide makes it into the atmosphere. You will be surprised to know that about half of all our carbon emissions are absorbed by the natural carbon cycle and do not end up in the atmosphere, but rather in the oceans and the terrestrial biosphere. This leads us to realize that we need to understand the present-day carbon cycle in order to understand the amount of carbon dioxide that will end up in the atmosphere.\n\nThe Earth's carbon cycle is extremely complicated, with both sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Figure 13 shows the global carbon reservoirs in GtC (gigatonnes, or 1,000 million tonnes) and fluxes (the ins and outs of carbon in GtC per year). These indicated figures are annual averages over the period 1980\u20139. It must be remembered that the component cycles have been simplified, and the figures only present average values. The amount of carbon stored and transported by rivers, particularly the anthropogenic portion, is currently very poorly quantified and is not shown here. Evidence is accumulating that many of the fluxes can vary significantly from year to year. In contrast to the static view conveyed in figures like this one, the carbon system is dynamic, and coupled to the climate system on seasonal, inter-annual, and decadal timescales. The most interesting figure is that the surface ocean takes up just less than half the carbon dioxide produced by industry per year. However, this is one of the most poorly known figures and there is still considerable debate over whether the oceans will continue to be such a large sink or absorber of our pollution. As we will see in Chapter 6, one of the great surprises recently has been the unexpected experimental results which suggest that the Amazon rainforest could be absorbing large quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The key question we need to ask, if indeed this is the case, is: for how long will the oceans and the Amazon rainforest continue to absorb carbon dioxide?\n\n**13. A simplified version of the present carbon cycle**\n\n### Cooling effects\n\nAs well as the warming effects of the greenhouse gases, the Earth's climate system is complicated in that that there are also cooling effects (see Figure 14 for the IPCC summary of both warming and cooling effects). This includes the amount of particles in the air (which are technically called aerosols, many of which come from human pollution such as sulphur emissions from power stations) and these have a direct effect on the amount of solar radiation that hits the Earth's surface. Aerosols may have significant local or regional impact on temperature. In fact, the AOGCMs have now factored them into the computer simulations of global warming, and they provide an explanation of why industrial areas of the planet have not warmed as much as previously predicted. Water vapour is a greenhouse gas, but, at the same time, the upper white surface of clouds reflects solar radiation back into space. This reflection is called 'albedo' \u2013 and clouds and ice have a high albedo and so reflect large quantities of solar radiation from surfaces on Earth. Predicting what will happen to the amount and types of clouds, and the extent of global ice in the future, creates huge difficulties in calculating the exact effect of global warming. For example, if the polar ice cap melts, the albedo will be significantly reduced, as this ice would be replaced by vegetation or open water, both of which absorb heat rather than reflecting it like white snow or ice. This would produce a positive feedback, enhancing the effects of global warming.\n\n### Emission models of the future\n\nA critical problem with trying to predict future climate is predicting the amount of carbon dioxide emissions that will be produced in the future. This will be influenced by population growth, economic growth, Third World development, fossil-fuel usage, the rate at which we switch to alternative energy, the rate of deforestation, and the effectiveness of international agreements to cut emissions. Out of all the systems that we are trying to model\n\n**14. Global, annual-mean radiative forcings due to a number of agents for the period from pre-industrial to present**\n\ninto the future, humanity is by far the most complicated and unpredictable. If you want to understand the problem of predicting what will happen in the next 100 years, imagine yourself in 1909 and what you would have predicted the world to be like in 2009. In 1909, the British Empire was the dominant world power due to the industrial revolution and the use of coal. Would you have predicted the switch to a global economy based on oil after the Second World War, or the explosion of car use, or the general availability of air travel? Even 15 years ago, it would have been difficult to predict the budget airlines which allow for such cheap flights throughout Europe and the USA.\n\nSo what the IPCC has done is to produce six scenarios of what the future could be like depending on the factors above. These are based on the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) of 2000. The SRES in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent in the atmosphere in 2100 are B1 (600ppm), A1T (700ppm), B2 (800ppm), A1B (850ppm), A2 (1,250), and A1Fl (1,500ppm) \u2013 remember we are currently at about 380ppm. The IPCC also has a seventh scenario for illustrative purposes, which is at the 'Constant Year 2000' concentrations, as this shows the climate change we have already instigated. However, these emissions scenarios have been heavily criticized. The biggest criticism is that the emissions scenarios are too generous, because, as many experts point out, we are already putting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere per year than the most dire IPCC predictions. In the 1990s, carbon dioxide emissions increased by 1.1% per year; between 2000 and 2004 they had increased to more than 3%.\n\n### Future global temperatures and sea level\n\nTwenty-three AOGCMs have been run using selected future carbon dioxide emission scenarios for the IPCC 2007 report, to produce global average temperature changes that may occur by 2100. This is a significant change from the IPCC 2001 report, in which only seven of these models were used. These climate models using the full likely range show that the global mean surface temperature could rise by between 1.1\u00b0C and 6.4\u00b0C by 2100 (see Figure 15). Using the best estimates for the six emission scenarios, then this range is 1.8\u00b0C to 4\u00b0C by 2100. Model experiments show that even if all radiation forcing agents were held at a year 2000 constant, there would still be an increase of 0.1\u00b0C per decade over the next 20 years. This is mainly due to the slow response of the ocean. Interestingly, the choice of emission scenario has little effect on the temperature rise to 2030, making this a very robust estimate. All models thus suggest twice the rate of temperature increase in the next two decades compared with the 20th century. What is significant is that the choices we make now in terms of global emissions will have a significant effect on global warming after 2030.\n\nAgain, using the 23 different carbon dioxide emission scenarios, the IPCC has projected global mean sea level up to 2100. The AOGCMs predict an increase in global mean sea level of between 18cm and 59cm. These estimates are lower than those in the IPCC 2001 report, the reason being because they have taken out the possible contribution of ice flow. Although ice flow rates increased between 1992 and 2003 in both Greenland and Antarctica, it is unknown whether this contribution will continue. If the contribution is linear with surface warming, then another 10cm to 20cm can be added to the sea-level estimates, giving a range of 28cm to 79cm by 2100. One of the biggest unknowns in global warming is what will happen to Greenland and Antarctica in the next 100 years, as there is a lot of evidence that they are starting to melt (see Chapter 6). There is also scientific debate about what may happen to both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets beyond the next 100 years. Some scientists believe what happens in the next 100 years will determine the future of these ice sheets. One prediction suggests that though the Greenland ice sheet will not collapse in the next 100 years, global warming will start a process that will be irreversible and Greenland will be free of ice within the next 1,000 years.\n\n**15. Global temperatures of the 21st century**\n\n### What the sceptics say\n\nOne of the best ways to summarize the problems of modelling the global warming future is to review what the sceptics say, as they have many valid points and provide a basis from which our models should be improved.\n\n1) Clouds can have both a positive and negative feedback on global climate; how do we know they will not reduce the effects of global warming so that it occurs to a negligible degree?\n\nAs has been the case since the very first IPCC report in 1990, the greatest uncertainty in future predictions is the role of the clouds and their interaction with radiation. Clouds can both absorb and reflect radiation, thereby cooling the surface, and absorb and emit long-wave radiation, thus warming the surface. The competition between these effects depends on a number of factors: height, thickness, and radiative properties of clouds. The radiative properties and formation and development of clouds depend on the distribution of atmospheric water vapour, water drops, ice particles, atmospheric aerosols, and cloud thickness. The physical basis of how clouds are represented or parametrized in the AOGCMs has greatly improved through the inclusion of bulk representations of cloud microphysical properties in the cloud water budget equations. However, clouds still represent a significant source of potential error in climate simulations. It is still controversial whether clouds help warm or cool the planet and both situations are found in the various AOGCMs. However, it is interesting that even in those AOGCMs in which clouds cause a cooling effect, this effect is not strong enough to counter the other warming trends.\n\n2) Different models give different results, so how can we trust any of them?\n\nThis is a frequent response from many people not familiar with modelling, as there is a feeling that somehow science must be able to predict an exact future. However, in no other walk of life do we expect this precision. For example, you would never expect to get a perfect prediction of which horse will win a race or which football team will emerge triumphant. The truth is that none of the climate models is exactly right. But what they provide is the best estimate that we have of the future. Now this view of the future is strengthened by the use of more than one model, because each model has been developed by different groups of scientists around the world, using different assumptions and different computers, and thus they provide their own particular future prediction. What causes scientists to have confidence in the model results is that they all roughly predict the same trend in global temperature and sea level for the next 100 years. One of the great strengths of the 2007 IPCC report is that it used 23 international models, compared to 7 in 2001, to produce future predictions. Another strength of this large-scale multiple model approach is that scientists can also give an estimation of how confident they are in the model results and also a range of possible predictions. The day that scientists give an exact estimate of what is going to happen and when is the day they will lose all credibility, rather like being told to invest in the US stock market just before the 1929 crash as stock markets can never go down, or being sold a mortgage in the early 1980s in the UK and being told that there is no way the housing market will crash.\n\n3) Climate models fail to predict abrupt weather conditions.\n\nAOGCMs are not able to predict abrupt weather events because their spatial resolution is too coarse; for example, the whole of the British Isles is represented by 10 points. This has led to the accusation by the sceptics that the random or chaotic factors which influence our day-to-day weather must also influence our climate. It has been known since the late 1960s that weather patterns are chaotic, as the Earth's climate system is sensitive to extremely small perturbations in initial conditions. For example, extremely slight changes in air pressure over the USA have an influence on the direction and duration of a hurricane. We all know that this sensitivity limits the prediction accuracy of detailed weather forecasts to about two weeks; sometimes it feels like two days. However, predictability of climate is not limited in the same way as the prediction of the weather because the longer-term systematic influences on the atmosphere are not reliant on the initial conditions. So the longer-term trends in regional and global climate are not controlled by small-scale influences. However, what the global warming sceptics are correct about is that at present we cannot model abrupt climate changes, that may occur in the future. These potential surprises are discussed in Chapter 6.\n\n4) Climate models fail to reconstruct or predict natural variability.\n\nThe global climate system contains cyclic variations which occur on a decade or sub-decade timescale. The most famous is El Ni\u00f1o, which is a change in both ocean and atmospheric circulation in the Pacific region occurring every three to seven years that has a major influence on the rest of the global climate. Sceptics argue that climate models have been unable to simulate satisfactorily these events in the past. However, climate models have become better at reconstructing these past variations in El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation (ENSO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and related Arctic Oscillation (AO) as there has been an increasing realization that these have a profound impact upon regional climate (see Chapter 5, El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation section, for further details). Most models are able to depict these natural variations, picking out particularly the 1976 climate shift which occurred in the Pacific Ocean. All the AOGCMs have predicted outcomes for ENSO and NAO for the next 100 years. However, a lot of improvement is required before there will be confidence in the model predictions. It is, though, testament to the realism of the AOGCMs that they can indeed reconstruct and predict future trends in these short-term oscillations.\n\n5) The thermohaline circulation is not properly characterized in the climate models.\n\nThe deep, or thermohaline, circulation (THC) of the world's oceans is one of the basic building blocks of the coupled Atmosphere\u2013Ocean GCMs, hence the simulations of the thermohaline circulation for the present day and the past are very good. However, uncertainties concerning the modelling of the future of the THC come from the complexities controlling deep-water formation, including the interplay in the large-scale atmospheric forcing between the warming and evaporation in the low latitudes and cooling and increased precipitation at high latitudes. In addition, ENSO can play a part by altering the freshwater balance of the tropical Atlantic. Add to this the uncertainties in the representation both of the small-scale flows over sills and through narrow straits and of ocean convection, which further limit the ability of the models to simulate situations involving substantial change in the THC. Hence most future predictions from AOGCMs have a similar or slightly reduced THC to the present. One way modellers get round the problem of having a slightly simplified representation of the ocean circulation in the AOGCMs is to run very high-resolution ocean models off-line. So you can run hundreds of different forcings on the oceans over hundreds of simulated years very quickly, and this is where our understanding of the sensitivity of the ocean comes from.\n\n6) AOGCMs fail to reconstruct past climate, particularly the last ice age.\n\nPast climates are an important test for global climate models. The biggest climate shift, for which we have many palaeoclimate reconstructions, is that of the last ice age, which ended about 10,000 years ago. A comparison between palaeoclimate data for the most extreme stage of the ice age, which occurred 18,000 years ago, suggests that the global climate models are rather good (see p. 451 of the IPCC Science Report 2007). It shows that the AOGCMs used for predicting future climate can do a good job of reconstructing the extreme conditions of an ice age \u2013 sea level 120m lower, 6\u00b0C drop in global temperatures, atmospheric carbon dioxide one-third lower, and atmospheric methane halved. One important observation is that the models are conservative, and they systematically underestimated the climatic changes. This means we can assume that the future climate predictions are also conservative, and thus climate change is very likely to be at the top end of the estimates.\n\n7) Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) are ignored in the current climate models, which invalidates the models.\n\nGalactic cosmic rays are high-energy particles that cause ionization in the atmosphere and may, therefore, affect cloud formation. GCRs vary inversely with solar variability because of the effect of solar wind. This is an excellent example of how climate science progresses by discovering new knowledge and, if it is important enough, adding it into the climate models. Very little is known about this newly discovered external forcing, GCRs, so research is continuing into this phenomenon to see if it has a sufficiently large effect to be included in the climate models. Unfortunately, it affects one of the least well-understood processes in our climate system \u2013 that of cloud formation. But the discovery that GCRs may influence climate does not invalidate the climate models, because it is all part of the progressive nature of science. We do not know everything about the climate system and we never will. Our understanding will continually improve as science progresses; hence, model predictions of the future are continually improving. It should, however, be remembered that these models are based on the present understanding of the climate system and will inevitably change in the future.\n\n### Summary\n\nUsing a wide range of possible carbon emissions over the next 100 years, the climate models suggest the global mean surface temperature could rise by between 1.1\u00b0C and 6.4\u00b0C by 2100. Using the best estimates for the six emission scenarios, then this range is 1.8\u00b0C to 4\u00b0C by 2100. However, we must remember that global carbon dioxide emissions are already rising faster than the most dire of the IPCC emission scenarios. The models also predict an increase in global mean sea level of between 18cm and 59cm. If the contribution from the melting of Greenland and Antarctica is included, then this increases the range to between 28cm and 79cm by 2100. This is assuming a continued linear response between global temperatures and ice sheets, which is unlikely, and thus sea-level rise could be much higher. However, some leading climate scientists have voiced their concern that the IPCC 2007 predictions are too conservative. For example, Professor Jim Hansen of Columbia University suggests that if we reach 450ppm carbon dioxide then we may have passed the tipping point for the irreversible melting of Greenland and the West Antarctic ice sheet. If this happens, then we may see even larger rises in sea level in this century. Hence Hansen suggests that, if we are to save the ice sheets, we need to return to a global level of 350ppm as quickly as possible.\n\n## [Chapter 5  \n **What are the possible future impacts?**](ch00-fm05.html#ch05a)\n\nAs discussed in previous chapters, there is strong evidence to suggest that humanity's greenhouse gas emissions have already started to influence our climate. The most sophisticated and powerful computer models suggest global warming will cause major climatic changes by the end of the 21st century. These changes will potentially have wide-ranging effects on the natural environment as well as on human societies and our economies. Estimates have been made concerning the potential direct impacts on various socioeconomic sectors, but in reality the full consequences are complicated to predict because impacts on one sector have an indirect effect on others. We are only just realizing how climate change policies can have negative effects on society. For example, as discussed later in this chapter, the recent rush to produce biofuels to mitigate global warming may have contributed to food price rises because of competition for land.\n\nTo assess these potential impacts, it is necessary to estimate the extent and magnitude of climate change, especially at national and local levels. For example, the IPCC 2007 reports look at the impacts on a continental level. There are also a number of excellent national reports and tools, such as the US National Assessment Synthesis Team 2001 and the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP) 2008. The UKCIP website with its interactive tools is a model for other countries as it allows anyone to assess the impacts of climate change in the UK. This is becoming an essential tool for policymakers and businesses alike in the UK.\n\n### What is dangerous climate change?\n\nOne of the most important questions for scientists and policymakers is what is dangerous climate change? Of course, this does depend on where you live. For example, if you are one of the small island nations, any sea-level rise could be considered dangerous because it directly results in loss of land. However, on the bigger picture, if we are to cut global greenhouse emissions we need a realistic target concerning the degree of global temperature increase with which we can cope. In February 2005, the British government convened an international science meeting at Exeter, UK, to discuss this very topic. This was a very political science meeting, as the UK government was looking for a recommendation to take to the G8 meeting in Gleneagles. In 2005, Britain was both the chair of the G8 and president of the EU, and the then prime minister Tony Blair wished to push forward internationally his joint agenda of climate change and poverty alleviation in Africa. The meeting did come up with a 'magic number' of 2\u00b0C above pre-industrial average temperature: below this threshold, there seem to be both winners and losers due to regional climate change, but above this figure everyone seems to lose. Table 2 summarizes some of the big climate changes that could occur and at what temperature increase. It isn't just this particular meeting that has come up with the magic 2\u00b0C limit; many other researchers, including at the IPCC, have arrived at similar conclusions from very different backgrounds and starting assumptions. Figure 16 shows the numbers of people estimated to be at risk from water shortages, hunger, malaria, and flooding by 2080.\n\nAgain, 2\u00b0C seems to be at the point where the numbers increase radically, so 2\u00b0C has become a powerful and important symbol of the challenges facing human society. The major problem is that it is unlikely we can keep global temperature increases down to 2\u00b0C, as we have already seen temperature increase by 0.76\u00b0C, and even if we kept atmospheric carbon dioxide levels at the 2000 levels that would still add at least another 0.6\u00b0C. So without doing anything, we are already up to nearly 1.4\u00b0C. Below, we look at the general effects of global warming to give you an idea of what the future may hold.\n\n**Table 2. Impacts of global warming with increasing global average temperatures**\n\n**16. Climate change risks as a function of increasing global temperatures**\n\n### Extreme events and society's coping range\n\nThe single biggest problem with global warming is our inability to predict the future. Humanity can live, survive, and even flourish in extreme climates from the Arctic to the Sahara, but problems arise when the predictable extremes of local climate are exceeded. For example, heat waves, storms, droughts, and floods in one region may be considered fairly normal weather in another. This is because each society has a coping range, a range of weather with which it can deal. Figure 17 shows the theoretical effect of combining the coping range with climate change. In our present climate, the coping range encompasses nearly all the variation in weather with maybe only one or two extreme events. As the climate moves gently to its new average, if the coping range stays the same then many more extreme events occur. For example, in the historically mild climate of Britain, homes are built with central heating but not air-conditioning. As summer temperatures increase and heat waves like 2003 become common, then the coping range of our homes will be exceeded and we will need air-conditioning.\n\nOne of the biggest challenges of global warming is to start to build as much flexibility and resilience into societies' coping ranges as possible. To do this, we must take the latest predictions of the IPCC and apply these across the globe to help protect people and their environments. As we have seen, the IPCC 2007 report estimates that global mean surface temperature could rise by between 1.1 and 6.4\u00b0C by 2100, there will be significant regional changes in precipitation, and global mean sea level could rise by between at least 18cm and 59cm by 2100. Future climate change will have impacts on all factors affecting human society, including coastal regions, storms and floods, heat waves and droughts, health, water resources, agriculture, and biodiversity. Below, each of these key areas of concern and the possible impacts of climate change are reviewed. What cannot be assessed are the impacts if climate change occurs more abruptly, and this possibility is discussed in Chapter 6.\n\n**17. Climate change, society's coping range, and extreme events**\n\n### Coastline\n\nAs we have seen, the IPCC reports that sea level could rise by between 18cm and 59cm in the next 100 years, primarily through the thermal expansion of the oceans. If we include a simplistic assumption about Greenland and Antarctica, this could rise to 28cm to 79cm by 2100. This prediction is of major concern to all coastal areas, as rising sea levels will reduce the effectiveness of coastal defences against storms and floods, and increase the instability of cliffs and beaches. In Britain, the USA, and the rest of the developed world, the response to this danger has been to add another few feet to the height of sea walls around property on the coast, the abandoning of some poorer-quality agricultural land to the sea (as it is no longer worth the expense of protecting it), and the enhancement of legal protection for coastal wetlands, being nature's best defence against the sea. However, globally, there are some nations based on small islands and river deltas that face a much more urgent situation.\n\nFor small island nations, such as the Maldives in the Indian Ocean and the Marshall Islands in the Pacific, a 1m rise in sea level would flood up to 75% of the dry land, making the islands uninhabitable. Interestingly, it is also these countries, which rely on tourism, that have some of the highest fossil-fuel emissions per head of population. However, there is a different twist to the story if we consider nations where a significant portion of the population live by river deltas; these include, for example, Bangladesh, Egypt, Nigeria, and Thailand. A World Bank report in 1994 concluded that human activities on the deltas, such as fresh-water extraction, were causing these areas to sink much faster than any predicted rise in sea level, increasing their vulnerability to storms and floods.\n\nIn the case of Bangladesh, over three-quarters of the country is within the deltaic region formed by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers. Over half the country lies less than 5m above sea level; thus flooding is a common occurrence. During the summer monsoon a quarter of the country is flooded. Yet these floods, like those of the Nile, bring with them life as well as destruction. The water irrigates and the silt fertilizes the land. The fertile Bengal delta supports one of the world's most dense populations, over 110 million people in 140,000 square kilometres. But the monsoon floods have been getting worse throughout the 1990s. Every year, the Bengal delta should receive over 1 billion tonnes of sediment and a 1,000 cubic kilometres of fresh water. This sediment load balances the erosion of the delta both by natural processes and human activity. However, the Ganges River has been diverted in India into the Hooghly Channel for irrigation. The reduced sediment input is causing the delta to subside. Exacerbating this is the rapid extraction of fresh water.\n\nIn the 1980s, 100,000 tube wells and 20,000 deep wells were sunk, increasing the fresh-water extraction sixfold. Both these projects are essential to improving the quality of life for people in this region, but have produced a subsidence rate of up to 2.5cm per year, one of the highest rates in the world. Using estimates of subsidence rate and global warming sea-level rise, the World Bank has estimated that by the end of the 21st century, the relative sea level in Bangladesh could rise by as much as 1.8m. In a worst-case scenario, they estimated that this would result in a loss of up to 16% of land, supporting 13% of the population, and producing 12% of the current gross domestic product (GDP). Unfortunately, this scenario does not take any account of the devastation of the mangrove forest and the associated fisheries. Moreover, increased landward intrusions of salt water would further damage water quality and agriculture.\n\nAnother example of a threatened coastline is the Nile delta, which is one of the oldest intensely cultivated areas on Earth. It is very heavily populated, with population densities up to 1,600 inhabitants per square kilometre. Deserts surround the low-lying, fertile floodplains. Only 2.5% of Egypt's land area, the Nile delta and the Nile valley, are suitable for intensive agriculture. Most of a 50km-wide land strip along the coast is less than 2m above sea level and is only protected from flooding by a 1\u201310km-wide coastal sand belt, shaped by discharge of the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile. Erosion of the protective sand belt is a serious problem and has accelerated since the construction of the Aswan dam in the south of Egypt. A rising sea level would destroy weak parts of the sand belt, which are essential for the protection of lagoons and the low-lying reclaimed lands. These impacts could be very damaging. About one-third of Egypt's fish catches are made in the lagoons, and sea-level rise would change the water quality and affect most fresh-water fish; valuable agricultural land would be inundated; vital, low-lying installations in Alexandria and Port Said would be threatened; recreational tourism beach facilities would be endangered; and essential groundwater would be salinated. Many of these effects are preventable, as dykes and protective measures would stop the worst flooding up to a 50cm sea-level rise, though there may still be considerable groundwater salination and the impact of increasing wave action could be serious.\n\nThe most important influence on the impact of sea-level rise on coastal regions is the rate of change. At the moment, the predicted rise of about 50cm in the next 100 years can be dealt with if there is the economic foresight to plan for the protection and adaptation of coastal regions. This then comes back to the development of regional economies and the availability of resources to implement appropriate changes. If sea level rises by over 1m in the next 100 years, which is thought to be unlikely according to the IPCC, then humanity would doubtless have major problems adapting to it.\n\n### Storms and floods\n\nStorms and floods are major natural hazards, and between 1951 and 1999 were responsible for 76% of the global insured losses, 58% of the economic loses, and 52% of fatalities from natural catastrophes. It is, therefore, essential we know what is likely to happen in the future. There is some evidence that the temperate regions, particularly in the northern hemisphere, have become more stormy over the last 50 years. The model simulations for the next 100 years for storms in mid-latitude regions differ widely. The computer models do, however, suggest that the proportion of rainfall occurring as heavy rainfall has and will continue to increase, as will the year-to-year variability. This will increase the frequency of flooding events.\n\nTwo-fifths of the world's population lives under the monsoon belt, which brings life-giving rains. Monsoons are driven by the temperature contrast between continents and oceans. For example, moisture-laden surface air blows from the Indian Ocean to the Asian continent and from the Atlantic Ocean into West Africa during northern hemisphere summers, when the land masses become much warmer than the adjacent ocean. In winter, the continents become colder than the adjacent oceans and high pressure develops at the surface, causing surface winds to blow towards the ocean. Climate models indicate an increase in the strength of the summer monsoons as a result of global warming over the next 100 years. There are three reasons to support why this should occur: (1) global warming will cause continents to warm more than the ocean in summer and this is the primary driving force of the monsoon system; (2) decreased snow cover on Tibet, expected in a warmer world, will increase this temperature difference between land and sea, increasing the strength of the Asian summer; (3) warmer climate means the air can hold more water vapour, so the monsoon winds will be able to carry more moisture. For the Asian summer monsoon, this could mean an increase of 10\u201320% in average rainfall, with an inter-annual variability of 25\u2013100% and a dramatic increase in the number of days with heavy rain. The most worrying model finding is the predicted increase in rain variability between years, which could double, making it very difficult to predict how much rainfall will occur each year \u2013 essential knowledge for farmers. An exception to this increase is given by the Met Office Hadley Centre GCM, which predicts reduced rainfall over Amazonia but increased rainfall in the other monsoon systems. This case study is discussed in more detail in the next chapter.\n\nAs we have seen in Chapter 3, there seems to be growing evidence that numbers of hurricanes and their intensity have increased over the last three decades in the North Atlantic and Western Pacific Oceans. Kerry Emanuel (MIT) and Peter Webster (Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta) and colleagues using different methods have demonstrated that the number and intensity of hurricanes are directly linked to the sea-surface temperature. So as global warming increases ocean temperatures, then it will become possible for more hurricanes to be spawned. But the effects of hurricanes on human society are not only related to their numbers or intensity, but rather whether they make landfall, and if they do, where.\n\nFor example, 1992 was a very quiet year for hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean. However, in August, one of the few hurricanes that year, Hurricane Andrew, hit the USA just north of Miami and caused damage estimated at $20 billion. In terms of where hurricanes hit in developed countries, the major effect is usually economic loss, while in developing countries the main effect is loss of life. For example, Hurricane Katrina, which hit New Orleans in 2005 (Figure 18), caused 1,500 deaths; Hurricane Mitch, which hit Central America, killed at least 25,000 people. Hurricane Katrina was not the worst storm that has hit the USA; a storm that hit Miami in 1926 was 150% larger but did little damage because Miami Beach was yet to be developed. In the USA, coastal population has doubled in the last 10 to 15 years. So in terms of climate change, therefore, mitigation policies will have little effect on the costs in the developed world, while adaptation of coastal regions will be essential. But in the developing world mitigation would have a large impact in reducing the total loss of life and preventing regional economic melt-down. For example, the immediate economic impact of Hurricane Katrina was over $150 billion, but its subsequent effect on the US economy was to boost it slightly, by 1%, that year due to the $105 billion injected by the Bush administration to help the reconstruction of the region. Compare this with Hurricane Mitch, which set back the economy of Central America by about a decade.\n\nAs can been seen from the case of Hurricane Katrina, storms and floods have the ability to destroy major cities. Many major cities around the world are vulnerable to flooding because they were built close to rivers or the coast to facilitate trade via the oceans. London is one such city. At the moment, London is protected from flooding by the Thames Barrier. The Thames Barrier was built in response to the catastrophic floods in 1953 and was finally ready for use in 1982 (it was officially opened on 8 May 1984). The Thames Barrier protects 150 square kilometres of London and property worth at least \u00a380 billion. Because of the foresight of previous scientific advisors to the UK government, it was built to withstand a 1 in 2,000-year flood. With the increased sea level due to global warming, this risk by 2030 will increase to a 1 in 1,000-year event. For example, between 1982 and 2001 it was closed 63 times. In the winter 2000\/1, it was closed 24 times. In 2003, the barrier was closed for 14 consecutive tides, and in November 2007 it was closed twice for a storm surge the same size as the one that occurred in 1953. At the moment, the UK economy is the fifth largest in the world, approximately \u00a31.4 trillion per year generated through London. London is also one of the three main centres, along with New York and Tokyo, for 24-hour share-trading. If London were disabled by a major flood, then not only would this hit the economy of the UK, it potentially could disrupt global trade and precipitate a global recession. Hence, the UK Environment Agency has plans for significant sea-level rise into the future, including a prospective plan for a 4.5m rise.\n\n**18. Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans in August 2005**\n\n### Heat waves and droughts\n\nAs global temperatures increase, heat waves will increase. As precipitation becomes more unpredictable and is concentrated into more intense rainfall events, so drought will increase. Like storms and floods, heat waves and droughts are major killers. The 2003 heat wave in Europe killed an estimated 35,000 people (Figure 19). The people who die in heat waves are usually the elderly \u2013 medics call this 'harvesting', as these people were taken earlier than they would have normally died. The element that tends to kill the elderly is sustained night-time temperatures. Many of those 35,000 deaths were avoidable, either by designing homes to cool in the evening or by adding mechanical air-conditioning. This is why it is so difficult to understand the impacts of climate change as people and societies do start to adapt to new conditions. Figure 20 shows the 2003 European heat wave in the context of summer temperatures over the last 100 years and predicted for the next 100 years. What is clear is that the temperature of the 2003 heat wave will be the average summer temperature in 2050.\n\nDroughts are also a major killer, because of a lack of fresh drinking water, and stagnant pools of water produce many diseases \u2013 interestingly, from a disease point of view, droughts are much worse than floods.\n\n### El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation\n\nOne of the most important and mysterious elements in global climate is the periodic switching of the direction and intensity of ocean currents and winds in the Pacific. Originally known as El Ni\u00f1o ('Christ child' in Spanish), as it usually appears at Christmas, and now more normally known as ENSO (El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation), this phenomenon typically occurs every three to seven years (Figure 21). It may last from several months to more than a year. The 1997\u20138 El Ni\u00f1o conditions were the strongest on record and caused droughts in the southern USA, East Africa, northern India, north-east Brazil, and Australia. In Indonesia, forest fires burned out of control in the very dry conditions. In California, parts of South America, Sri Lanka, and east-central Africa, there were torrential rains and terrible floods.\n\n**19. The 2003 European heat wave killed an estimated 35,000 people**\n\n**20. Comparison of the 2003 heat wave with past and future summer temperatures**\n\nENSO is an oscillation between three climates: the 'normal' conditions, La Ni\u00f1a, and 'El Ni\u00f1o'. El Ni\u00f1o conditions have been linked to changes in the monsoon, storm patterns, and occurrence of droughts all over the world. The state of the ENSO has also been linked to the position and occurrence of hurricanes in the Atlantic. For example, it is thought that the poor prediction of where Hurricane Mitch made landfall was because the ENSO conditions were not considered and the strong trade winds helped drag the storm south across Central America instead of west as predicted.\n\n**21. Description of the El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation: a) El Ni\u00f1o conditions, and b) La Ni\u00f1a conditions**\n\nPredicting El Ni\u00f1o events is very difficult but getting steadily easier. For example, there is now a large network of both ocean and satellite monitoring systems over the Pacific Ocean, primarily aimed at recording sea-surface temperature, which is the major indicator of the state of the ENSO. By using this climatic data in both computer circulation models and statistical models, predictions are made of the likelihood of an El Ni\u00f1o or La Ni\u00f1a event. We are really still in the infancy stage of developing our understanding and predictive capabilities of the ENSO phenomenon.\n\nThere is also considerable debate over whether ENSO has been affected by global warming. The El Ni\u00f1o conditions generally occur every three to seven years; however, in the last 20 years, they have behaved very strangely, returning for three years out of four: 1991\u20132, 1993\u20134, and 1994\u20135, then returning in 1997\u20138, but then they did not return for nine years, finally arriving in 2006\u20137. Reconstruction of past climate using coral reefs in the western Pacific shows sea-surface temperature variations dating back 150 years, well beyond our historical records. The sea-surface temperature shows the shifts in ocean current, which accompany shifts in the ENSO and reveal that there have been two major changes in the frequency and intensity of El Ni\u00f1o events. First was a shift at the beginning of the 20th century from a 10\u201315-year cycle to a 3\u20135-year cycle. The second was a sharp threshold in 1976 when a marked shift to more intense and even more frequent El Ni\u00f1o events occurred. These are sobering results considering the huge weather disruption and disasters caused by recent El Ni\u00f1o events. Modelling results also suggest that there could be a future 'heightened' state of El Ni\u00f1o which would permanently shift weather patterns. For example, it seems that the drought region in the USA could be shifting eastward. However, as we have seen, to predict an El Ni\u00f1o event six months from now is hard enough, without trying to assess whether or not ENSO is going to become more extreme over the next 100 years. Most computer models of ENSO in the future are inconclusive; some have found an increase and others have found no change. This is, therefore, one part of the climate system which we do not know how global warming will affect. Not only does ENSO have a direct impact on global climate but it also affects the numbers, intensity, and pathways of hurricanes and cyclones, and the strength and timing of the Asian monsoon. Hence, when discussing the potential impacts of global warming, one of the largest unknowns is the variation of ENSO and its knock-on effects on the rest of the global climate system.\n\nAnother possibility that we must consider is that in the early Holocene no evidence has been found for ENSO. In fact, it is thought that ENSO began some time between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Bj\u00f8rn Lomborg radically suggests in his book _The Skeptical Environmentalist_ that a 2\u20133\u00b0C warming could be a good thing for the future, as it may switch off ENSO. None of the computer models used to look at future climate has found this effect, and it must be remembered that the position of the Earth's orbit compared to the Sun was very different in the early Holocene, but it is something else to bear in mind.\n\n### Health\n\nThe potential health impacts of climate change are immense. Managing those health impacts is an enormous challenge, not simply an issue for health professionals, or indeed for climate change policy makers (see Figure 16). If we start with the basics, higher global temperatures will increase the death rate, which is usually measured in deaths per thousand people per year. For example 35,000 people died during the European heat wave of 2003. But care must be taken with these blanket assumptions as a recent study shows that the population in Europe can successfully make lifestyle adaptations to take into consideration the higher summer temperatures. This is a classic case of individual and local risk assessment and adaptation, because most heat-related mortality occurs when the temperature goes above an expected value. For example, in London heat-related mortality starts at 22.3\u00b0C, while in Athens it starts at 25.7\u00b0C. But the heat wave of 2003 shows that the population has not adapted to extreme events, which will be more common in the future.\n\nConversely, it has been suggested that the death rate may drop, since more people die from cold weather than warm weather, thus warmer winters would reduce this cause of death. However, this is a contested subject and no real consensus has yet emerged.\n\nBy far the most important threat to human health, however, is access to fresh drinking water. At present, rising human populations, particularly growing concentrations in urban areas, are putting great stress on water resources. The impacts of climate change \u2013 including changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea levels \u2013 are expected to have varying consequences for the availability of fresh water around the world. For example, changes in river run-off will affect the yields of rivers and reservoirs and thus the recharging of groundwater supplies. An increase in the rate of evaporation will also affect water supplies and contribute to the salinization of irrigated agricultural lands. Rising sea levels may result in saline intrusion in coastal aquifers. Currently, approximately 1.7 billion people, one-third of the world's population, live in countries that are water-stressed. IPCC reports suggest that with the projected global population increase and the expected climate change, assuming present consumption patterns, 5 billion people will experience water stress by 2025.\n\nClimate change is likely to have the greatest impact in countries with a high ratio of relative use to available supply. Regions with abundant water supplies will get more than they want with increased flooding. As suggested above, computer models predict much heavier rains and thus major flood problems for Europe, whilst, paradoxically, countries that currently have little water (e.g. those relying on desalinization) may be relatively unaffected. It will be countries inbetween, which have no history or infrastructure for dealing with water shortages, that will be the most affected. In central Asia, North Africa, and southern Africa, there will be even less rainfall and water quality will become increasingly degraded through higher temperatures and pollutant run-off. Add to this the predicted increased year-to-year variability in rainfall, and droughts will become more common. Hence, it is those countries that have been identified as most at risk which need to start planning now to conserve their water supplies and\/or deal with the increased risks of flooding, because it is the lack of infrastructure to deal with drought and floods rather than the lack or abundance of water which causes the threat to human health. Therefore, economic development of areas most at risk is essential in the next century to provide resources to mitigate the effects of global warming.\n\nAnother area where human health is threatened concerns access to and affordability of basic food. As was introduced at the beginning of this chapter, we are only now realizing how climate change policies can have negative effects on food availability. For example, increased oil prices, increased meat demand, and the recent rush to produce biofuels to mitigate global warming has contributed to food prices increases of 35%. The expansion of meat-eating in developing countries such as India and China is an important forcing factor, because beef cattle require 8kg of grain or meal for every kilogram of flesh they produce. Worryingly, these effects have combined to increase the cost of staples which much of the world relies upon just to stay alive: between March 2007 and March 2008, the price of corn increased by 31%, rice by 74%, soya by 87%, and wheat by 130%. This increase in food prices occurs at the same time that the global grain harvest of 2.1 billion tonnes in 2007 broke all previous records, being 5% higher than the previous year. Thus there is a huge mismatch between the use of grain for biofuels or as food. The amount of grain required to fill the tank of one car with ethanol could feed a person for a year. Riots, hunger, and starvation will be caused by policies trying to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions to deal with climate change. In addition, the drive for both biofuels and biodegradable plastics has accelerated deforestation in the tropics, increasing global warming, as countries and companies rush to plant palms and soya to make profit from this new market.\n\nAnother possible future threat to human health is the transmission of infectious diseases, as these are directly affected by climatic factors. Climate change will particularly influence vector-borne diseases (VBD), that is, diseases that are carried by another organism, as malaria is carried by mosquitoes. Infective agents and their vector organisms are sensitive to factors such as temperature, surface water, humidity, wind, soil moisture, and changes in forest distribution. It is, therefore, projected that climate change and altered weather patterns would affect the range (both altitude and latitude), intensity, and seasonality of many vector-borne and other infectious diseases. For example, there is a strong correlation between increased sea-surface temperature and sea level and the annual severity of the cholera epidemics in Bangladesh. With predicted future climate change and the rise in Bangladesh's relative sea level, cholera epidemics could become devastating.\n\nIn general, then, increased warmth and moisture caused by global warming will enhance transmission of diseases. But while the potential transmission of many of these diseases increases in response to climate change, we should remember that our capacity to control the diseases will also change. New or improved vaccination can be expected; some vector species can be constrained by use of pesticides. Nevertheless, there are uncertainties and risks here, too: for example, long-term pesticide use breeds resistant strains and kills many natural predators of pests.\n\nThe most important VBD is malaria, with currently 500 million infected people worldwide (about twice the population of the USA). _Plasmodium vivax_ , which is carried by the _Anopheles_ mosquito, is the organism that causes malaria. The main climate factors that have a bearing on the malarial transmission potential of the mosquito population are temperature and precipitation. Assessments of the potential impact of global climate change on the incidence of malaria suggest a widespread increase of risk because of the expansion of the areas suitable for malaria transmission. Mathematical models mapping out the suitable temperature zones for mosquitoes suggest that by the 2080s the potential exposure of people could increase by 2\u20134% (260\u2013320 million people). The predicted increase is most pronounced at the borders of endemic malarial areas and at higher altitudes within malarial areas. The changes in malaria risk must be interpreted on the basis of local environmental conditions, the effects of socioeconomic development, and malaria control programmes or capabilities. The incidence of infection is most sensitive to climate changes in areas of South-East Asia, South America, and parts of Africa. Global warming will also provide excellent conditions for _Anopheles_ mosquitoes to breed in southern England, continental Europe, and the northern USA.\n\nIt should, however, be noted that the occurrence of most tropical diseases is related to development. As recently as the 1940s, malaria was endemic in Finland, Poland, Russia, and 36 states in the USA including Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. So although global warming has the potential to increase the range of many of these tropical diseases, the experience of Europe and the USA suggests that combating malaria is strongly linked to development and resources: development to ensure efficient monitoring of the disease and resources to secure a strong effort to eradicate the mosquitoes and their breeding grounds.\n\n### Biodiversity\n\nThe IPCC 2007 Impact report lists the following species as those most at risk from climate change as a result of global warming: the mountain gorilla in Africa; amphibians that live in the cloud forests of the neotropics; the spectacled bear of the Andes; forest birds of Tanzania; the 'resplendent quetzal' bird in Central America; the Bengal tiger, and other species found only in the Sundarban wetlands; rainfall-sensitive plants found only in the Cape Floral Kingdom of South Africa; and polar bears and penguins near the poles. The primary reason for the threat to these species is that they are unable to migrate in response to climate change because of their particular geographical location or the encroachment of human activity, particularly farming and urbanization. An example of the former is the cloud forests of the neotropics: as climate changes, this particular climatic zone will migrate up the mountainside until the point where there is no more mountain.\n\nOne example of an ecosystem under threat is the coral reefs. Coral reefs are a valuable economic resource for fisheries, recreation, tourism, and coastal protection. Some estimate that the global cost of losing the coral reefs runs into hundreds of billions of dollars each year. In addition, reefs are one of the largest global stores of marine biodiversity. The last few years have seen unprecedented declines in the health of coral reefs. In 1998, El Ni\u00f1o was associated with record sea-surface temperatures and associated coral bleaching, which is when the coral expels the algae that live within it and that are necessary to its survival. In some regions, as much as 70% of the coral may have died in a single season. There has also been an upsurge in the variety, incidence, and virulence of coral disease in recent years, with major die-offs in Florida and much of the Caribbean region. In addition, increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations could decrease the calcification rates of the reef-building corals, resulting in weaker skeletons, reduced growth rates, and increased vulnerability to erosion. Model results suggest these effects would be most severe at the current margins of coral reef distribution.\n\nOn a more theoretical note, a recent study by Chris Thomas and colleagues (published in _Nature_ in 2004) investigated the possible increase in the likely extinction rate over the next 50 years in key regions such as Mexico, Amazonia, and Australia. The theoretical models suggest that by 2050 the climatic changes predicted by the IPCC would commit 18% (warming of 0.8\u20131.7\u00b0C), 24% (1.8\u20132.0\u00b0C), and 35% (above 2.0\u00b0C) of the species studied to extinction in these regions. That means one-quarter of all species in these regions may become extinct by the middle of this century. There are many assumptions in their models which may or may not be true; for example, they assume we know the full climatic range in which each species can persist and the precise relationship between shrinking habitat and extinction rates. So these results should be seen only as the likely direction of extinction rates, not necessarily the exact magnitude. However, these predictions do represent a huge future threat to regional and global biodiversity and illustrate the sensitivity of biological systems to the amount and rate of warming that will occur in the future.\n\n### Agriculture\n\nOne of the major worries concerning future climate change is the effect it will have on agriculture, both globally and regionally. The main question is whether the world can feed itself under the predicted future global warming conditions. Predictions of cereal production for 2060 suggest that there are still huge uncertainties about whether climate change will cause global agricultural production to increase or decrease. If the predicted temperature increases are considered, then we expect there to be a drop in food production in both the developed and less-developed countries. But if other effects are taken into consideration, then this effect of temperature is greatly reduced, or in the case of the developed world becomes an increase. One of the most important additional factors is that increased atmospheric carbon dioxide acts as a fertilizer; thus scientific studies have shown that plants in an atmosphere that contains more carbon dioxide grow faster and better, because the carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis and the prime source of carbon for plants. So plants like more atmospheric carbon dioxide, and thus farm yields may increase in the future in many regions.\n\nIn addition, if it is assumed that farmers can take action to adapt to changing climate, this also boosts or at least maintains agricultural production in many regions. For example, farmers could vary the planting time and\/or switch to a different variety of the same plant to respond to changing conditions. Therefore, models suggest that with reasonable assumptions on a worldwide scale, the change is expected to be small or moderate. But this does not mean the amount of cereal produced worldwide will be the same or lower in 2060 compared with today. Since 1960, world grain production has doubled and is predicted to continue to rise at a similar rate. So even a pessimistic 1999 study using the Met Office Hadley Centre climate model estimated that cereal production in 2080 would increase by only 90% compared with today, not by 94% which would have occurred in the absence of global warming. However, as we have discussed in the Health section above, it is important to discuss how much of the land that would have been used for cereal production in the future may be used for biofuels or as feed for livestock. The question then becomes: is a 90% increase enough to feed an expanding global population, supply an increasing demand for biofuel, and keep pace with the increase in meat-eating around the world?\n\nThe general global trend, however, masks the huge changes that will occur regionally, with both winners and losers \u2013 the poorest countries, of course, which are least able to adapt, being the losers. Also, the results of all these studies are heavily dependent on the assumed trade models and market forces used, as, unfortunately, agricultural production in the world has very little to do with feeding the world's population and much more to do with trade and economics. This is why the European Union has stockpiles of food, while many underdeveloped countries export cash crops (such as sugar, cocoa, coffee, tea, and rubber) but cannot adequately feed their own populations. A classic example is the West African state of Benin, where cotton farmers can obtain cotton yields four to eight times per hectare greater than their US competitors in Texas. The USA subsidizes its farmers, however, which means that US cotton is cheaper than that coming from Benin. Currently, US cotton farmers receive $3.9 billion in subsidies, almost twice the total GDP of Benin. So even if global warming makes Texan cotton yields even lower, it still does not change the biased market forces.\n\nSo in the computer models, markets can reinforce the difference between agricultural impacts in developed and developing countries and, depending on the trade model used, agricultural exporters may gain in monetary terms even though the supplies fall, because when a product becomes scarce, the price rises. The other completely unknown factor is the extent to which a country's agriculture can be adaptable. For example, the models assume that production levels in developing countries will fall to a greater degree compared with those in the developed countries because their estimated capability to adapt is less than that of developed countries. But this is just another assumption that has no analogue in the past, and as these effects on agriculture will occur over the next century, many developing countries may catch up with the developed world in terms of adaptability.\n\nOne example of the real regional problems that global warming could cause is the case of coffee-growing in Uganda. Here, the total area suitable for growing Robusta coffee would be dramatically reduced, to 10% of the present area, by a temperature increase of 2\u00b0C. Only higher areas of land would remain suitable for coffee; the rest would become too hot to grow coffee. But no one can tell whether these remaining areas would make more or less money for the country, because if other coffee-growing areas around the world are similarly affected, the price of coffee beans will increase due to scarcity. This demonstrates the vulnerability to the effects of global warming of many developing countries, whose economies often rely heavily on one or two agricultural products, as it is very difficult to predict the changes that global warming will cause in terms of crop yield and its cash equivalent. Hence, one major adaptation to global warming should be the broadening of the economic and agricultural base of the most threatened countries. This, of course, is much harder to accomplish in practice than on paper, and it is clear that the EU and US agricultural subsidies and the current one-sided World Trade Agreements have a greater effect on global agricultural production and the ability of countries to feed themselves than global warming will ever have. Solutions look even further away with the failure of the World Trade Organization negotiations which collapsed in 2008.\n\n### Summary\n\nThe impacts of global warming will increase significantly as the temperature of the planet rises. Warming will affect the return period and severity of floods, droughts, heat waves, and storms. Coastal cities and towns will be especially vulnerable as sea-level rise will worsen the effects of floods and storm surges. Water security, food security, and public health will become the most important problems facing all countries. Global warming threatens global biodiversity and the wellbeing of billions of people.\n\nIn Table 2, there is a summary of the effects of global warming given by the rise in global temperature, as far as 5\u20136\u00b0C. Even the IPCC has avoided discussing a world that hot. However, I think it is important for us to have an understanding of what this sort of climate change would mean to the planet to ensure we never go there. With sustained global temperatures of 5\u20136\u00b0C above present-day levels, both Greenland and the Western Antarctic ice sheet will have started to melt by the middle of next century. If these two ice sheets completely melt, sea level would rise by 13m. At the moment, the UK Environment Agency has plans to deal with a 4.5m rise in sea level which entail a huge barrier across the mouth of the River Thames, stretching from Essex to Kent. However, a sea-level rise of 13m would mean the flooding and permanent abandonment of nearly all lower-lying coastal and river urban areas. At the moment, one-third of the world's population lives within 60 miles of a shoreline and 13 of the world's 20 largest cities are located on a coast. This means billions of people could be displaced, starting environmental mass migration. The North Atlantic Ocean circulation would collapse, plunging Western Europe into a succession of severe winters which would be followed by severe heat waves every summer. At least 3 billion people in the world would become water-stressed. Agricultural production would start to fail, and billions of people would face starvation. Water and food security would become issues of conflict between countries, so that some experts are predicting 'eco-wars'. Public health systems around the world may collapse, unable to cope with the demands. Global biodiversity would be devastated. As I said: let's not go there.\n\n## [Chapter 6  \n **Surprises**](ch00-fm05.html#ch06a)\n\nAll the impacts discussed above assume that there is a linear relationship between greenhouse gas forcing and climate change, as produced by the AOGCMs. There is, however, increasing concern among scientists that climate change may occur abruptly. This is because there is recent scientific evidence that many past climatic changes have occurred with startling speed. For example, ice-core records suggest that half the warming in Greenland since the last ice age was achieved in only a decade. Some of these regional changes involved temperature changes of over 10\u00b0C. This relates back to Chapter 1 and the discussion of how climate changes, whether it varies smoothly or contains thresholds and bifurcations. Such is the concern that future climate change may be abrupt that in 2003 the prestigious Royal Society in London convened a conference and published an associated report on this very topic, while the National Research Council (NRC) in the USA commissioned a report on _Abrupt Climate Change_ , published in 2002. What both reports stress is the need for the wider community of natural and social scientists, as well as policymakers, to recognize the potential for climate to change abruptly and to act accordingly. The NRC report makes five recommendations:\n\n1) Improve the fundamental knowledge base related to abrupt climate change.\n\nBelow, I review four possible abrupt climate surprises: melting of Greenland and\/or Antarctica, deep-ocean circulation, gas hydrates, and Amazonia. But what connects them all is that we really do not know how the global climate will react to global warming in the future. It is thus essential for more work to be done on how abruptly these changes occur. Moreover, the NRC report suggests there is a need for greater understanding of how the global and regional economies would deal with abrupt climate change.\n\n2) Improve modelling focused on abrupt climate change.\n\nAt the moment, most models try to achieve a steady-state or equilibrium between the forcing and the variations. What is required is a new type of high-resolution model to look at how easily abrupt climate change can occur. The NRC report stressed that new possible mechanisms of abrupt climate change should be investigated and a hierarchy of models will be required, since many of these abrupt changes are initiated at the fine spatial scale, which AOGCMs are currently unable to simulate.\n\n3) Improve palaeoclimatic data related to abrupt climate change.\n\nPast climate changes have provided us with many of the clues about how future climate could change. For example, oceanographers had not considered the idea that the deep-ocean circulation could change until it was shown that it was radically different during the last ice age. The NRC report suggests that improvement is required in both geographical and temporal resolution of abrupt events in the past. Also there is a need to focus on water, both too much (floods) and too little (droughts), as these are by far the most important influences on humanity.\n\n4) Improve statistical approaches.\n\nThis has been mentioned before in this book, but current practice in climate statistics is to assume a simple unchanging distribution of outcomes. However, as we have seen in Figure 17, a one-in-30-year extreme event will statistically no longer occur once in 30 years. So the 'past as the key to the future' assumption leads to serious underestimation of the likelihood of extreme events; hence at the moment the conceptual basis and application of climate statistics is being re-examined using 'extreme value theory', particularly as all future predictions are that the year-to-year variability in extreme weather will increase in the future.\n\n5) Investigate 'no-regrets' strategies to reduce vulnerability.\n\nThe NRC report stresses that research should be undertaken to identify 'no-regrets' measures to reduce vulnerabilities and increase adaptive capacity at little or no cost. No-regrets measures may include low-cost steps to slow climate change, improve climate forecasting, slow biodiversity loss, or improve water, land, and air quality. Technological changes, such as clean technology, may increase the adaptability and resilience of both economic and ecological systems faced with abrupt climate change. The report stresses the need for research into how poor countries can be assisted to develop a more adaptable scientific and economic infrastructure to reduce the effects of abrupt climate change.\n\nBelow, I discuss just four possible 'surprises' that could occur in the next 100 years because of global warming. What is common to all these hypotheses is that we really have no idea if and when they will happen and, if they do, what will be the effects.\n\n### Melting of Greenland and\/or Antarctica\n\nThe estimates for sea-level rise for the next 100 years in the IPCC report of 2007 are lower than those in the IPCC 2001 report. The reason is that estimates of the possible contribution of ice flow were taken out, due to a lack of understanding. Ice-flow rates did increase between 1992 and 2003 in both Greenland and Antarctica, but it is unknown whether this contribution will continue. If this contribution is linear with surface warming, then another 10cm to 20cm can be added to the sea-level estimates, giving a range of 28cm to 79cm by 2100, which is approximately the IPCC 2001 report estimate. But with another six years of study, scientists have realized that we do not know enough about Greenland and Antarctica. There is already a lot of evidence that they are starting to melt. For example, Greenland over the past four summers has lost between 380 and 490 billion tonnes of ice each year, which is about 150 billion tonnes more than it receives each winter in terms of snow.\n\nGreenland and Antarctica constitute one of the most worrying potential climate surprises. If the large ice sheets there completely melted, their contribution to global sea-level rise would be as follows: Greenland, about 7m; West Antarctic ice sheet, about 8.5m; East Antarctic ice sheet, about 65m; compared with just 0.3m if all the mountain glaciers melted. Palaeoclimate data show that the huge East Antarctica ice sheet developed 35 million years ago due to the progressive tectonic isolation of Antarctica and that it has in fact remained stable in much warmer climates. However, scientists are now very worried that either Greenland or the West Antarctic could start to melt in the next 100 years. This would mean metres of global sea-level rise which would threaten all coastal populations of the world. There is also scientific debate about what happens to both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets beyond the next 100 years; even if significant melting does not occur this century, we may have started a process that causes irreversible melting during the next one.\n\nThus what happens in the next 100 years will determine the future of these ice sheets and the livelihoods of billions of people who live close the coast. What is obvious is that a great deal more research is required on the climatic history of Greenland and Antarctica and on monitoring changes that are occurring now.\n\n### Deep-ocean circulation\n\nThe circulation of the ocean is one of the major controls on our global climate. In fact, the deep ocean is the only candidate for driving and sustaining internal long-term climate change (of hundreds to thousands of years) because of its volume, heat capacity, and inertia. In the North Atlantic, the north-east trending Gulf Stream carries warm and salty surface water from the Gulf of Mexico up to the Nordic seas (Figure 22). The increased saltiness, or salinity, in the Gulf Stream is due to the huge amount of evaporation that occurs in the Caribbean, which removes moisture from the surface waters and concentrates the salts in the sea water. As the Gulf Stream flows northward, it cools down. The combination of a high salt content and low temperature makes the surface water heavier or denser. Hence, when it reaches the relatively fresh oceans north of Iceland, the surface water has cooled sufficiently to become dense enough to sink into the deep ocean. The 'pull' exerted by the sinking of this dense water mass helps maintain the strength of the warm Gulf Stream, ensuring a current of warm tropical water flowing into the north-east Atlantic, sending mild air masses across to the European continent. It has been calculated that the Gulf Stream delivers 27,000 times the energy of all of Britain's power stations put together. If you are in any doubt about how good the Gulf Stream is for the European climate, compare the winters at the same latitude on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, for example London with Labrador, or Lisbon with New York. Or a better comparison is between Western Europe and the west coast of North America, which have a similar geographical relationship between the ocean and continent \u2013 so think of Alaska and Scotland, which are at about the same latitude.\n\nThe newly formed deep water sinks to a depth of between 2,000m and 3,500m in the ocean and flows southward down the Atlantic Ocean, as the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). In the South Atlantic Ocean, it meets a second type of deep water, which is formed in the Southern Ocean and is called the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). This is formed in a different way to NADW. Antarctica is surrounded by sea ice and deep water forms in coast polynyas, or large holes in the sea ice. Out-blowing Antarctic winds push sea ice away from the continental edge to produce these holes. The winds are so cold that they super-cool the exposed surface waters. This leads to more sea-ice formation and salt rejection, producing the coldest and saltiest water in the world. AABW flows around the Antarctic and penetrates the North Atlantic, flowing under the warmer, and thus somewhat lighter, NADW (Figure 23a). The AABW also flows into both the Indian and Pacific Oceans.\n\n**22. The deep circulation of the ocean, termed the oceanic conveyor belt**\n\nThis balance between the NADW and AABW is extremely important in maintaining our present climate, as not only does it keep the Gulf Stream flowing past Europe, but it maintains the right amount of heat exchange between the northern and southern hemispheres. Scientists have shown that the circulation of deep water can be weakened or 'switched off' if there is sufficient input of fresh water to make the surface water too light to sink. This evidence has come from both computer models and the study of past climates. Scientists have coined the phrase 'dedensification' to mean the removal of density by adding fresh water and\/or warming up the water, both of which prevent sea water from being dense enough to sink. As we have seen, there is already concern that global warming will cause significant melting of the polar ice caps. This will lead to more fresh water being added to the polar oceans. Global warming could, therefore, cause the collapse of NADW, and a weakening of the warm Gulf Stream (Figure 23b). This would cause much colder European winters and more severe weather. However, the influence of the warm Gulf Stream is mainly in the winter so it does not affect summer temperatures. So, if the Gulf Stream fails, global warming would still cause European summers to heat up. Europe would end up with extreme seasonal weather very similar to that of Alaska.\n\n**23. Different possible circulation of the deep ocean depending on sea-surface salinity, that is fresh-water input**\n\nA counter scenario is that if the Antarctic ice sheet starts to melt significantly before the Greenland and Arctic ice, things could be very different. If enough melt-water is put in the Southern Ocean, then AABW will be severely curtailed. Because the deep-water system is a balancing act between NADW and AABW, if AABW is reduced then the NADW will increase and expand (Figure 23c). The problem is that NADW is warmer than AABW, and because if you heat up a liquid it expands, the NADW will take up more space. So any increase in NADW will mean an increase in sea level. Computer models by Dan Seidov (previously at Pennsylvania State University) and myself have suggested that a melt-water event in the Southern Ocean could cause a reduction in the AABW and the expansion of the NADW, and would result in an average sea-level increase of 2m. The problem is that we have no idea how much fresh water it will take to shut off either the NADW or the AABW. Nor at the moment can we predict which will melt first, the Arctic or Antarctic. We do know that these events have happened frequently in the past and have drastically altered the global climate. If global warming continues, some time in the future enough melt-water will be generated and the options will be either severe alteration of the European climate or an additional 2.5m of global sea-level rise.\n\nNot only do we not know how much fresh water is required to reduce either North Atlantic or Southern Ocean deep-water formation, we are also not sure whether it could be reversed. This is because computer models suggest the fresh-water\u2013deep-ocean system could be a threshold-bifurcated system. Figure 24 demonstrates this bifurcation of the climate system and shows that there can be different relationships between climate and the forcing mechanism, depending on the direction of the threshold. The bifurcation system is very common in natural systems, for example in cases where inertia or the shift between different states of matter needs to be overcome. Figure 24 shows that in cases A and B the system is reversible, but in case C it is not. In case C, the control variable must increase to more than it was in the previous equilibrium state to get over the threshold and return the system to its pre-threshold state. Let us consider this in terms of the salinity of the North Atlantic versus the production of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). We know that adding more fresh water to the North Atlantic hampers the production of salty, cold, and hence heavy deep water. In case A, changing the salinity of the North Atlantic has no effect on the amount of NADW produced. It is a very insensitive system. In case B, reducing the salinity reduces the production of NADW; however, if the salt is replaced, then the production of NADW returns to its previous, pre-threshold level.\n\n**24. Bifurcation of the climate system**\n\nIn case C, reducing the North Atlantic salinity reduces the production of NADW. However, simply returning the same amount of salt does not return the NADW production to the normal level. Because of the bifurcation, a lot more salt has to be injected to bring back the NADW production to its previous level (see Figures 5e and 24c). It may be that the extra amount of salt required is not possible within the system and so this makes the system theoretically irreversible. The major problems we face when looking at future climate change is whether a bifurcation system exists and whether the system will go beyond a point of being reversible. What is worrying is that these threshold systems can apply to any part of the climate system. Another example is the position of the monsoons: in Oman and other parts of Arabia, fresh groundwater has been dated to 18,000 years ago, to the last ice age; none of it is any younger. This suggests that under glacial conditions the modern South-East Asian monsoon belt came much further north, producing significant rains in what are now extremely arid regions. As soon as the global climate moved into an interglacial, the monsoons shifted. The next question is: if global warming changes the position of the monsoons again, will they return to the present position if the effects of global warming lessen?\n\n### Gas hydrates\n\nCurrently, below the world's oceans and permafrost lurks a deadly threat \u2013 gas hydrates. These are a mixture of water and methane, which is sustained as a solid at very low temperatures and very high pressures. These gas hydrates are a solid composed of a cage of water molecules, which hold individual molecules of methane and other gases. The methane comes from decaying organic matter found deep in ocean sediments and in soils beneath permafrost. These gas hydrate reservoirs are extremely unstable, as a slight increase in temperature or decrease in pressure can cause them to destabilize. The impacts of global warming include the heating up of both the oceans and the permafrost, which could cause the gas hydrates to break down, pumping out huge amounts of methane into the atmosphere. Methane is a very strong greenhouse gas, 21 times more powerful than carbon dioxide. If enough were released, it would raise temperatures even more, releasing even more gas hydrates \u2013 producing a runaway greenhouse effect. Scientists really have no idea how much methane is stored in the gas hydrates beneath our feet: estimates are between 1,000 and 10,000 gigatonnes of gas hydrates, a huge range (compared with only 180 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide currently in the atmosphere). Without a more precise estimate, it is very difficult to assess the risk posed by gas hydrates.\n\nThe reason why scientists are so worried about this issue is because there is evidence that a super greenhouse effect occurred 55 million years ago, during what is called the Palaeocene\u2013Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During this hot-house event, scientists think that up to 1,500 gigatonnes of gas hydrates may have been released. This huge injection of methane into the atmosphere accelerated the natural greenhouse effect, producing an extra 5\u00b0C of warming. There is still, however, considerable debate over the PETM: for example, was it gas hydrate or volcanic carbon dioxide release that caused the warming? Scientists do not know whether global warming will cause a significant release of gas hydrates. We also do not know how the gas hydrate will react to climate change. It is clear that the gas hydrate stored in the permafrost will be released when the ice melts. However, the gas hydrate under the ocean is kept stable both by the high pressure and the low temperatures. As ocean temperatures change, this will be transmitted through the gas hydrate, causing some of it to melt, but if this process is slow enough, the gas released could migrate up in the ocean sediment and re-freeze at a higher level. So we have little idea whether future climate change could cause these so-called 'burps of death'.\n\nThere is another problem. If significant parts of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets melt, the removal of ice from the continent means that it will recover and start to move upwards. This isostatic rebound can be seen in the British Isles, which are still recovering from the last ice age, with Scotland still rising while England is sinking. This will mean that the relative sea level around the continental shelf will fall, removing the weight and thus the pressure of the sea water on the marine sediment. Pressure removal is a much more efficient way of destabilizing gas hydrates than temperature increases, and so huge amounts of methane could be released from around the Arctic and Antarctic.\n\nThere is another secondary effect of gas hydrate release: when the hydrates break down, they can do so explosively. There is clear evidence from the past that violent gas hydrate releases have caused massive slumping of the continental shelf and associated tsunamis (giant waves). The most famous is the Norwegian Storegga slide which occurred about 8,000 years ago, was the size of Wales, and produced a 15m-high tsunami that wiped out many prehistoric settlements in Scotland. In modern times, we have seen the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami in the Indian Ocean that killed more than 281,000 people. Hence, we cannot rule out the possibility that global warming could lead to an increased frequency of gas hydrate-generated submarine landslides and thus tsunamis of over 15m in height hitting our coasts. Up to now, only the countries around the Pacific rim are prepared for this type of tsunami event \u2013 but gas hydrate-generated tsunamis could occur anywhere in the ocean.\n\n### Amazonia\n\nIn 1542, Francisco de Orellana led the first European voyage down the Amazon River. During this intrepid voyage the expedition met a lot of resistance from the local Indians; in one particular tribe the women warriors were so fierce that they drove their male warriors in front of them with spears. Thus the river was named after the famous women warriors of the Greek myths, the Amazons. This makes Francisco de Orellana one of the unluckiest explorers of that age, as normally the river would have been named after him. This voyage also inspired our almost mystical wonder about the greatest river and the largest area of rainforest in the world, something we still feel today.\n\nThe Amazon River discharges approximately 20% of all fresh water carried to the oceans. The Amazon drainage basin is the world's largest, covering an area of 7,050,000 square kilometres, about the size of Europe. The river is a product of the Amazon monsoon, which every summer brings huge rains. This also produces the spectacular expanse of rainforest, which supports the greatest diversity and largest number of species of any area in the world. The Amazon rainforest is also important when it comes to the future of global warming, as it is a huge natural store of carbon. Up until recently, it was thought that an established rainforest such as the Amazon had reached maturity and thus could not take up any more carbon dioxide. Experiments in the heart of the Amazon rainforest have shown this could be wrong and that the Amazon rainforest might be sucking up an additional 5 tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per hectare per year. This is because plants react favourably to increased carbon dioxide; because it is the raw material for photosynthesis, the more of it the better. So having more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere acts like a fertilizer, stimulating plant growth. Because of the size of the Amazon rainforest, it seems that presently it is taking up a large percentage of our atmospheric carbon dioxide pollution, about three-quarters of the world's car pollution. But things could change in the future.\n\nGlobal climate models developed at the Met Office Hadley Centre suggest that global warming by 2050 could have increased the winter dry season in Amazonia. For the Amazon rainforest to survive, it requires not only a large amount of rain during the wet season but a relatively short dry season so that it does not dry out. According to the Hadley Centre model, global warming could cause the global climate to shift towards a more El Ni\u00f1o-like state with a much longer South American dry season. Kim Stanley Robinson in his novel _Forty Signs of Rain_ uses the term 'Hyperni\u00f1o' to refer to a new climate state. Hence, the Amazon rainforest could no longer survive and would be replaced by savannah (dry grassland), which is found both to the east and south of the Amazon basin today. This replacement would occur because the extended dry periods would lead to forest fires destroying large parts of the rainforest. This would also return the carbon stored in the rainforest back into the atmosphere, accelerating global warming. The savannah would then take over those burnt areas, as it is adapted to coping with the long dry season, but savannah has a much lower carbon storage potential per square kilometre than rainforest. So the Amazon rainforest at the moment might be helping to reduce the amount of pollution we put into the atmosphere, but ultimately it may cause global warming to accelerate at an unprecedented and currently unpredicted rate (Figure 25).\n\nHowever, we must still view this result with caution as not all models agree with the Met Office Hadley Centre results. This intercomparison is being carried out by the C4MIP (more fully, Coupled Carbon Cycle Climate Model Intercomparison Project). It is a model intercomparison project along the lines of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project, but for global climate models that include an interactive carbon cycle. The inclusion of an interactive carbon cycle is an extremely important step forward in climate models as ecologists have known for a long time that different vegetation types modify the local environment. This is especially true of the Amazon rainforest, which recycles at least 50% of the precipitation, maintaining a warm, moist environment.\n\nThe findings of the Met Office Hadley Centre model are dependent on the world moving to a more El Ni\u00f1o-like state; many other GCMs show this trend, but not all. As the shift towards a more El Ni\u00f1o-like state is the key control on the future of the rainforest, it is something we need to have confidence in. As discussed earlier, confidence in science moves forward as a consequence of the weight of evidence, and at the moment there is not enough convincing evidence that the world will move into a more El Ni\u00f1o-like state, or Robinson's 'Hyperni\u00f1o'. The dire prediction of the Met Office model does not just concern Amazonia, as 80% of the release of additional carbon from the terrestrial biosphere into the atmosphere comes from increased soil decomposition, which is a poorly understood process on the global scale. So the work of the C4MIP is essential if we are to have any confidence concerning the future of the Amazon rainforest and global soil carbon.\n\n**25. Met Office model of carbon dioxide concentration and mean temperature over time**\n\n### Summary\n\nUntil a few decades ago, it was generally thought that significant large-scale global and regional climate changes occurred gradually over many centuries or millennia, hence the climate shifts were assumed to be scarcely perceptible during a human lifetime. We now know that human-induced climate change will radically affect the planet over the next 100 years. In addition, there may be potential surprises in the global climate system, exacerbating future climate change. As discussed above, these include the very real possibility that Greenland and\/or the Antarctic could melt, raising sea level by metres. Or the North Atlantic-driven deep-ocean circulation could change, producing extreme seasonal weather in Europe. The Amazon rainforest could be burned in the future, accelerating global warming and destroying biodiversity. Finally, there is the unquantified threat of gas hydrates lurking beneath the oceans which could be released in 'giant burps of death' if the oceans warm up sufficiently \u2013 again, accelerating global warming.\n\nSo what effects could climate change have on human society? We know that abrupt past climate changes had profound effects on human history. For example, a short, cold, arid period about 4,300 years ago caused the collapse of classical civilizations around the world, including the Old Kingdom in Egypt; the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia; the Early Bronze Age societies of Anatolia, Greece, and Israel; the Indus valley civilization in India; the Hilmand civilization in Afghanistan; and the Hongshan culture of China. It has also been shown that climate deterioration, particularly a succession of severe droughts in Central America during the Medieval Cold Period, prompted the collapse of the classic period of the Mayan civilization. Moreover, the rise and fall of the Incas can be linked to alternating wet and dry periods, which favoured the coastal and highland cultures of Ecuador and Peru.\n\nWe know, however, that humans can survive a whole range of climates. The collapse of these urban civilizations, then, is not simply about climate shifts making an area inhospitable; rather, the society was unable to adapt to the climate changes, particularly changes in water resources. For example, for the Mayan civilization to have survived, it would have needed to recognize its vulnerability to long-term water shortages and to have developed a more flexible approach, such as finding new water sources, developing new means of conserving water, and prioritizing water use in times of shortage. Hence the next two chapters are concerned with the global human response to climate change and a discussion of potential solutions, including how to ensure our civilization becomes flexible enough to deal with the possibility of climate surprises.\n\n## [Chapter 7  \n **Politics**](ch00-fm05.html#ch07a)\n\nThe most logical approach to the global warming problem would be to cut emissions significantly. At the moment, many countries are developing very rapidly and thus global emissions are expanding at a faster and faster rate. So how much do we need to cut emissions by? As we have seen in previous chapters, scientists feel that 2\u00b0C is the tipping point when almost all people in the world become losers from climate change. So limiting climate change to 2\u00b0C seems to be the logical thing to do. Especially as the Stern Report in 2007 suggested the cost of adapting to a low-carbon economy now would be about 1% of world GDP, compared to costs of up to 20% world GDP if we do nothing. To try to limit climate change to 2\u00b0C, we need to understand how much carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that represents. Figure 26 shows the probability of temperature changes based on different amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Even at the lowest level of 450ppm, there is at least a 40% chance that climate change will be above 2\u00b0C. Remember at the moment we are already at 379ppm and increasing at over 3% per year. So we face a huge challenge if we are to contain climate change to 2\u00b0C, and the only way we will do that is by a global binding agreement to cut emissions.\n\n**26. Predicted range of global temperature rise based on the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere**\n\n### Kyoto Protocol\n\nSo how are we doing on getting a global agreement to cut emissions of greenhouse gases? The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was created at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 to try to negotiate a worldwide agreement for reducing greenhouse gases and limiting the impact of global warming. Two major steps forward have been achieved in the last ten years. The first occurred at midnight on 13 December 1997, when the Kyoto Protocol was drawn up. This stated the general principles for a worldwide treaty on cutting greenhouse emissions and, more specifically, that all developed nations would aim to cut their emissions by 5.2% on their 1990 levels by 2008\u201312. However, some countries have continued to increase their emissions significantly since 1990 and thus will have great difficulty in achieving this overall reduction (see Table 3 for examples). The second breakthrough was in Bonn on 23 July 2001, when the Kyoto Protocol was ratified and signed, making it a legal treaty. However, the USA, under the leadership of President Bush, withdrew from the climate negotiations in March 2001 and so did not sign the Kyoto Protocol at the Bonn meeting. With the USA producing about one-quarter of the world's carbon dioxide pollution, this was a big blow for the treaty. Moreover, the targets set by the Kyoto Protocol were reduced during the Bonn meeting to make sure that Japan, Canada, and Australia would join. Australia finally made the Kyoto Protocol legally binding in December 2007. The targets for the 38 richest and most developed countries will be a cut of 1\u20133% compared with their 1990 levels.\n\n**Table 3. Comparison of selected countries' Kyoto Protocol legal target and their 2004 emissions**\n\nThe treaty does not include developing countries. This is a concern, because if countries such as India and China continue to develop, they will produce huge amounts of pollution. For example, if these two countries achieve their aim to have the same car to family ratio as Europe, there will be an extra billion cars in the world. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005. It could only come into effect after Russia ratified the treaty, thereby meeting the requirement that at least 55 countries, representing more than 55% of the global emissions made, signed up to it. Russia's membership tipped the scales, and allowed the Kyoto Protocol to become international law.\n\nSo what have the 186 nations signed up for? The 38 industrialized nations have agreed to binding targets to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The EU has turned the treaty into law for all member countries, forcing a cut in greenhouse gas emissions of 8% on the 1990 level by 2012. The United Kingdom's legal target is 12.5%, a larger reduction to allow poorer EU countries room for development. A total of $500 million (\u00a3350 million) new funds a year has been provided by the industrialized world to help developing countries to adapt to climate change and to provide new clean technologies. Industrial countries are also able to plant forests, manage existing ones, and change farming practices, and thereby claim credit for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In addition, there is provision in the Kyoto Protocol concerning national and international trade in carbon emissions. Currently, countries that have emission targets will be able to trade carbon emissions within their own national economy and between each other. This may be the only way that certain industrial countries make their cuts (see Table 3), and most will have to buy credits from Russia, whose greenhouse gas production dropped with the collapse of industry on the fall of communism. What has not yet been agreed is international trading with countries without emissions targets, as this was initially opposed by the EU and international environmental NGOs, but generally supported by other industrial nations and the less-developed world. There are many who want the Kyoto Protocol to go further and allow industrial nations to buy carbon credits from less-developed nations, and this is discussed later in the post-2012 agenda. At the moment, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the only way that developed countries can invest in and gain from a carbon credit in a developing country.\n\n* * *\n\n**The main contenders**\n\n**Below is a 'who's who' guide to the international climate talks. These different coalitions, which have formed during the climate change negotiations, provide us with some insight into the differing agendas of different countries. In addition, there are strong lobbying interests from both individual states and environmental, business, and industrial groups, which are also discussed below.**\n\n**G-77 and China**\n\n**The Group of 77 is the main developing country coalition and was formed in 1964 during the New International Economic Order negotiations under the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). China regularly allies itself with this group, which now numbers over 130 members. The country holding the annually rotating Chair of the Group 77 in New York serves as the Chair of the G-77 on climate change. During some of the Kyoto Protocol negotiations, the Chairs of** **the G-77 were: the Philippines (1995); Costa Rica (1996); and the United Republic of Tanzania (1997). The Group operates according to a consensus rule. Without consensus, that is all countries within this group agreeing, no common position is articulated. Given the wide variety of interests that the G-77 encompasses, however, it has been common for individual parties and groups also to speak during the Kyoto Protocol negotiations, even when there was a common position. G-77 symbolizes the North\u2013South divide, with G-77 seeing climate change as essentially an issue about development. Two major concerns are expressed by this group: first, that poor countries' development will be hindered by having to reduce emissions; and second, that carbon trading must be allowed as a way of boosting income to developing countries.**\n\n**AOSIS**\n\n**The Alliance of Small Island States was formed in 1990 during the Second World Climate Conference to represent the interests of low-lying and small island countries that are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise. It comprises some 43 states, most of which are also members of the G-77. This group has regularly spoken at the Protocol negotiations, often but not always through its Chair (Samoa, for most of the negotiations), though individual countries also intervened. The AOSIS position has always been to achieve the tightest control on global emissions, as their countries seem to be most at threat from the impacts of global warming.**\n\n**JUSSCANNZ**\n\n**This group of non-EU OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries acted as a loose information-sharing coalition during the Kyoto Protocol negotiations, lacking coordinated positions. JUSSCANNZ stands for Japan, USA (who subsequently left the** **negotiations), Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway, and New Zealand. Iceland and other OECD countries, such as Mexico, often attended group meetings. The over-arching concern of JUSSCANNZ has always been the cost of tackling climate change. The group is, however, split. Japan, New Zealand, Norway, and Iceland already enjoy a high energy efficiency and\/or an energy mix dominated by low-carbon sources. The greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP and per capita are, therefore, much lower than the OECD average, so their main concern is the cost of abatement. The second group is Australia, Canada, and the USA \u2013 the so-called 'New World' countries \u2013 who face very different national circumstances with relatively low energy efficiency and an energy mix dominated by fossil fuels, growing populations, and large geographical areas, all of which lead to high emissions per unit of GDP and per capita. These countries' main concern is the cost of mitigating climate change because of the cost of changing their energy-intensive infrastructure.**\n\n**EU**\n\n**The European Union has maintained a coordinated position on climate change, usually speaking through its presidency, which rotates every six months. For example, during the Protocol negotiations the following countries have presided over the EU: Spain (late 1995), France (early 1996), Ireland (late 1996), the Netherlands (early 1997), and Luxembourg (late 1997). It has been rare for individual EU states to speak during the Kyoto Protocol negotiations. The EU has a very similar split in its members to JUSSCANNZ, with both high and low energy-efficient economies. The consensus view of the EU has been to position itself as the environmental leader, with the attempt to advocate cuts as high as 15%. The EU rationale has been that any negotiated reduction could then be apportioned between the EU countries, depending on** **their development. This position has been greatly aided by both the UK and Germany experiencing a significant downturn in greenhouse emissions. In the UK, this was done by replacing coal with gas, while Germany's downturn was due to updating and cleaning up the inefficient industries of former East Germany. However, the internal divisions within the EU and its cumbersome internal decision-making procedures make it a frustrating negotiating partner.**\n\n**OPEC**\n\n**OPEC, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, regularly informally coordinated their positions in the climate change negotiations but have never spoken as a united group. The central position of this group is the protection of their main economic export, oil, and prevention of any treaty that undermines the significant usage of fossil fuels.**\n\n**African Group**\n\n**The African Group is a formal regional group under the UN system, but it has only sometimes intervened during the negotiations. More often, countries within this group have spoken for themselves or through the coordinating role of the G-77. The African Group has been used mainly for ceremonial statements.**\n\n**ENGOs**\n\n**ENGOs is short for Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations and, though not homogeneous, they had a relatively united view on climate change. They universally accepted the science of climate change and its possible impact, and campaigned for strong commitments on the part of governments and business to address the problem. However, there are significant differences among the ENGOs regarding specific issues in the negotiations, particularly the** **possibility of emissions trading. The split can be seen in terms of reflecting a cultural difference between the New and Old Worlds. For example, Greenpeace International, based in Amsterdam, is strongly opposed to emissions trading, while Brazilian Friends of the Earth are strongly supportive of it.**\n\n**BINGOs**\n\n**Business and Industry Non-Governmental Organizations (BINGOs) were another powerful lobby at the Kyoto Protocol negotiations. However, unlike the ENGOs, they are a diverse and loose-knit group, with three main sub-groups. At the more progressive end of the spectrum lie 'green' business, including the 'sunrise' renewable energy industries and insurance companies, who recognized climate change as a potential business opportunity and urged decisive action on the part of governments. The middle ground was occupied by a group which accepted the science of climate change but called for a prudent, cautious approach to mitigation. At the other extreme are the fossil-fuel, mostly US-based industries such as the Global Climate Coalition. These were known as the grey BINGOs or the carbon club, who supported only the weakest action on climate change, stressing the economic costs and scientific uncertainties, echoing the editorials and by-lines of most US newspapers and the British _Times_ (see Chapter 2). Some of these BINGOs openly opposed the negotiations. Most notable was the Climate Council, a US-based lobby group run by Don Pearlman, a partner in a Washington law firm, which is widely believed to be a front for the fossil-fuel and energy interests in the USA. They have worked with OPEC states to block progress in both the IPCC and the climate change negotiations.**\n\n* * *\n\n### Kyoto management\n\nIt is interesting that, despite all these different views and the size and the ambition of the talks, a study by Joanna Depledge at University College London showed that management of the Kyoto Protocol negotiations was effective. She also provides some key lessons that could be used to increase the effectiveness of multilateral negotiations and ensure that the process is strengthened as it continues into the future. These include the importance of having a single strong and efficient presiding officer or negotiation chair and secretariat team throughout the negotiating process, as these promote unity and continuity. A balance between procedural equity\/transparency and efficiency must be maintained, because the negotiating process must always continue to move forward, but at the same time the participants must feel that it is a fair process. Bargaining and cooperation should be promoted to accelerate the negotiations and to prevent the tendency for discussion to stagnate. There must also be strategies to overcome procedural obstructions, as these are sometimes used as a stalling mechanism in negotiations. Finally, Depledge suggests that an institutional memory should be developed so that continued future negotiations have knowledge of what has and has not worked in the past.\n\n### Is the Kyoto Protocol flawed?\n\n#### A. Not far enough\n\nThe first major flaw in the Kyoto Protocol, according to many, is that it does not go far enough. The Kyoto Protocol as currently negotiated has emissions cuts relative to 1990 levels of between 1% and 8% for just over half the developed world, with no restrictions for the less-developed world. Compare this with scientists' suggestion that up to a 60% global cut is required to prevent major climatic change. If room is left for development, it would mean that the developed world would have to cut emissions by at least 80% very soon because if the International Energy Authority's projections are correct, then between 2000 and 2030 we will emit more carbon dioxide than during the whole of the historic period since 1750 (Figure 27). Hence many critics argue that the Kyoto Protocol will do nothing to prevent global warming and is not significantly different from a business-as-usual situation \u2013 which is of course what many developed countries want in order to maintain their economies (see Figure 28).\n\n**27. Historic and predicted global carbon dioxide emissions**\n\n#### B. No enforcement\n\nAt the moment, very few countries are on the way to make their 2012 cuts negotiated in the Kyoto Protocol (see Table 3). Even the EU, despite the very positive cuts in German and UK emissions, is not on target for the 8% cut. One way out will be to buy credits from Russia, the only major country to have made large cuts due to the collapse of its industrial production in the 1990s. But no one knows how much Russia will charge, nor how much its credits are really worth. However, if countries do not make their targets and do not buy credits, there is no enforcement beyond adding their failure to their next target. This is the huge problem with all international agreements: how do you sanction countries that sign up and do not comply? Because the first thing they can do is just drop out of the agreement. Novel ways of enforcing compliance at the international level must be found, otherwise there will always be those countries who cheat the system.\n\n**28. Predicted carbon dioxide emissions for business-as-usual and stabilization at atmospheric concentrations of either 550ppm or 450ppm**\n\n#### C. No USA\n\nWhat even the most effective negotiations cannot deal with is withdrawal from the process. So the second major flaw in the Kyoto Protocol is the non-participation of the USA. It is, however, unsurprising that the USA withdrew from these climate change negotiations: US carbon dioxide emissions have already risen by 12% compared with 1990 levels and they are predicted to rise by more than 30% by 2012 compared to 1990 levels. So if they had agreed to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, they would have had to cut their emissions by over one-third, which successive presidents have seen as a direct threat to the US economy and thus their chances of re-election. As global carbon trading was not included in the Kyoto Protocol, so the USA did not have the possibility of trading their way to lower emissions. This, as we will see, is another fundamental flaw in the Kyoto Protocol that will have to be fixed in the post-2012 agreement.\n\nThere is, however, a deeper divide between the USA and, for example, the EU. Many political commentators have referred to this as the 'transatlantic rift'. Americans have historically tended not to see any source of democratic legitimacy higher than the constitutional nation-state. Therefore, any international organization has legitimacy only because the democratic majorities have handed up this legitimacy through a negotiated contractual process. Such legitimacy can be withdrawn at any time by the contracting parties. Europeans, by contrast, tend to believe democratic legitimacy flows from the will of an international community which is much larger than any individual nation-state. This international community hands down legitimacy to existing international institutions, which are seen as partially embodying the ideals and precepts of the international community.\n\nAt the start of the 21st century, the difference in approaches between the USA and other nation-states could not be more stark. Not only has the Bush administration withdrawn from the Kyoto Protocol negotiations, but it has failed to ratify the Rio pact on biodiversity, withdrawn from the anti-ballistic missile treaty, opposed the ban on landmines, opposed amendments to the biological warfare convention, opposed the setting up of an international criminal court, and sidelined the UN in the lead-up to the second Iraq war. This pattern of US unilateralism should not be seen as merely a transitory problem reflecting the Bush administration, but rather it shows the fundamental schism between the worldviews of the USA and the rest of the Western world. This is not to say that either view is more or less valid. The problem is that 'future climate change' is a global concern, with causes and effects that go far beyond the boundaries of nation-states. Rather like the revolution in the 1980s, when the geographical scope of environmental problems was enlarged to encompass the globe, a new 'global' geographical view of politics is required. Hence the climate change negotiations and related world trade talks are fundamentally flawed without the multilateral, multi-nation-state approach. The USA is so important to both processes because of its economic size. Currently, the US population is ~300 million and has a GDP of $13 trillion, compared with the EU, which contains 490 million people and has a GDP of $15 trillion.\n\n#### D. Green colonialism\n\nMany social and political scientists have raised philosophical and ethical doubts about the entire Kyoto Protocol and the future direction of the climate negotiations. The main concern is that they reflect a version of colonialism, since rich developed countries are seen to be dictating to poorer countries how and when they should develop. Countries such as India and China have resisted calls to cut their emissions, stating that it would hurt their development and their mission to alleviate poverty. Others have, however, suggested that the Kyoto Protocol provides a development dividend via the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), because the CDM potentially provides a means by which money moves from the rich to the poorer countries. Again, however, all is not what it seems, as 80% of the project credits are in China, Brazil, India, and Korea, some of the richer developing countries, so funding is not perhaps being transferred to the poorest people in the world. Also, 60% of the carbon credits have been purchased by the UK and the Netherlands, resulting in a very skewed financial exchange.\n\nThe moral high ground of supposedly anti-green colonialism was also employed by the EU and international NGOs during the Kyoto Protocol process to block the suggestion of global carbon trading. They felt that those who had polluted most should cut first. However, national NGOs such as Greenpeace Brazil, developing countries, and the USA argued strongly that global carbon trading was the only way forward to ensure everyone signed up to the Kyoto Protocol. As we know, the moral high ground won and only CDMs were included. What is interesting is that the EU then realized it could not cut its own emissions the traditional way and thus set up the European Trading Scheme (ETS) for all facilities above 20 megawatts in the electricity, ferrous metals, cement, refineries, pulp and paper, and glass industries, which together represent over 40% of the EU total emissions. So with the success of the second phase of the ETS, we have a potential model for the next phase of the Kyoto Protocol.\n\n#### E. Focus on the largest emitters\n\nIt has been argued that the assumption that emission mitigation is a global common problem is false. The idea that more than 170 countries need to agree to the Kyoto Protocol is symbolic but not practical when in reality fewer than 20 countries produce at least 80% of the world's emissions. Gwyn Prins (LSE) and Steve Rayner (Oxford) in the journal _Nature_ in 2007 argue this point, and suggest that the other 150 countries just get in the way and slow the whole negotiation process down. There is some official realization of this, and in 2006 the G8+5 climate change dialogue was established to bring the 13 biggest polluters together for key discussions.\n\n#### F. Nation verses sector approach\n\nThe Kyoto Protocol faces one other problem, which is embedded in the concept of the nation-state and is a major issue in a global capitalist world with supposedly free trade. For example, the USA has decided to sign the Kyoto Protocol and wants to reduce carbon emissions from heavy industry, so it imposes a carbon tax on steel and concrete production. However, other countries in the world do not have this restriction, so their products are cheaper even though they must be transported by ship, air, or road to the USA, emitting more carbon dioxide overall. So global economics can undermine any country trying to do the right thing and reduce their national emissions. An alternative approach is for global agreements to be made at the sector level. For example, there could be a global agreement on how much carbon can be emitted per ton of steel or concrete produced. All countries could then agree only to buy steel or concrete that is thus validated. This makes for a fairer trading scheme, and countries will not lose out if they adapt their industries to lower greenhouse gas emissions. The problems are, of course, how to police such a scheme across so many different industrial sectors.\n\n### Unilateral approach\n\nWith the realization that the Kyoto Protocol does not go far enough, a number of countries and regions have proposed carbon cuts way above those currently negotiated. For example, the United Kingdom now has a national law that binds the UK government to reduce the country's carbon emissions by 60% by 2050. They have set up a Climate Change Committee, independent of government, to monitor and advise successive governments on achieving this impressive goal. In fact in October 2008 they recommended that the target was raised to 80%. This shows international independent leadership, because if the world's fifth largest economy can do it, then it is possible for other countries to follow. This same aim of a 60% reduction by 2050 has also been accepted into Californian State law. This may be very significant, as there is a history of innovative environmental laws in California being accepted as Federal laws in due course. If the California model were adopted by the whole of the USA, then this would make a huge difference to global emissions. This pathway is shown for comparison in Figure 29.\n\n**29. Predicted carbon emissions in the USA following a business-as-usual or California model**\n\nOther regions have shorter-term proposals. The EU Council of Ministers are proposing that after 2012 the EU should have a 20:20:20 aim by 2020: that is, 20% renewable energy for all 27 EU countries; 20% improvement in energy efficiency; and a 20% cut in total greenhouse gases if there is no global agreement, or 30% with a global agreement. So there are some very exciting political moves happening, way beyond the vision of the Kyoto Protocol.\n\n### Post-2012 agreement\n\nThe most important global political question of this century is what happens after 2012 when the Kyoto Protocol comes to an end. If we are to have any hope of dealing with global warming, we need a brave and farsighted post-2012 agreement. This will have to have a number of key conditions.\n\n1) Contraction and convergence\n\nThe principle of contraction and convergence should be enshrined in the post-2012 agreement. This is the idea that the largest emitters of greenhouse gases contract the amount of pollution towards a designated per capita emissions total. For example, at the moment in the USA each person emits 10 times more carbon dioxide than a person in China. For global equality, the amount emitted per person should be the same. However, to do this and to ensure we keep climate change to a minimum, every country has to contract their emissions, some by a lot more than others. In the developed world, to ensure that other countries can develop as rapidly as possible policymakers must consider an ultimate zero-carbon budget for their country. Some countries who can export renewable or alternative energy may even be able to produce a negative carbon economy.\n\n2) Developing world\n\nThe developing world must be involved and legally bound by the post-2012 agreement. First, they must be involved to enact the principle of contraction and convergence. Second, they must participate because during the rest of the 21st century most of the increase in greenhouse gas emissions will be from the developing world (see Figure 29). Even if the developed world reduced its emissions to zero tomorrow, by 2030 global emissions would be above today's level. This does not mean that economic development nor poverty alleviation should be adversely affected.\n\n3) Global carbon trading\n\nGlobal carbon trading must now become part of the international agreement on climate change. At the moment, only Annex 1 countries (the developed world) in the Kyoto Protocol can trade carbon. As you can see from Table 3, the collapse of the Russian economy in the 1990s means it has lots of spare credits to help other countries meet their 2012 obligations \u2013 the question will be how much will they charge. However, the developing world has been left out, and to fulfil points 1 and 2 above they must be involved.\n\nThe most successful system of carbon trading is 'cap and trade', whereby politicians set a cap, a maximum total of pollution allowed, and a trading system is then set up so that the different industries can trade credits. It is acknowledged that different industries can clean up at different rates and at different costs, and this trading system allows the most cost-effective approach to be found. This type of system has already been used in US emissions trading to reduce sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides, the primary components of acid rain, and has been highly successful. The Clean Air Act of 1990 required electrical utilities to lower their emissions of these pollutants by 8.5 million tonnes compared with 1980 levels. Initial estimates in 1989 suggested it would cost $7.4 billion; a report in 1998 based on actual compliance data suggested it had cost less than $1 billion.\n\nThe European Trading Scheme (ETS) to reduce greenhouse gases has had mixed success. The ETS includes all 27 EU countries, and all facilities above 20 megawatts, which represents over 40% of the EU gas emissions and includes electricity generation, ferrous metal production, cement production, refineries, pulp, paper, and glass manufacturing. During Phase I, which started in 2005, the price of carbon was very volatile; it rose then fell drastically when verification revealed that too many industrial permits had been issued. Phase II was tougher and reflected some of the lessons learned from Phase I, and it made some progress as there was a real incentive to cut emissions and switch to alternative energy technologies. Phase III will be in line with any post-2012 agreement but must have new targets, and include the chemical and aviation industries. What is required is a global system of cap and trade similar to the ETS, allowing the trading of carbon so that all countries can contract their production.\n\nGlobal carbon trading will also accelerate the movement of money from the developed to the developing world. This will boost development and provide new consumers and markets, ultimately producing a more equitable distribution of wealth and resources throughout the world. It would also strengthen the world economy, as it would no longer be driven by one or two key nations or trading blocks.\n\n### Summary\n\nGlobal warming can only be solved by binding international agreements to cut global greenhouse gas emissions. The Kyoto Protocol must be recognized as a ground-breaking agreement as over 180 countries signed the global warming pact. The Protocol came into effect on the 16 February 2005, when Russia ratified the treaty, thereby finally meeting the requirement that at least 55 countries, representing more than 55% of the global emissions, signed up to it. The targets for the 37 richest and most developed countries and regions are cuts of 1\u20138% compared with their 1990 levels. The EU has turned the treaty into law for all member countries, forcing a cut in greenhouse gas emissions of a total 8% on the 1990 level by 2012. At the moment, only a few countries are on target to make their 2012 legally binding cuts and there is no truly effective way of censuring countries that do not make the cuts.\n\nMore worrying is the fact that greenhouse gas emissions are now rising faster than the worst-case scenario of the IPCC. To combat this, we need to negotiate a strong post-2012 agreement. This agreement must include developing countries, it must enshrine the principle of contraction and convergence, and it must also protect the rapid development of the very poorest parts of the world. For the post-2012 agreement to work, it must include global carbon trading. This would allow a capitalist system to find the most efficient and cost-effective way of reducing carbon emissions below the defined cap. It would also accelerate the movement of money into the developing world, allowing it to catch up and also stimulate the world economy. Initial signs are very positive for a post-2012 agreement. His Excellency Mr Rachmat Witoelar, chair of the UN Climate Change Conference held in Bali 2007, said:\n\nThe Bali Roadmap [to a post-2012 agreement] is a testament to the remarkable spirit of co-operation that Parties have displayed in these last two weeks. It is also a tribute to the solidarity with which we have come together to address climate change \u2013 the defining human development challenge of the 21st century.\n\nThe Bali conference is also renowned for the Papua New Guinea delegation telling the US delegation: 'If you're not willing to lead, please get out of the way.' A short time later, the USA reversed its blocking position.\n\n## [Chapter 8  \n **Solutions**](ch00-fm05.html#ch08a)\n\n### Introduction\n\nThe most sensible approach to preventing the worst effects of global warming would be to cut carbon dioxide emissions. Scientists believe a cut of between 60% and 80% is required to prevent the worst effects of global warming (see Chapter 7). But many have argued that the cost of significant cuts in fossil-fuel use would severely affect the global economy, preventing the rapid development of the developing world. It is also clear that current trends of greenhouse gas emissions are now above the worst-case scenarios considered by the 2007 IPCC report. This is primarily due to the rapid development of countries such as China (see Figure 30 for the scale of the recent rise in emissions in China). The Kyoto Protocol, even if it is successful and adhered to, will amount to only a cut of between 1% and 3% for the developed world (Annex 1), while the developing world (non-Annex 1) will continue to increase their emissions. So this chapter examines two types of solution to global warming. First is adaptation, as we already know that there will be climate change even if we reduce our emissions back to 1990 levels. Second is mitigation, which is concerned with reversing this trend and cutting greenhouse gas emissions. This will require regulatory, technological, and economic solutions.\n\n**30. Chinese carbon emissions and energy efficiency**\n\n### Adaptation\n\nThere will certainly be climate change. Many countries will be adversely affected in the near future, and nearly all countries will be affected in the next 30 years. So the second major aim of the IPCC is to study and report on the potential sensitivity, adaptability, and vulnerability of each national environment and socioeconomic system, because if we can predict what the impacts of global warming are likely to be, then national governments can take action to mitigate the effects. For example, if flooding is going to become more prevalent in Britain, then damage to property and loss of life can be prevented with strict new laws that limit building on floodplains and vulnerable coasts.\n\nThe IPCC believes there are six reasons why we must adapt to climate change: (1) climate change cannot be avoided (see Chapter 4); (2) anticipatory and precautionary adaptation is more effective and less costly than forced last-minute emergency fixes; (3) climate change may be more rapid and more pronounced than current estimates suggest, and unexpected events, as we have seen, are more than just possible; (4) immediate benefits can be gained from better adaptation to climate variability and extreme atmospheric events: for example, with the hurricane risk, strict building laws and better evacuation practices would need to be implemented; (5) immediate benefits can also be gained by removing maladaptive policies and practices, for example, building on floodplains and vulnerable coastlines; and (6) climate change brings opportunities as well as threats. Future benefits can result from climate change. The IPCC has provided many ideas about how one can adapt to climate change; an example is given in Figure 31 of how countries can adapt to predicted sea rise.\n\nThe major threat from global warming is its unpredictability (see Chapter 6). Humanity can live in almost any extreme of climate from deserts to the Arctic, but only when we can predict what the extremes of the weather will be. So adaptation is really the key to dealing with the global warming problem, but it must start now, as infrastructure changes can take up to 50 years to implement. For example, if you want to change land-use, for example by building better sea defences or returning farmland back to natural wetlands in a particular area, it can take up to 20 years to research and plan the appropriate measures. It can then take another 10 years for the full consultative and legal processes. It can take another 10 years to implement these changes, and a further decade for the natural restoration to take place (see Figure 32). A good example of this is the Thames Barrier which currently protects London from flooding. It was built in response to the severe flooding in 1953 but did not open officially until 1984, 31 years later.\n\nThe other problem is that adaptation requires money to be invested now; many countries just do not have the money, and elsewhere in the world people do not want to pay more taxes to protect themselves in the future as most people live for today. This is, of course, despite the fact that all of the adaptations discussed will in the long term save money for the local area, the country, and the world; as a global society we still have a very short-term view, usually measured in a few years between successive governments. Hence the solutions to global warming will have to combine adaptations with the mitigation strategies discussed below. If global carbon trading is adopted in the post-2012 agreement, then this would provide a flow of money to developing countries which could be used to build-in climate change adaptation.\n\n**31. Model response strategies for future sea-level rise**\n\n**32. Lead times for response strategies to combat climate change**\n\nThe one thing that every single government can do now is to set up a climate change impact assessment. For example, in the UK there is the UK Climate Impact Programme ( _<_ <http:\/\/www.ukcip.org.uk> _>_ ) which in January 2009 launched new products, based on the latest IPCC 2007 reports, showing the possible effects of climate change on the UK over the next 100 years. These products are aimed at the UK national and local government, industry, business, the media, and the general public. If every government set up one of these programmes, then at least their citizens would have the information to make informed choices about how their countries should be adapting to climate change.\n\n### Mitigation\n\nThe idea of cutting global carbon emissions in half in the next 30 years and by up to 80% by the end of the century may sound like fantasy; however, already the United Kingdom and California have made legally binding commitments to reduce carbon emissions by 60% by 2050. Steve Pacala and Robert Socolow, researchers at Princeton University, published a very influential paper in the journal _Science_ which makes this challenge seem more achievable. They took the business-as-usual emissions scenario and the desired 450ppm scenario and described the difference between the two as a number of 'wedges'. So on this view, instead of seeing one huge insurmountable problem, really what we are faced with are lots of medium-sized changes which add up to the big change (Figure 33). They also provided several examples for the wedges, each of them approximately saving 1 gigatonne of carbon every year, as shown in Table 4. For example, one wedge would be doubling the efficiency of 2 billion cars from 30mpg to 60mpg, which actually is a very achievable aim, as cars have already been built that can easily do 100mpg.\n\n**33. Stabilization wedges to achieve an atmospheric concentration of 450ppm carbon dioxide.**\n\nThough Steve Pacala and Robert Socolow provide examples of what we can do to achieve the required cuts in greenhouse gases, each country will have different strengths and weaknesses and can apply the most suitable wedges for them. One of the first measures that all countries, industries, and individuals can take is to be more energy efficient. At the moment, the energy use in an average home in the USA is twice that of the average for California, and California's domestic energy use is twice that of Denmark. So already within the developed world there are huge savings to be made just by improving energy efficiency. It remains a puzzle why industry and business do not improve their energy use, as this can significantly cut running costs; however, this may be in part capitalists' obsession with turnover and profit. Efficiency gains, however, will ultimately be taken over by increased use. For example, if we did double the efficiency of 2 billion cars, this gain would be wiped out once another 2 billion cars were brought into the world. So one of the most important areas is the production of clean, or carbon-free, energy, discussed below.\n\n**Table 4. Princeton stabilization wedges**\n\n### Alternative, renewable, or clean energy\n\nWe must remember that fossil fuels were an amazing invention, and they have allowed the world to develop at a faster rate than at any time in history. The high standard of living in the developed world is based on cheap and relatively safe fossil fuels. So it is rather na\u00efve to then complain about them or depict them as evil. However, what we do need to do is to replace our reliance on them with carbon-free or so-called renewable or alternative energy sources. This is essential, as the power needs of humanity will continue to expand due to the rapid development of China, India, and other countries. As we have commented, China is opening a new coal-fired power station every four days. This energy expansion is not limited to the developing world: in the UK, there will need to be at least another 20 Petawatts of power generated by 2020. The global demand for fossil fuels is so strong that while writing this book, oil prices peaked at $149 a barrel in July 2008 and are still at $110 a barrel in September 2008 and seem set to continue to be very high for the next few years. There is also concern that we have reached 'peak oil' and that the world is now running out of oil. This does, however, provide two other reasons why countries should adopt a less intensive carbon-energy sector. First, because the era of power from gas and oil will soon be over, due to a combination of huge global demands and dwindling global reserves. Second, countries have in the 21st century become very aware of 'energy security'; most developed countries' economies are heavily reliant on the import of fossil fuels, making them very vulnerable to international blackmail.\n\nBelow is a brief discussion of the main alternative energy sources. Straight away you can see how different portfolios fit different countries. For example, the UK has the best wind resource in the whole of Europe, while Saudi Arabia has excellent conditions for solar power.\n\n* * *\n\n**Low-carbon energy sources**\n\n**Biomass energy\/fuels**\n\n**Globally biomass energy makes up 10% of the world's energy supply. Unfortunately, this is mainly through simple wood fires in the developing world. 2.4 billion people use biomass fuels to cook and this leads to significant health problems due to indoor pollution. So there is an urgent need to provide clean electricity to help human development. Biofuels, on the other hand, will be essential in the fight to reduce global carbon emissions, as they are an intermediate solution. At the moment, the global economy is based on liquid fossil fuels mainly for the transport sector. We can in the short term use fuels derived from plants as a carbon-neutral way of powering cars, ships, and aeroplanes. There are problems as the production of biofuels will compete with food crops. (See the Transport section below for further details.)**\n\n**Geothermal**\n\n**Below our feet, deep within the Earth, is hot molten rock. In some locations, for example in Iceland and Kenya, this hot rock comes very close to the Earth's surface and can be used to heat water to make steam. This is an excellent carbon-free source of energy, because the part of the electricity you generate from the steam you use to pump the water down to the hot rocks. Unfortunately, it is limited by geography. There is, however, another way the warmth of the Earth can be used. All new buildings can have a borehole below them with ground-sourced heat pumps. Cold water is then pumped** **down into these boreholes and the ground warms the water up, cutting the cost of providing hot water to the building.**\n\n**Hydroenergy**\n\n**Hydroelectric power is globally an important source of energy. In 2004, it supplied 5% of the world's energy. The majority of the electricity comes from large dam projects. These projects can present major ethical problems as large areas of land must be flooded above the dam, causing mass relocation of people and destruction of the local environment. A dam also slows water flowing down a river and prevents nutrient-rich silt from being deposited lower down. If the river crosses national boundaries, there are potential issues over the rights to water and silt. For example, one of the reasons why Bangladesh is sinking is the lack of silts due to dams on the major rivers in India. There is also a debate about how much greenhouse gas hydroelectric plants save, because even though the production of electricity does not cause any carbon emissions, the rotting vegetation in the area flooded behind the dam does give off significant amounts of methane.**\n\n**Nuclear fission**\n\n**Energy is generated when you split heavy atoms such as uranium and this is nuclear fission. It has a very low direct carbon signature, but a significant amount of carbon is generated both mining the uranium and decommissioning the power station. At the moment, 5% of global energy is generated by nuclear power. The new generation of nuclear power stations are extremely efficient, producing nearly 90% of the theoretically possible energy production. Two main disadvantages of nuclear power are the generation of high-level radioactive waste and safety, though improvements in efficiency reduce waste and the new generations of nuclear** **reactors have state-of-the-art safety precautions built in. There is also the problem that nuclear power in the 'wrong hands' can lead to dangerous nuclear weapons. The advantages of nuclear power, however, are that it is reliable and can react to changing consumer demand throughout the day, and it is technology that is ready to go and already thoroughly tested.**\n\n**Nuclear fusion**\n\n**Nuclear fusion is the generation of energy when two smaller atoms are fused together. This is what happens in our Sun and every other star. The idea is that the heavy form of hydrogen which can be found in sea water and lithium can be combined and the only waste product is the non-radioactive gas helium. Using a bath full of water and the lithium from a single laptop battery could provide the energy needs for a person for seven years. The problem, of course, is persuading those two atoms to join together. The Sun does it by subjecting the atoms to incredibly high temperatures and pressures. Some advances have been made at the Joint European Torus (JET) project in the UK, which has produced 16 megawatts of fusion power. The problem is the amount of energy required to generate the huge temperatures in the first place and the difficulty of scaling it up to a power plant size.**\n\n**Solar heating**\n\n**The Sun produces a huge amount of heat \u2013 the trick is to capture this heat and to use it. On a small scale, houses and other buildings in sunny countries can have solar heating panels on the roofs which heat up water, so people can have carbon-free hot showers and baths. On a large scale, parabolic mirrors are used to focus the solar energy to generate hot liquid (water or oil) to drive turbines to create electricity. The best places to situate solar heat plants are in** **low-latitude deserts which have very few cloudy days per year. Solar heat plants have been built in California since the 1980s and are now being built in many other countries.**\n\n**Solar photovoltaic (solar panels)**\n\n**The individual rays of the Sun hit the solar panel and dislodge electrons inside it, creating an electrical current. The main advantage of solar panels is that you can place them where the energy is needed and avoid all the complicated infrastructure normally required to move electricity around. The scale of projects involving solar panels varies massively from the San Francisco Moscone Conference Centre, which generates 675,000 watts, to Kenya, which has the largest penetration of solar panels of any market but comprising single 18 watt units.**\n\n**At the moment, the best solar panel is about 17% efficient, which is great compared with photosynthesis which is about 1%, but is a long way off being competitive with other energy sources. Another drawback of current solar panels is that they require silicon, which keeps the cost high. What is needed is a technological breakthrough that would allow solar panels to be made from cheap plastic or some other inexpensive and adaptable material.**\n\n**Wave**\n\n**Wave power could be an important source of energy in the future. The concept is simple, to convert the continuous movement of the ocean in the form of waves into electricity. However, this is easier said than done, and experts in the field suggest that wave power is now where solar panel technology was about 20 years ago \u2013 lots of catching up required. There are also questions about how much environmental damage may be caused to coastal marine habitats by interrupting or deflecting waves.**\n\n**Wind**\n\n**Wind turbines are an efficient means of generating electricity, if they are big enough. The energy generated directly corresponds to the size of the turbine, so the small wind turbines that conscientious people have been putting on the roofs of their houses are almost useless. What you really want are turbines about the size of the Statue of Liberty for maximum effectiveness. It is also more efficient to build wind farms out at sea \u2013 more wind, but of course also more costly. The problems with wind turbines are twofold. First, they do not supply a constant source of electricity; if the wind does not blow, then there is no electricity. Second, people do not like them, as they think they are ugly, noisy, and worry about the effects on local natural habitats. All these problems are easy to overcome by situating wind farms in remote locations and out at sea and away from areas of special scientific or natural interest. One study suggests that wind in principle could generate over 125,000 terrawatt-hours, which is five times the current global electricity requirement.**\n\n* * *\n\n#### Carbon capture and storage\n\nRemoval of carbon dioxide during industrial processes is tricky and costly, because not only does the CO2 need to be removed, but it must be stored somewhere as well. Removal and storage costs could be somewhere between $10 and $50 per tonne CO2. This would cause a 15% to 100% increase in power production costs. However, recovered CO2 does not all need to be stored; some may be utilized in enhanced oil recovery, the food industry, chemical manufacturing (producing soda ash, urea, and methanol), and the metal-processing industries. CO2 can also be applied to the production of construction material, solvents, cleaning compounds and packaging, and in waste-water treatment. But in reality, most of the carbon dioxide captured from industrial processes would have to be stored. It has been estimated that theoretically two-thirds of the CO2 formed from the combustion of the world's total oil and gas reserves could be stored in the corresponding reservoirs. Other estimates indicate storage of 90\u2013400 gigatonnes in natural gas fields alone and another 90 gigatonnes in aquifers.\n\nOceans could also be used to dispose of the carbon dioxide. Suggestions have included storage by hydrate dumping \u2013 if you mix carbon dioxide and water at high pressure and low temperatures, it creates a solid, or hydrate, which is heavier than the surrounding water and thus drops to the bottom. This hydrate is very similar to the methane hydrates discussed in Chapter 6. Another more recent suggestion is to inject the carbon dioxide half a mile deep into shattered volcanic rocks inbetween giant lava flows. The carbon dioxide will react with the water percolating through the rocks. The acidified water will dissolve metals in the rocks, mainly calcium and aluminium. Once it forms calcium bicarbonate with the calcium, it can no longer bubble out and escape (though if it does escape into the ocean, then bicarbonate is relatively harmless).\n\nThe major problem with all of these methods of storage is safety. Carbon dioxide is a very dangerous gas because it is heavier than air and can cause suffocation. An important example of this occurred in 1986, when a tremendous explosion of CO2 from Lake Nyos, in the west of Cameroon, killed more than 1,700 people and livestock up to 25km away. Though similar disasters had previously occurred, never had so many people and animals been asphyxiated on such a scale in a single brief event. What scientists now believe happened was that dissolved CO2 from the nearby volcano seeped from springs beneath the lake and was trapped in deep water by the weight of water above. In 1986, there was an avalanche which mixed up the lake waters, resulting in an explosive overturn of the whole lake, and all the trapped carbon dioxide was released in one go, proving that the storage of carbon dioxide is very difficult and potentially lethal. With ocean storage there is the added complication that the ocean circulates, so whatever carbon dioxide you dump, some of it will eventually return. Moreover, scientists are very uncertain about the environmental effects on the ocean ecosystems. However at this very moment huge amounts of carbon dioxide are being pumped around the USA to allow enhanced recovery of oil. There are no reports of any major incidents and engineers working on these pipelines feel that they are much safer than the gas and oil pipe lines which run across most major cities. More globally, however, we currently have no reliable estimates of the amount of CO2 that could be safely stored.\n\n#### Transport\n\nI have included a short section on transport here as this is one of the major human contributions to global warming. At the moment, transport accounts for 13% of greenhouse gas emissions globally. In the UK, the carbon emissions from energy production, business, and residential sectors are all going down despite strong annual growth in the UK economy (2.5% per year); but even the UK government admits that transport emissions, mainly from cars, are growing at a formidable rate. A report in 2007 by the UCL Environment Institute suggested that over the next 20 years this growth in car use could wipe out all the cuts in carbon emissions made by the UK since 1990. If we extrapolate this to the rest of the world, we have everyone in the developing world aspiring to have the same standard of living as the West, and that includes at least one car per household and regular holidays by aeroplane.\n\nIn respect to cars, there are two possible solutions \u2013 biofuels and electricity. Biofuels have been discussed above, and mean that the current infrastructure of providing liquid fuel to cars could be maintained. But as we have seen, biofuels must be carefully produced as they can compete for land-use with food production, can result in tropical deforestation and can still be net emitters of carbon due to transport and production costs. Ultimately, electric cars are the future, because it can be guaranteed that the electricity produced is carbon-neutral. At the moment, we already have hybrid cars which combine a petrol engine with a battery system. This can improve engine efficiency and cut carbon emissions by an average of 50%. It would be an important step forward if all new cars produced had to have this type of system. The next step would be improvement in battery life and the building of infrastructure to allow cars to charge up \u2013 just as you charge up your mobile phone at home, you would do the same for your car.\n\nAeroplanes have become an easy target for climate change campaigners. International flights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol nor any other international treaty. But at the moment, just 1.6% of global emissions come from aviation. Research is being carried out to see whether a biofuel can be produced that is light enough and powerful enough to replace the traditional air fuel kerosene, though this seems a long way off at the time of writing. Hydrogen is not a solution, because its by-product is water; this is fine on the ground, but high up in the air it produces cirrus clouds which contribute to warming the planet. Since at present there is no real fuel solution for aviation, the airlines are keen to be involved in carbon trading. This way, the airlines can 'off-set' their carbon emissions by ensuring an equivalent amount was saved elsewhere.\n\n#### Carbon trading\n\nAs discussed in Chapter 7, one of the most important tools in Europe to ensure that carbon emissions are lowered is carbon trading. If alternative energy and carbon capture and storage are to be economically viable, then global carbon trading is essential. When Madam Fu Ying, Chinese Ambassador to the UK, visited University College London, she asked me when would it be cost-effective for China to fit carbon capture to their coal-fired power stations. I answered honestly 'never', as the electricity produced will always be more expensive if you have to capture and store the carbon emitted, unless you can then trade the carbon saved on an international stock market to make a profit. The European Trading Scheme and EU laws are already making renewable sources of energy more competitive. So we must remember that if we really want to switch the global economy away from carbon and on to alternative energy sources and carbon capture and storage, we need a fiscal method to drive the markets. So far, the only approach that seems to have worked within countries and trading blocs is the cap and trade system based on carbon.\n\n#### Off-setting\n\nOne of the most controversial aspects of carbon trading is off-setting. At the moment, this occurs through two systems: the UN Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the voluntary markets. The CDM has been described in Chapter 7, and basically UN-certified programmes in developing countries can be funded which make significant greenhouse gas savings. These can include preventing methane release from an abandoned mine, increasing energy efficiency, or solar power or wind power generation. The CDM credits can be bought by countries or through the voluntary market. For example, every time you fly you can buy through a number of companies carbon off-sets equivalent to the carbon emitted on your flight. In the West, a new branding of 'carbon neutral' products has arisen. This seems to encompass anything from television companies such as BSkyB to paper manufacture such as the Arjowiggins Conqueror brand. Off-setting is controversial as it is argued that many of these cuts would have been made anyway, and also it means that companies and people may not be motivated to change their actual behaviours. On a practical level, however, it does offer a way that individuals, companies, and countries can make a difference. It also provides a means of dealing with unavoidable carbon emissions such as from aviation. What does need to happen is for there to be clear global rules on what is and is not an acceptable carbon off-set. There also needs to be a clear verification service to ensure that the carbon saved is really saved.\n\n#### Geoengineering or technofixes\n\nGeoengineering, also referred to as technofixes or geohacking, always sounds like a Hollywood B-movie. This is because it looks at changing the environment on the planetary scale. Suggestions range from removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either by building artificial trees or by stimulating the oceans to take up more carbon. Other scientists have suggested erecting massive mirrors in space or injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reduce the amount of sunlight falling on Earth, balancing the heating from global warming. The fundamental problem with all of these approaches is that scientists have no idea what effects they would have. At the moment, scientists are performing one of the largest geoengineering experiments ever undertaken by injecting huge amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. As this book has shown, we understand that climate change will occur due to this action, but exactly how much and where we do not know. This is equally true of these technofixes \u2013 we have no idea if they would work or what unaccounted-for side effects they might have. In many ways, global warming for the Earth can be seen in the same way as illness and the human body: it is always preferable to prevent an illness than to try and cure one, and we all know the potential side effects of drugs, or chemo- or radiation therapy.\n\nOne of the famous technofixes was suggested by the late Professor John Martin. He suggested that many of the world's oceans are under-producing. This is because of the lack of vital nutrients, the most important of which is iron, which allows plants to grow in the surface waters. Marine plants need minute quantities of iron and without it they cannot grow. In most oceans enough iron-rich dust gets blown in from the land, but it seems that large areas of the Pacific and Southern Ocean do not receive much dust and thus are barren of iron. So it has been suggested that we could fertilize the ocean with iron to stimulate marine productivity. The extra photosynthesis would convert more surface-water carbon dioxide into organic matter. When the organisms die, the organic matter drops to the bottom of the ocean, taking with it and storing the extra carbon. The reduced surface-water carbon dioxide is replenished by carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. So, in short, fertilizing the world's oceans could help to remove atmospheric carbon dioxide and store it in deep-sea sediments. Experiments at sea have shown that the amount of iron required is huge. Also, as soon as you stop adding the extra iron, most of this stored carbon dioxide is released, as very little organic matter is allowed to escape out of the photic zone.\n\nAnother possible solution, advocated in Kunzig and Broecker's book _Fixing Climate_ , is the production of artificial trees. Klaus Lackner (a theoretical physicist) and Allen Wright (an engineer), supported by Wally Broecker (a climatologist), have designed CO2-binding plastic which can scrub carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The CO2 is then released from the plastic and taken away for storage. The problem here is one of scale; tens of millions of these giant artificial trees would be required just to deal with US carbon emissions. We are also left with the problem of how to transport and sequester the carbon safely.\n\nLastly, on the idea of mirrors to deflect the sunlight. The most sophisticated of these suggestions is from Roger Angel, Director of the Centre for Astronomical Adaptive Optics at the University of Arizona, who suggests a mesh of tiny reflectors to bend some of the light away from the Earth. He himself admits this would be expensive, requiring 16 trillion gossamer-light spacecraft costing at least $1 trillion and taking 30 years to launch. But even then it would not work. Dan Lundt and colleagues at Bristol University showed that the simple sunshade approach does not take us back to a pre-industrial climate. In fact, it takes us to a completely different global climate, with the tropics being 1.5\u00b0C colder, the high latitudes would be 1.5\u00b0C warmer, and precipitation would drop by 5% globally compared with pre-industrial times. So perhaps we should just stop putting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.\n\n### Summary\n\nIf we are to solve global warming, we need to tackle two fundamental principles. The first is to question the currently unsustainable lifestyle that we have in the developed world. If the 21st-century human population of 6\u20139 billion obtains the same lifestyle as that of the USA, then not only will the requirement for food be greater man supply, but Earth's maximum eco-footprint will also be exceeded. It seems we need at least two planet Earths to support a global population with the same living standards as those in the West. So we need to reduce the energy and material requirements of society, and thus the aspirations of developing countries. It seems that having more stuff does not make us happier, but living longer and having a better quality of life does.\n\nThe second principle concerns whether we as a global society are prepared to invest the relatively small amount, about 1\u20132% of world GDP according to Stern (2007), to off-set a much larger bill in the future. If so, then we have the technology at the moment both to protect our population from climate change and to mitigate the huge predicted emissions of greenhouse gases over the next 100 years. As we have seen, energy efficiency, alternative energy sources, carbon trading, and off-setting all have a role to play. We must also consider 'disruptive technologies', that is, new technologies that we may not yet have even thought of that could change the way we produce or use energy. For example, most of us cannot think of life without a mobile phone or a computer, but this technology has been around for only a few decades; we can quickly become accustomed to change. There are also huge amounts of money to be made from opportunities surrounding changes to our energy use and our personal lifestyles, and as we will see in the next chapter, there may be many win-win situations whereby quality of life can be improved at the same time as we save the planet.\n\n## [Chapter 9  \n **Visions of a zero-carbon future**](ch00-fm05.html#ch09a)\n\nIn this chapter, I want to provide a vision of the future. Many people now throw around the terms 'zero-carbon cities' and 'zero-carbon economy' but have no idea how to achieve them. What this chapter provides is a look at how our world will change to achieve these goals \u2013 because we must realize that our buildings, neighbourhoods, transport networks, and cities _will_ all have to change. I am indebted to Professor Yvonne Rydin, Co-Director of the UCL Environment Institute, who has provided the basis for these visions and has very kindly let me steal some of her ideas and expand on them. The following are some suggestions of what the low-carbon world of tomorrow might look like.\n\n### Home of the future\n\n\u2022 The three-storey town house is part of a group of houses, which collectively make up the GreenHomes Neighbourhood in Anywhere Town in Any Country. They are grouped around a pleasant green space with some play and keep-fit equipment in the centre. There is lots of greenery, some of it acting as sustainable urban drainage systems and the rest as shade from the midday sun. There is a network of local pathways, which are well lit and well used.\n\n\u2022 Close by are local shops, a primary school, and a community centre. The community centre notice board is testimony to the number of activities occurring there. Just outside the centre is the express tramway stop, and behind is a small car park with some of the community electric car-share vehicles and communal bicycles.\n\n\u2022 The house displays its zero-carbon energy certificate in the hallway but the high levels of insulation in the building fabric are invisible to most visitors. Next to the certificate is the smart meter. This shows the remarkably low levels of electricity usage within the house, thanks to the energy-efficiency measures and the solar water-heating system on the roof. But the meter also shows when electricity is being generated by the household through the photovoltaic cells incorporated into the roof-tiles, window shutters, and other flat surfaces.\n\n\u2022 The house is built to deal with the extreme weather predicted for the region: high ceilings, solar shading, and efficient air-conditioning powered by solar panels for the more frequent heat waves; raised ground floor and flood channels in the surrounding area to deal with floods, especially urban flash floods; deep foundations prevent damage to the house from soil shrinkage.\n\n\u2022 The house is as water efficient as it is energy efficient. Outside you can see the pipework for the rainwater harvesting system, collecting water into a special tank for feeding through into the house's plumbing system. Water separation is a feature of the house's plumbing, but the household hardly notice this or the water-saving features in the toilets, showers, and sinks.\n\n\u2022 There is no garage or off-street parking for the house. Instead, there is a secure cycle store, next to the composting unit. The rest of the household's waste goes into a vacuum waste removal system that also automatically sorts waste for collection and recycling at the community centre.\n\n### Office of the future\n\n\u2022 FutureOffices are proud of their new headquarters. Approaching it from any of a number of nearby bus-stops, tram-stops, or the train station, visitors are often surprised by its attractive design incorporating greenery at the ground floor, on numerous balconies, and right up to the green roof. The blades of the wind turbines catch the light, giving a clue to how some of the electricity demands of the occupiers are met.\n\n\u2022 Less obvious is the system of district heating pipes that connect the office building with other local users \u2013 shops, restaurants, the cinema, local health centre, and the college. The mix of users means that the heat demand is more or less balanced over the day and the week. All these users are connected into the area's combined heat and power unit.\n\n\u2022 However, FutureOffices Inc. have found the energy demands of its new building are much lower than those of its older buildings. The building's fabric is highly energy efficient but equally as important is the design that maximizes natural daylight while providing shade during the middle of the day, even when the sun is at its hottest. This and the natural internal ventilation system have removed the need for air-conditioning except during extreme heat waves and have made for a much healthier internal environment.\n\n\u2022 FutureOffices have made the health of workers a key aspect of the building. The stairs are visible features linking floors, with cafes on mezzanine levels. The stairs are heavily used; the lifts don't stop at every floor, so it is often more convenient to use the stairs. In any case, the lifts are tucked away rather than being the focal point of the lobbies.\n\n\u2022 Water-efficiency measures have hugely reduced the water bill. This is despite a dedicated cycle-and-shower unit on the ground floor, with secure cycle storage and changing room facilities.\n\n\u2022 Most of the office functions are not at ground-floor level, however, and neither are the core services. The building is not far from the river, and flooding has become more common recently, so the ground floor is flood-proofed to ensure that the next flood will not disrupt business.\n\n### Cities of the future\n\n\u2022 Our cities have been transformed across the world. Mixed-use developments are situated around vibrant public spaces. These spaces create a strong sense of distinctive place for new developments. The old is integrated into the new, with high-quality urban design.\n\n\u2022 Pedestrians are given priority over the car in the planning of cities. There are dedicated routes for trams, guided buses, and cycles linking the different land-uses.\n\n\u2022 A mix of micro-generation technologies provide energy for building users. Combined heat and power and district heating schemes are routine for new mixed-use developments, some using renewable fuels. Many of these schemes draw the existing buildings into their scope as well.\n\n\u2022 Greenery abounds, on the ground but also on roofs, providing multi-functional spaces for amenity, leisure, natural habitats, and water drainage. Sustainable urban drainage systems are standard, transforming the look of urban areas. Cities are as green and attractive as the countryside.\n\n\u2022 Nearby rivers are managed for their landscape, leisure, and nature conservation value. They also form part of urban transport networks, with riverside cycle paths and walkways. Most importantly, the riverbanks and surrounding land absorb rainfall run-off and prevent flooding of built-up areas.\n\n\u2022 Such cities encourage people to use their urban areas and to be active within them. Safe, pleasant, and green, cities all over the world contribute to the physical and mental health of their residents.\n\n### Transport of the future\n\n\u2022 Local travel is now routinely accomplished by public transport, which includes underground and overground trains, buses, trams, and boats. The majority of private cars and taxis are electric. A significant proportion of goods is moved by rail and then efficient electric vans and lorries. Separate cycle lanes and clear, well-lit pedestrians walkways are provided in all urban areas.\n\n\u2022 Continental travel has been revolutionized as air traffic has been replaced with Maglev (magnetically levitating) trains travelling at 900km\/h (about 600mph) using renewable sources of electricity. These rail networks extend between major cities throughout the world and fast connections allow people to travel across whole continents. The first coast-to-coast train versus plane race in the USA was won by the train; as the walk-on, walk-off train service removed the lengthy delays that occur at the airports.\n\n\u2022 Intercontinental travel still uses traditional aeroplanes, but these super-sized commercial jets carry over 1,000 passengers each and are the most efficient ever made. Flights have become very expensive due to the global carbon tax on aviation fuel and thus are always operating at full capacity. They are towed to and from the runway, saving a significant amount of fuel and of course money.\n\n\u2022 By the end of the 21st century, resources to fuel the new low-carbon global economy are running low. This is due to both the huge demand as the world rapidly develops and strict new global environmental protection laws. Space exploitation thus becomes cost-effective at the end of the 21st century. Carbon tax breaks on international space launches enable private companies and countries to set up orbiting space stations and the mining of the Moon begins.\n\n### Economy of the future\n\n\u2022 Carbon Auditors Ltd have just opened their new headquarters in London using all 143 floors of the first zero-carbon skyscraper. This attests to the huge market created in carbon trading since the momentous post-2012 international agreement.\n\n\u2022 Renewable and alternative energy companies flourish, replacing the old oil giants as one of the main profit-generating industries in the world. They have been made so profitable by global carbon trading, which is driven by the gradually shrinking global cap on carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions.\n\n\u2022 Technological solutions to both emission reductions and adaptation to climate change have occurred at a fast rate through the 21st century, producing a global developed society unrecognizable from that of a hundred years before. Everything from how plants grow to how we produce electricity has been improved.\n\n\u2022 Contrary to the doom merchants, the global economy in the middle of the 21st century is growing at nearly 5% per year \u2013 twice the yearly average in the early 21st century. This is due to the increasing flow of money and expertise to the developing world through the post-2012 agreement and global carbon trading. The increased spending power of the developing world has stimulated the global economy, benefiting everyone with improved standards of living. The threat of global warming thus ultimately led to a more equal distribution of wealth across the world and a stronger, faster-growing global economy.\n\n## [Chapter 10  \n **Conclusion**](ch00-fm05.html#ch10a)\n\nGlobal warming is one of the few scientific theories that makes us examine the whole basis of modern society. It is a theory that has politicians arguing, sets nations against each other, queries individual choices of lifestyle, and ultimately asks questions about humanity's relationship with the rest of the planet. There is very little doubt that global warming will change our climate in the next century; our best estimates suggest an average temperature increase of 1.1\u20136.4\u00b0C (probably about 4\u00b0C), a sea-level rise in the order of at least half a metre (as long as Greenland and Antarctica do not start to break down), significant changes in weather patterns, and more extreme climate events. This is not the end of the world as envisaged by many environmentalists in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but it does mean a great deal of misery for billions of people.\n\nGlobal warming is the major challenge for our global society. We should not underestimate the challenge ahead of us. The climate predictions of the IPCC 2007 reports were based on carbon emission scenarios of the next 100 years that were realistic forecasts in 2000. We now know that the economic miracle in China will cause carbon emissions to rise between 11% and 13% between 2000 and 2010, instead of the highest estimate used for Asia by the IPCC of 2.6\u20134.8%. In addition, the consensus approach used by the IPCC to secure agreement from all parties means it is inherently conservative. We should perhaps therefore view the top estimates of climate change as the more likely to occur; so we are staring down the barrel of a gun, with over 6\u00b0C warming by 2100 \u2013 and as discussed in Chapter 5, we really do not want to go there. The climate system is not linear, so there will be major tipping points when significant climate changes occur very rapidly. In Figure 34, I have collated the tipping points which colleagues believe are most likely to happen in the near future and will be most devastating. If we cannot reverse the current global emissions trends, all of these tipping points will occur in our future.\n\nAdd to this the estimates of top economists that it could cost us up to 20% of everything the world earns in the future to deal with a warmer world. In contrast, it may cost us only 1\u20132% of what we currently earn to convert our global economy to low-carbon. Even if the cost\u2013benefits are not so great, the ethical case for paying now to prevent the deaths of tens of millions of people and the increase in human misery must be clear.\n\nSo what are the solutions to global warming? First, there must be an international political solution; without a post-2012 agreement we are looking at huge increases in global carbon emissions and devastating global warming. Any political agreement will have to include developing countries, and to protect their rapid development, as it is a moral imperative that people in the poorest countries have the right to develop and to obtain the same standards of living we in the West currently enjoy. As far as I can see, the only way to do this is to set up international carbon trading. This way, countries, industry, business, and individuals can reduce their carbon emissions and make money doing so. This is an excellent way for money to flow from richer countries to the poorer countries of the world. Of course, as the poorer countries develop they will have more money to buy low-carbon technology from the richer countries, so continually stimulating the global economy. In addition, it will mean that there will be enough money for developing countries to adapt to the climate changes that will inevitably happen.\n\n**34. Potential climate change tipping points**\n\nSecond, we must greatly increase the funding for developing cheap and clean energy production, as all economic development is based on increasing energy usage. This is starting to happen \u2013 already, there is US$1 billion investment in clean technology by venture capitalists in Silicon Valley, and this is set to triple into the 2010s. This may sound like a lot of money, but in terms of research and development it is very small. What we really need is a level of funding only ever achieved when a country is at war. The USA has spent over US$1 trillion on the war in Iraq from 2003; just imagine if all that money had been put into developing technology for a zero-carbon world. The International Energy Agency estimates US$20 trillion will be invested in energy over the next 25 years \u2013 what we must do is to ensure that it is not in fossil fuels. But even if renewable energy technology does become available, there is no guarantee that it would be made affordable to all nations, since we live in a world where even life-saving drugs are costed to achieve maximum profit. Nor is there any guarantee that if we had unlimited free energy it would prevent us from continuing to abuse the planet: Paul Ehrlich at Stanford University, commenting on the possibility of unlimited clean energy from cold fusion, suggested it would be 'like giving a machine gun to an idiot child'.\n\nWe must not pin all our hopes on global politics and clean energy technology, so we must prepare for the worst and adapt. If implemented now, a lot of the costs and damage that could be caused by changing climate can be mitigated. This requires nations and regions to plan for the next 50 years, something that most societies are unable to do because of the very short-term nature of politics. So global warming challenges the very way we organize our society. Not only does it challenge the concept of the nation-state versus global responsibility, but the short-term vision of our political leaders. To answer the question of what we can do about global warming, we must change some of the basic rules of our society to allow us to adopt a much more global and long-term approach.\n\n**35. Is global warming all bad?**\n\nI leave you with thoughts of redesigning our global community and with the slogan my wife dreamt up for the UCL Environment Institute, because we really do need...\n\nCool solutions for a hotter world.\n\n## **Further reading**\n\n### History of climate change\n\nJ. Corfee-Morlot, et al., Climate Science in the Public Sphere, _Philosophical Transactions A of the Royal Society_ , 365\/1860 (2007): 2741\u20132776.\n\nJ. K. Leggett, _The Carbon War: Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era_ (Routledge, 2001).\n\n\u2014\u2014 _Half-Gone: Oil, Gas, Hot Air and the Global Energy Crisis_ (Portobello, 2006).\n\nS. R. Weart, _The Discovery of Global Warming, New Histories of Science, Technology, and Medicine_ (Harvard University Press, 2003).\n\n### Science\n\nR. W. Battarbee and H. A. Binney (eds), Natural climate variability and global warming: A Holocene perspective (10 key papers) (Wiley-Blackwell, 2008).\n\nJ. Gribbin, _Hothouse Earth: The Greenhouse Effect and Gaia_ (Grove Weidenfeld, 1990).\n\nD. Harvey, _Global Warming: The Hard Science_ (Prentice Hall, 2000).\n\nJ. T. Houghton, Global Warming: The Complete Briefing, 3rd edn. (Cambridge University Press, 2004).\n\nJ. C. R. Hunt, M. Maslin, P. Backlund, T. Killeen, and H. J. Schellnhuber (eds.), 'Climate Change and Urban Areas (nine key papers)', _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London_ , series A, 365\/1860 (2007): 2613\u20132776.\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis_ , Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S. Solomon et al. (Cambridge University Press, 2007).\n\nJ. H. Lawton, J. Marotzke, R. March, and I. N. McCave (eds.), 'Abrupt Climate Change: Evidence, Mechanism and Implications (fourteen key papers)', _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London_ , series A, 361\/1810 (2003): 1827\u20132078.\n\nNational Research Council, _Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises_ (National Academy Press, 2002).\n\n### Impact assessments\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability_ , Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. Parry et al. (Cambridge University Press, 2007).\n\nNational Assessment Synthesis Team, _Climate Change Impacts on the United States\u2014Overview Report_ (Cambridge University Press, 2000).\n\nM. Parry, J. Paluyokof, C. Hanson, and J. Lowe, 'Squaring Up to Reality', _Nature_ , reports on climate change, 2 (June 2008): 1\u20133.\n\n### Policy\n\nIPCC, _Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change_ , Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. B. Metz et al. (Cambridge University Press, 2007).\n\nS. Labatt and R. R. White, _Carbon Finance_ (Wiley, 2007).\n\nM. Maslin et al., _Audit of UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions to 2020: Will Current Government Policies Achieve Significant Reductions?_ , UCL Environment Institute: Environment Policy Report Number 2007:01, p. 61. ( _<_ <http:\/\/www.ucl.ac.uk\/environment-institute\/Publications\/UCLEI-report.pdf> _>_ ).\n\nR. Pielke Jr, T. Wigley, and C. Green, 'Dangerous Assumptions', _Nature_ , 452 (April 2008): 531\u20132.\n\nN. Stern, _The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review_ (Cambridge University Press, 2007).\n\nH. J. Schellnhuber et al. _Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change_ (Cambridge University Press, 2006).\n\n### Solutions\n\nT. Blair and The Climate Group, _Breaking the Climate Deadlock: A Global Deal for Our Low-Carbon Future_ , Report submitted to the G8 Hokkaido Toyako Summit (June 2008), downloadable from <http:\/\/tonyblairoffice.org\/2008\/03\/tony-blair-launches-climate-ch.html>\n\nR. Gelbspan, _Boiling Point_ (Basic Books, 2005).\n\nM. Hillman, _How We Can Save the Planet_ (Penguin Books, 2004).\n\nR. Kunzig and W. Broecker, _Fixing Climate_ (GreenProfile, in association with Sort of Books, 2008).\n\nA. Meyer, _Contraction and Convergence: The Global Solution to Climate Change_ (Green Books, 2000).\n\nG. Monbiot, _Heat_ (Allen Lane, Penguin Group, 2006).\n\nOECD, Bridge over troubled water: Linking climate change and development (OECD Publishing, 2005).\n\nS. Roaf, D. Crichton, and F. Nicol, _Adapting Building and Cities for Climate Change_ (Elsevier, 2005).\n\nJ. Sachs, _The End of Poverty_ (Penguin, 2005).\n\nO. Tickell, _Kyoto2: How to Manage the Global Greenhouse_ (Zed Books, 2008).\n\nG. Walker and D. King, _The Hot Topic_ (Bloomsbury, 2008).\n\n### General reading\n\nJ. Adams, _Risk_ (UCL Press, 1995).\n\nB. Lomborg, _The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World_ (Cambridge University Press, 2001).\n\nR. Henson, _The Rough Guide to Climate Change_ (Rough Guides, 2006).\n\nM. Lynas, _Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet_ (Fourth Estate, 2007).\n\nB. McGuire, _Seven Years to Save the Planet: The Questions and Answers_ (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2008).\n\nR. C. L. Wilson, S. A. Drury, and J. L. Chapman, _The Great Ice Age: Climate Change and Life_ (Routledge, 2003).\n\n### Fiction inspired by climate change\n\nN. Astley (ed.), _Earth Shattering: Ecopoems_ (Bloodaxe Books, 2007).\n\nJ. Cowley (ed.), _Granta 102: The New Nature Writing_ (Granta: _Magazine of New Writing_ , 2008).\n\nK. Evans, _Funny Weather_ (Myriad Editions, 2006).\n\nJ. Griffiths, _WILD \u2013 An Elemental Journey_ (Penguin Books, 2008).\n\nP. F. Hamilton, _Mindstar Rising_ (Pan Books, 1993).\n\nK. S. Robinson, _Forty Signs of Rain_ (HarperCollins, 2004).\n\nJ. Winterson, _The Stone Gods_ (Hamish Hamilton, 2007).\n\n## **Index**\n\n**A**\n\n**abrupt climate change\u20133, \u201323**\n\n**adaptation\u201350, \u20137**\n\n**aeroplanes, , **\n\n**aerosols\u201330, , , **\n\n**Africa, , , , , **\n\n**agriculture, , , \u20135**\n\n**Alaska\u20134**\n\n**albedo reflection**\n\n**Alps, glaciers in retreat in the**\n\n**alternative, renewable or clean energy\u20139, , , **\n\n**Amazon, , , , , \u201322**\n\n**_An Inconvenient Truth_ film documentary **\n\n**Angel, Roger**\n\n**Antarctica and Greenland, melting ice in\u20132, \u20134, \u20133, , , **\n\nabrupt climate change \u20137, \u20139,\n\nAntarctic Bottom Water (AABW) ,\n\ncarbon dioxide ,\n\ncoastal populations, threats to\n\ngas hydrate releases\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) report \u20139\n\nLittle Ice Age \u20132,\n\nozone layer, depletion of the\n\nsceptics \u20136\n\nsea levels , \u20139\n\n**AOGCMs (Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models)\u201375, \u20137**\n\n**AOSIS (Alliance of Small Island States)**\n\n**Arabia**\n\n**Arctic region, , , \u20134, , , **\n\n**Arrhenius, Svante\u20134**\n\n**Atlantic Ocean, , , , \u201316**\n\n**Australia, , , , \u201330**\n\n**B**\n\n**Bali UN Climate Change Conference 2007\u201314, **\n\n**balloon data\u20139**\n\n**Bangladesh\u20135, , **\n\n**bees**\n\n**bifurcation system\u201315, **\n\n**BINGOs (Business and Industry Non-Governmental Organizations)**\n\n**biodiversity\u2013101**\n\n**biofuels, , , **\n\n**biomass**\n\n**birds**\n\n**borehole temperature measurements, , **\n\n**Broecker, Wally**\n\n**Bush, George W, , \u20137**\n\n**C**\n\n**California, unilateral approach in**\n\n**Canada, \u201330, **\n\n**cap and trade\u20133, **\n\n**carbon dioxide emissions, , \u201315, \u20134,  _see also_ carbon emissions**\n\nagriculture \u20134,\n\nAmazon ,\n\nAntarctica and Greenland, melting ice in ,\n\nAOGCMs (Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models) \u20139\n\nbiodiversity \u2013101\n\ncapture and storage \u201361\n\ncarbon cycle \u20135, ,\n\nChina1 \u201312, , , \u20136,\n\ncoastlines \u20136, \u20135\n\ndangerous climate, meaning of \u201381\n\nextreme events \u20133\n\nfuture impact \u2013105\n\nhealth \u20139, ,\n\nheatwaves and drought \u20135,\n\nhistoric emissions ,\n\nindustrialization \u20139\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) \u201315, , ,\n\nmodels \u20138,\n\noceans , , \u20135, \u20135\n\npast climates \u20137,\n\npermafrost\n\nphotosynthesis\n\npredictions ,\n\nradiation \u20135\n\nsceptics \u20136\n\nsinks , \u20135\n\nsolutions\n\nstorms and floods \u201390,\n\nstratosphere\n\ntemperature , , \u20139, , \u20135\n\nUnited States , \u20137, ,\n\nwater \u20135\n\n**carbon trading _see_ emissions trading**\n\n**Carvalho, Anabela**\n\n**Central America**\n\n**cereal production\u20132**\n\n**Chamberlin, Thomas\u20134**\n\n**Chernobyl nuclear accident**\n\n**China\u201312, , , \u20139, , \u20136, , , **\n\n**cholera**\n\n**cities of the future\u20131**\n\n**classical civilizations, collapse of, \u20133**\n\n**Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), \u20138, **\n\n**clean energy _see_ alternative, renewable or clean energy**\n\n**climate models _see_ models**\n\n**clouds, \u20132, **\n\n**cooling\u20132, \u20132, , , , \u20132 _see also_ ice age**\n\n**coping range, extreme events and society's\u20133**\n\n**coral reefs**\n\n**cosmic rays**\n\n**costs of climate change\u20133, \u20139, \u20138, , , , , **\n\n**cotton production\u20133**\n\n**Coupled Carbon Cycle Climate Model Intercomparison Project (C** 4 **MIP), **\n\n**Cretaceous Period, 'greenhouse world' of the**\n\n**cryosphere, **\n\n**cyclones**\n\n**D**\n\n**dangerous climate change, meaning of\u201381**\n\n**Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles**\n\n**_Day After Tomorrow_ (film) **\n\n**deep-ocean circulation, , \u201316, **\n\n**deforestation, **\n\n**definition of climate change\u201320**\n\n**definition of global warming\u201322**\n\n**delay in recognition of global warming, reasons for\u201331**\n\n**Depledge, Joanna**\n\n**developing countries\u201313, \u20138, , **\n\nadaptation\n\nagriculture \u20134\n\nalternative, renewable or clean energy \u20135\n\nClean Development Mechanism (CDM) , \u20138,\n\ndiseases \u20139\n\neconomy of the future\n\nemissions trading , , \u20134, ,\n\ngreen colonialism \u20138\n\nKyoto Protocol\n\nmeat-eating\n\nmitigation \u20137\n\npolitics , \u20134,\n\nstorms and floods\n\ntransport\n\n**diseases, \u20139, **\n\n**displacement and mass migration, **\n\n**drinking water, access to fresh\u20137**\n\n**droughts and heatwaves, \u20135, **\n\n**E**\n\n**economic development and economists\u20133, \u201313, \u20139, , , **\n\n**Ehrlich, Paul**\n\n**El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), , \u20134**\n\nAmazon \u20132\n\nbiodiversity\n\ncoral reefs\n\nhyperni\u00f1o\n\nmodels , , \u20135\n\nprediction \u20133\n\ntemperature , ,\n\nUnited States\n\nweather patterns \u20135\n\n**Emanuel, Kerry**\n\n**emissions trading**\n\ncap and trade \u20133,\n\ndeveloping countries , \u20134, , \u20133,\n\neconomy of the future\n\nENGOs (Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations) \u20132\n\nEuropean Trading Scheme (ETS) , \u20133\n\nKyoto Protocol \u20138, , , , \u20132\n\nmitigation \u20133\n\nUnited States ,\n\n**energy _see_ alternative, renewable or clean energy**\n\n**energy efficiency\u20133, , \u20139**\n\n**ENGOs (Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations)\u20132**\n\n**environmental social movement, rise of**\n\n**equator, temperature at the\u20134**\n\n**Europe, 2003**\n\n**heatwave in, \u20132, **\n\n**European Union, , \u20131, \u201343**\n\n**evidence for climate change\u201359**\n\n**extinction rates\u20131**\n\n**extreme events, , \u20133, \u20138**\n\n**_Exxon Valdez_ oil spill **\n\n**F**\n\n**fatalities, , , \u20131, \u20136**\n\n**Finland, Tornio river in\u20135**\n\n**floods _see_ storms and floods**\n\n**food, , , , **\n\n**forcing mechanisms, \u201321, , , , , **\n\n**fossil fuels, , , , , **\n\n**Fu Ying**\n\n**future impacts of climate change, \u2013105**\n\n**G**\n\n**G8 countries, **\n\n**G-77\u20139, **\n\n**galactic cosmic rays**\n\n**Ganges River**\n\n**gas hydrates, \u201318, **\n\n**general circulation models (GCMs)\u20131, , , \u201375, \u20137**\n\n**geoengineering or technofixes\u20135**\n\n**geothermal\u20136**\n\n**glaciers, , \u20135**\n\n**Global Climate Coalition**\n\n**global cooling\u201331**\n\n**Global Historical Climate Network (GHCN)**\n\n**global mean temperature\u201330, \u20136, **\n\n**Gore, Al, **\n\n**green colonialism\u20138**\n\n**greenhouse gases**\n\nalbedo\n\nblanket effect \u20135\n\ncarbon dioxide , \u201315\n\nclouds reflecting solar radiation ,\n\nenhanced greenhouse effect\n\ngas hydrates \u201317\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) \u201315,\n\nmain gases and their warming effect, list of \u201317\n\nmethane \u201317\n\nmodels , ,\n\nnaturally occurring\n\npolar ice caps, melting of\n\nsceptics\n\ntemperature ,\n\nwater vapour\n\n**Greenland _see_ Antarctica and Greenland**\n\n**Gribben, John**\n\n**_Guardian_ newspaper \u20136**\n\n**Gulf Stream, **\n\n**H**\n\n**Hansen, James, **\n\n**health\u20139, , **\n\n**heatwaves and droughts, \u20135, **\n\n**history of global warming debate\u201340**\n\n**Holocene Period\u20135, **\n\n**homes of the future\u20138**\n\n**Hongshan culture**\n\n**Hooghly Channel**\n\n**Hulme global precipitation set**\n\n**hurricanes, \u20139, \u20135**\n\n**hydrate dumping**\n\n**hydroenergy**\n\n**hyperni\u00f1o**\n\n**I**\n\n**ice ages\u20138, , \u20134, , \u20136, \u20135, **\n\n**Ice Fairs on the Thames**\n\n**'ice house world' of today, , **\n\n**ice sheets _see_ Antarctica and Greenland**\n\n**Iceland, glaciers in retreat in**\n\n**impact assessments**\n\n**Incas**\n\n**India, , , , , , , **\n\n**industrialization\u20139, \u201313, **\n\n**insects**\n\n**interglacial periods, \u20134**\n\n**IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)\u201315, **\n\nadaptation \u20137,\n\nAntarctica and Greenland, melting ice in \u20139\n\nbiodiversity \u2013100\n\ncarbon dioxide \u201315,\n\ncoastlines ,\n\ndrinking water, access to\n\nextreme events and society's coping range \u20132\n\nfuture impact of climate change ,\n\ngreenhouse gases \u201315,\n\nKyoto Protocol\n\nmodels , \u20139, \u20132\n\nprecipitation\n\npredictions \u20132, \u20139,\n\nreports \u20132, , , , , , , , \u20139, \u20132,\n\nsea level \u20132,\n\nSpecial Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES)\n\ntemperatures , \u201350, \u20139, , ,\n\nUN Framework on Climate Change (UNFCC)\n\n**J**\n\n**Japan, \u201330**\n\n**Joint European Torus (JET) project**\n\n**JUSSCANNZ (Japan, USA, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway, New Zealand)\u201330**\n\n**K**\n\n**Keeling, Charles**\n\n**Kunzig, Robert**\n\n**Kyoto Protocol\u20138, \u20139, **\n\nAustralia ,\n\ncarbon dioxide emissions, predicted and historic ,\n\nClean Development Mechanism (CDM) , \u20138\n\ndeveloping countries\n\nemissions trading \u20138, , , , \u20132\n\nEuropean Union \u20131, , ,\n\nG-77 \u20139\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)\n\nJUSSCANNZ \u201330\n\nlarger emitters, focus on \u20139\n\nnation versus sector approach\n\nnon-governmental organizations\n\nratifications \u201314, , \u20137, \u20139,\n\nRussia , \u20138,\n\nsmall island states\n\ntargets , , ,\n\nUnited States \u201314, \u20137, \u20137,\n\n**L**\n\n**Lackner, Klaus**\n\n**Lake Nyos explosion, Cameroon**\n\n**land surface-air temperature\u20137, \u201350**\n\n**Little Ice Age\u20132, \u20136, **\n\n**Lomborg, Bj\u00f8rn\u20138, **\n\n**Lovelock, James**\n\n**Lundt, Dan**\n\n**M**\n\n**malaria\u20139**\n\n**Mann, Michael**\n\n**marine air temperatures (MAT)\u20138**\n\n**Martin, John**\n\n**mass migration, **\n\n**Mayan civilization, water and**\n\n**McIntyre, Stephen and McKitrick, Ross\u20136**\n\n**media and global warming debate, \u20137, , **\n\n**Medieval Cold Period and Medieval Warm Period\u20136, **\n\n**melting ice\u20132, , , \u20133, \u20136, , , , , \u20139, **\n\n**meteorological stations, global distribution of**\n\n**methane, , , , \u201318**\n\n**mitigation, , \u201365, \u20136**\n\n**models, , \u201377, \u20137, \u20135, \u20133, \u20137, , , \u201320**\n\n**monsoons, , \u20137, \u20135, , **\n\n**N**\n\n**National Research Council (NRC)\u20138**\n\n**natural climate change, , \u20132, \u20134**\n\n**NGOs (non-governmental organizations), **\n\n**Nile delta, **\n\n**nitrous oxide**\n\n**non-governmental organizations\u20132**\n\n**Nordhaus, William**\n\n**Norse colonies in Greenland, extinction of**\n\n**North Atlantic Ocean\u20138, , \u201316**\n\n**northern hemisphere, \u20135, , \u20138, , \u201316**\n\n**Norway, \u201330**\n\n**nuclear energy, \u20137**\n\n**O**\n\n**oceans, ,  _see also_ sea level rises**\n\nAOGCMs (Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models) \u201375, \u20137\n\ncarbon dioxide , , \u20135, \u20131, \u20135\n\ndedensification\n\ndeep-ocean circulation , , \u201316,\n\ngas hydrates , \u201318,\n\nPacific Ocean ,\n\ntechnofixes \u20135\n\nthermal expansion\n\ntsunamis\n\n**office of the future\u201370**\n\n**off-setting**\n\n**oil, , , **\n\n**OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)**\n\n**orbit of the Earth, variations in, , , , **\n\n**Orellana, Francisco de\u201319**\n\n**ozone layer**\n\n**P**\n\n**Pacala, Steve**\n\n**Pacific Ocean, **\n\n**palaeoceanography**\n\n**palaeoclimatology, , , \u20135, **\n\n**Parry, Martin**\n\n**past climates\u20139, \u20131, \u20136, \u20135**\n\n**Pearlman, Don**\n\n**permafrost\u20134**\n\n**pesticides**\n\n**photosynthesis, **\n\n**Pielke Jr, Roger\u20139**\n\n**Plass, Gilbert, **\n\n**polar ice caps, \u20134, , , **\n\n**politics\u20133, \u20135, \u201344, , \u20137 _see also_ Kyoto Protocol**\n\n**Ponte, Lowell**\n\n**population**\n\n**post-2010**\n\n**agreement\u20134, **\n\n**poverty, \u20138, , \u20138**\n\n**precipitation**\n\nAmazon , \u201320\n\ndrinking water, access to \u20137\n\nevidence for climate change ,\n\nheatwaves and drought\n\nmodels , \u20139\n\nstorms and floods\n\n**predictions\u20132, \u20132, \u20139, , , \u20133, \u20133, \u20135, **\n\n**Prins, Gwyn**\n\n**proxies\u20139**\n\n**R**\n\n**radiation, \u20135, , \u20137**\n\n**rail**\n\n**rain _see_ precipitation**\n\n**rainforest, , , \u201321**\n\n**Rayner, Steve\u20139**\n\n**recent climate change\u201363**\n\n**renewable energy sources _see_ alternative, renewable or clean energy**\n\n**Revelle, Roger\u20136**\n\n**Rio Earth Summit, , \u20136, **\n\n**rivers\u20135, **\n\n**Robinson, Kim Stanley**\n\n**Rudd, Kevin**\n\n**Russia, \u20138, \u20133**\n\n**Rydin, Yvonne**\n\n**S**\n\n**salination, , , , \u201316**\n\n**satellites\u20139, , **\n\n**sceptics, , \u20138, \u20135**\n\n**Schneider, Stephen**\n\n**science\u20136, \u201340, **\n\n**Scotland, **\n\n**sea ice, , , **\n\n**sea level rises\u20133**\n\nadaptation\n\nAntarctica and Greenland, melting ice in , \u20139\n\nAOGCMs (Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models) \u201370\n\ncoastlines , \u20136\n\ndrinking water, access to\n\nEngland , \u20139, \u20135, ,\n\nevidence for climate change \u20133,\n\nextreme events and society's coping range\n\ngas hydrates\n\nhealth\n\nHolocene period\n\nice , ,\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) \u20132,\n\nmodels \u201371,\n\nNile Delta\n\nriver deltas \u20134\n\nScotland ,\n\ntectonic plates\n\n**sea-surface temperatures (SST)\u201350**\n\n**Seidov, Dan**\n\n**Shackleton, Nicholas**\n\n**share trading\u201390**\n\n**small island states, \u20134, **\n\n**snow, , **\n\n**Socolow, Robert**\n\n**solar energy, \u20138, **\n\n**solar output and sunspot activity\u20137**\n\n**solar radiation, **\n\n**solutions\u201366**\n\n**Southern Oscillation _see_ El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)**\n\n**space exploitation**\n\n**Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES)**\n\n**stabilization wedges\u20131**\n\n**statistical data\u20138**\n\n**Stern Report\u20133, \u20139, , **\n\n**storms and floods**\n\nadaptation\n\ncities of the future\n\ncoastlines \u20135\n\ncosts , \u20138\n\ndrinking water, access to \u20137\n\nEl Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) \u20135\n\nfatalities ,\n\nfuture impacts of climate change \u201390,\n\nhomes and offices of the future ,\n\nhurricanes and cyclones , , \u20138,\n\nmitigation policies\n\nmodels \u20137\n\nmonsoons , , \u20137, \u20135, ,\n\nprecipitation\n\nUnited Kingdom , \u201390\n\nUnited States \u20138, ,\n\n**stratosphere**\n\n**sulphur dioxide**\n\n**Sun**\n\nalbedo reflection\n\ncooling\n\niceages ,\n\nmirrors to deflect sunlight\n\norbit of the Earth, variations in , , , , ,\n\nradiation\n\nsolar heating , \u201318, \u20138\n\nsolar output and sunspot activity \u201330, \u20137\n\n**T**\n\n**technology, \u20136, **\n\n**tectonic changes, **\n\n**temperature\u20137, , , \u20139, \u201351, **\n\naerosols \u201330,\n\nagriculture\n\nballoon data \u20139\n\nbiodiversity \u20131\n\nborehole measurements , ,\n\ncarbon dioxide , , \u201370, , \u20135\n\ndangerous climate change, meaning of \u201391\n\nequator \u20134\n\nextreme events and society's coping range ,\n\nfossil fuels, burning\n\nglacier shrinkage\n\ngreenhouse gases ,\n\nEl Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) ,\n\nevidence for climate change \u20137,\n\nglobal mean temperature \u201330, \u20136,\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) , \u201350, \u20139, \u20138,\n\nLittle Ice Age \u20132\n\nmeteorological stations, global distribution of\n\nmeasurements \u20139,\n\nmodels , \u201370, , \u20139\n\nproxies \u20139\n\nsunspot cycles\n\n**Thames Barrier\u20139, \u20135, **\n\n**Thames ice fairs**\n\n**thermohaline circulation (THC)**\n\n**Third World _see_ developing countries**\n\n**Thomas, Chris**\n\n**Three Mile Island nuclear accident**\n\n**_Times newspaper_ \u20136, **\n\n**trading _see_ emissions trading**\n\n**transport, \u20132, , **\n\n**trees\u20137, **\n\n**tsunamis**\n\n**U**\n\n**UN (United Nations)**\n\nBali UN Climate Change Conference 2007 \u201314,\n\nFramework Climate Change Convention , , \u201340, \u20136\n\nProtocols\n\nUNCTAD (UN Conference on Trade and Development)\n\n**unilateral approach\u201340**\n\n**United Kingdom**\n\nalternative, renewable or clean energy \u20135\n\nClimate Impacts Programme \u20138,\n\nEnvironment Agency \u20135\n\nflooding and high temperatures\n\nfuture impacts of climate change \u20138\n\nLondon , \u201390, \u20135,\n\nsea level rises , \u20135,\n\nshare-trading \u201390\n\nstorms and floods \u201390\n\nThames Barrier \u20139, \u20135,\n\ntransport\n\n**United States, , , **\n\nAlaskan permafrost \u20134\n\nBali UN Climate Change Conference 2007\n\ncarbon dioxide emissions, level of , \u20137, , ,\n\nClean Air Act 1990\n\nClimate Change\n\ncotton production \u20133\n\nEl Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)\n\nemissions trading ,\n\nEuropean Union\n\nfarmers, subsidies for \u20133,\n\nhurricanes , ,\n\nJUSSCANNZ \u201330\n\nKyoto Protocol \u201314, \u20137, \u20137,\n\nmalaria\n\nmedia , ,\n\nRio Earth Summit\n\nstorms and floods \u20138, ,\n\nunilateralism ,\n\n**urban heat island effect, **\n\n**V**\n\n**vegetation, , , \u201321, **\n\n**Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer**\n\n**W**\n\n**waste, **\n\n**water _see also_ storms and floods**\n\nagriculture\n\ncarbon emissions \u20135\n\ndrinking water, access to fresh \u20137\n\nfreshwater extraction \u20135\n\nfuture impacts of climate change\n\nhomes of the future\n\nhydroenergy\n\nIPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)\n\nMayan civilization\n\noffices of the future\n\nprecipitation \u20137\n\nsalination\n\nsea levels\n\nvapour \u20135\n\nwells \u20135\n\n**waves**\n\n**Weart, Spencer**\n\n**weather\u20132, , \u20133 _see also_ heatwaves and drought; storms and floods**\n\nabrupt weather conditions, failure to predict \u20133,\n\nevidence for climate change , \u20135,\n\ndiseases\n\nEl Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) \u20135\n\nhomes of the future\n\n**Webster, Peter**\n\n**wind power, **\n\n**Witoelar, Rachmat**\n\n**World Bank\u20135**\n\n**World Trade Agreements**\n\n**Wright, Allan**\n\n**Z**\n\n**zero-carbon future\u20133, \u201372**\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}