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ANDREWS,\n COUNSELLOR AT LAW.\n\n\n \"TRAIN UP A CHILD IN THE WAY HE SHOULD GO; AND, WHEN HE IS OLD,\n HE WILL NOT DEPART FROM IT.\"\n\n\n BOSTON:\n CROSBY, NICHOLS, AND COMPANY,\n 111, WASHINGTON STREET.\n 1853.\n\n\n\n\n BOSTON:\n PRINTED BY JOHN WILSON AND SON,\n 22, SCHOOL STREET.\n\n\n\n\nPREFATORY NOTE.\n\n\nThe increasing importance of the subject treated of has led the author\nto revise an article, published nearly two years ago in a monthly\njournal, and to present it in the following pages. His object is to call\nattention to what he regards a _defect in the operation_ of our present\nsystem of education, and to propose some suggestions for its remedy.\nThat defect consists in the want of moral instruction in our schools.\nIts existence, he believes, may be attributed to the state of public\nopinion, rather than to any imperfection in the system itself. For this\nreason, he is of opinion that remarks on the subject are more necessary,\nand therefore worthier of the consideration and indulgence of the\npublic.\n\n 35, COURT STREET, BOSTON,\n May, 1853.\n\n\n\n\n THE\n INCOMPLETE OPERATION\n OF OUR\n PRESENT SYSTEM OF EDUCATION.\n\n\nThe duty of bringing up the young in the way of usefulness has ever been\nacknowledged as of utmost importance to the well-being and safety of a\nState. So imperative was this obligation considered by Solon, the\nAthenian lawgiver, that he excused children from maintaining their\nparents, when old and feeble, if they had neglected to qualify them for\nsome useful art or profession. Although this principle has universally\nprevailed in every civilized age, yet the success of its practical\noperation depends entirely upon what is understood by necessary\nknowledge and useful employment. If, as among the Lacedemonians and many\nother nations of antiquity, a useful art consisted chiefly in the\nexploits of war,--in being able to undergo privations and hardships, and\nin wielding successfully the heavy instruments of bloodshed,--such an\neducation as would conduce to the acquirement of that art must be\nestimated on different grounds from that system whose object is to\ndevelop the moral and intellectual faculties.\n\nFrom the distant past, traditions have come down, evincing in many\ninstances exemplary care in the culture of youth; but the conspicuous\nrecord made of them by the historian and poet refutes the idea that they\nwere common. With the lapse of centuries, revolutions in the arts and\nsciences have been effected, important in themselves, but more so for\nthe changes they have produced both in social and political affairs.\nLike hunters who discover in their forest-wanderings a valuable mine\nwhich shapes anew their course of life, the people of the old world, in\nthe fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were allured from their\nincessant conflicts by the more profitable arts of peace. Till then the\ninterests of learning had been crushed by the superstition and bigotry\nof the times. In the fourteenth century even, the most celebrated\nuniversity in Europe, that of Bologna, bestowed its chief honors upon\nthe professorship of astrology. But these grand developments in art and\nscience gave a new impulse to social life. Thenceforward the interests\nof education began to thrive. The patronage given to popular\ninstruction by many of the rulers of European States has imparted a\nlustre to their annals, which will almost atone for their heartless\nperversion of human rights. For whether we consider the coercive system\nof Prussia, which not yet exhibits very happy practical results; or the\nAustrian system, which indirectly operates coercively by denying\nemployment to those unprovided with school-diplomas; or the Bavarian,\nwhich makes a certificate of six years' schooling necessary to the\ncontracting of a valid marriage or apprenticeship; or, indeed, the\nsystems of many other Continental countries,--we find much to excite\ncheering anticipations.\n\nThis country--this Commonwealth especially--has ever been distinguished\nfor being foremost in the maintenance of a benevolent and comprehensive\nsystem of education. That system is, we believe, in the judgment of\nforeigners, one of the most original things which America has produced.\nFortunately for the prosperity of the people who derive their support on\nthis rugged soil, their fathers were a class of men deeply imbued with\nmoral sentiment,--lovers of freedom and of knowledge; men who sought\nthat security of their principles in the spread of moral intelligence,\nwhich the sword alone would in vain attempt to procure. \"The hands that\nwielded the axe or guided the canoe in the morning opened the page of\nhistory and philosophy in the evening;\" and it cannot be a matter of\nsurprise, that, counting their greatest wealth in their own industry and\nresolution, they should at an early period turn their attention to the\nimportant subject of education; and that they even denied themselves\nmany of the comforts of life, in order to secure the blessings which\nmight evolve therefrom.\n\nThe peculiarity of our system of government is, that it invests the\nsovereignty in the people; and, as it has always been the policy of\nevery nation claiming to be civilized to educate those who were designed\nto govern, it might naturally enough be inferred, that, in this country,\nmeans would be provided whereby the whole people might receive an\neducation. And thus it is. The true object, therefore, of such a system\nof instruction as the government supports, it must be conceded by all,\nconsists in qualifying the young to become good citizens,--in teaching\nthem not only what their duties are, but making them ready and willing\nto perform them. We should discriminate between the object of common\nschools and the object of colleges; between an institution intended to\ninform every one of what every one should know, and one designed to fit\npersons for particular spheres of life, by a course of instruction\nwhich it is impracticable for all to pursue. A very large majority of\nthose who enter our colleges are desirous of acquiring that knowledge,\nas well as discipline, which will prepare them most thoroughly for some\none of the learned professions: it is a course preparatory to one still\nhigher,--a gateway by which the industrious and sagacious may with\ngreater ease traverse the long and winding avenues of science. Of a more\ngeneral nature is the object of that instruction provided by the State\nfor all, because it is designed to fit them for a greater variety of\nduties, and the chief of these duties is that of _living justly_. If we\nregarded physical resources as the chief elements of prosperity, or\nintellectual superiority the principal source of national greatness; if\nwe followed the theory of the Persian legislator, Zoroaster, who thought\nthat to plant a tree, to cultivate a field, and to have a family, were\nthe great duties of man, we might be content with that instruction which\nwould sharpen the intellect, and furnish us with acute and skilful men\nof business. But an enlightened public sentiment rejects such a theory\nas narrow and unsafe. It is surely of great importance that children\nshould be made familiar with the common branches of knowledge; that\ntheir minds should receive as thorough discipline as is practicable;\nbut of what transcendent importance is it that they should have\nimpressed upon their minds the principles of truth and justice, and the\ntrue value of resolute, earnest industry; that they should grow up in\nthe love of virtue and honor, and be taught to know and govern\nthemselves! Education of the heart, as well as education of the mind,\nshould be promoted. The State should make men before it makes artisans;\ncitizens before it makes statesmen. And this in theory it proposes to\ndo. The highest praise that can be bestowed upon our system of\neducation, here in Massachusetts, is that the leading object it\ncontemplates is the moral instruction of the young. This is its grand\nand peculiar feature. Those who have been and are now at the head of our\neducational interests, have sought, by timely word and deed, to carry\nthis purpose into active operation. In so doing, they have attempted to\ngive effect to the law which expressly ordains that \"all instructors of\nyouth shall exert their best endeavors to impress on the minds of\nchildren and youth committed to their care and instruction, the\nprinciples of piety, justice, and a sacred regard to truth, love to\ntheir country, humanity and universal benevolence, sobriety, industry\nand frugality, chastity, moderation and temperance, and those other\nvirtues which are the ornament of human society, and the basis upon\nwhich a republican constitution is founded; and it shall be the duty of\nsuch instructors to endeavor to lead their pupils, as their ages and\ncapacities will admit, into a clear understanding of the tendency of the\nabove-mentioned virtues.\" (Rev. Stat. chap. 23, Sec. 7.)\n\nNobody, probably, at this day believes, that, in cherishing principles\nof this nature, the law which creates this system is visionary or\nimpracticable. All are ready to admit, that the human heart needs\nthe influence of moral discipline. Yet such is the nature of our\nsocial existence that there is a great tendency to postpone its\napplication,--to let it depend upon contingencies. When nearly all of\nthe good or evil that we can possibly do has been done,--after\ntemptations have been resisted or yielded to,--after our years begin to\nwane, we then think seriously of moral improvement. Preachers the most\neloquent--for their eloquence commands the highest reward--we employ to\nexhort us to practise virtues, which, if we had been rightly educated,\nwe should have practised from our earliest youth with as much facility\nas we read or write. If a child is to learn grammar, let him commence,\nevery one will say, when young, while his memory is most retentive. If\nwe are to teach him those principles which are to shape his destiny\nin life, and have their home in the heart, should we wait till it is\nleast susceptible of impression? It cannot be denied that too much\nindifference prevails on this subject. We are apt to shut our eyes to\nthe evils which arise from imperfect education, so long as they do not\naffect our personal interest. Victims of depraved appetites and passions\nwe take charge of, not out of regard for them, or the circumstances\nwhich have induced their guilt, but for our own protection. When a man\nsunk in crime is held up to public gaze, nearly the same feeling is\nexcited which actuates boys who follow with noisy jests a drunken woman.\nRarely do we stop to inquire, why, if wrong influences had been brought\nto bear upon our characters, we should not have been as bad. Unless such\ninstruction be promoted, many who are now unconcerned for the\nmisfortunes of others will themselves ask for compassion. \"Surely there\nwill come a time,\" says Dr. Johnson with truthful energy, \"when he who\nlaughs at wickedness in his companion _shall start from it in his\nchild_.\"\n\nNow, the only sure and legitimate way of reforming those evils which\nburden society is to prevent their acquiring any existence. It is a\nfavorite notion with many, that, by checking vice here and there, our\nbenevolent institutions are working a thorough cure. But this is not\nso. While we furnish subsistence to those whom intemperance and idleness\nhave brought to destitution,--while we erect asylums where reason may be\nrestored to the shattered mind,--while we enlarge prisons in which to\npunish the violators of the law,--we should remember that some endeavors\nshould be made to prevent others from requiring the same charities, and\nincurring the same penalties. Instead of standing merely by the fatal\nshoal to rescue the sinking crew, we should raise a warning signal to\navert future shipwrecks.\n\nAll experience shows that, to operate successfully, this branch of\neducation must be early attended to. True it is, that, just as 'the twig\nis bent, the tree's inclined;' and true it is, that on the discipline of\nchildhood depends the moral character of manhood. The tree in the\nforest, after it has grown to a considerable height, may yet be bent\nfrom its natural course, and, by long-continued force, be made to grow\nin a different direction; but that change will not be permanent. When\nthe power which turned its course is withdrawn, every breeze and every\ntempest that shake its branches will aid it in gradually assuming its\noriginal position, till hardly a trace of that power which attempted to\nguide its growth can be perceived. There may be some who would neglect\nthat moral influence on the young which is necessary, trusting in the\ndelusive expectation, that the law will keep them in the right path;\nthat the example of punishment, the terror of the gallows, the prison,\nor the penitentiary, will prevent the commission of crime. But let us\nnot wait for the saving influence of these things; for they are but\nchecks which often render the next outbreak more alarming. The force of\npunishment will be found to resemble the application of power in\nchanging the growth of the tree: weeks, years of confinement, will not\neffect a complete reformation in the offender. His life may seem to be\nchanged, his habits reformed; but, as he goes out to mingle again with\nthe world, as one occasion after another presents itself to him, his\nformer passions begin to revive, those early impressions take possession\nof him, and he becomes the same that he was originally, only that his\ndegraded position renders him far less able to resist the temptation to\ndo wrong. Impressions and habits acquired in youth are proverbially\nlasting. With characteristic eloquence and fervor has Lord Brougham\nillustrated the peculiar importance of early training. In a Speech\ndelivered in the House of Lords in 1835 upon one of those measures which\nhave conferred so much glory on his name as well as benefit upon his\ncountrymen, he said, \"If at a very early age a system of instruction is\npursued by which a certain degree of independent feeling is created in\nthe child's mind, while all mutinous and perverse disposition is\navoided,--if this system be followed up by a constant instruction in the\nprinciples of virtue, and a corresponding advancement in intellectual\npursuits,--if, during the most critical years of his life, his\nunderstanding and his feelings are accustomed only to sound principles\nand pure and innocent impressions, it will become almost impossible that\nhe should afterward take to vicious courses, because these will be\nutterly alien to the whole nature of his being. It will be as difficult\nfor him to become criminal, because as foreign to his confirmed habits,\nas it would be for one of your lordships to go out and rob on the\nhighway. Thus, to commence the education of youth at the tender age on\nwhich I have laid so much stress, will, I feel confident, be the same\nmeans of guarding society against crimes. I trust every thing to\nhabit,--habit, upon which, in all ages, the lawgiver, as well as the\nschoolmaster, has mainly placed his reliance,--habit, which makes every\nthing easy, and casts all difficulties upon the deviation from the\nwonted course. Make sobriety a habit, and intemperance will be hateful\nand hard; make prudence a habit, and reckless profligacy will be as\ncontrary to the nature of the child, grown an adult, as the most\natrocious crimes are to any of your lordships. Give a child the habit of\nsacredly regarding truth, of carefully respecting the property of\nothers, of scrupulously abstaining from all acts of improvidence which\ncan involve him in distress, and he will just as little think of lying\nor cheating or stealing, or running in debt, as of rushing into an\nelement in which he cannot breathe.\"\n\nThe thought may strike some, however, that children can receive moral\ndiscipline at home; that parents are best enabled to understand the\ndisposition of their children, and can consequently apply the requisite\ntraining with more success than any one else; and, most of all, because\nit is their especial duty so to do. So we might say, with almost as much\nreason, that parents could teach their children the elementary branches\nof knowledge; in the first place, because it is in their province to\nknow the peculiar turn of mind possessed by their children, and also for\nthe equally plausible reason, that they are under a great obligation to\neducate them. Now, there is much truth in the observation of Seneca's,\nthat people carry their neighbors' faults in a bag before them, which\nare easily to be seen, and their own behind them unseen; and, without\ndoing parents too much injustice, we may say that they are inclined to\ncarry the failings of their children tied up with their own. The fact\nis, generally speaking, parents are so confident that their children do\nnot lack in honesty and integrity, at a time when these principles\nshould be forcibly impressed upon them, that they let the occasion for\nmoral training pass until bad habits are deeply rooted in their\ncharacter. There are, we know, many cheering exceptions; yet, if moral\ninstruction is neglected in the school, to a majority of the scholars\nthat neglect will nowhere be provided for, until some bad results have\nensued.\n\nTo carry out, then, the primal purpose of our system of education,\ninstructors should seek to mould the character of their pupils.\nSupervisors and committee-men should require a faithful discharge of\nthis trust. When they come to examine the school, if the standard of\nintellectual attainments is not so high as might be desirable, they\nshould yet bear testimony to its advancement, if they find that those\n\"virtues which adorn life\" have been held up in all their attractiveness\nto the imitation of the pupil.\n\nThus have we seen that the system itself contemplates the culture of the\nheart as well as the mind; and that it is wise, practical, and just in\ndoing so. We now propose to show that this object is generally\ndisregarded, if not entirely lost sight of, in our common schools; and\nto illustrate, if possible, the means whereby it can be more completely\ncarried into operation. In the first place, the present state of society\ntestifies to a neglect somewhere of inculcating habits of rectitude.\nThere is a want of CONSCIENCE in the community. The prevalence of crime,\nas seen by the returns of public prosecutors and magistrates, is but a\nsmall part of the evidence of this fact. We might as well judge of a\nman's wealth by his dress, as to form an opinion on public morals by the\nnumber of punishable offences committed. And, indeed, the records of\ncourts furnish but incomplete evidence of the number of punishable\noffences actually committed; for where one criminal is brought to the\nbar of justice, ten escape detection. We have the authority of a very\neminent Judge for this remark. But there are wrongs which are not\npunishable by the law, being too small and undefinable for its\ncognizance. It is the bad faith which enters into contracts, and\ndeceives the honest purchaser, or dupes the confiding vendor; the\nbaseness which conspires to wink down credit; the avarice which greedily\ntakes advantage of poverty, or the craft which converts it into a weapon\nof fraud; the scandal which sets neighbor against neighbor; the fretful\nharshness which clouds the domestic fireside; the ingratitude which\nspurns parental influence; the selfishness which would trade in\nprinciples, and bargain away public measures for private gain,--these,\nand such as these, are the conclusive proofs of public vice. Even the\ndeplorable appearances which penury exhibits are counterfeited, and we\nhesitate to give alms lest we should encourage an impostor. The\nbenevolent man distrusts the beggar who asks for a night's lodging, and\nturns him away, fearful that he might prove an assassin or a robber; or\nhe reluctantly calls him back, lest he should revenge himself by burning\nhis barn. There are common symptoms which show a patient's sickness,\nthough they do not indicate the particular nature of his disease. So\nthis mutual distrust, which characterizes the dealings of men, indicates\nthe debility of public morals, and points with unerring certainty to the\nneglect of early discipline.\n\nBut an inspection of the schools will afford us the most reliable\nevidence on this subject. From the system of instruction now pursued in\nour best common schools, a scholar of ordinary capacity is enabled to\nbecome a good reader, writer, and speller; to acquire a very good\nknowledge of geography and arithmetic, and a little insight into natural\nphilosophy, physiology, grammar, and history, as well as to gain some\nhabits of order and correct deportment. It is true also that in some\nschools considerable efforts are bestowed on moral culture: this,\nhowever, depends upon the peculiar character of the teacher. Yet it\ncannot be denied, that intellectual improvement is treated as of\nparamount importance; and that, if any attempts are made at moral\ntraining, they are purely incidental; being considered collateral to the\nother lessons. Surely no one will think of reproaching teachers for this\ncondition of things; for they are governed by the public opinion of the\ndistrict or town they teach in, as much as the statesman is governed by\nthe public opinion of the country. The voice of the district is silent\non the subject. The committee who examined or engaged them did not\nallude to that part of their duty, or inquire into their qualifications\nfor discharging it. If the teacher goes through the term in harmony, and\nsucceeds in advancing his pupils in an ordinary degree in the common\nbranches, he is acknowledged to have accomplished his entire duty.\n\nIn attempting to show the manner in which the right development of\ncharacter may be blended with the development of the mental faculties,\nit might be proper to advert to the method a teacher could pursue with\nthe greatest success. A very imperfect idea only of any policy can be\ngiven, inasmuch as the duty must be left to his own discretion. No set\nplan can be adhered to; neither could text-books be used to advantage.\nHe should not have an appointed time for such an exercise, nor resort to\nformal lectures, nor rely upon the studied maxims which moralists have\nframed in the closet, nor depend upon the stereotyped precepts of\nphilosophers. As the sentiments he inculcates are addressed to the\nheart, so also from the heart should they spring. Every one knows that\nthe events which transpire in and about the school-room furnish too\nfrequent opportunities for this species of instruction. These acts of\nturpitude he should heed, and make the subject of his lessons. Report\ncomes to him that some of his pupils have been guilty of insulting and\nridiculing an aged and infirm person. He might give them time to reflect\nupon the nature of their act, and to decide themselves whether it was\nright or wrong. Then let him show the claims which age, combined with\nfeebleness, has upon our respect and sympathy, and expose the cruelty\nand shame of that conduct which would increase its misfortunes. He\nlearns, perhaps, that a pupil has used profane language during an\nintermission. As he requires the school to pause, let him speak in\nsimple language of the omnipotence and omnipresence of the Creator; of\nthe commandment which he has ordained, that none should take his name in\nvain. By referring to some of the faculties, mental and physical, with\nwhich he has been endowed, let the teacher call forth the gratitude,\nnot only of that pupil but the whole school, for the wonderful goodness\nof their Maker. By reminding them of his compassion and tenderness, his\ninfinite wisdom and power, let him inspire them with love and reverence\nfor his name. Envy and jealousy he will see prominent in the character\nof his fairest pupils: let him show that the heart was not made for such\nfeelings; that, if they are nurtured there, no room will be found for\nnoble and generous sentiments. Quarrels will occur in which blows will\nbe dealt lustily: a few simple illustrations will prove that force is a\ndangerous and imperfect arbiter of justice. If unhappily falsehood\nprevails, let him make haste to supplant a habit, so fearful and\npernicious, though every thing else be laid aside. Let him show the\ngreat inconvenience a man must experience in whose word no confidence\ncan be reposed. The fable of the shepherd-boy who gave false alarms to\nthe distant workmen of the approach of wolves, so that when the wolves\nreally came his cries were in vain, will show that lying is unprofitable\nin the end. But his chief object should be to exhibit the moral\nturpitude of the habit,--the facility with which it leads to deeper\nguilt,--the manifold evils which it engenders in the community; and thus\nto impress upon the minds of his pupils a sacred regard for truth.\nSuch, it might seem, would be the course which a high-minded and zealous\nteacher would pursue in imparting moral instruction. But, whatever be\nhis method, it is quite certain that a successful performance of his\nduty in this respect implies great capacity. Extensive learning will not\nbe a sufficient qualification. An accurate and comprehensive knowledge\nof the sciences may have given vigor to his mind; he may be familiar\nwith the classic pages of Thucydides and Homer, Horace and Livy; he may\nbe versed in the philosophy of history, and yet lack in the essential\nelements of his art. He must possess native talent, a clear insight of\nhuman character, agreeable address, extemporaneous powers of speech. He\nmust be a clear-thinking, conscientious, practical man; and it will be\nimpossible for him to fail in his undertaking. Such a teacher will win\nthe respect and esteem of his pupils: they will imitate his example, and\ncherish his counsel.\n\nNow, the inquiry will naturally be made if the teachers of common\nschools have these qualifications. There are some who are thus\nqualified. They are those who in other professions would rise to\neminence by the zeal and ability with which they now advance our youth\nin intellectual culture. But they are an exception to the common\nstandard. The majority of teachers, however, are quite young. They are\npreparing themselves for other duties, which they consider more\nimportant to their own interests, if not the interests of the public.\nNot experienced sufficiently in their art to excel in its ordinary\nlabors, they do not stand far enough above their pupils to succeed in\nthis higher and more difficult branch of instruction.\n\nBefore, then, moral education can be successfully promoted, the right\nkind of teachers must be employed. There is but one way of obtaining\nthem, and that is by paying them liberal salaries. All are not\nphilanthropists. Here and there, it is true, may be found persons\ndisinterested enough to devote their energies to the public good, for\ntheir daily bread alone. But it is the height of absurdity to expect\nthat men of talent and learning will continue in so arduous an\noccupation as that of teaching for small compensation, when in less\nlaborious pursuits they can acquire opulence. The average pay received\nby male teachers throughout the Commonwealth, as appears from the last\nannual report of the learned Secretary of the Board of Education, is\n$37.26 per month. The average length of schools being seven months and a\nhalf, the yearly salary of the teacher would therefore be $279.45; out\nof which he must pay for his board and all other expenses. Hardly\nadequate to support one man respectably, it entirely excludes the\ncircumstance of his having a family, implying a self-denial of the\ncommon uses of social life. The natural presumption is, that a teacher\nis not exempt from the calamities that sometimes befall men; that he\nbuys a few books and a little stationary; that he is as unwilling as any\none to wear ragged clothes; and, uncertain of continued employment in\none place, that he incurs some expense in changing his locality. But the\nstandard price which he receives ignores any such presumption. In regard\nto the payment of female teachers, we might suppose that a different\nrule would prevail; that in a community where woman holds a high moral,\nsocial, and intellectual position,--where marked deference is paid to\nher character,--where the great superiority of her influence as a parent\nand a teacher is acknowledged,--one might indeed suppose that she would\nbe liberally rewarded for her services, especially when those services\nare rendered in her peculiar sphere of duty,--that of teaching. Strange\nas it may appear, such is not the case; while her labor, apparently not\nso responsible, is often more wearing than the labor of the\nschoolmaster. It seems that the average pay of female teachers is $15.36\nper month. When it is remembered that all the expenses of living are to\nbe deducted from the amount paid at this rate, her real income shrinks\ninto the merest trifle. There is not an occupation in which intelligent\nyoung women can be employed that does not present greater pecuniary\ninducements. Under such circumstances it must be a matter of surprise\nthat we have as good teachers, both male and female, as now have charge\nof our schools. Will any one, then, for a moment suppose that persons of\ngreater ability than they will be induced to engage or continue in such\nan employment, when wealth and influence and happiness point in another\ndirection? Laying aside suppositions, let us see what the facts are.\nWith the majority of those now engaged in the business, teaching is a\ntemporary employment. Some are teaching during their college vacations,\nintending, as soon as they graduate, to commence their professional\nstudies;--they are perhaps our future judges, or clergymen, or sagacious\nmerchants; others are already abandoning the business to enter upon\nmercantile pursuits. As soon as they have acquired experience, so that\ntheir services are truly valuable to the public, they find that their\nfuture prospects are to be sacrificed if they continue longer in the\nprofession. Thus, instead of retaining persons in this most important of\nall professions, we drive them out of it to adorn and exalt other\noccupations. Many of the ablest men in each of our learned professions\nwere once school-teachers: if a proper reward had encouraged them to\nremain in that capacity, how visible at this day would be the influence\nwhich they would have exerted upon their pupils! It is clear, then, that\nthe only means by which we can retain teachers who have the requisite\ntalent and ability, is by paying them adequate salaries. Then our\nschools can furnish moral as well as intellectual instruction; and the\nobject which our system of education contemplates can in a great degree\nbe accomplished.\n\nFully aware that the people are peculiarly sensitive on the subject of\ntaxation, especially when no tangible results are to follow its\nincrease, we do not hesitate to say that the interests of education\ndemand a far greater expenditure of money. The spirit which has\ncharacterized the people of the Commonwealth, in their past efforts to\nadvance the cause, promises favorable action on the subject. In an age\nwhen astonishing improvements in every art and every science are being\ndeveloped,--when nature, in her most regal and opposing state, bends to\nthe energy of man,--when countless sums are lavished to gratify and\nsatiate every sense, how mortifying and discreditable that a great moral\ncause should languish! Even if the contribution which would be required\nfor this purpose could in any way be felt by the poorest citizen, it\ncould not be felt as a burden; for he might regard it as an investment\nthe most profitable and secure,--the income of which would return to his\nown door full of blessings upon his declining days. When solicited to\ndouble the tax which he had formerly paid for school-purposes, regarding\nhis own interest merely, and not that of the public, he might sincerely\nsay, \"Yes, out of my limited means I am content to pay freely for such\nan object. By paying the teacher more, am I not increasing his\nusefulness? Am I not doing something to bring up my children in\nknowledge and integrity? Will they not be a greater comfort to me, and\nmore happy and prosperous themselves? Besides, in a few years, much\nmischief in the community may be diminished, and there will be a smaller\ntax on me and mine to support criminals and prisons. If all are taught\nto do their duty as citizens, I shall not suffer for their neglect of\ndoing so.\" Though the correctness of his reasoning will be admitted, the\nargument in this behalf should be placed on higher grounds than\nindividual prosperity. The benefits to be derived by the public as\nexhibited in the abatement of many social evils,--in the diffusion of\nrational happiness,--in the gains of honest industry, such should be the\ninducements to this worthy undertaking.\n\nIn conclusion, we submit that for reasons too apparent to be alluded\nto, and too urgent to be disregarded, more attention should be devoted\nto the true aim and purpose of education,--to a more complete operation\nof the system. More than the past has needed, will the future require\nthe benefits which it unfolds. Let the teacher's vocation be elevated,\nand advantages will accrue to the State, compared with which, exuberant\nharvests, a thriving commerce, and an overflowing treasury, will be but\nsmall resources. We should form a wise and generous precedent in this\nmatter, below which indifference will not suffer us to fall. We should\nengage in the enterprise with a determination to carry it forward to the\nhighest degree of success. It may be \"absurd to expect, but it is not\nabsurd to pursue, perfection.\"\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Reflections on the Operation of the\nPresent System of Education, 1853, by Christopher C. Andrews\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}} +{"text":" \n# Table of Contents\n\nBuilding Slack Bots\n\nCredits\n\nAbout the Author\n\nAbout the Reviewer\n\nwww.PacktPub.com\n\neBooks, discount offers, and more\n\nWhy subscribe?\n\nPreface\n\nWhat this book covers\n\nWhat you need for this book\n\nWho this book is for\n\nConventions\n\nReader feedback\n\nCustomer support\n\nDownloading the example code\n\nErrata\n\nPiracy\n\nQuestions\n\n1. Getting Started with Slack\n\nIntroduction to Slack\n\nSlack as a platform\n\nThe end goal\n\nSummary\n\n2. Your First Bot\n\nPreparing your environment\n\nInstalling Node.js\n\nInstalling the development tools using NPM\n\nCreating a new project\n\nCreating a Slack API token\n\nConnecting a bot\n\nJoining a channel\n\nSending a message to a channel\n\nThe slack object\n\nGetting all the channels\n\nGetting all members in a channel\n\nSending a message to a channel\n\nBasic responses\n\nThe authenticated event\n\nUsing the message event\n\nAvoiding spam\n\nSending a direct message\n\nRestricting access\n\nAdding and removing admins\n\nDebugging a bot\n\nSummary\n\n3. Adding Complexity\n\nResponding to keywords\n\nUsing classes\n\nReactive bots\n\nBot commands\n\nSanitizing inputs\n\nExternal API integration\n\nError handling\n\nSummary\n\n4. Using Data\n\nIntroduction to Redis\n\nInstalling Redis\n\nMac OS X\n\nWindows\n\nUnix\n\nConnecting to Redis\n\nSaving and retrieving data\n\nConnecting bots\n\nDynamic storage\n\nHashes, lists, and sets\n\nHashes\n\nLists\n\nSets\n\nSorted sets\n\nBest practices\n\nSimple to-do example\n\nSummary\n\n5. Understanding and Responding to Natural Language\n\nA brief introduction to natural language\n\nFundamentals of NLP\n\nTokenizers\n\nStemmers\n\nString distance\n\nInflection\n\nDisplaying data in a natural way\n\nWhen to use NLP?\n\nMentions\n\nClassifiers\n\nUsing trained classifiers\n\nNatural language generation\n\nWhen should we use natural language generation?\n\nThe uncanny valley\n\nSummary\n\n6. Webhooks and Slash Commands\n\nWebhooks\n\nIncoming webhooks\n\nOutgoing webhooks\n\nSlash commands\n\nIn-channel and ephemeral responses\n\nUsing webhooks and slash commands\n\nSummary\n\n7. Publishing Your App\n\nThe Slack app directory\n\nRegistering your app and obtaining tokens\n\nUnderstanding the OAuth process\n\nScopes\n\nSubmitting your app to the app directory\n\nMonetizing your bot\n\nSummary\n\nFurther reading\n\nIndex\n\n# Building Slack Bots\n\n* * *\n\n# Building Slack Bots\n\nCopyright (C) 2016 Packt Publishing\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.\n\nEvery effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.\n\nPackt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.\n\nFirst published: June 2016\n\nProduction reference: 1170616\n\nPublished by Packt Publishing Ltd.\n\nLivery Place\n\n35 Livery Street\n\nBirmingham B3 2PB, UK.\n\nISBN 978-1-78646-080-6\n\nwww.packtpub.com\n\n# Credits\n\n**Author**\n\nPaul Asjes\n\n**Reviewer**\n\nNicolas Grenie\n\n**Commissioning Editor**\n\nDavid Barnes\n\n**Acquisition Editor**\n\nUsha Iyer\n\n**Content Development Editor**\n\nMehvash Fatima\n\n**Technical Editor**\n\nSiddhi Rane\n\n**Copy Editor**\n\nRoshni Banerjee\n\n****\n\n**Project Coordinator**\n\nKinjal Bari\n\n**Proofreader**\n\nSafis Editing\n\n**Indexer**\n\nMonica Ajmera Mehta\n\n**Graphics**\n\nKirk D'Penha\n\n**Production Coordinator**\n\nShantanu N. Zagade\n\n**Cover Work**\n\nShantanu N. Zagade\n\n# About the Author\n\n**Paul Asjes** started programming on his TI-83 calculator in high school and has been hooked ever since.\n\nSpecializing in JavaScript, he is always interested in staying up to date with the latest developments in the field. Currently, he is building universal full-stack apps with technologies such as React, Webpack, and Node when he's not spending far too much time on Slack.\n\nSince his IRC days, he has been interested in chat bots and how they can be used. He has written several Slack bots to date, ranging from bots that facilitate playing games to bots that retrieve important business metrics.\n\n ****\n\nI would like to thank my wife, Caitlin, for being my biggest fan, proofreader, and muse during the writing of this book.\n\n# About the Reviewer\n\n**Nicolas Greni e** is a hacker-in-residence at 3scale, living between Barcelona and San Francisco.\n\nNicolas built his first website in 2000 using Microsoft Word and since then has not stopped learning about programming.\n\nThis API freak likes to try new languages and APIs all the time. He has built many integrations for Slack and Amazon Echo. He runs a good number of meetups in Barcelona about APIs, Meteor, and entrepreneurship.\n\nWhen he isn't working, you have a good chance of finding him hacking side projects or enjoying a good craft beer. And, of course, as he is French, frogs and snails are part of his daily diet!\n\n ****\n\nI want to thank Steven Willmott, the CEO of 3scale, and the entire 3scale team for giving me the inspiration and time to hack interesting projects and technology.\n\nI also want to thank my parents and family for the positive learning environment they've built, letting me explore my passion and curiosity for technology.\n\n# www.PacktPub.com\n\n# eBooks, discount offers, and more\n\nDid you know that Packt offers eBook versions of every book published, with PDF and ePub files available? You can upgrade to the eBook version at www.PacktPub.com and as a print book customer, you are entitled to a discount on the eBook copy. Get in touch with us at `` for more details.\n\nAt www.PacktPub.com, you can also read a collection of free technical articles, sign up for a range of free newsletters and receive exclusive discounts and offers on Packt books and eBooks.\n\n\n\nDo you need instant solutions to your IT questions? PacktLib is Packt's online digital book library. Here, you can search, access, and read Packt's entire library of books.\n\n## Why subscribe?\n\n * Fully searchable across every book published by Packt\n * Copy and paste, print, and bookmark content\n * On demand and accessible via a web browser\n\n# Preface\n\nChat bots have become big talking points in the world of business and software development. On the forefront of team communications is Slack, a platform for talking to colleagues and friends about absolutely anything. The engineers at Slack saw the potential and have designed a system that allows anyone to build their own Slack bots for productivity, ease of use, or just plain entertainment.\n\nThis book will teach you how to use a myriad of tools to build the very best bots for the Slack platform. Whether you are a programming beginner or a seasoned veteran, by the end of this book, you will be able to create high-quality bots whose only limit is the your imagination. You might also pick up a few tricks along the way.\n\n# What this book covers\n\nChapter 1, _Getting Started with Slack_ , shows you what is Slack and why we should care about Slack bots.\n\nChapter 2, _Your First Bot_ , takes you through building your first bot and explains how it works.\n\nChapter 3, _Adding Complexity_ , helps us expand our first bot with new and useful functionalities.\n\nChapter 4, _Using Data_ , teaches you how to use persistent data with your Slack bots.\n\nChapter 5, _Understanding and Responding to Natural Language_ , teaches you about natural language processing and how to develop a bot that can comprehend and respond in natural language.\n\nChapter 6, _Webhooks and Slash Commands_ , takes us through the uses of webhooks and Slash commands in a Slack setting.\n\nChapter 7, _Publishing Your App_ , teaches you how to publish your app or bot so that it can be used by others outside your company.\n\n# What you need for this book\n\nYou should have an intermediate understanding of JavaScript and programming concepts in general. For this book, we will be using Node.js version 5.0.0. This means that the JavaScript code samples contained within will use ECMAScript 2015 (ES2015, more commonly known as ES6) features, which have been enabled in Node v5.0.0. For a full list of ES6 features enabled in Node.js version 5 and up, visit the Node.js website ().\n\nThis book, its techniques, and the code samples within are OS-agnostic, although for debugging purposes, either the Google Chrome or Opera browser is required.\n\n# Who this book is for\n\nThis is a book for software developers who want to build Slack bots for their own company's use or for customers.\n\n# Conventions\n\nIn this book, you will find a number of text styles that distinguish between different kinds of information. Here are some examples of these styles and an explanation of their meaning.\n\nCode words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles are shown as follows: \"Save the file and then run the code via `iron-node` in your terminal.\"\n\nA block of code is set as follows:\n\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n return;\n }\n\nWhen we wish to draw your attention to a particular part of a code block, the relevant lines or items are set in bold:\n\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n **return;**\n }\n\nAny command-line input or output is written as follows:\n\n **npm install -g iron-node**\n\n**New terms** and **important words** are shown in bold. Words that you see on the screen, for example, in menus or dialog boxes, appear in the text like this: \"Either click on the **Step over** button in the top-right corner, symbolized by an arrow curving around a dot, or hit _F10_ to step over to the next line.\"\n\n### Note\n\nWarnings or important notes appear in a box like this.\n\n### Tip\n\nTips and tricks appear like this.\n\n# Reader feedback\n\nFeedback from our readers is always welcome. Let us know what you think about this book--what you liked or disliked. Reader feedback is important for us as it helps us develop titles that you will really get the most out of.\n\nTo send us general feedback, simply e-mail ``, and mention the book's title in the subject of your message.\n\nIf there is a topic that you have expertise in and you are interested in either writing or contributing to a book, see our author guide at www.packtpub.com\/authors.\n\n# Customer support\n\nNow that you are the proud owner of a Packt book, we have a number of things to help you to get the most from your purchase.\n\n## Downloading the example code\n\nYou can download the example code files for this book from your account at . If you purchased this book elsewhere, you can visit and register to have the files e-mailed directly to you.\n\nYou can download the code files by following these steps:\n\n 1. Log in or register to our website using your e-mail address and password.\n 2. Hover the mouse pointer on the **SUPPORT** tab at the top.\n 3. Click on **Code Downloads & Errata**.\n 4. Enter the name of the book in the **Search** box.\n 5. Select the book for which you're looking to download the code files.\n 6. Choose from the drop-down menu where you purchased this book from.\n 7. Click on **Code Download**.\n\nYou can also download the code files by clicking on the **Code Files** button on the book's webpage at the Packt Publishing website. This page can be accessed by entering the book's name in the **Search** box. Please note that you need to be logged in to your Packt account.\n\nOnce the file is downloaded, please make sure that you unzip or extract the folder using the latest version of:\n\n * WinRAR \/ 7-Zip for Windows\n * Zipeg \/ iZip \/ UnRarX for Mac\n * 7-Zip \/ PeaZip for Linux\n\nThe code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at . We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available at . Check them out!\n\n## Errata\n\nAlthough we have taken every care to ensure the accuracy of our content, mistakes do happen. If you find a mistake in one of our books--maybe a mistake in the text or the code--we would be grateful if you could report this to us. By doing so, you can save other readers from frustration and help us improve subsequent versions of this book. If you find any errata, please report them by visiting , selecting your book, clicking on the **Errata Submission Form** link, and entering the details of your errata. Once your errata are verified, your submission will be accepted and the errata will be uploaded to our website or added to any list of existing errata under the Errata section of that title.\n\nTo view the previously submitted errata, go to and enter the name of the book in the search field. The required information will appear under the **Errata** section.\n\n## Piracy\n\nPiracy of copyrighted material on the Internet is an ongoing problem across all media. At Packt, we take the protection of our copyright and licenses very seriously. If you come across any illegal copies of our works in any form on the Internet, please provide us with the location address or website name immediately so that we can pursue a remedy.\n\nPlease contact us at `` with a link to the suspected pirated material.\n\nWe appreciate your help in protecting our authors and our ability to bring you valuable content.\n\n## Questions\n\nIf you have a problem with any aspect of this book, you can contact us at ``, and we will do our best to address the problem.\n\n# Chapter 1. Getting Started with Slack\n\nThis book will enable a beginner to create their own Slack bot either for amusement or professional purposes.\n\nThe ultimate goal of this book is for you to think of Slack as a development platform with great potential, rather than simply a chat client. As Slack continues its meteoric rise in popularity in the developer community, the possibilities and opportunities contained in Slack apps will prove to be a valuable tool in any developer's toolbox.\n\nIn this chapter, we introduce you to Slack and its possibilities. We will cover:\n\n * An introduction to Slack\n * Slack as a platform\n * The end goal\n\n# Introduction to Slack\n\nLaunched in August 2013, Slack started as an internal communication tool utilized by small teams but has been rapidly morphing into a versatile communications platform used by many parties, including the open source community and large businesses.\n\nSlack is a real-time messaging application that specializes in team communication. In a crowded space of productivity applications, Slack sets itself apart by providing extensive integrations with popular third-party apps and provides users with the platform to build their own integrations.\n\nAs of the beginning of 2016, Slack is used by approximately 2 million users daily, and spread across 60,000 teams that send 800 million messages per month (). Some of the more well known companies who use Slack include Airbnb, LinkedIn, and The New York Times. This service has become so popular, largely thanks to its impressive uptime rate of over 99.9 percent. What sets Slack apart from competition such as HipChat or Skype for Business is the determination of the company to open its platform for third-party developers in the form of an **application program interface** ( **API** ). To spur the growth of their service as a platform, in December 2015 Slack pledged to invest $80 million into software projects that use its technology (). Added to the more than $320 million raised in funding for the company, it's safe to say that Slack will continue to be a driving force in the team productivity space in the years to come.\n\n# Slack as a platform\n\nWhat many users perhaps don't know about Slack is that underneath the messaging client, a highly extensible platform exists that can be used to create apps and business tools that can simplify the development cycle, perform complex tasks, or just be downright silly.\n\nSlack's UI with its own Slack bot in action\n\nThis platform or API can be utilized to integrate third-party services into Slack's platform and leverage their extensive reach and user friendly interface. The said third-party applications can send data into Slack via incoming webhooks, execute actions outside of Slack with commands, or respond to commands as a bot user. The bot user or bot is the most interesting; they are so named as they can mimic human users by performing the same actions that any human can.\n\n### Note\n\nSlack bots are software applications that run on the Slack **Real Time Messaging** ( **RTM** ) platform. Bots can be used to interact with external applications or your custom code in a conversational manner.\n\nSome of the more popular bots include GitHub's multitasking Hubot () and Meekan's scheduling bot (), but many more of varying complexity are developed each day.\n\nThe most obvious and well known bot is Slack's own Slack bot, used for built-in Slack functions such as:\n\n * Sending feedback to Slack\n * Scheduling reminders\n * Printing a list of all users in a channel\n\nAnother widely popular bot is Hubot. Originally developed by GitHub and ported to Slack by Slack themselves, Hubot can provide useful functionality such as GitHub activity tracking, which can keep you up to date with GitHub repositories.\n\nGitHub integration showing branch and pull request activity\n\nYou can also add infrastructure monitoring through Jenkins:\n\nJenkins integration bot showing build automation logs in Slack\n\nBots can transform Slack from a simple messaging client to an important business tool, benefitting any company that uses custom bots unique to their workflow. The beauty of the Slack platform is that anyone can create a functional bot in a few simple steps.\n\n# The end goal\n\nUpon completing this book, the reader will be able to build a complex Slack bot that can perform the following tasks, amongst other things:\n\n * Receive and send message sent in Slack\n * Respond to user commands\n * Process natural language\n * Perform useful tasks on command (for example, fetch data from external sources)\n * Insert custom data into Slack via webhooks and slash commands\n\n# Summary\n\nThis chapter gave you an overview on what Slack is, why it is noteworthy, and how its platform can be leveraged to create a myriad of useful apps. The next chapter will show you how to build your first simple Slack bot.\n\n# Chapter 2. Your First Bot\n\nReaders will be amazed at how few lines of code are required to get a basic bot up and running in their Slack environment. This chapter will walk the reader through the basics of building a Slack bot:\n\n * Preparing your environment\n * Creating a Slack API token\n * Connecting your bot\n * Joining a channel\n * Sending a message to a channel\n * Basic responses\n * Sending a direct message\n * Restricting access\n * Debugging your bot\n\nAlthough some of the concepts first outlined will be known to a more advanced reader, it is still recommended to read through the first few sections of this chapter to ensure that your environment is up and ready to go.\n\nIn this chapter, we will build a bot that performs the following actions:\n\n * Connects to your Slack team\n * Says hello to all the members of a channel after successfully connecting, distinguishing between real users and bot users\n * Responds to users saying hello\n * Sends a direct message to users who ask for the total amount of time the bot has been running (also known as uptime)\n * Ensures that only administrative users can request the bot's uptime\n\n# Preparing your environment\n\nBefore we can get started with the first bot, the programming environment must be set up and configured to run Node.js applications and packages. Let's start at the very beginning with Node.\n\nIn brief, Node.js (also referred to as Node) is a JavaScript runtime built on Chrome's v8 JavaScript Engine. In practice, this means that JavaScript can be run outside of the usual browser environment, making JavaScript both a frontend and backend language.\n\nGoogle Chrome's v8 JavaScript engine ensures that your JavaScript code runs fast and efficiently. Unlike in the world of browsers (and excepting Node versions), Node is maintained by a single open source foundation with hundreds of volunteer developers. This makes developing for Node much simpler than for browsers as you will not run into problems with varying JavaScript implementations across platforms.\n\nIn this book, we will be using major Version 5 (any version starting with 5) of Node. This allows us to use the newly implemented features of ECMAScript 2015 (better known as **ES2015** or **ES6** ). Whenever an ES6 feature is used in this book for the first time, look for the accompanying code comment for a brief explanation on the feature.\n\n### Note\n\nAlthough many are implemented, not all ES6 features are currently available in Node and some are only available in **strict** mode. For more information, please visit the Node ES6 guide: .\n\nThis section will briefly explain how to install Node.js and the Slack API on your development machine.\n\n## Installing Node.js\n\nTo install Node.js, head to the official Node website, , download a v5 version and follow the onscreen instructions.\n\nTo test whether the installation succeeded, open up a terminal, type the following, and then hit _Enter_ :\n\n **node**\n\nIf node installed correctly, you should be able to type JavaScript commands and see the result:\n\nHello World in Node.js\n\n### Note\n\nHit _Ctrl_ \\+ _C_ twice to exit Node.\n\n## Installing the development tools using NPM\n\n**Node Package Manager** ( **NPM** ) is Node.js' package ecosystem and the tool used to install Node packages. As of the time of writing, there are more than 240,000 NPM packages available for download, with more being added every day.\n\nFortunately, NPM is automatically installed once the Node installation is complete. Let's start by installing a useful Node development tool called `nodemon` (). Run the following in your terminal or command prompt:\n\n **npm install -g nodemon**\n\nThis command will install the `nodemon` package globally (note the `-g` flag), meaning it can be run from any location on your computer. After the `install` command, you must specify the package you wish to install and can optionally select some flags that configure how the package is installed. Later on, we'll explore flags such as `--save` and `--save-dev` and their uses.\n\n`nodemon` is a Node utility that will monitor any changes in your code and automatically restart your Node process. For our purposes, this will save us from having to stop the Node process and restart it every time we make a change to our code.\n\nTo demonstrate `nodemon`, let's look at an example. In your code editor of choice, paste the following and save it as `hello-world.js`:\n\n console.log('Hello World!');\n\nIn your terminal, run the following:\n\n **nodemon hello-world.js**\n\nYour output should look like this:\n\nThe same Hello World as before but using nodemon\n\nNote how the console command ran and then the program exited. `nodemon` then enters \"watch mode\", where it will wait for any files (indicated by the `*.*` wildcard) to change and then subsequently restart the Node process. `nodemon` can be further customized to watch or ignore specific files. Visit the website for more information.\n\n### Tip\n\nTo manually restart the Node process without changing a file that `nodemon` watches, type _rs_ followed by the _Enter_ key.\n\n## Creating a new project\n\nNow that the basics of Node and NPM are covered, we will look at creating a new Node project and expanding our knowledge of NPM.\n\nA Node project can contain dependencies and development dependencies. The former are segments of code (or packages) that are required to run the project whereas the latter are segments of code used solely for development. In our previous example, `nodemon` would be considered a development dependency, as it would not be used in a production environment.\n\nThe dependencies of a Node project are stored in a **JavaScript Object Notation** ( **JSON** ) file named `package.json`. The JSON file contains information about the Node project, including a list of dependencies, the versions of the dependencies, and information about the package author(s). This allows easy installation of a project via NPM.\n\nLet's create one of our own. Open up a terminal window and create a new folder by typing in the following and hitting _Enter_ :\n\n **mkdir helloWorld && cd helloWorld**\n\nThis creates a new directory and navigates to said directory. Next, enter the following:\n\n **npm init**\n\nFollow the onscreen prompts and you will end up with something like this:\n\nExample of NPM init running successfully\n\nOnce completed, you'll find that a `package.json` file has been created in your directory; see the preceding screenshot for an example of what that JSON file contains.\n\nNow that we've created a template for our app, let's create an entry point JavaScript file and install some dependencies:\n\n **touch index.js**\n **npm install @slack\/client --save**\n\nThese commands create an empty JavaScript file named `index` and install the Slack **Real Time Messaging** ( **RTM** ) client. Note how `@slack\/client` now appears under dependencies in `package.json`. This is due to the `--save` flag used in the last command. The save flag indicates that this NPM package is required to run this app.\n\n### Note\n\nAs of Version 2, the Slack client API has moved to using NPM organizations. Indicated by the `@` character in the package name, this means that Slack (the company) can publish packages under the umbrella organization of `@slack`. Other than the additional character, the package does not differ from other, non-organization packages.\n\nShould you wish to distribute your bot and allow others to work on or with it, you can easily install all required packages as dictated in `package.json` by running `npm install` in the project's directory.\n\nAlternatively to the save flag, you can specify that a package is only required for development by using the `--save-dev` flag. This will add the package to the `devDependencies` section in `package.json`. This allows us to specify that this package only needs to be installed if the user intends to do some development.\n\nThis is particularly useful for servers running your code, where you would want to omit development packages altogether.\n\nYour `package.json` file should now look something like this:\n\n {\n \"name\": \"helloworld\",\n \"version\": \"1.0.0\",\n \"description\": \"My first Slack bot!\",\n \"main\": \"index.js\",\n \"scripts\": {\n \"test\": \"echo \\\"Error: no test specified\\\" && exit 1\"\n },\n \"author\": \"Paul Asjes\",\n \"license\": \"ISC\",\n \"dependencies\": {\n \"@slack\/client\": \"^2.0.6\",\n }\n }\n\nNow that the Slack client is listed as a dependency, it will be automatically installed when the following command is run from within this directory:\n\n **npm install**\n\nYou can test this by deleting the `node_modules` folder and then running the preceding command:\n\nAll our dependencies are installed\n\nNote how the `slack-client` package has its own dependencies, which were automatically installed into the `node_modules` folder.\n\nNow, we will add some code to our entry point JavaScript file. Open up `index.js` and enter the following code:\n\n \/\/ Enable strict mode, this allows us to use ES6 specific syntax\n \/\/ such as 'const' and 'let'\n 'use strict';\n\n \/\/ Import the Real Time Messaging (RTM) client\n \/\/ from the Slack API in node_modules\n const RtmClient = require('@slack\/client').RtmClient;\n\n \/\/ The memory data store is a collection of useful functions we \/\/ can\n \/\/ include in our RtmClient\n const MemoryDataStore = require('@slack\/client').MemoryDataStore;\n\n \/\/ Import the RTM event constants from the Slack API\n const RTM_EVENTS = require('@slack\/client').RTM_EVENTS;\n\n \/\/ Import the client event constants from the Slack API\n const CLIENT_EVENTS = require('@slack\/client').CLIENT_EVENTS;\n\n const token = '';\n\n \/\/ The Slack constructor takes 2 arguments:\n \/\/ token - String representation of the Slack token\n \/\/ opts - Objects with options for our implementation\n let slack = new RtmClient(token, {\n \/\/ Sets the level of logging we require\n logLevel: 'debug', \n \/\/ Initialize a data store for our client, this will \n \/\/ load additional helper functions for the storing \n \/\/ and retrieval of data\n dataStore: new MemoryDataStore(),\n \/\/ Boolean indicating whether Slack should automatically \n \/\/ reconnect after an error response\n autoReconnect: true,\n \/\/ Boolean indicating whether each message should be marked as \/\/ read \n \/\/ or not after it is processed \n autoMark: true \n });\n\n \/\/ Add an event listener for the RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED \n \/\/ event, which is called \n \/\/ when the bot connects to a channel. The Slack API can \n \/\/ subscribe to events by using the 'on' method\n slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n \/\/ Get the user's name\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(slack.activeUserId);\n\n \/\/ Get the team's name\n let team = slack.dataStore.getTeamById(slack.activeTeamId);\n\n \/\/ Log the slack team name and the bot's name, using ES6's \/\/ template\n \/\/ string syntax\n console.log(`Connected to ${team.name} as ${user.name}`);\n });\n\n \/\/ Start the login process\n slack.start();\n\nSave the file and run the program by executing the following command:\n\n **node index.js**\n\nYou should immediately notice that something is wrong:\n\nDebug and error logs are shown\n\nNotice how the built-in logger outputs both debug and error messages. The error indicates that Slack cannot connect due to an authentication error. This is because we have not provided a Slack API token. The access token is a unique ID generated for your bot. By using it, you enable your bot to authenticate with Slack's servers and interact with the Slack client.\n\nIn our example, the token is set to an empty string, which will not work. Let's then retrieve an access token from Slack.\n\n### Tip\n\nDetailed steps to download the code bundle are mentioned in the _Preface_ of this book. Please have a look.\n\nThe code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at . We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available at . Check them out!\n\n## Creating a Slack API token\n\nOpen up a browser and navigate to .\n\nFollow these steps:\n\n 1. Select **Bots** from the list of available custom integrations.\n\nCustom integrations list\n\n 2. Select a name and click on **Add Bot Integration**. The name of your bot can be changed later, so don't worry about picking a well thought-out name immediately.\n\nAdding a bot integration\n\n 3. Copy down the newly generated API token. As an optional step, you can choose to customize the bot further in this screen.\n\nOptional settings for your bot\n\n### Note\n\nAlthough optional, it is recommended to choose an icon for your bot. For this example, we will use the `robot_face` emoji; however, a good bot should have an icon that represents the purpose of the bot.\n\nAlthough you can give bots duplicate first and last names, the bot's username must be unique to your team. Providing a first name, last name, and description is optional but advisable as it provides information at a glance on what your bot does.\n\n 4. Click on **Save** **Integration** at the bottom of the page.\n\n### Tip\n\nIf you wish to remove or disable this bot at a later stage, you can do that from this same page.\n\n## Connecting a bot\n\nNow that we've generated an API token, replace the empty string assigned to `token` in `index.js` and run the program again.\n\n### Note\n\nNow is a good time to use `nodemon` rather than `node` to ensure automatic restarts when code is changed.\n\nYou will probably see a whole page of debug information show up. While useful, this can also hinder our progress as our own console logs might be difficult to spot. Instead of playing hide and seek, let's first change our logging settings in the client.\n\nSwitch this line:\n\n logLevel: 'debug',\n\nUse the following line:\n\n logLevel: 'error',\n\nThis will instruct the client to only output error messages when the program crashes or a syntax error occurs.\n\nRestart the program (or just save the file and let `nodemon` do the work):\n\n **[Thu Jan 07 2016 20:56:07 GMT-0500 (EST)] INFO Connecting...**\n **Connected to Building Bots as awesomebot**\n\nIf you see something similar to the preceding output in your terminal, congratulations! Your first bot is successfully connected to Slack! You will now see your bot in the **Direct Messages** section of your Slack client; click on the bot's name to open a private direct message.\n\n### Note\n\nThroughout this book, you will encounter the title `Building Bots`. This is simply the title of the Slack team the author used and will be different from your own.\n\nA direct message (DM) with your bot\n\nYour bot is alive and well. However, it is fairly limited in its abilities. We will remedy that shortly, but first let's ensure that the bot can interact with a wider audience.\n\n## Joining a channel\n\nBots cannot join channels programmatically; this is a design choice as bots should not be allowed to enter private channels without being invited. When a bot joins a channel, all the channel's activity can be monitored by the bot. A bot could potentially save all channel messages, a potentially nefarious activity that shouldn't be allowed to happen automatically.\n\nFor a complete list of what actions bots can and cannot perform, see the Slack bot user documentation at .\n\nBots are restricted in the actions they can perform themselves. As such, bots need to be invited to channels via the `invite` command within the Slack client:\n\n **\/invite [BOT_NAME]**\n\nAfter this, you'll get confirmation of the bot entering the channel like this:\n\nThe bot enters the world\n\nNote that when a bot joins a channel, it remains there even if the bot's Node process is stopped. It shows the same characteristics as an offline user. This ensures that invitation needs only to happen once per bot and per channel.\n\nTo remove a bot from a channel, use the remove command within the Slack client:\n\n **\/remove [BOT_NAME]**\n\n### Note\n\nAlthough all users can invite into a channel, only admins can actively remove users and bots from channels.\n\nTo make testing easier and to not disrupt other users in your team, it is a good idea to create a bot testing channel and invite your bot. For the purposes of this book, the testing channel is named `bot-test`.\n\n## Sending a message to a channel\n\nWe now have a connected bot, but it admittedly is a rather useless one. Let's remedy that by getting our bot to say \"Hello\" to every channel that it resides in.\n\n## The slack object\n\nYou might have noticed the following on line 18 in the preceding code example:\n\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(slack.activeUserId);\n\nHere, we see that the `slack` object contains a myriad of information about the bot's current environment. Let's explore the data contained within. Replace line 18 with this modified `console.log` method:\n\n console.log(slack);\n\nYou should see a large object printed out in your terminal. While we won't go through all the values, here are some of interest:\n\nName | Type | Function\n\n---|---|---\n\n`activeUserId` | String | The internal user ID. This can be used to get more information about the current user.\n\n`activeUserId` | String | The internal team ID. Again, it can be used to get more information about the team.\n\n`dataStore` | Object | If a data store is initialized, this object contains a myriad of information stored within the Slack API.\n\n`channels` (child of `dataStore`) | Object | Contains a list of all the channels available in this team.\n\n`channel` (child of channels) | Object | Contains further info on the channel. Whether the user requesting this information is a member or not is available through the `is_member` property\n\n`dms` (child of `dataStore`) | Object | A list of all the direct message channels this user is a part of. Note: even if no messages were ever sent the direct message channel is still considered open.\n\n`users` (child of `dataStore`) | Object | A list of all users in this team.\n\n## Getting all the channels\n\nYou'll note from the preceding table that the `channels` object returns all the channels in this team. For our purposes, we only want the channels in which our bot resides. To achieve this, we can loop through the `channels` object and return exactly what we need. Add the following to the end of `index.js`:\n\n \/\/ Returns an array of all the channels the bot resides in\n function getChannels(allChannels) {\n let channels = [];\n\n \/\/ Loop over all channels\n for (let id in allChannels) {\n \/\/ Get an individual channel\n let channel = allChannels[id];\n\n \/\/ Is this user a member of the channel?\n if (channel.is_member) {\n \/\/ If so, push it to the array\n channels.push(channel);\n }\n }\n\n return channels;\n }\n\nNow, replace the Slack `open` event listener with this:\n\n \/\/ Add an event listener for the RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED event,\n \/\/ which is called when the bot\n \/\/ connects to a channel. The Slack API can subscribe to \n \/\/ events by using the 'on' method\n slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n \/\/ Get the user's name\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(slack.activeUserId);\n\n \/\/ Get the team's name\n let team = slack.dataStore.getTeamById(slack.activeTeamId);\n\n \/\/ Log the slack team name and the bot's name, using ES6's \n \/\/ template string syntax\n console.log(`Connected to ${team.name} as ${user.name}`);\n\n \/\/ Note how the dataStore object contains a list of all \n \/\/ channels available\n let channels = getChannels(slack.dataStore.channels);\n\n \/\/ Use Array.map to loop over every instance and return an \n \/\/ array of the names of each channel. Then chain Array.join \n \/\/ to convert the names array to a string\n let channelNames = channels.map((channel) => {\n return channel.name;\n }).join(', ');\n\n console.log(`Currently in: ${channelNames}`)\n });\n\nSwitch to your terminal and you should see the following output:\n\nListing the channels the bot resides in\n\nNow that your bot knows which channels it's in, it can start to send messages. We'll start with the bot sending a simple \"Hello\" message to everyone in the channel.\n\n## Getting all members in a channel\n\nWe have the channel object, so getting the members within is easy. Add this to the `RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED` event listener:\n\n \/\/ log the members of the channel\n channels.forEach((channel) => {\n console.log('Members of this channel: ', channel.members);\n });\n\nThis is the result:\n\nA list of user IDs\n\nWell that wasn't quite what we expected, perhaps. The Slack API has returned a list of user IDs rather than an array of member objects. This makes sense as a large channel containing several hundred users would result in an unwieldy and large array of member objects. Not to worry, the Slack API provides us with the tools we need to get more information by using these user IDs. Replace the previous snippet with this and then save the file:\n\n \/\/ log the members of the channel\n channels.forEach((channel) => {\n \/\/ get the members by ID using the data store's \n \/\/'getUserByID' function\n let members = channel.members.map((id) => {\n return slack.dataStore.getUserById(id);\n });\n\n \/\/ Each member object has a 'name' property, so let's \n \/\/ get an array of names and join them via Array.join\n let memberNames = members.map((member) => {\n return member.name;\n }).join(', ');\n\n console.log('Members of this channel: ', memberNames);\n });\n\nThe output for this code can be seen in the following screenshot:\n\nThe users of the channel using their usernames\n\nNotice how the bot is also listed in the channel members list. Our current goal is to say hello to everyone in the channel; however, we should try to avoid having the bot talking to itself.\n\nWe can use the `is_bot` property on the `member` object to determine whether a user is a bot:\n\n \/\/ log the members of the channel\n channels.forEach((channel) => {\n \/\/ get the members by ID using the data store's \n \/\/ 'getUserByID' function\n let members = channel.members.map((id) => {\n return slack.dataStore.getUserById(id);\n });\n\n \/\/ Filter out the bots from the member list using Array.filter\n members = members.filter((member) => {\n return !member.is_bot;\n });\n\n \/\/ Each member object has a 'name' property, so let's \n \/\/ get an array of names and join them via Array.join\n let memberNames = members.map((member) => {\n return member.name;\n }).join(', ');\n\n console.log('Members of this channel: ', memberNames);\n });\n\nThe users of the channel, without bots\n\nWonderful! Now that we are done with this, the next step is to send a message to the channel.\n\n## Sending a message to a channel\n\nThe channel object contains all the tools required for bot communication. In the following code, we will build upon the previous code snippets and send a \"Hello\" message addressing each person in the channel once the bot connects. All of these actions will happen in the open event listener. Here it is in its entirety:\n\n \/\/ Add an event listener for the RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED event, \n \/\/ which is called when the bot connects to a channel. The Slack API \n \/\/ can subscribe to events by using the 'on' method\n slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n \/\/ Get the user's name\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(slack.activeUserId);\n\n \/\/ Get the team's name\n let team = slack.dataStore.getTeamById(slack.activeTeamId);\n\n \/\/ Log the slack team name and the bot's name, using ES6's \n \/\/ template string syntax\n console.log(`Connected to ${team.name} as ${user.name}`);\n\n \/\/ Note how the dataStore object contains a list of all \n \/\/ channels available\n let channels = getChannels(slack.dataStore.channels);\n\n \/\/ Use Array.map to loop over every instance and return an \n \/\/ array of the names of each channel. Then chain Array.join \n \/\/ to convert the names array to a string\n let channelNames = channels.map((channel) => {\n return channel.name;\n }).join(', ');\n\n console.log(`Currently in: ${channelNames}`)\n\n \/\/ log the members of the channel\n channels.forEach((channel) => {\n \/\/ get the members by ID using the data store's \n \/\/ 'getUserByID' function\n let members = channel.members.map((id) => {\n return slack.dataStore.getUserById(id);\n });\n\n \/\/ Filter out the bots from the member list using Array.filter\n members = members.filter((member) => {\n return !member.is_bot;\n });\n\n \/\/ Each member object has a 'name' property, so let's \n \/\/ get an array of names and join them via Array.join\n let memberNames = members.map((member) => {\n return member.name;\n }).join(', ');\n\n console.log('Members of this channel: ', memberNames);\n\n \/\/ Send a greeting to everyone in the channel\n slack.sendMessage(`Hello ${memberNames}!`, channel.id);\n });\n });\n\nAs soon as you run the code, you should be greeted by a notification from the Slack client that you have been mentioned in a message, as shown in the following screenshot:\n\nOur bot speaks its first words\n\nLet's ramp up our bot's complexity by giving it the ability to respond to messages.\n\n# Basic responses\n\nThe Slack API can be configured to execute methods once certain events are dispatched, as seen earlier with the `RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED` event. Now, we will dive into other useful events provided to us.\n\n## The authenticated event\n\nSo far, we have seen how to add functionality to Slack's `RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED` event triggered by the bot entering a channel and an error occurring, respectively. If you wish to execute some code when a bot logs in but before it connects to a channel, you can use the `AUTHENTICATED` event:\n\n slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.AUTHENTICATED, (rtmStartData) => {\n console.log(`Logged in as ${rtmStartData.self.name} of team ${rtmStartData.team.name}, but not yet connected to a channel`);\n });\n\nThis gives the following output:\n\n **[Mon Jan 18 2016 21:37:24 GMT-0500 (EST)] INFO Connecting...**\n **Logged in as awesomebot of team Building Bots, but not yet connected to a channel**\n\nNow, we will introduce the _message_ event.\n\n## Using the message event\n\nThe message event will trigger every time a message is sent to a channel the bot is in or in a direct message to the bot. The message object contains useful data such as the originating user, the originating channel, and the timestamp it was sent.\n\nPaste the following into `index.js` and then send the message \"Hello bot!\" to a channel that your bot is a member of:\n\n slack.on(RTM_EVENTS.MESSAGE, (message) => {\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(message.user)\n\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n return;\n }\n\n let channel = slack.dataStore.getChannelGroupOrDMById(message.channel);\n\n if (message.text) {\n let msg = message.text.toLowerCase();\n\n if (\/(hello|hi) (bot|awesomebot)\/g.test(msg)) {\n slack.sendMessage(`Hello to you too, ${user.name}!`, channel.id);\n }\n }\n });\n\nThis should result in something like this:\n\nA more personal greeting from the bot\n\nLet's look at the code again in detail, starting from the top:\n\n slack.on(RTM_EVENTS.MESSAGE, (message) => {\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(message.user)\n\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n return;\n }\n\nThis should be familiar, as it's similar to what we've used before, except we're now using the `MESSAGE` event from the `RTM_EVENTS` object. We also make sure the message sender isn't a bot:\n\n let channel = slack.dataStore.getChannelGroupOrDMById(message.channel);\n\nThe `getChannelGroupOrDMById` method lets us grab the channel for every message sent. This is particularly useful if our bot happens to inhabit multiple channels. The code is as follows:\n\n if (message.text) {\n let msg = message.text.toLowerCase();\n\n if (\/(hello|hi) (bot|awesomebot)\/g.test(msg)) {\n slack.sendMessage(`Hello to you too, ${user.name}!`, channel.id);\n }\n }\n\nA message does not necessarily contain text; it is also possible that the message is a file, an image, or even an emoji. Therefore, we have to do a little type checking to make sure the message received is indeed text based. Once the text type is confirmed, we use a regular expression to test whether the message received contains certain keywords in a specific order. The `RegExp.test` method will return true when the message received contains the words \"Hello\" or \"Hi\" followed by either \"bot\" or \"awesomebot.\" If true, a response is sent back to the channel using the familiar `slack.sendMessage` method.\n\n### Note\n\nWhen evaluating incoming text, it is almost always a good idea to first convert the body of the text message to lowercase in order to avoid case sensitive errors.\n\n## Avoiding spam\n\nInfinite loops happen occasionally when developing; it is entirely possible that you accidentally program a bot to send a message in an infinite loop, flooding the channel with spam. Observe the following code:\n\n if (\/(hello|hi) (bot|awesomebot)\/g.test(msg)) {\n \/\/ Infinite loop spamming the channel every 100 milliseconds\n setInterval(() => {\n slack.sendMessage('Spam!', channel.id);\n }, 100);\n }\n\nTake a look at the screenshot of the result:\n\nA bot spamming the channel\n\nIn the terminal or command prompt, you should see this:\n\nThe Slack API deals with the spam\n\nLuckily, the Slack API has a built in guard against such unfortunate events. If 20 messages are sent by a single user in a very short time frame, the Slack server will refuse to post more messages and return an error. This has the added effect of causing our bot to get stuck and eventually crash.\n\nThe Slack platform will guard against spam attacks flooding the channel; however, it is likely that the offending bot will crash.\n\nTo prevent this from happening, it is highly advisable to _never_ place a `slack.sendMessage` method call within a loop or within a `setInterval` method.\n\nChannels with many users and thus high volume could potentially lead to accidentally triggering the \"slow down\" response from the Slack platform. To prevent this, keep track of the time difference between messages:\n\n if (\/(hello|hi) (bot|awesomebot)\/g.test(msg)) {\n \/\/ Get the timestamp when the above message was sent\n let sentTime = Date.now();\n\n setInterval(() => {\n \/\/ Get the current timestamp\n let currentTime = Date.now();\n\n \/\/ Make sure we only allow a message once a full second has \/\/ passed \n if ((currentTime - sentTime) > 1000) {\n\n slack.sendMesssage('Limiting my messages to 1 per second', channel.id);\n\n \/\/ Set the new sentTime\n sentTime = Date.now();\n }\n }, 100);\n }\n\nLimiting the bot's messages\n\nEvery time the `setInterval` function is called, we generate a new timestamp called `currentTime`. By comparing `currentTime` to the timestamp of the message (defined as `sentTime`), we can artificially limit the messages being sent on the bot side by making sure the difference between the two is more than 1,000 milliseconds in length.\n\nThe Slack API provides a timestamp on the channel object accessible via `channel.latest.ts`; this provides a timestamp for the latest message received in the channel. While still useful, it is recommended to use local timestamps instead, as the Slack API provides information on the latest message received rather than the latest message sent by the bot.\n\n# Sending a direct message\n\nA **direct** **message** ( **DM** ) channel is a channel that only operates between two users. By design, it cannot have more or less than two users and is meant for private communication. Sending a DM is remarkably similar to sending a message to a channel, as the `dm` object is almost identical to the `channel` object.\n\nConsider the following snippet:\n\n slack.on(RTM_EVENTS.MESSAGE, (message) => {\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(message.user)\n\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n return;\n }\n\n let channel = slack.dataStore.getChannelGroupOrDMById(message.channel);\n\n if (message.text) {\n let msg = message.text.toLowerCase();\n\n if (\/uptime\/g.test(msg)) {\n let dm = slack.dataStore.getDMByName(user.name);\n\n let uptime = process.uptime();\n\n \/\/ get the uptime in hours, minutes and seconds\n let minutes = parseInt(uptime \/ 60, 10),\n hours = parseInt(minutes \/ 60, 10),\n seconds = parseInt(uptime - (minutes * 60) - ((hours * 60) * 60), 10);\n\n slack.sendMessage(`I have been running for: ${hours} hours, ${minutes} minutes and ${seconds} seconds.`, dm.id);\n }\n });\n\nIn this example, our bot will send a DM with the current uptime to any user who uses the key phrase `uptime`:\n\nUptime can be a very useful statistic\n\nNote that the bot will send a DM to the user, regardless of which channel the command `uptime` is sent as long as the bot is around to hear the command as a member of that channel or DM. In the preceding image, the command was issued in the DM itself. This is because both channels and DMs subscribe to the `message` event; it is important to remember this when sending responses meant for channels rather than DMs and vice versa.\n\n# Restricting access\n\nOccasionally, you might wish to restrict bot commands to administrators of your Slack team. A good example is a bot that controls a project's deploy process. This can be immensely powerful but perhaps not something that you want every user to have access to. Only administrators (also known as admins) should have the authority to access such functions. Admins are special users who have administrative powers over the Slack team. Luckily, restricting such access is easy with the `is_admin` property attached to a user object.\n\nIn the following example, we'll restrict the `uptime` command demonstrated in the previous topic to admin users, notifying the restricted user that they can't use that command:\n\n slack.on(RTM_EVENTS.MESSAGE, (message) => {\n let user = slack.dataStore.getUserById(message.user)\n\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n return;\n }\n\n let channel = slack.dataStore.getChannelGroupOrDMById(message.channel);\n\n if (message.text) {\n let msg = message.text.toLowerCase();\n\n if (\/uptime\/g.test(msg)) {\n if (!user.is_admin) { \n slack.sendMessage(`Sorry ${user.name}, but that functionality is only for admins.`, channel.id);\n return;\n }\n\n let dm = slack.dataStore.getDMByName(user.name);\n\n let uptime = process.uptime();\n\n \/\/ get the uptime in hours, minutes and seconds\n let minutes = parseInt(uptime \/ 60, 10),\n hours = parseInt(minutes \/ 60, 10),\n seconds = parseInt(uptime - (minutes * 60) - ((hours * 60) * 60), 10);\n\n slack.sendMessage(`I have been running for: ${hours} hours, ${minutes} minutes and ${seconds} seconds.`, dm.id);\n }\n });\n\nNow when non-admin users issue the `uptime` command, they will get the following message:\n\nRestricting the bot to admin users\n\n### Note\n\nThe use of `user.is_admin` is to determine whether a user is an admin or not.\n\n## Adding and removing admins\n\nTo add or remove admins to your team, visit and click on a user.\n\nAdmins and owners have the ability to kick other members from channels and to delete messages that aren't their own. Although these are the default settings, they can be edited at .\n\nBots cannot be admins or owners; for more information on team permissions, visit .\n\n# Debugging a bot\n\nIt is inevitable that eventually you will encounter a bug in your bot that is difficult to squash. The worst are bugs that don't cause your program to crash and thus don't provide a useful stack trace and line number for where the crash happened. For most issues, the `console.log()` method will be enough to help you track down the bug, for the more tenacious bugs however we will need a true debugging environment. This section will introduce you to `iron-node` (), a cross-platform JavaScript debugging environment based on Chrome's dev tools.\n\nStart by installing `iron-node`:\n\n **npm install -g iron-node**\n\nNote again the use of the `-g` flag, which installs the application globally.\n\nBefore we can start debugging, we need to add a breakpoint to our code, which tells the debugger to stop the code and allow for deeper inspection. Add the `debugger` statement to our previous code, within the `slack.openDM()` code block:\n\n if (\/uptime\/g.test(msg)) {\n debugger;\n\n if (!user.is_admin) { \n slack.sendMessage(`Sorry ${user.name}, but that functionality is only for admins.`, channel.id);\n return;\n }\n\n let dm = slack.dataStore.getDMByName(user.name);\n\n let uptime = process.uptime();\n\n \/\/ get the uptime in hours, minutes and seconds\n let minutes = parseInt(uptime \/ 60, 10),\n hours = parseInt(minutes \/ 60, 10),\n seconds = parseInt(uptime - (minutes * 60) - ((hours * 60) * 60), 10);\n\n slack.sendMessage(`I have been running for: ${hours} hours, ${minutes} minutes and ${seconds} seconds.`, dm.id);\n }\n\nSave the file and then run the code via `iron-node` in your terminal:\n\n **iron-node index.js**\n\nImmediately, you should see the `iron-node` interface pop up:\n\nThe iron-node interface\n\nChrome users will perhaps notice that this interface is exactly like Chrome's developer tools window. It is advisable to spend some time familiarizing yourself with this interface if you haven't used it before. Let's discuss some basic functionality to get you started.\n\nYou can switch to the console tab to see the node output, or you can also hit _Esc_ to show the console at the bottom of the screen.\n\nOur debugger was placed within a message event listener, so send a command to the bot (`uptime` in the last example) and watch what happens next.\n\nSetting a breakpoint with the \"debugger\" statement\n\nThe bot's execution has been paused by the debugger, so you can inspect properties and determine the source of the bug.\n\nEither click on the **Step** **over** button in the top-right corner, symbolized by an arrow curving around a dot, or hit _F10_ to step over to the next line.\n\nUse your mouse to hover over the different objects in this line of code to retrieve more information about them.\n\nInspecting a property in the paused program\n\nKeep clicking on the **Step over** button to progress through the code, or click on the **Resume script execution** button to the left of the **Step over** button to allow the program to continue until it encounters another debugger breakpoint.\n\nNot only can you inspect variables and properties while the bot is executing, but you can also edit their values, causing different outputs. Observe how we can edit the uptime variable in our code and set it to 1000:\n\n`uptime` is set by the program to 40.064\n\nIn the console area, we can edit JavaScript variables whilst the program is running:\n\nIn the console, we check the value of uptime again, and then set it to a value of 1000. Now when we look back at the variables, we should see the updated values:\n\nThe new value of uptime is reflected in the next few lines\n\nWhen we resume the program, our bot will send its message based on our updated variables:\n\nWe continue the program and the bot sends the new values to the channel.\n\n### Note\n\nFor best debugging practices, either disable your bot's ability to send messages or invite your bot to a private channel to avoid spamming other users.\n\nAs `iron-node` is based on Chrome's developer tools, you can use the previous techniques interchangeably with Chrome.\n\nTo debug and fix memory issues, you can use the developer tools' profiler and heap snapshot tool. For more information on these topics, please visit the following links:\n\n * \n * \n\n# Summary\n\nIn this chapter, we saw how to install the prerequisite technologies, how to obtain a Slack token for a bot, and how to set up a new Slack bot project. As a result, you can reuse the lessons learned to easily scaffold a new bot project. You should now be able to program a bot that can send messages to channels, direct messages as well as craft basic responses. Finally, we discussed how to debug a Node.js-based bot using the `iron-node` debugger.\n\nIn the next chapter, we will see how to make our bot more complex by adding third-party API support and by programming our first bot command.\n\n# Chapter 3. Adding Complexity\n\nWith the first bot done, it's time to learn how to extend our bot with the use of other **application program interfaces** ( **APIs** ). This means teaching our bot how to listen for keywords, respond to commands, and deal with errors (human or otherwise). In this chapter, we will cover the following:\n\n * Responding to keywords\n * Bot commands\n * External API integration\n * Error handling\n\n# Responding to keywords\n\nIn the previous chapter, we used regular expressions to test the contents of the message against some predefined keywords. Once the keywords were confirmed, we could perform actions and return the results. This worked well; however, it can lead to a large `if else` block for more feature-rich bots. Instead, we will now look at refactoring the end result of the previous chapter into a more modular design. In this section, we will accomplish this by using ES6's new `class` syntax and Node's `export` method.\n\n## Using classes\n\nStart by creating a new JavaScript file and name it `bot.js`. Paste the following into `bot.js` and save the file:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n const RtmClient = require('@slack\/client').RtmClient;\n const MemoryDataStore = require('@slack\/client').MemoryDataStore;\n const CLIENT_EVENTS = require('@slack\/client').CLIENT_EVENTS;\n const RTM_EVENTS = require('@slack\/client').RTM_EVENTS;\n\n class Bot {\n constructor(opts) {\n let slackToken = opts.token;\n let autoReconnect = opts.autoReconnect || true;\n let autoMark = opts.autoMark || true;\n\n this.slack = new RtmClient(slackToken, { \n \/\/ Sets the level of logging we require\n logLevel: 'error', \n \/\/ Initialize a data store for our client, \n \/\/ this will load additional helper\n \/\/ functions for the storing and retrieval of data\n dataStore: new MemoryDataStore(),\n \/\/ Boolean indicating whether Slack should automatically \n \/\/ reconnect after an error response\n autoReconnect: autoReconnect,\n \/\/ Boolean indicating whether each message should be marked\n \/\/ as read or not after it is processed\n autoMark: autoMark\n });\n\n this.slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n let user = this.slack.dataStore.getUserById(this.slack.activeUserId)\n let team = this.slack.dataStore.getTeamById(this.slack.activeTeamId);\n\n this.name = user.name;\n\n console.log(`Connected to ${team.name} as ${user.name}`); \n });\n\n this.slack.start();\n }\n }\n\n \/\/ Export the Bot class, which will be imported when 'require' is \n \/\/ used\n module.exports = Bot;\n\nLet's look at the code in depth, starting with the `class` structure. The **Mozilla** **Developer Network** ( **MDN** ) defines JavaScript classes as:\n\n> _JavaScript classes are introduced in ECMAScript 6 and are syntactical sugar over JavaScript's existing prototype-based inheritance. The class syntax is not introducing a new object-oriented inheritance model to JavaScript. JavaScript classes provide a much simpler and clearer syntax to create objects and deal with inheritance._\n\nSimply put, JavaScript classes are an _alternative_ to the prototype-based class pattern, and in fact function the exact same way under the hood. The benefit to using classes is when you wish to extend or inherit from a particular class, or provide a clearer overview of what your class does.\n\nIn the code example, we use a class in order to easily extend it later if we wish to add more functionality. Unique to classes is the `constructor` method, which is a special method for creating and initializing an object created with a class. When a class is called with the new keyword, this constructor function is what gets executed first:\n\n constructor(opts) {\n let slackToken = opts.token;\n let autoReconnect = opts.autoReconnect || true;\n let autoMark = opts.autoMark || true;\n\n this.slack = new RtmClient(slackToken, { \n logLevel: 'error', \n dataStore: new MemoryDataStore(),\n autoReconnect: autoReconnect,\n autoMark: autoMark\n });\n\n this.slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n let user = this.slack.dataStore.getUserById(this.slack.activeUserId)\n let team = this.slack.dataStore.getTeamById(this.slack.activeTeamId);\n\n this.name = user.name;\n\n console.log(`Connected to ${team.name} as ${user.name}`); \n });\n\n this.slack.start();\n }\n\nLooking at our constructor, we see the familiar use of the Slack RTM client: the client is initialized and the `RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED` event is used to log the team and username upon connecting. We attach the `slack` variable to the `this` object as a property, making it accessible throughout our class. Similarly, we assign the bot's name to a variable, for easy access when required.\n\nFinally, we export the bot class via the Node modules system:\n\n module.exports = Bot;\n\nThis instructs Node to return our class when this file is imported using the `require` method.\n\nCreate a new file in the same folder as `bot.js` and name it `index.js`. Paste the following inside it:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n let Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\nAfter saving the file, run the following from the terminal to start the bot:\n\n **SLACK_TOKEN=[YOUR_TOKEN_HERE] node index.js**\n\nYou can use the Slack token created in the previous chapter, or generate a new one for this bot.\n\n### Note\n\nIt's generally a good idea to not hardcode sensitive information such as tokens or API keys (such as the Slack token) in your code. Instead, use Node's `process.env` object to pass variables from the command line to your code. Especially, take care of storing API keys in a public source control repository such as GitHub.\n\nOnce you've confirmed that your bot connects successfully to your Slack team, let's work on making the `Bot` class more modular.\n\n## Reactive bots\n\nAll the functionality described in our bot examples so far have one thing in common: the bots react to stimuli provided by human users. A message containing a keyword is sent and the bot responds with an action. These types of bot can be called reactive bots; they respond to an input with an output. The majority of bots can be classified as reactive bots, as most bots require some input in order to complete an action. An active bot is the opposite of this; rather than responding to input, the active bot produces output without needing any human stimuli. We will cover active bots in Chapter 6, _Webhooks and Slack Commands_. For now, let's look at how we can optimize our reactive bots.\n\nWe already defined the essential mechanism of reactive bots: responding to stimuli. As this is a core concept of the reactive bot, it makes sense to have a mechanism in place to easily invoke the desired behavior.\n\nTo do this, let's add some functionality to our `Bot` class in the form of a `respondsTo` function. In previous examples, we used the `if` statements to determine when a bot should respond to a message:\n\n if (\/(hello|hi) (bot|awesomebot)\/g.test(msg)) {\n \/\/ do stuff...\n }\n\n if (\/uptime\/g.test(msg)) {\n \/\/ do more stuff...\n }\n\nThere is nothing wrong with this approach. If we wish to code a bot that has multiple keywords, our `Bot` class can get very complex and cluttered very quickly. Instead, let's abstract out this behavior to our `respondsTo` function. The function should take at least two arguments: the keywords we wish to listen for and a callback function that executes when the keywords are identified in a message.\n\nIn `bot.js`, add the following to the constructor:\n\n \/\/ Create an ES6 Map to store our regular expressions\n this.keywords = new Map();\n\n this.slack.on(RTM_EVENTS.MESSAGE, (message) => {\n \/\/ Only process text messages\n if (!message.text) {\n return;\n }\n\n let channel = this.slack.dataStore.getChannelGroupOrDMById(message.channel);\n let user = this.slack.dataStore.getUserById(message.user);\n\n \/\/ Loop over the keys of the keywords Map object and test each\n \/\/ regular expression against the message's text property\n for (let regex of this.keywords.keys()) { \n if (regex.test(message.text)) {\n let callback = this.keywords.get(regex);\n callback(message, channel, user);\n }\n }\n });\n\nThis snippet uses the new ES6 `Map` object, which is a simple key\/value store, much like dictionaries in other languages. `Map` differs from `Object` in that `Map` does not have default keys (as `Object` has a prototype), which means that you can iterate over a `Map` without having to explicitly check if the `Map` contains a value or if its prototype does. For example, with `Maps`, you no longer have to use `Object.hasOwnProperty` when iterating.\n\nAs we will see later, the `keywords Map` object uses regular expressions as a key and a callback function as the value. Insert the following code underneath the constructor function:\n\n respondTo(keywords, callback, start) {\n \/\/ If 'start' is truthy, prepend the '^' anchor to instruct the\n \/\/ expression to look for matches at the beginning of the string\n if (start) {\n keywords = '^' + keywords;\n }\n\n \/\/ Create a new regular expression, setting the case \n \/\/ insensitive (i) flag\n let regex = new RegExp(keywords, 'i');\n\n \/\/ Set the regular expression to be the key, with the callback\n \/\/ function as the value\n this.keywords.set(regex, callback);\n }\n\nThis function takes three parameters: `keywords`, `callback`, and `start`. `keywords` is the word or phrase we wish to act on in the form of a regular expression. `callback` is a function that will be called if the keywords match the message, and `start` is an optional Boolean indicating whether we wish to search only at the beginning of the message string or not.\n\nLook back at our newly updated constructor and pay special attention to the following lines within our `message` event listener:\n\n \/\/ Loop over the keys of the keywords Map object and test each\n \/\/ regular expression against the message's text property\n for (let regex of this.keywords.keys()) { \n if (regex.test(message.text)) {\n let callback = this.keywords.get(regex);\n callback(message, channel, user);\n }\n }\n\nHere, we loop through the keywords `Map` object, which has regular expressions as its keys. We test each regular expression against the received message and call our callback function with the message, the channel, and the user that sent the message.\n\nFinally, let's add a `sendMessage` functionality to our bot class. This will act as a wrapper for Slack's `sendMessage`. We don't have to expose the entire Slack object anymore. Add the following function underneath our constructor:\n\n \/\/ Send a message to a channel, with an optional callback\n send(message, channel, cb) {\n this.slack.sendMessage(message, channel.id, () => {\n if (cb) {\n cb();\n }\n });\n }\n\nDespite having `channel` as an argument name, our `send` function will also work for a DM (a private channel between two people), additionally providing a callback via the Slack API's `sendMessage` function.\n\nNow that we have a function that can subscribe to messages and their contents, open up `index.js` and let's add a simple \"Hello World\" implementation:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n let Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n bot.respondTo('hello', (message, channel, user) => {\n bot.send(`Hello to you too, ${user.name}!`, channel)\n }, true);\n\nSave the file, restart your node process, and test out your bot. Here's what it should look like:\n\nTesting our refactor\n\nThe bot responds when our message has the string \"hello\", but only when it appears at the beginning of the message due to the `true` value we passed in after our callback.\n\nWe have now refactored our bot's code to abstract the Slack event system away and make our code cleaner in the process. Let's do something a little more impressive with our new system and implement a simple game.\n\n# Bot commands\n\nSo far, our bots have responded to keywords in messages to say hello or tell us how long they've been running. These keywords are useful for simple tasks, but for more complex actions, we need to give the bot some parameters to work with. A keyword followed by parameters or arguments can be referred to as a bot command. Similar to the command line, we can issue as many arguments as we want to get the most out of our bot.\n\nLet's test this by giving our bot a new function: a game of chance where the issuer of the `roll` command plays a game of who can roll the highest number.\n\nAdd the following code to `index.js`:\n\n bot.respondTo('roll', (message, channel, user) => {\n \/\/ get the arguments from the message body\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n \/\/ Roll two random numbers between 0 and 100\n let firstRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n let secondRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n\n let challenger = user.name;\n let opponent = args[0];\n\n \/\/ reroll in the unlikely event that it's a tie\n while (firstRoll === secondRoll) {\n secondRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n }\n\n let winner = firstRoll > secondRoll ? challenger : opponent;\n\n \/\/ Using new line characters (\\n) to format our response\n bot.send(\n `${challenger} fancies their chances against ${opponent}!\\n\n ${challenger} rolls: ${firstRoll}\\n\n ${opponent} rolls: ${secondRoll}\\n\\n\n *${winner} is the winner!*`\n , channel);\n\n }, true);\n\n \/\/ Take the message text and return the arguments\n function getArgs(msg) {\n return msg.split(' ').slice(1);\n }\n\nThe command is very simple: a user sends the keyword `roll` followed by the name of the user they wish to challenge. This is shown in the following screenshot:\n\nA straightforward implementation of the bot's roll command\n\nIt works well, but what happens if we omit any arguments to our `roll` command?\n\n`undefined` wins the game, which isn't expected behavior\n\nNo arguments are provided; therefore, the value at index 0 of our `args` array is `undefined`. Clearly, our bot lacks some basic functionality: invalid argument error handling.\n\n### Note\n\nWith bot commands, user input must always be sanitized and checked for errors, lest the bot perform some unwanted actions.\n\n## Sanitizing inputs\n\nAdd this block underneath our `getArgs` method call to stop empty rolls from happening:\n\n \/\/ if args is empty, return with a warning\n if (args.length < 1) {\n channel.send('You have to provide the name of the person you wish to challenge!');\n return;\n }\n\nHere's the result:\n\nAwesomebot providing some necessary sanitizing\n\nThat's one use case down, but what if someone tries to challenge someone who's not in the channel? At the moment, the bot will roll against whatever you put as the first argument, be it a member of the channel or a complete fabrication. This is an example of where we want to further sanitize and restrict the user input to useful data.\n\nTo fix this, let's make sure that only members of the channel from where the `roll` command originated can be targeted.\n\nFirst, let's add the following method to our `Bot` class:\n\n getMembersByChannel(channel) {\n \/\/ If the channel has no members then that means we're in a DM\n if (!channel.members) {\n return false;\n }\n\n \/\/ Only select members which are active and not a bot\n let members = channel.members.filter((member) => {\n let m = this.slack.dataStore.getUserById(member);\n \/\/ Make sure the member is active (i.e. not set to 'away' status)\n return (m.presence === 'active' && !m.is_bot);\n });\n\n \/\/ Get the names of the members\n members = members.map((member) => {\n return this.slack.dataStore.getUserById(member).name;\n });\n\n return members;\n }\n\nThis function simply checks to see whether the `members` property of `channel` exists, and returns a list of active non-bot users by name. In `index.js`, replace your `roll` command block with the following code:\n\n bot.respondTo('roll', (message, channel, user) => {\n \/\/ get the members of the channel\n const members = bot.getMembersByChannel(channel);\n\n \/\/ make sure there actually members to interact with. If there\n \/\/ aren't then it usually means that the command was given in a \n \/\/ direct message\n if (!members) {\n bot.send('You have to challenge someone in a channel, not a direct message!', channel);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ get the arguments from the message body\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n \/\/ if args is empty, return with a warning\n if (args.length < 1) {\n bot.send('You have to provide the name of the person you wish to challenge!', channel);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ does the opponent exist in this channel?\n if (members.indexOf(args[0]) < 0) {\n bot.send(`Sorry ${user.name}, but I either can't find ${args[0]} in this channel, or they are a bot!`, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ Roll two random numbers between 0 and 100\n let firstRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n let secondRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n\n let challenger = user.name;\n let opponent = args[0];\n\n \/\/ reroll in the unlikely event that it's a tie\n while (firstRoll === secondRoll) {\n secondRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n }\n\n let winner = firstRoll > secondRoll ? challenger : opponent;\n\n \/\/ Using new line characters (\\n) to format our response\n bot.send(\n `${challenger} fancies their changes against ${opponent}!\\n\n ${challenger} rolls: ${firstRoll}\\n\n ${opponent} rolls: ${secondRoll}\\n\\n\n *${winner} is the winner!*`\n , channel);\n\n }, true);\n\nOur biggest changes here are that the bot will now check to make sure the command given is a valid one. It will ensure that by checking the following (listed in order):\n\n 1. There are members available in the channel.\n 2. An argument was provided after the command.\n 3. Whether the argument was valid, by making sure the name provided is in the members list of the channel or that the name is not that of a bot.\n\nThe important lesson to take away from this exercise is to minimize interruptions by ensuring that all use cases are handled correctly. Sufficient testing is required to be certain that you handled all use cases. For instance, in our `roll` command example, we missed an important case: users can use the `roll` command against themselves:\n\nRolling against yourself probably isn't the most useful of functions\n\nTo fix this issue, we need to make a simple addition to our command. Add the following code in our previous sanitizing checks:\n\n \/\/ the user shouldn't challenge themselves\n if (args.indexOf(user.name) > -1) {\n bot.send(`Challenging yourself is probably not the best use of your or my time, ${user.name}`, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n### Note\n\nWhen developing bots, every precaution should be taken to ensure that bot inputs are sanitized and that error responses give information about the error. This is especially true when working with external APIs, where incorrect input could lead to wildly inaccurate results.\n\n# External API integration\n\nEternal APIs are third-party services hosted outside of our bot structure. These come in many varying types and are used to solve many different problems, but their use in tandem with bots follows the same data flow structure.\n\nThe API call data flow structure between Slack, bot, and API service\n\nWe will build an example bot with API integration using a common and free-to-use API, namely that of the Wikimedia foundation.\n\n### Note\n\nBe warned that while many APIs are free, there are many that charge when a certain amount of requests are made. Always check whether there is a fee before incorporating them into your bots.\n\nThe Wikimedia foundation API is an example of a **representational state transfer** ( **REST** ) service, which communicates using standard **Hypertext Transfer Protocol** ( **HTTP** ) protocols such as GET or POST. Many RESTful services require you to transmit a token along with your request, ensuring security and for monetizing the service by tracking the amount of requests made. The Wikimedia API is a free RESTful service, meaning that we do not require a token to make use of it.\n\nOur new bot, `wikibot`, will allow the user to search for a Wikipedia page and return the page's summary if found, or an error message if it does not exist.\n\nTo start, you should follow the steps in Chapter 2, _Your First Bot_ , to create a new Slack bot integration via the Slack web service and start a new project. This new project will reuse the `Bot` class created in this chapter, whereas our new `index.js` entry point will be a new, empty file.\n\nWe will start with the annotated and explained `index.js` code. At the conclusion of the chapter the full code will be made available for easier accessibility. Here's the code:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n const request = require('superagent');\n\nHere, we import our own `Bot` class alongside a new library called `superagent`, which is used for making asynchronous JavaScript and XML (AJAX) calls.\n\nBefore running this code, be sure to install `superagent` using NPM:\n\n **npm install superagent --save**\n\n`superagent` is installed with the `-save` flag, as the program cannot function without it.\n\nLet's get back to our code:\n\n const wikiAPI = \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/api.php?format=json&action=query&prop=extracts&exintro=&explaintext=&titles=\"\n const wikiURL = 'https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/';\n\nThese constants are the RESTful API **Uniform Resource Link** ( **URL** ) and the base Wikipedia page URL, respectively. You can test out the former by copying the URL, pasting it into the address field in a browser, and appending a topic at the end. You can check this for the following URL: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/api.php?format=json&action=query&prop=extracts&exintro=&explaintext=&titles=duck.\n\nYou should then see data returned in the **JavaScript object notation** ( **JSON** ) format, giving you an overview of the topic requested and the pages returned. The data and type of data returned is determined by the parameters in the query string of the URL. In the preceding URL, we query for the `extracts` property of a page, specifically the intro (`exintro`) and explanation (`explaintext`) for the page with the title `duck` in the JSON format.\n\nThe latter constant is used later to return the URL for the Wikipedia page requested:\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\nAs before, we initiate a new instance of `Bot` with our options and Slack token. You can reuse the first token created in Chapter 2, _Your First Bot_. However, it is recommended to generate a new one instead. The code is as follows:\n\n function getWikiSummary(term, cb) {\n \/\/ replace spaces with unicode\n let parameters = term.replace(\/ \/g, '%20');\n\nThis function is a wrapper for the request to the Wikimedia API, in which we format the request by replacing the spaces in the search term with Unicode and make the GET request via the `superagent` library. The code is as follows:\n\n request\n .get(wikiAPI + parameters)\n .end((err, res) => {\n if (err) {\n cb(err);\n return;\n }\n\n let url = wikiURL + parameters;\n\n cb(null, JSON.parse(res.text), url);\n });\n }\n\nAs this is an asynchronous request, we provide a callback function to be called when the `GET` request has returned the data we need. Before returning we make sure to parse the data into a JavaScript object form for easy access. The code is as follows:\n\n bot.respondTo('help', (message, channel) => { \n bot.send(`To use my Wikipedia functionality, type \\`wiki\\` followed by your search query`, channel); \n }, true);\n\nWikibot explaining how it can be used\n\nThe first command we implement is a simple `help` command; its only function is to explain how to use the bot's Wikipedia functionality:\n\n bot.respondTo('wiki', (message, channel, user) => {\n if (user && user.is_bot) {\n return;\n }\n\nSet up our new bot command with the keyword `wiki` and make sure to return if the command sender is a bot:\n\n \/\/ grab the search parameters, but remove the command 'wiki' \/\/ from\n \/\/ the beginning of the message first\n let args = message.text.split(' ').slice(1).join(' ');\n\nThis will extract the search query of the command. For instance if the command is `wiki` `fizz buzz`, the output of `args` will be a string containing \"fizz buzz\":\n\n getWikiSummary(args, (err, result, url) => {\n if (err) {\n bot.send(`I\\'m sorry, but something went wrong with your query`, channel);\n console.error(err);\n return;\n }\n\nHere, we call our `getWikiSummary` function, with the arguments issued with the bot command and provide the anonymous function callback. If an error has occurred, immediately send an error message and log the error in the console. The command is as follows:\n\n let pageID = Object.keys(result.query.pages)[0];\n\nThe data object returned by the RESTful API call consists of a nested object named `query`, which in turn has a nested object called `pages`. Inside the `pages` object, there are more objects that use Wikipedia's internal page ID as a key, which is a series of numbers in a string format. Let's take a look at an example:\n\n {\n \"batchcomplete\": \"\",\n \"query\": {\n \"normalized\": [\n {\n \"from\": \"duck\",\n \"to\": \"Duck\"\n }\n ],\n \"pages\": {\n \"37674\": {\n \"pageid\": 37674,\n \"ns\": 0,\n \"title\": \"Duck\",\n \"extract\": \"Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae; they do not represent a monophyletic group (the group of all descendants of a single common ancestral species) but a form taxon, since swans and geese are not considered ducks. Ducks are mostly aquatic birds, mostly smaller than the swans and geese, and may be found in both fresh water and sea water.\\nDucks are sometimes confused with several types of unrelated water birds with similar forms, such as loons or divers, grebes, gallinules, and coots.\\n\\n\"\n }\n }\n }\n }\n\n`Object.keys` is a useful trick to retrieve data from an object without knowing the property's name. We use it here as we don't know the key ID for the page that we want, but we know we want the first value. `Object.keys` will return an array of key names for the `result.query.pages` object. We then select the value at index 0, as we're only interested in the first result. The code is as follows:\n\n \/\/ -1 indicates that the article doesn't exist\n if (parseInt(pageID, 10) === -1) {\n bot.send('That page does not exist yet, perhaps you\\'d like to create it:', channel);\n bot.send(url, channel);\n return;\n }\n\nA Wikipedia page ID of -1 indicates that the article doesn't exist at all. Instead of trying to parse data that doesn't exist, we inform the user of the problem and return. The code is as follows:\n\n let page = result.query.pages[pageID];\n let summary = page.extract;\n\n if (\/may refer to\/i.test(summary)) {\n bot.send('Your search query may refer to multiple things, please be more specific or visit:', channel);\n bot.send(url, channel);\n return;\n }\n\nIf the summary text contains the phrase `may refer to`, then we can conclude that the search term provided could lead to multiple Wikipedia entries. Since we can't guess at what the user intended, we simply ask them to be more specific and return. The code is as follows:\n\n if (summary !== '') {\n bot.send(url, channel);\n\nUnfortunately, it is possible that an API request returns a summary that is empty. This is an issue on the Wikimedia API's end where a term returns a page, but the summary text is missing. In this case, we inform the user of the problem in the `else` conditional block of this `if` statement. The code is as follows:\n\n let paragraphs = summary.split('\\n');\n\nThe summary might stretch over several paragraphs, so for ease of use we convert the text block into an array of paragraphs by using the new line ASCII operator `\\n` as our split criteria. The code is as follows:\n\n paragraphs.forEach((paragraph) => {\n if (paragraph !== '') {\n bot.send(`> ${paragraph}`, channel);\n }\n });\n\nLike regular users, bots can use Slack's formatting options when sending messages. In this instance, we prepend the `>` operator in front of our paragraph to indicate a quotation block. The code is as follows:\n\n } else {\n bot.send('I\\'m sorry, I couldn\\'t find anything on that subject. Try another one!', channel);\n }\n });\n }, true);\n\nAs before, we pass the `true` Boolean to our `respondsTo` method of the `Bot` class to indicate that we want our keyword `wiki` to only trigger a response if it is placed at the beginning of a message.\n\nOnce you've entered all the code into `index.js`, run the program using Node and test it in your Slack client:\n\nWikibot is up and running\n\nThis is a basic example of how to incorporate external API calls into your bot. Before we move on to the next section, we should consider the ramifications of complex API requests. If an API request takes a sizeable amount of time (for example, a service needs to perform complex calculations), it would be useful for the user to see an indication that the bot is working on the command. To accomplish this, we can show a **typing indicator** while the bot waits for a response. Typing indicators are shown when a human starts to type a message before hitting send. Add the following method to the `Bot` class in `bot.js`:\n\n setTypingIndicator(channel) {\n this.slack.send({ type: 'typing', channel: channel.id });\n }\n\nTo test our indicator, add the following to `index.js`:\n\n bot.respondTo('test', (message, channel) => {\n bot.setTypingIndicator(message.channel);\n setTimeout(() => {\n bot.send('Not typing anymore!', channel);\n }, 1000);\n }, true);\n\nNow, send the message `test` in your Slack channel and watch the indicator appear:\n\nWikibot is busy typing\n\n1000 milliseconds later, we get the following result:\n\nBot is done with the action and the typing indicator has been removed\n\nAfter the typing indicator is dispatched, it will automatically disappear once a message has been sent to the channel by the bot.\n\nTo use the typing indicator in our example bot, insert the following line above the `getWikiSummary` method call:\n\n bot.setTypingIndicator(message.channel);\n\nKeep in mind that since the Wikimedia API call resolves very quickly, it's unlikely that you'll see the typing indicator for longer than a few milliseconds.\n\n## Error handling\n\nContinuing on from the last topic, a good way of making your bot appear more natural is for it to provide clear instructions on how to use it. Providing the wrong input for a command should _never_ cause the bot to crash.\n\n### Note\n\nBots should never crash due to user input. Either an error message should be sent or the request should silently fail.\n\nYou can eliminate 99 percent of all bugs in your bot commands by doing valid type and content checking against the user's input. Observe the following checklist when programming a new command:\n\n * If arguments are required, are any of the arguments undefined?\n * Are the arguments of the type the bot is expecting? For example, are strings provided when a number is expected?\n * If targeting a member of the channel, does that member exist?\n * Was the command sent in a DM? If so should the command still be executed?\n * Does the command pass a \"sanity\" check? For example, does the data or action requested make sense?\n\nAs an example of the preceding checklist, let's review the checks we made with the `roll` command earlier in this chapter:\n\n * Are there non-bot members in the channel to interact with?\n * Was an argument supplied?\n * Was the supplied argument valid?\n * Is the specified opponent in the channel the command was issued?\n\nEach point is a hurdle that the command's input had to overcome in order to return the desired result. If any of these questions is answered in the negative, then an error message is sent and the command process terminated.\n\nThese checks might appear lengthy and superfluous, but they are absolutely necessary to provide a natural experience with the bot.\n\nAs a final note, be aware that despite your best efforts, users have an uncanny ability to cause crashes, intentionally or otherwise.\n\nThe more complex your bot becomes, the more likely it is that loopholes and edge cases will appear. Testing your bot thoroughly will get you most of the way, but always make sure that you are catching and logging errors on the programmatic side. A good debug log will save you many hours of frustration trying to find a difficult-to-squash bug.\n\n# Summary\n\nIn this chapter, we saw how to abstract away the core Slack API methods into a reusable module by using ES6's new class structures. The difference between a reactive and active bot was outlined as well as the distinction between keywords and bot commands. By applying the basic knowledge of external APIs outlined in this chapter, you should be able to create a bot that interfaces with any third-party application that provides RESTful APIs.\n\nIn the next chapter, we will learn about the Redis data storage service and how to write a bot that interfaces with a persistent data source.\n\n# Chapter 4. Using Data\n\nNow that we've seen how to process keywords, commands, and API calls, we will look at the next logical step in bot building: persistent data storage and retrieval. References to data can be kept in JavaScript by assigning said data to a variable; however, its use is limited to when the program is running. If the program is stopped or restarted, we lose the data. Hence, persistent data storage is required for certain tasks.\n\nThis allows us to build bots that can, for instance, keep track of a leaderboard or store a to-do list.\n\nIn this chapter, we will cover:\n\n * Introduction to Redis\n * Connecting to Redis\n * Saving and retrieving data\n * Best practices\n * Error handling\n\n# Introduction to Redis\n\nIn the previous chapter, we discovered how to create a competitive roll bot that allows users to play a \"Who can roll the highest\" game. Although it worked admirably, the feature sorely missing is a leaderboard of sorts, where each user's wins and losses are stored and an overall winners list is kept.\n\nSuch a feature wouldn't be difficult to produce; however, the largest problem comes in storing the data. Any data stored in JavaScript variables would be lost once the program ends or crashes. A better solution would then be to maintain a persistent database, which our bot can write to and read from.\n\nThere is a wide variety of database services to choose from; you might already be familiar with MySQL or MongoDB. For the example bots in this chapter, we will pick a service that is easy to set up and simple to use.\n\nThe database service we will use is Redis: .\n\nThe Redis website describes the technology as follows:\n\n> _\"Redis is an open source (BSD licensed), in-memory data structure store, used as database, cache and message broker. It supports data structures such as strings, hashes, lists, sets, sorted sets with range queries, bitmaps, hyperloglogs and geospatial indexes with radius queries. Redis has built-in replication, Lua scripting, LRU eviction, transactions, and different levels of on-disk persistence, and provides high availability via Redis Sentinel and automatic partitioning with Redis Cluster.\"_\n\nA simpler explanation is that Redis is an efficient in-memory key-value store. Keys can be simple strings, hashes, lists (an ordered collection), sets (unordered collection of non-repeating values), or sorted sets (ordered or ranked collection of non-repeating values). Despite the complex official description, setting up and using Redis is a quick and painless process.\n\nRedis' advantages are its impressive speed, cross-platform communication, and simplicity.\n\n### Note\n\nGetting started with Redis is simple, but we will only be exploring the tip of the Redis iceberg. For more information on advanced uses of Redis, visit the Redis website.\n\nThere are many Redis client implementations written in a wide variety of languages (), but we will use a Node-based Redis client.\n\nBear in mind that Redis is but one solution to the persistent data problem. Other solutions might include the use of a MySQL relational or a MongoDB non-relational database.\n\n## Installing Redis\n\nTo connect to Redis, we will use the Node Redis package. First, we must install and run our Redis server so Node will have something to connect to. Follow the instructions for your operating system of choice.\n\n### Mac OS X\n\nThe simplest way to install Redis is through the `homebrew` package manager. `homebrew` makes it easy to install applications and services through the command line.\n\nIf you are unable to use `homebrew`, visit the Redis quick start guide to install Redis manually: ().\n\nIf you are unsure whether you have Homebrew installed, open a terminal and run the following:\n\n **which brew**\n\nIf nothing returns, run the following in your terminal:\n\n **\/usr\/bin\/ruby -e \"$(curl -fsSL https:\/\/raw.githubusercontent.com\/Homebrew\/install\/master\/install)\"**\n\nFollow the onscreen prompts until `homebrew` is successfully installed. To install Redis, run the following:\n\n **brew install redis**\n\nOnce the installation has completed, you can start a Redis server by using the following command in your terminal:\n\n **redis-server**\n\n### Windows\n\nVisit the official Microsoft GitHub project for Redis and grab the latest release here: . Once unzipped, you can run `redis-server.exe` to start the service and `redis-cli.exe` to connect to the server through the shell.\n\n### Unix\n\nRefer to the Redis quickstart page for instructions on how to install on Linux\/Unix systems: .\n\nOnce installed, you can start the server with the `redis-server` command and connect to the server via `redis-cli`. These commands function in the exact same way on OS X.\n\nNow that Redis is installed, start the service and you should see something like this:\n\nRedis successfully starting a server\n\nRedis is now up and ready to be used on the default port 6379. Other ports may be used instead, but the default port is sufficient for our purposes.\n\n# Connecting to Redis\n\nTo demonstrate how to connect to Redis, we will create a new bot project (including the `Bot` class defined in Chapter 3, _Adding Complexity_ ). We'll start by installing the Redis Node client, executing the following:\n\n **npm install redis**\n\nNow, create a new `index.js` file and paste in the following code:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n const redis = require('redis');\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n const client = redis.createClient();\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n client.on('error', (err) => {\n console.log('Error ' + err);\n });\n\n client.on('connect', () => {\n console.log('Connected to Redis!');\n });\n\nThis snippet will import the Redis client and connect to the local instance running via the `createClient()` method. When not supplied with any arguments, the aforementioned method will assume the service is running locally on the default port of 6379. If you wish to connect to a different host and port combination, then you can supply them with following:\n\n let client = redis.createClient(port, host);\n\n### Note\n\nFor the purposes of this book, we will be using an unsecure Redis server. Without authentication or other security measures, your data could be accessed and edited by anyone who connects to your data service. If you intend to use Redis in a production environment, it is strongly recommended you read up on Redis security.\n\nNext, ensure that you have the Redis client running in a different terminal window and start up our bot in the usual way:\n\n **SLACK_TOKEN=[your_token_here] node index.js**\n\nIf all goes well, you should be greeted by this happy message:\n\nOur Node app has successfully connected to the local Redis server\n\nAs promised, setting up and connecting to Redis was an easy and quick endeavor. Next, we will look at actually setting and getting data from our server.\n\n# Saving and retrieving data\n\nFirst, let's look at what the Redis client has to offer us. Add the following lines to `index.js`:\n\n client.set('hello', 'Hello World!');\n\n client.get('hello', (err, reply) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n return;\n }\n\n console.log(`Retrieved: ${reply}`);\n });\n\nIn this example, we will set the value \"Hello world!\" in Redis with the key `hello`. In the `get` command, we specify the key we wish to use to retrieve a value.\n\n### Note\n\nThe Node Redis client is entirely **asynchronous**. This means that you have to supply a callback function with each command if you wish to process data.\n\nA common mistake is to use the Node Redis client in a synchronous way. Here's an example:\n\n let val = client.get('hello');\n console.log('val:', val);\n\nThis, perhaps confusingly, results in:\n\n **val: false**\n\nThis is because the `get` function will have returned the Boolean `false` before the request to the Redis server has been made.\n\nRun the correct code and you should see the successful retrieval of the **Hello world!** data:\n\nOur stored value is successfully retrieved\n\n### Tip\n\nThe maximum file size of a Redis string is 512 megabytes. If you need to store something larger than this, consider using multiple key\/value pairings.\n\nWhen developing Redis functionality, a good tip is to use the Redis client's built-in `print` command for easy debugging and testing:\n\n client.set('hello', 'Hello World!', redis.print);\n\n client.get('hello', redis.print);\n\nThis will print the following in the terminal:\n\n **Reply: OK**\n **Reply: Hello World!**\n\nAs we progress through the chapter, we will introduce more useful functions and methods provided by the Redis client. For a complete list and documentation, visit .\n\n## Connecting bots\n\nWith our Redis server set up and the basic commands covered, let's apply what we've learned to a simple bot. In this example, we will code a bot that instructs the bot to _remember_ a phrase based on a given key value.\n\nAdd the following code to your `index.js` file:\n\n bot.respondTo('store', (message, channel, user) => {\n let msg = getArgs(message.text);\n\n client.set(user.name, msg, (err) => {\n if (err) {\n channel.send('Oops! I tried to store that but something went wrong :(');\n } else {\n channel.send(`Okay ${user.name}, I will remember that for you.`);\n }\n });\n }, true);\n\n bot.respondTo('retrieve', (message, channel, user) => {\n bot.setTypingIndicator(message.channel);\n\n client.get(user.name, (err, reply) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n return;\n }\n\n channel.send('Here\\'s what I remember: ' + reply);\n });\n });\n\nUsing the familiar `respondTo` command introduced in the `Bot` class of the previous chapter, we set up our bot to listen for the keyword `store` and then set that value in the Redis data store, using the message sender's name as a key. Let's see this in action:\n\nOur bot remembers what we told it to\n\nNotice how we use the callback function of the set method to ensure that the data was saved correctly, and informing the user if it was not.\n\nWhile not terribly impressive behavior, the important thing to realize is that our bot has successfully stored values in the Redis data store. Redis will store the key value pairing on the local disk, which means that even if the bot and\/or Redis server are stopped and started again the data will persist.\n\n## Dynamic storage\n\nOnce again, let's increase the complexity a bit. In the previous example, the key used to store data is always the command giver's name. In reality, this is impractical as it means a user could only store one thing at a time, overwriting the value each time they issued the command. In this next section, we will be augmenting our bot to allow the user to specify the key of the value to be stored, allowing for the storage of multiple values.\n\nDelete the previous `respondsTo` commands and paste in the following snippets, noting the highlighted code:\n\n bot.respondTo('store', (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n **let key = args.shift();**\n **let value = args.join(' ');**\n\n **client.set(key, value, (err) = > {**\n **if (err) {**\n **channel.send('Oops! I tried to store something but something went wrong :(');**\n **} else {**\n **channel.send(`Okay ${user.name}, I will remember that for you.`);**\n **}**\n **});**\n }, true);\n\n bot.respondTo('retrieve', (message, channel, user) => {\n bot.setTypingIndicator(message.channel);\n\n let key = getArgs(message.text).shift();\n\n client.get(key, (err, reply) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n channel.send('Oops! I tried to retrieve something but something went wrong :(');\n return;\n }\n\n channel.send('Here\\'s what I remember: ' + reply);\n });\n });\n\nIn this interpretation, we expect the user to provide a command in the following format:\n\n **store [key] [value]**\n\nTo extract the key and value from the command, we first use JavaScript's `Array.shift` to remove and return the value at index 0 of the `args` array. Then, it's a simple case of collecting the rest of the arguments as the value by using `Array.join`. Now, we apply what we learned in the previous section to store the user-defined key and value in the Redis instance.\n\nWhen the `retrieve` command is given, we use the same `Array.shift` technique to extract the key requested. We will then use it to retrieve the stored data. Let's see it is in action:\n\nStoring and retrieving multiple entities\n\n### Note\n\nEmojis within a message's text are converted into their basic text components. For instance, the thumbs up emoji is translated to `:+1`. This conversion works both ways, which means that Slack will automatically render any emoji text the bot sends.\n\n## Hashes, lists, and sets\n\nSo far, we've used a single data type for our keys and values: strings. While keys are limited to string values, Redis allows for the value to be a variety of different data types. The different types are as follows:\n\n * String\n * Hash\n * List\n * Set\n * Sorted set\n\nWe are already familiar with strings, so let's work down the list and explain the different data types.\n\n### Hashes\n\nHashes are similar to JavaScript objects. However, they differ in that Redis hashes do not support nested objects. All the property values of a hash will be cast to strings. Take the following JavaScript object:\n\n let obj = {\n foo: 'bar',\n baz: {\n foobar: 'bazfoo'\n }\n };\n\nThe `baz` property contains an object, and we can store the `obj` object in Redis by using the `hmset` function:\n\n client.hmset('obj', obj);\n\nThen, we retrieve the data with `hgetall`:\n\n client.hgetall('obj', (err, object) => {\n console.log(object);\n });\n\nThis will log the following line in our terminal:\n\n { foo: 'bar', baz: '[object Object]' }\n\nRedis has stored the nested `baz` object by first calling the `Object.toString()` function on it, which means that the string value is returned when we perform our `hgetall` function.\n\nA workaround is to leverage JavaScript's `JSON` object to stringify our nested object before storing and then parsing the object returned from Redis. Observe the following example:\n\n let obj = {\n foo: 'bar',\n baz: {\n foobar: 'bazfoo'\n }\n };\n\n function stringifyNestedObjects(obj) {\n for (let k in obj) {\n if (obj[k] instanceof Object) {\n obj[k] = JSON.stringify(obj[k]); \n }\n }\n\n return obj;\n }\n\n function parseNestedObjects(obj) {\n for (let k in obj) {\n if (typeof obj[k] === 'string' || obj[k] instanceof String) {\n try {\n obj[k] = JSON.parse(obj[k]);\n } catch(e) {\n \/\/ string wasn't a stringified object, so fail silently\n } \n }\n }\n\n return obj;\n }\n\n client.hmset('obj', stringifyNestedObjects(obj));\n\n client.hgetall('obj', (err, object) => {\n console.log(parseNestedObjects(object));\n });\n\nWhen executed, we see the logged result:\n\n { foo: 'bar', baz: { foobar: 'bazfoo' } }\n\n### Note\n\nThe examples given here only stringify and parse objects nested one level deep. In order to stringify and parse an object of _N_ depth, look into the recursion programming technique. A good example can be found at .\n\n### Lists\n\nRedis lists are functionally the same as JavaScript arrays. Like with objects, the value of every index is converted into a string when storing. When dealing with a multidimensional array (for example, an array containing a subset of arrays) the `toString` function will be called before storing in Redis. A simple `Array.join(',')` can be used to convert this string value back to an array.\n\nThe `lpush` and `rpush` commands can be used to store our list:\n\n client.rpush('heroes', ['batman', 'superman', 'spider-man']);\n\nIn the preceding snippet, we are pushing our array of heroes to the right of the list. This works exactly the same as JavaScript's `Array.push`, where the new values are appended to the existing array. In this case, it means that previously empty list now contains our `heroes` array.\n\nWe can push to the left of the array to prepend to the list:\n\n client.lpush('heroes', 'iron-man');\n\nThis will result in our list looking like so:\n\n [ 'iron-man', 'batman', 'superman', 'spider-man' ]\n\nFinally, to access our Redis list we can use the `lrange` method:\n\n client.lrange('heroes', 0, -1, (err, list) => {\n console.log(list);\n });\n\nThe second and third arguments provided to `lrange` are the selection start and end position. To return all the elements in the list rather than a subset, we can provide -1 as an end position.\n\n### Sets\n\nSets are similar to Redis lists with one very useful difference: sets do not allow duplicates. Consider the following example:\n\n client.sadd('fruits', ['apples', 'bananas', 'oranges']);\n client.sadd('fruits', 'bananas');\n\n client.smembers('fruits', (err, set) => {\n console.log(set);\n });\n\nHere, we use the Redis client's `sadd` to store the set and `smembers` to retrieve it. In the second line, we attempt to add the fruit `'bananas'` to the `'fruits'` list, but since the value already exists, the `sadd` call silently fails. The retrieved set is as expected:\n\n [ 'oranges', 'apples', 'bananas' ]\n\n### Note\n\nYou might notice that the ordering of the retrieved 'fruits' set is different from the order that it was stored in. This is because a set is built using `HashTable`, which means there are no guarantees to the order of the elements. If you want to store your elements in a particular order, you must use a list or a sorted set.\n\n### Sorted sets\n\nFunctioning as a sort of hybrid between lists and sets, sorted sets have a specific order and cannot contain duplicates. See the following example:\n\n client.zadd('scores', [3, 'paul', 2, 'caitlin', 1, 'alex']);\n\n client.zrange('scores', 0, -1, (err, set) => {\n console.log(set);\n });\n\n client.zrevrange('scores', 0, -1, 'withscores', (err, set) => {\n console.log(set);\n });\n\nUsing the `zadd` method, we specify the key for our sorted set and an array of values. The array indicates the order of the stored set by following this format:\n\n [ score, value, score, value ... ]\n\nThe `zrange` method uses similar arguments to `lrange`, we specify the start and end positions of the set to be returned. This method will return the set in ascending order:\n\n [ 'alex', 'caitlin', 'paul' ]\n\nWe can reverse this by using `zrevrange`. Note how we also provide the `withscores` string as an argument. This argument will return the scores of each element:\n\n [ 'paul', '3', 'caitlin', '2', 'alex', '1' ]\n\n### Note\n\nThe `withscores` argument can be used for all sorted set retrieval methods.\n\nAs you might have realized already, sorted sets especially shine when used to keep track of game scores or leaderboards. With that in mind, let's revisit our \"roll\" bot from Chapter 3, _Adding Complexity_ , and add a leaderboard of winners.\n\n# Best practices\n\nAny user should be able to store data in Redis via bot commands; it is however recommended you ensure that the data storage methods cannot be easily abused. Accidental abuse might happen in the form of many different Redis calls in a short amount of time. For more information on Slack channel spam and remedies, revisit Chapter 2, _Your First Bot_.\n\nBy restricting bot traffic, we can ensure that Redis does not receive an inordinate amount of write and retrieve actions. If you ever find that Redis latency is not as good as it should be, visit this webpage to help troubleshoot: .\n\nLet's now look at how we can improve familiar bot behavior with the addition of Redis data storage.\n\nFirst, here is our `roll` command, with the new Redis store code highlighted:\n\n bot.respondTo('roll', (message, channel, user) => {\n \/\/ get the members of the channel\n const members = bot.getMembersByChannel(channel);\n\n \/\/ make sure there actually members to interact with. If there\n \/\/ aren't then it usually means that the command was given in a \n \/\/ direct message\n if (!members) {\n channel.send('You have to challenge someone in a channel, not a direct message!');\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ get the arguments from the message body\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n \/\/ if args is empty, return with a warning\n if (args.length < 1) {\n channel.send('You have to provide the name of the person you wish to challenge!');\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ the user shouldn't challenge themselves\n if (args.indexOf(user.name) > -1) {\n channel.send(`Challenging yourself is probably not the best use of your or my time, ${user.name}`);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ does the opponent exist in this channel?\n if (members.indexOf(args[0]) < 0) {\n channel.send(`Sorry ${user.name}, but I either can't find ${args[0]} in this channel, or they are a bot!`);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ Roll two random numbers between 0 and 100\n let firstRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n let secondRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n\n let challenger = user.name;\n let opponent = args[0];\n\n \/\/ reroll in the unlikely event that it's a tie\n while (firstRoll === secondRoll) {\n secondRoll = Math.round(Math.random() * 100);\n }\n\n let winner = firstRoll > secondRoll ? challenger : opponent;\n\n **client.zincrby('rollscores', 1, winner);**\n\n \/\/ Using new line characters (\\n) to format our response\n channel.send(\n `${challenger} fancies their changes against ${opponent}!\\n\n ${challenger} rolls: ${firstRoll}\\n\n ${opponent} rolls: ${secondRoll}\\n\\n\n *${winner} is the winner!*`\n );\n\n }, true);\n\nTo store the user's win, we use the Redis client's `zincrby` method, which will increment the winner's score by one. Note how we can specify how much to increment by in the second argument. If the key (the winner's name here) doesn't exist in the set, it is automatically created with the score 0 and then incremented by the specified amount.\n\nTo retrieve the scoreboard, lets add the following:\n\n bot.respondTo('scoreboard', (message, channel) => {\n client.zrevrange('rollscores', 0, -1, 'withscores', (err, set) => {\n if (err) {\n channel.send('Oops, something went wrong! Please try again later');\n return;\n }\n\n let scores = [];\n\n \/\/ format the set into something a bit easier to use\n for (let i = 0; i < set.length; i++) {\n scores.push([set[i], set[i + 1]]);\n i++;\n }\n\n channel.send('The current scoreboard is:');\n scores.forEach((score, index) => {\n channel.send(`${index + 1}. ${score[0]} with ${score[1]} points.`);\n });\n });\n }, true);\n\nOnce the `scoreboard` command is given, we immediately look for the reverse range by using the `zrevrange` method. This will asynchronously return an array in the format:\n\n [ NAME, SCORE, NAME2, SCORE2, NAME3, SCORE3,...]\n\nNext, we transform that array into a two-dimensional array by splitting the names and scores into nested arrays, which looks like this:\n\n [ [NAME, SCORE], [NAME2, SCORE2], [NAME3, SCORE3],...]\n\nFormatting the data in this way makes it easy for us to send the name and score to the channel, preceded by the placing on the scoreboard (the index of the array plus one).\n\nThe final result in Slack shows us a working scoreboard:\n\nA scoreboard achieved through persistent data storage\n\nBefore moving on to another example, let's look at how to delete a Redis key\/value pairing. Replace your `scoreboard` command with the following, taking note of the highlighted code:\n\n bot.respondTo('scoreboard', (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n **if (args[0] === 'wipe') {**\n **client.del('rollscores');**\n **channel.send('The scoreboard has been wiped!');**\n **return;**\n **}**\n\n client.zrevrange('rollscores', 0, -1, 'withscores', (err, set) => {\n if (err) {\n channel.send('Oops, something went wrong! Please try again later');\n return;\n }\n\n **if (set.length < 1) {**\n **channel.send('No scores yet! Challenge each other with the \\`roll\\` command!');**\n **return;**\n **}**\n\n let scores = [];\n\n \/\/ format the set into something a bit easier to use\n for (let i = 0; i < set.length; i++) {\n scores.push([set[i], set[i + 1]]);\n i++;\n }\n\n channel.send('The current scoreboard is:');\n scores.forEach((score, index) => {\n channel.send(`${index + 1}. ${score[0]} with ${score[1]} points.`);\n });\n });\n }, true);\n\nNow if the command `scoreboard wipe` is given, we use the Redis client's `del` function to wipe the key\/value pairing by specifying the key.\n\nWe also add in some error handling that sends an error message if there are no scores at all:\n\nDeleting data should be used with caution\n\n### Note\n\nIn a real-world example, scoreboards and other sensitive data constructs should only be deleted by a user with admin rights. Remember that you can check whether the command issuer is an admin by checking the `user.is_admin` property.\n\n# Simple to-do example\n\nWith the basics of Redis covered, we shall now move on to create a simple to-do Slack bot. The aim of this bot is to allow users to create a to-do list, allowing them to add, complete, and delete a task from this list as they go about their day.\n\nThis time, we will start with a skeleton of what we want and build each feature step by step. Start by adding this new command to your bot:\n\n bot.respondTo('todo', (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n switch(args[0]) {\n case 'add':\n\n break;\n\n case 'complete':\n\n break;\n\n case 'delete':\n\n break;\n\n case 'help':\n channel.send('Create tasks with \\`todo add [TASK]\\`, complete them with \\`todo complete [TASK_NUMBER]\\` and remove them with \\`todo delete [TASK_NUMBER]\\` or \\`todo delete all\\`');\n break;\n\n default:\n showTodos(user.name, channel);\n break;\n }\n }, true);\n\n function showTodos(name, channel) {\n client.smembers(name, (err, set) => {\n if (err || set.length < 1) {\n channel.send(`You don\\'t have any tasks listed yet, ${name}!`);\n return;\n }\n\n channel.send(`${name}'s to-do list:`);\n\n set.forEach((task, index) => {\n channel.send(`${index + 1}. ${task}`);\n });\n });\n }\n\nThe bot's behavior will change depending on the second command given after the initial `todo` command. In this instance, a `switch` statement is ideal. We allow for five options: `add`, `complete`, `delete`, `help`, and a default option that is triggered when anything else is passed in.\n\nThe `help` and default behaviors have already been completed, as they are fairly straightforward. In the latter's case, we retrieve the Redis set, send out an error if it doesn't exist or has no items and otherwise send the total to-do list.\n\nDisplay a message if there are no to-dos\n\nAdding a to-do task is simple as well. We are using a Redis set, as we do not want to allow duplicates in our list. To add an item, we use the previously introduced `sadd` command. To make our `switch` statement less cluttered, all the code will be moved to a separate function:\n\n case 'add':\n addTask(user.name, args.slice(1).join(' '), channel);\n break;\n\nAnd the `addTask` function:\n\n function addTask(name, task, channel) {\n if (task === '') {\n channel.send('Usage: \\`todo add [TASK]\\`');\n return;\n }\n\n client.sadd(name, task);\n channel.send('You added a task!');\n showTodos(name, channel);\n }\n\nAll arguments after the first two (`todo add`) are joined into a single string and added to our set with the user's name as our key. Remember, duplicates are not allowed in a Redis set, so it's safe to store the task without doing any prior checking. We do check to make sure the task argument is not empty, sending a gentle reminder of how to use the \"add\" function if it is.\n\nAfter the task is set, we display a confirmation and the entire to-do list. This is behavior that we will implement for every action, as it's a good practice to show the user what they've done and how it's impacted the data.\n\nHere is an example of adding tasks to our to-do list:\n\nRedis' set takes care of the index for us\n\nNext up is the `complete` command, which takes the number of a task as an argument:\n\n case 'complete':\n completeTask(user.name, parseInt(args[1], 10), channel);\n break;\n\nHere's the accompanying `completeTask` function:\n\n function completeTask(name, taskNum, channel) {\n if (Number.isNaN(taskNum)) {\n channel.send('Usage: \\`todo complete [TASK_NUMBER]\\`');\n return;\n }\n\n client.smembers(name, (err, set) => {\n if (err || set.length < 1) {\n channel.send(`You don\\'t have any tasks listed yet, ${user.name}!`);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ make sure no task numbers that are out of bounds are given\n if (taskNum > set.length || taskNum <= 0) {\n channel.send('Oops, that task doesn\\'t exist!');\n return;\n }\n\n let task = set[taskNum - 1];\n\n if (\/~\/i.test(task)) {\n channel.send('That task has already been completed!');\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ remove the task from the set\n client.srem(name, task);\n\n \/\/ re-add the task, but with a strikethrough effect\n client.sadd(name, `~${task}~`);\n\n channel.send('You completed a task!');\n showTodos(name, channel);\n });\n }\n\nThis action is a little more complicated, as we have to do a little more error handling to begin with. First, we make sure that the argument provided is a valid number by using the ES6 `Number.isNaN` method.\n\n### Note\n\nBe careful when using ES5's `isNaN` method or ES6's `Number.isNaN` method, as they can be confusing. These methods answer the question _is the value equal to the type NaN? rather than is the value a number?_ For more information, visit .\n\nAfter retrieving the set from Redis, we ensure that tasks exist, that the number provided makes sense (for example, not less than 1 or more than the length of the set), and that the task hasn't already been completed. The latter is determined by whether the task has any tilde (`~`) operators contained within. Messages containing a tilde as the first and last character will render in strikethrough style within Slack.\n\nTo complete a task, we remove the task from the Redis set (using `srem`) after assigning it to the `task` variable, and then add it to Redis again with the strikethrough style.\n\nComplete a task by referencing its task number\n\nFinally, let's look at the delete function:\n\n case 'delete':\n removeTaskOrTodoList(user.name, args[1], channel);\n break;\n\nHere's the accompanying function:\n\n function removeTaskOrTodoList(name, target, channel) {\n if (typeof target === 'string' && target === 'all') {\n client.del(name);\n channel.send('To-do list cleared!');\n return;\n }\n\n let taskNum = parseInt(target, 10);\n\n if (Number.isNaN(taskNum)) {\n channel.send('Usage: \\`todo delete [TASK_NUMBER]\\` or \\`todo delete all\\`');\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ get the set and the exact task\n client.smembers(name, (err, set) => {\n if (err || set.length < 1) {\n channel.send(`You don\\'t have any tasks to delete, ${name}!`);\n return;\n }\n\n if (taskNum > set.length || taskNum <= 0) {\n channel.send('Oops, that task doesn\\'t exist!');\n return;\n }\n\n client.srem(name, set[taskNum - 1]);\n channel.send('You deleted a task!');\n showTodos(name, channel);\n });\n }\n\nThe first thing to note in this function is how we use a type of function overloading to achieve two different outcomes, depending on the arguments passed in.\n\nBecause JavaScript is a loosely typed language, we can perform actions depending on whether the `target` argument is a string or a number. In the case of a string (and provided that that string equals _all_ ), we delete the entire set from Redis using the `del` command, clearing the whole to-do list.\n\nIn case of a number, we only delete the task specified, provided that the target is a valid number we can use (for example, not smaller than 1 and not greater than the length of the set).\n\nHere's the multiple functionality of the `delete` command in action:\n\nList the to-dos, delete a task, add another, and then delete the whole list\n\n# Summary\n\nIn this chapter, the reader has learned the basics of the persistent data storage Redis and how to use it through the Node Redis client. We outlined the reasons why Redis lends itself well for use with bots, particularly when keeping a score list or storing multiple small items.\n\nIn the next chapter, we will introduce the concept of **natural language processing** ( **NLP** ) and see how to evaluate and generate natural language for use in a bot.\n\n# Chapter 5. Understanding and Responding to Natural Language\n\nWe've built bots that can play games, store data, and provide useful information. The next step isn't information gathering, it's processing. This chapter will introduce **natural language processing** ( **NLP** ) and show how we can use it to enhance our bots even further.\n\nIn this chapter, we will cover:\n\n * A brief introduction to natural language\n * A Node implementation\n * Natural language processing\n * Natural language generation\n * Displaying data in a natural way\n\n# A brief introduction to natural language\n\nYou should always strive to make your bot as helpful as possible. In all the bots we've made so far, we've awaited clear instructions via a key word from the user and then followed said instructions as far as the bot is capable. What if we could infer instructions from users without them actually providing a key word? Enter **natural language processing** ( **NLP** ).\n\nNLP can be described as a field of computer science that strives to understand communication and interactions between computers and human (natural) languages.\n\nIn layman's terms, NLP is the process of a computer interpreting conversational language and responding by executing a command or replying to the user in an equally conversational tone.\n\nExamples of NLP projects are digital assistants such as the iPhone's Siri. Users can ask questions or give commands and receive answers or confirmation in natural language, seemingly from a human.\n\nOne of the more famous projects using NLP is IBM's Watson system. In 2011, Watson famously competed against human opponents in the TV show Jeopardy! and won first place.\n\nThe NLP field is a large and complicated one, with many years of research performed by prestigious academic institutions and by large technology companies. Watson alone took 5 years, $3 million, and a small army of academics and engineers to build. In this chapter, the main concepts will briefly be described and a practical example given.\n\nFirst, let's take a step back and see how NLP might benefit our bots. If we built a bot that retrieves the weather report, we could imagine the command to look something like this:\n\n **weather amsterdam tomorrow**\n\nThis would return tomorrow's weather report for the city of Amsterdam. What if the bot could retrieve the weather report without requiring a command to be issued? For instance, if a Slack user were to send the message \"Will it rain tomorrow?\", then the bot would respond with tomorrow's weather report. This is NLP at work; it is the breakdown of natural language into instructions that can be interpreted by the program as a command.\n\nTo help us in our understanding of NLP, we will be using a helper library that abstracts the more complicated algorithms away. A good NLP framework is the Python language-based **natural language** **toolkit** ( **NLTK** ) available at .\n\nLuckily for us, a project to port the major functions of NLTK to Node has been functioning for some time and has reached a high enough level of maturity for us to use it seamlessly with our existing JavaScript projects. Known as Natural (), this library will be our key point of entry to the world of NLP.\n\nLet's start by introducing some of the more common NLP algorithms. Afterwards, we'll use our newfound knowledge by building a simple weather bot, as outlined earlier.\n\n# Fundamentals of NLP\n\nNLP, at its core, works by splitting a chunk of text (also referred to as a corpus) into individual segments or tokens and then analyzing them. These tokens might simply be individual words but might also be word contractions. Let's look at how a computer might interpret the phrase: _I have watered the plants_.\n\nIf we were to split this corpus into tokens, it would probably look something like this:\n\n ['I', 'have', 'watered', 'the', 'plants']\n\nThe word `the` in our corpus is unnecessary as it does not help to understand the phrase's intent-- the same for the word `have`. We should therefore remove the surplus words:\n\n ['I', 'watered', 'plants']\n\nAlready, this is starting to look more usable. We have a personal pronoun in the form of an actor (`I`), an action or verb (`watered`), and a recipient or noun (`plants`). From this, we can deduce exactly which action is enacted to what and by whom. Furthermore, by conjugating the verb `watered`, we can establish that this action occurred in the past. Consider how the context and meaning of the phrase changes when we make minor changes: _We are watering the plant_.\n\nBy using the same process as previously, we get the following:\n\n ['We', 'watering', 'plant']\n\nThe meaning of the phrase has dramatically changed: there are multiple actors involved, the action is in the present and the recipient is singular. The challenge of NLP is the ability to analyze such nuances, arrive at a conclusion with a high enough confidence level, and then perform actions based on that conclusion.\n\nA computer, much like a person, learns this nuance by practice and by picking up patterns. A common NLP term is to train your system to recognize context in a corpus. By providing a large amount of predefined phrases to our system, we can analyze said phrases and look for similar ones in other corpus'. We will talk more about how to use this training or classifying technique later.\n\nLet's now look at how we can actually perform the actions explained in the beginning of this section, starting with the splitting of a corpus into a series of tokens, also known as **tokenizing**.\n\n# Tokenizers\n\nStart by creating a new project with `npm init`. Name your bot \"weatherbot\" (or something similar), and install the Slack and Natural APIs with the following command:\n\n **npm install @slack\/client natural -save**\n\nCopy our `Bot` class from the previous chapters and enter the following in `index.js`:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n \/\/ import the natural library\n const natural = require('natural');\n\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n \/\/ initalize the tokenizer\n const tokenizer = new natural.WordTokenizer();\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n \/\/ respond to any message that comes through\n bot.respondTo('', (message, channel, user) => {\n\n let tokenizedMessage = tokenizer.tokenize(message.text);\n\n bot.send(`Tokenized message: ${JSON.stringify(tokenizedMessage)}`, channel);\n });\n\nStart up your Node process and type a test phrase into Slack:\n\nThe returned tokenized message\n\nThrough the use of tokenization, the bot has split the given phrase into short fragments or **tokens** , ignoring punctuation and special characters. Note that we are using the native `JSON` object's `stringify` method to convert the JavaScript array into a string before sending it to the channel.\n\nThis particular tokenized algorithm will handle contractions (for example, `hasn't`) by removing the punctuation and splitting the word. Depending on our use case, we might want to use a different algorithm. Luckily, `natural` provides three different algorithms. Each algorithm returns slightly different results for a corpus. To learn more about these algorithms, visit the `natural` GitHub page: .\n\nA majority of these algorithms use punctuation (spaces, apostrophes, and so on) to tokenize phrases, whereas the Treebank algorithm analyses contractions (for example, `wanna` and `gimme`) to split them into regular words (`want to` and `give me` in the case of `wanna` and `gimme`). Let's use Treebank for the next example, and replace the line where the tokenizer is initialized with the following:\n\n const tokenizer = new natural.TreebankWordTokenizer();\n\nNow, return to Slack and try another test message:\n\nThe Treebank algorithm handles contractions differently\n\nNotice two important things here: the `haven't` contraction was split into two parts, the root verb (`have`) and the contracted add-on (`not`). Furthermore, the word `cannot` was split into two separate words, making the command easier to deal with. This also makes certain slang words like `lemme` and `gotta` easier to process. By splitting the contracted word into two, we can more easily infer whether the phrase is positive or negative. `Can` by itself means positive; however, if it is followed by `not` it changes the context of the phrase to be negative.\n\n# Stemmers\n\nSometimes, it is useful to find the root or `stem` of a word. In the English language, irregular verb conjugations are not uncommon. By deducing the root of a verb, we can dramatically decrease the amount of calculations needed to find the action of the phrase. Take the verb `searching` for example; for the purpose of bots, it would be much easier to process the verb in its root form `search`. Here, a stemmer can help us determine said root. Replace the contents of `index.js` with the following to demonstrate stemmers:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n \/\/ import the natural library\n const natural = require('natural');\n\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n \/\/ initialize the stemmer\n const stemmer = natural.PorterStemmer;\n\n \/\/ attach the stemmer to the prototype of String, enabling\n \/\/ us to use it as a native String function\n stemmer.attach();\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n \/\/ respond to any message that comes through\n bot.respondTo('', (message, channel, user) => {\n let stemmedMessage = stemmer.stem(message.text);\n\n bot.send(`Stemmed message: ${JSON.stringify(stemmedMessage)}`, channel);\n });\n\nNow, let's see what stemming a word returns:\n\nThe conjugated versions of a verb are often different from its root\n\nAs expected, `searching` is stemmed into `search` but (more interestingly) the token `shining` is stemmed into `shine`. This shows that the process of stemming is more than simply removing `-ing` from the tail end of a token. Now, we can analyze our tokenized and stemmed corpus and pick out certain verbs or actions. For instance, after stemming, the phrases _I went swimming_ and _I swam_ , both contain the verb `swim`, which means we only have to search for one term (`swim`) rather than two (`swimming` and `swam`).\n\nStemming also works for removing plurals from words. For instance, `searches` stems into `search` and `rains` into `rain`.\n\nLet's combine the concepts of tokenizing and stemming into one program to see its effects. Once again, replace `index.js` with the following:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n \/\/ import the natural library\n const natural = require('natural');\n\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n \/\/ initialize the stemmer\n const stemmer = natural.PorterStemmer;\n\n **\/\/ attach the stemmer to the prototype of String, enabling**\n **\/\/ us to use it as a native String function**\n **stemmer.attach();**\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n \/\/ respond to any message that comes through\n bot.respondTo('', (message, channel, user) => {\n let stemmedMessage = message.text.tokenizeAndStem();\n\n bot.send(`Tokenize and stemmed message: ${JSON.stringify(stemmedMessage)}`, channel);\n });\n\nNote that we call `tokenizeAndStem` on `message.text`. This might seem odd, until you realize that we have attached the `tokenizeAndStem` method to the `String` object's prototype in earlier code, highlighted in the preceding code.\n\nSwitch over to the Slack client and you should see:\n\nTokenizing and stemming to produce useful results\n\nThe tokenizer and stemming combination has automatically left out very common words such as `it` and `in`, leaving us with a sentence distilled into the most important tokens of the original input.\n\nUsing just the tokenized and stemmed result, we can infer that the user wishes to know about the weather in Amsterdam. Furthermore, we can choose to exclude the word `is` from our results. This leaves us with `rain amsterdam`, which is enough information for us to make a weather API call.\n\n# String distance\n\nA string distance measuring algorithm is a calculation of how similar two strings are to one another. The strings `smell` and `bell` can be defined as similar, as they share three characters. The strings `bell` and `fell` are even closer, as they share three characters and are only one character apart from one another. When calculating string distance, the string `fell` will receive a higher ranking than `smell` when the distance is measured between them and `bell`.\n\nThe NPM package `natural` provides three different algorithms for string distance calculation: Jaro-Winkler, the Dice coefficient, and the Levenshtein distance. Their main differences can be described as follows:\n\n * **Dice coefficient** : This calculates the difference between strings and represents the difference as a value between zero and one. Zero being completely different and one meaning identical.\n * **Jaro-Winkler** : This is similar to the Dice Coefficient, but gives greater weighting to similarities at the beginning of the string.\n * **Levenshtein distance** : This calculates the amount of edits or steps required to transform one string into another. Zero steps means the strings are identical.\n\nLet's use the Levenshtein distance algorithm to demonstrate its use:\n\n let distance = natural.LevenshteinDistance('weather', 'heater');\n\n console.log('Distance:', distance); \/\/ distance of 10\n\n let distance2 = natural.LevenshteinDistance('weather', 'weather');\n\n console.log('Distance2:', distance2); \/\/ distance of 0\n\nA popular use for string distances is to perform a fuzzy search, where the search returns values that are a low string distance from the requested query. String distance calculation can be particularly useful for bots when processing a command with a typo in it. For instance, if a user meant to request the weather report for Amsterdam by sending the command `weather amsterdam`, but instead typed `weater amsterdam`. By calculating the Levenshtein distance between the strings, we can make an educated guess as to the user's intent. Check out the following snippet:\n\n bot.respondTo('', (message, channel, user) => {\n \/\/ grab the command from the message's text\n let command = message.text.split(' ')[0];\n\n let distance = natural.LevenshteinDistance('weather', command);\n\n \/\/ our typo tolerance, a higher number means a larger \n \/\/ string distance\n let tolerance = 2;\n\n \/\/ if the distance between the given command and 'weather' is\n \/\/ only 2 string distance, then that's considered close enough\n if (distance <= tolerance) {\n bot.send(`Looks like you were trying to get the weather, ${user.name}!`, channel);\n }}, true);\n\nHere's the result in Slack:\n\nCalculating string distance can make your bot a lot more user friendly\n\nWe set our tolerance to be quite low in this case, allowing for two mistakes or `steps` to indicate a hit. In production code, it would make sense to reduce the tolerance to only one step.\n\n### Note\n\nBe careful when choosing which string similarity algorithm to use, as each might determine distance differently. For instance, when using the Jaro-Winkler and Dice Coefficient algorithms, a score of 1 indicates that the two strings are identical. With the Levenshtein difference, it is the opposite, where 0 means identical and the higher the number the larger the string distance.\n\n# Inflection\n\nAn inflector can be used to convert a noun back and forth from its singular and plural forms. This is useful when generating natural language, as the plural versions of nouns might not be obvious:\n\n let inflector = new natural.NounInflector();\n\n console.log(inflector.pluralize('virus'));\n console.log(inflector.singularize('octopi'));\n\nThe preceding code will output `viri` and `octopus`, respectively.\n\nInflectors may also be used to transform numbers into their ordinal forms; for example, 1 becomes 1st, 2 becomes 2nd, and so on:\n\n let inflector = natural.CountInflector;\n\n console.log(inflector.nth(25));\n console.log(inflector.nth(42));\n console.log(inflector.nth(111));\n\nThis outputs `25th`, `42nd`, and `111th`, respectively.\n\nHere's an example of the inflector used in a simple bot command:\n\n let inflector = natural.CountInflector;\n\n bot.respondTo('what day is it', (message, channel) => {\n let date = new Date();\n\n \/\/ use the ECMAScript Internationalization API to convert \n \/\/ month numbers into names\n let locale = 'en-us';\n let month = date.toLocaleString(locale, { month: 'long' });\n bot.send(`It is the ${inflector.nth(date.getDate())} of ${month}.`, channel);\n }, true);\n\nNow when asked what day it is, our bot can respond a little more naturally:\n\nInflection can make your bot more personable\n\nThis leads us to our next topic: how to display data in an easy-to-understand way.\n\n# Displaying data in a natural way\n\nLet's build our bot's weather functionality. To do this, we will be using a third-party API called **Open Weather Map**. The API is free to use for up to 60 calls per minute, with further pricing options available. To obtain the API key, you will need to sign up here: .\n\n### Note\n\nRemember that you can pass variables such as API keys into Node from the command line. To run the weather bot, you could use the following command:\n\n **SLACK_TOKEN=[YOUR_SLACK_TOKEN] WEATHER_API_KEY=[YOUR_WEATHER_KEY] nodemon index.js**\n\nOnce you signed up and obtained your API key, copy and paste the following code into `index.js`, replacing `process.env.WEATHER_API_KEY` with your newly acquired Open Weather Map key:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n \/\/ import the natural library\n const natural = require('natural');\n\n const request = require('superagent');\n\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n const weatherURL = `http:\/\/api.openweathermap.org\/data\/2.5\/weather?&units=metric&appid=${process.env.WEATHER_API_KEY}&q=`;\n\n \/\/ initialize the stemmer\n const stemmer = natural.PorterStemmer;\n\n \/\/ attach the stemmer to the prototype of String, enabling\n \/\/ us to use it as a native String function\n stemmer.attach();\n\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: process.env.SLACK_TOKEN,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n bot.respondTo('weather', (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n let city = args.join(' ');\n\n getWeather(city, (error, fullName, description, temperature) => {\n if (error) {\n bot.send(error.message, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n bot.send(`The weather for ${fullName} is ${description} with a temperature of ${Math.round(temperature)} celsius.`, channel);\n });\n }, true);\n\n function getWeather(location, callback) {\n \/\/ make an AJAX GET call to the Open Weather Map API\n request.get(weatherURL + location)\n .end((err, res) => {\n if (err) throw err;\n let data = JSON.parse(res.text);\n\n if (data.cod === '404') { \n return callback(new Error('Sorry, I can\\'t find that location!')); \n }\n\n console.log(data);\n\n let weather = [];\n data.weather.forEach((feature) => {\n weather.push(feature.description);\n });\n\n let description = weather.join(' and ');\n\n callback(data.name, description, data.main.temp);\n });\n }\n\n \/\/ Take the message text and return the arguments\n function getArgs(msg) {\n return msg.split(' ').slice(1);\n }\n\nUsing familiar code, our bot performs the following tasks:\n\n * Initializes the stemmer from the natural package and attaches it to the string prototype\n * Awaits the `weather` command and uses the `getWeather` function to retrieve the Open Weather Map weather data via an **Asynchronous JavaScript and XML** ( **AJAX** ) call\n * Sends a formatted weather message to the channel\n\nHere's the bot in action:\n\nA simple weatherbot\n\nAfter receiving the command and the place name, the bot sends an AJAX request to Open Weather Map with the place name as the argument. In return, we get a JSON response that looks like this:\n\n { \n coord: { lon: 4.89, lat: 52.37 },\n weather:\n [ { id: 310,\n main: 'Drizzle',\n description: 'light intensity drizzle rain',\n icon: '09n' } ],\n base: 'cmc stations',\n main: { temp: 7, pressure: 1021, humidity: 93, temp_min: 7, temp_max: 7 },\n wind: { speed: 5.1, deg: 340 },\n clouds: { all: 75 },\n dt: 1458500100,\n sys:\n { type: 1,\n id: 5204,\n message: 0.0103,\n country: 'NL',\n sunrise: 1458452421,\n sunset: 1458496543 },\n id: 2759794,\n name: 'Amsterdam',\n cod: 200 \n }\n\nNote how among the plethora of information we get back there is the full, capitalized name of the place and useful information such as minimum and maximum temperature. For our bot's initial purpose, we will use the temperature object (`main`), the `name` property, and the `description` inside the `weather` object.\n\nNow that we have a simple bot which responds to the command `weather`, let's see if we can use NLP to get more specific answers.\n\nNotice how the Open Weather Map AJAX call was abstracted out into the `getWeather` function. This means we can use the same function for both command calls and NLP calls.\n\nBefore we continue, we should discuss the right use case for NLP techniques.\n\n# When to use NLP?\n\nIt might be tempting to have weatherbot listen to and process all messages sent in the channel. This immediately poses some problems:\n\n * How do we know if the message sent is a query on the weather or is completely unrelated?\n * Which geographic location is the query about?\n * Is the message a question or a statement? For example, the difference between _Is it cold in Amsterdam_ and _It is cold in Amsterdam_.\n\nAlthough an NLP-powered solution to the preceding questions could probably be found, we have to face facts: it's likely that our bot will get at least one of the above points wrong when listening to generic messages. This will lead the bot to either provide bad information or provide unwanted information, thus becoming annoying. If there's one thing we need to avoid at all costs, it's a bot that sends too many wrong messages too often.\n\nHere's an example of a bot using NLP and completely missing the point of the message sent:\n\nA clearly misunderstood message\n\nIf a bot were to often mistake your unrelated messages for actual commands, you can imagine users disabling your bot very quickly after enabling it.\n\nThe best possible solution would be to create a bot that has human-level natural language processing. If that sentence doesn't concern you, then consider that human-level natural language processing is considered an AI-complete problem. Essentially, it is equivalent to attempting to solve the problem of making computers as intelligent as humans.\n\nInstead, we should focus on how to make our bot perform as best as possible with the resources at hand. We can start by introducing a new rule: use NLP as an enhancement for your bot, not as a main feature.\n\nAn example of this is to only use NLP techniques when the bot is directly addressed in a mention. A mention in a Slack channel is when a user sends a message directly to another user in a public channel. This is done by prefacing the user's name with the `@` symbol. Bots can also be mentioned, which means we should be able to process the weather command in two ways:\n\n * The user prefaces their request with the command `weather`: `weather is it raining in Amsterdam`\n * The user uses a mention `@weatherbot is it raining in Amsterdam`\n\n# Mentions\n\nTo implement the second point, we need to revisit our `Bot` class and add mention functionality. In the `Bot` class' constructor, replace the `RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED` event listener block with the following:\n\n this.slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n let user = this.slack.dataStore.getUserById(this.slack.activeUserId)\n let team = this.slack.dataStore.getTeamById(this.slack.activeTeamId);\n\n this.name = user.name;\n **this.id = user.id;**\n\n console.log(`Connected to ${team.name} as ${user.name}`);\n });\n\nThe only change here is the addition of the bot's `id` to the `this` object. This will help us later. Now, replace the `respondTo` function with this:\n\n respondTo(opts, callback, start) {\n if (!this.id) {\n \/\/ if this.id doesn't exist, wait for slack to connect\n \/\/ before continuing\n this.slack.on(CLIENT_EVENTS.RTM.RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED, () => {\n createRegex(this.id, this.keywords);\n }); \n } else {\n createRegex(this.id, this.keywords);\n }\n\n function createRegex(id, keywords) {\n \/\/ if opts is an object, treat it as options\n \/\/ otherwise treat it as the keywords string\n if (opts === Object(opts)) {\n opts = {\n mention: opts.mention || false,\n keywords: opts.keywords || '',\n start: start || false\n };\n } else {\n opts = {\n mention: false,\n keywords: opts,\n start: start || false\n };\n }\n\n \/\/ mention takes priority over start variable\n if (opts.mention) { \n \/\/ if 'mention' is truthy, make sure the bot only \n \/\/ responds to mentions of the bot\n opts.keywords = `<@${id}>:* ${opts.keywords}`;\n } else {\n \/\/ If 'start' is truthy, prepend the '^' anchor to instruct\n \/\/ the expression to look for matches at the beginning of\n \/\/ the string\n opts.keywords = start ? '^' + opts.keywords : opts.keywords;\n }\n\n \/\/ Create a new regular expression, setting the case \n \/\/ insensitive (i) flag\n \/\/ Note: avoid using the global (g) flag\n let regex = new RegExp(opts.keywords, 'i');\n\n \/\/ Set the regular expression to be the key, with the callback \n \/\/ function as the value\n keywords.set(regex, callback);\n }\n }\n\nWe've improved the `respondTo` function by first checking whether `this.id` exists. If not, it means that we've not yet successfully connected to Slack. Therefore, we wait till Slack has connected (remember how we set `this.id` in the constructor after connecting) and then proceed. This is the second time we listen for the `RTM_CONNECTION_OPENED` event. Luckily, the first time it happens in the `Bot` class' constructor, which means this listener will always trigger second as it was added later. This ensures that `this.id` is defined once the event triggers.\n\nThe function now takes either a string (the keywords we're looking for) or an object as its first parameter. In the case of an object, we check to see whether the mention property is truthy; if so, we create a regular expression that purposefully looks for the mention syntax. When a message is received, a mention takes the following structure:\n\n`<@[USER_ID]>: [REST OF MESSAGE]`\n\nSwitch back to `index.js` and let's try out our new code by replacing the previous `respondTo` block of `weather`:\n\n bot.respondTo({ mention: true }, (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n let city = args.join(' ');\n\n getWeather(city, (error, fullName, description, temperature) => {\n if (error) {\n bot.send(error.message, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n bot.send(`The weather for ${fullName} is ${description} with a temperature of ${Math.round(temperature)} celsius.`, channel);\n });\n });\n\nNow when we mention our bot and pass a city name, we get the following result:\n\nMentions can be used to identify specific behavior\n\n### Note\n\nMentions are a great way to ensure that the message sent is meant to be a command for your bot. When implementing a natural language solution, it is highly recommended you use mentions.\n\nNow with mentions in place, let's look at how we're going to answer weather-related questions in an NLP way. We briefly talked about classification and the training of NLP systems earlier. Let's revisit that topic and see how we can use it for our weather bot.\n\n# Classifiers\n\nClassification is the process of training your bot to recognize a phrase or pattern of words and to associate them with an identifier. To do this, we use a classification system built into `natural`. Let's start with a small example:\n\n const classifier = new natural.BayesClassifier();\n\n classifier.addDocument('is it hot', ['temperature', 'question','hot']);\n classifier.addDocument('is it cold', ['temperature', 'question' 'cold']);\n classifier.addDocument('will it rain today', ['conditions', 'question', 'rain']);\n classifier.addDocument('is it drizzling', ['conditions', 'question', 'rain']);\n\n classifier.train();\n\n console.log(classifier.classify('will it drizzle today'));\n console.log(classifier.classify('will it be cold out'));\n\nThe first log prints:\n\n conditions,question,rain\n\nThe second log prints:\n\n temperature,question,cold\n\nThe classifier stems the string to be classified first, and then calculates which of the trained phrases it is the most similar to by assigning a weighting to each possibility.\n\nYou can view the weightings by using the following code:\n\n console.log(classifier.getClassifications('will it drizzle today'));\n\nThe output is as follows:\n\n [ { label: 'conditions,question,rain',\n value: 0.17777777777777773 },\n { label: 'temperature,question,hot', value: 0.05 },\n { label: 'temperature,question,cold', value: 0.05 } ]\n\nTo get accurate and reliable results, you must train your bot with potentially hundreds of phrases. Luckily, you can also import training data JSON files into the classifier.\n\nSave your classifier training data by creating a `classifier.json` file in your directory:\n\n classifier.save('classifier.json', (err, classifier) => {\n \/\/ the classifier is saved to the classifier.json file!\n });\n\nRetrieve the same file with the following code:\n\n natural.BayesClassifier.load('classifier.json', null, (err, classifier) => {\n if (err) {\n throw err;\n }\n\n console.log(classifier.classify('will it drizzle today'));\n });\n\nNow let's try and use classifiers to power our weatherbot.\n\n# Using trained classifiers\n\nAn example `classifier.json `file that contains training data for weather is included with this book. For the rest of this chapter, we will assume that the file is present and that we are loading it in via the preceding method.\n\nReplace your `respondTo` method call with the following snippet:\n\n let settings = {};\n\n bot.respondTo({ mention: true }, (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n if (args[0] === 'set') {\n let place = args.slice(1).join(' ');\n settings[user.name] = place\n\n bot.send(`Okay ${user.name}, I've set ${place} as your default location`, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n if (args.indexOf('in') < 0 && !settings[user.name]) {\n bot.send(`Looks like you didn\\'t specify a place name, you can set a city by sending \\`@weatherbot set [city name]\\` or by sending \\`@weatherbot ${args.join(' ')} in [city name]\\``, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ The city is usually preceded by the word 'in' \n let city = args.indexOf('in') > 0 ? args.slice(args.indexOf('in') + 1) : settings[user.name];\n\n let option = classifier.classify(message.text).split(',');\n\n console.log(option);\n\n \/\/ Set the typing indicator as we're doing an asynchronous request\n bot.setTypingIndicator(channel);\n\n getWeather(city, (error, fullName, description, temperature) => {\n if (error) {\n bot.send(`Oops, an error occurred, please try again later!`, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n let response = '';\n\n switch(option[0]) {\n case 'weather':\n response = `It is currently ${description} with a temperature of ${Math.round(temperature)} celsius in ${fullName}.`;\n break;\n\n case 'conditions':\n response = `${fullName} is experiencing ${description} right now.`;\n break;\n\n case 'temperature':\n let temp = Math.round(temperature);\n let flavorText = temp > 25 ? 'hot!' : (temp < 10 ? 'cold!' : 'nice!');\n\n response = `It's currently ${temp} degrees celsius in ${fullName}, that's ${flavorText}`;\n }\n\n bot.send(response, channel);\n });\n });\n\nRun the Node process and ask weatherbot a series of natural language questions:\n\nWeatherbot can now understand conversational language\n\nLet's look at the code and see what's going on:\n\n let settings = {};\n\n bot.respondTo({ mention: true }, (message, channel, user) => {\n let args = getArgs(message.text);\n\n if (args[0] === 'set') {\n let place = args.slice(1).join(' ');\n settings[user.name] = place\n\n bot.send(`Okay ${user.name}, I've set ${place} as your default location`, channel);\n return;\n }\n\nFirst, we check to see whether the keyword `set` is used immediately after the `@weatherbot` mention. If yes, this sets the following arguments to be the default city of the user. We use a simple settings object here, but this could be improved by using a data store such as Redis, explained in Chapter 4, _Using Data_.\n\nYou can see an example of the `set` behavior in the following screenshot:\n\nSetting a city saves users from having to type in their place name for each query\n\nNext, we attempt to find the place we want to get weather information for:\n\n if (args.indexOf('in') < 0 && !settings[user.name]) {\n bot.send(`Looks like you didn\\'t specify a place name, you can set a city by sending \\`@weatherbot set [city name]\\` or by sending \\`@weatherbot ${args.join(' ')} in [city name]\\``, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ The city is usually preceded by the word 'in' \n let city = args.indexOf('in') > 0 ? args.slice(args.indexOf('in') + 1) : settings[user.name];\n\nWe expect all weather queries with a place name to follow the pattern `[condition] in [place name]`. This means we can make a reasonable assumption that all tokens after the word `in` are the place name to use in our AJAX call.\n\nIf the word `in` does not appear and there is no set place name, then we send back an error message with a best guess example of how to use weatherbot.\n\nThis is, of course, not the most ideal way to detect a place name--determining which part of the phrase is a place name is notoriously difficult, especially when the name in question comprises multiple words like `New York` or `Dar es Salaam`. One possible solution would be to train our bot with a series of city name classifiers (essentially one training phrase per city). Other solutions include the Query GeoParser and the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer .\n\nNext we use the classifier to identify which key words the message should be associated with:\n\n let option = classifier.classify(message.text).split(',');\n\n console.log(option);\n\n \/\/ Set the typing indicator as we're doing an \n \/\/ asynchronous request\n bot.setTypingIndicator(channel);\n\nSome of the classifier's phrases are added with an array as the second argument, for example:\n\n classifier.addDocument('is it hot outside', ['temperature', 'question', 'hot']);\n\nThis means that the returned value from the `classifier.classify` method is a comma-separated string value. We transform it into a JavaScript array by using the `Array.split` method.\n\nFinally, we set the typing indicator, which is good practice when making an asynchronous call:\n\n getWeather(city, (error, fullName, description, temperature) => {\n if (error) {\n bot.send(`Oops, an error occurred, please try again later!`, channel);\n return;\n }\n\n let response = '';\n\n switch(option[0]) {\n case 'weather':\n response = `It is currently ${description} with a temperature of ${Math.round(temperature)} celsius in ${fullName}.`;\n break;\n\n case 'conditions':\n response = `${fullName} is experiencing ${description} right now.`;\n break;\n\n case 'temperature':\n let temp = Math.round(temperature);\n let flavorText = temp > 25 ? 'hot!' : (temp < 10 ? 'cold!' : 'nice!');\n\n response = `It's currently ${temp} degrees celsius in ${fullName}, that's ${flavorText}`;\n }\n\n bot.send(response, channel);\n });\n });\n\nThe value at index 0 of the option object is the state of the question, in this case whether the message is related to the temperature, condition, or generic weather.\n\nOur options are as follows:\n\n * **Temperature** : Send the temperature (in Celsius) to the channel\n * **Conditions** : Send the weather conditions (for example, raining and windy) to the channel\n * **Weather** : Send both the conditions and temperature to the channel\n\nIt is important to understand the underlying concepts of classification and training to build a smarter bot. It is, however, possible to abstract the problem of obtaining training data by using the third-party service wit.ai (). wit.ai is a free service, created by Facebook, which allows you to train phrases (referred to as **entities** by wit.ai) and to retrieve analysis on a given phrase easily and quickly via an AJAX request.\n\nAlternatively, you could use services such as api.ai () or Microsoft's LUIS (). Bear in mind, however, that although these services are free and easy to use, it is not guaranteed that they will be free or even around in the future. Unless you are attempting to build something that requires extremely accurate NLP services, it is almost always better to create your own implementation with open source NLP libraries. This has the added benefit of controlling and owning your own data, something which is not guaranteed when using a third-party service.\n\nNow that we know how to process language, we should take a look at how to transform our data into human understandable natural language.\n\n# Natural language generation\n\nNatural language can be defined as a conversational tone in a bot's response. The purpose here is not to hide the fact that the bot is not human, but to make the information easier to digest.\n\nThe `flavorText` variable from the previous snippet is an attempt to make the bot's responses sound more natural; in addition, it is a useful technique to cheat our way out of performing more complex processing to reach a conversational tone in our response.\n\nTake the following example:\n\nWeatherbot's politician-like response\n\nNotice how the first weather query is asking whether it's cold or not. Weatherbot gets around giving a yes or no answer by making a generic statement on the temperature to every question.\n\nThis might seem like a cheat, but it is important to remember a very important aspect of NLP. _The more complex the generated language, the more likely it is to go wrong._ Generic answers are better than outright wrong answers.\n\nThis particular problem could be solved by adding more keywords to our classifiers and adding more phrases. Currently, our `classifier.json` file contains 50 phrases related to the weather; adding more phrases could get us a clearer idea of what is being asked of weatherbot.\n\nThis leads us to a very important point in the pursuit of natural language generation.\n\n# When should we use natural language generation?\n\nSparingly, is the answer. Consider Slackbot, Slack's own in-house bot used for setting up new users, amongst other things. Here's the first thing Slackbot says to a new user:\n\nThe humble bot\n\nImmediately, the bot's restrictions are outlined and no attempts to hide the fact that it is not human are made. Natural language generation is at its best when used to transform data-intensive constructs such as JSON objects into easy to comprehend phrases.\n\nThe Turing Test is a famous test developed in 1950 by Alan Turing to assess a machine's ability to make itself indistinguishable from a human in a text-only sense. Like Slackbot, you should not strive to make your bot Turing Test complete. Instead, focus on how your bot can be the most useful and use natural language generation to make your bot as easy to use as possible.\n\n# The uncanny valley\n\nThe uncanny valley is a term used to describe systems that act and sound like humans, but are somehow slightly off. This slight discrepancy actually leads to the bot feeling a lot more unnatural, and this is the exact opposite of what we are trying to accomplish with natural language generation. Instead, we should avoid trying to make the bot perfect in its natural language responses; the chances of finding ourselves in the uncanny valley get higher the more human-like we try to make a bot sound.\n\nInstead, we should focus on making our bots useful and easy to use, over making its responses natural. A good principle to follow is to build your bot to _be as smart as a puppy_ , a concept championed by Matt Jones ():\n\n> _\"Making smart things that don't try to be too smart and fail, and indeed, by design, make endearing failures in their attempts to learn and improve. Like puppies.\"_\n\nLet's expand our weatherbot to make the generated response sound a little more natural (but not too natural).\n\nFirst, edit the `getWeather` function to include `data` as a final argument in its callback call:\n\n callback(null, data.name, condition, data.main.temp, data);\n\nThen add the `data` variable to the callback we assign in the mention `respondsTo`:\n\n getWeather(city, (error, fullName, description, temperature, data) => {\n\nIn the `switch` statement within the `getWeather` call, replace the `weather` case with this:\n\n case 'weather':\n \/\/ rain is an optional variable\n let rain = data.rain ? `Rainfall in the last 3 hours has been ${data.rain['3h']} mm.` : ''\n\n let expression = data.clouds.all > 80 ? 'overcast' : (data.clouds.all < 25 ? 'almost completely clear' : 'patchy');\n \/\/ in case of 0 cloud cover\n expression = data.clouds.all === 0 ? 'clear skies' : expression;\n\n let clouds = `It's ${expression} with a cloud cover of ${data.clouds.all}%.`;\n\n response = `It is currently ${description} with a temperature of ${Math.round(temperature)} celsius in ${fullName}. The predicted high for today is ${Math.round(data.main.temp_max)} with a low of ${Math.round(data.main.temp_min)} celsius and ${data.main.humidity}% humidity. ${clouds} ${rain}`;\n break;\n\nAsking for the weather in a city will now instruct our bot to send this:\n\nWeatherbot can now be a bit more specific with its reporting\n\nHere, we've simply taken the JSON returned from the AJAX call and formatted the data into something a bit more legible by humans. Rainfall is included, but only if there actually was any in the last 3 hours (if not, the `rain` property is omitted from the returned data). Cloud cover is represented by a percentage, which is perfect for us as we can assign predetermined statements (`patchy`, `almost completely clear` and `clear skies`) depending on that percentage.\n\nWhen generating natural language, think of how your data can be presented. Percentages are an excellent way of assigning a verbal value. For example, anything between 80 and 100 percent can use adverbs like `extremely` or `very`, whereas we can use `barely` and `very little` for 0 to 20 percent.\n\nFor some data sets, a paragraph might be easier to digest rather than a list or pure data.\n\nThe result is a bot that, in a conversational tone, can give a weatherman-like weather report on the area in question.\n\n# Summary\n\nIn this chapter, we discussed what NLP is and how it can be leveraged to make a bot seem far more complex than it really is. By using these techniques, natural language can be read, processed, and responded to in equally natural tones. We also covered the limitations of NLP and understood how to differentiate between good and bad uses of NLP.\n\nIn the next chapter, we will explore the creation of web-based bots, which can interact with Slack using webhooks and slash commands.\n\n# Chapter 6. Webhooks and Slash Commands\n\nEvery bot we've created so far shares the same two traits: they rely on commands issued by users and require a Slack API token. This has been very useful in our bots so far, but what if we want a bot to post messages to a Slack channel without needing an API token? Plus what if we want a bot that does not require an API token to interact with users? An example of this is the GitHub Slack integration, a service that posts GitHub activity on specific repositories to a Slack channel of your choice.\n\nIn this chapter, we will discuss how to use webhooks to get data in and out of Slack and how to create slash commands that users can interact with throughout Slack.\n\nWe will cover the following topics:\n\n * Webhooks\n * Incoming webhooks\n * Outgoing webhooks\n * Slash commands\n * In-channel and ephemeral responses\n\n# Webhooks\n\nA webhook is a way of altering or augmenting a web application through HTTP methods. Previously, we used third-party APIs in our bots to get data into and out of Slack. However, this isn't the only way. Webhooks allow us to post message to and from Slack using regular HTTP requests with a JSON payload. What makes a webhook a bot is its ability to post messages to Slack as if they are a bot user.\n\nThese webhooks can be divided into incoming and outgoing webhooks, each with their own purposes and uses.\n\n## Incoming webhooks\n\nAn example of an incoming webhook would be a service that relays information from an external source to a Slack channel without being explicitly requested. An example of this is the aforementioned GitHub Slack integration:\n\nThe GitHub integration posts messages about repositories we are interested in\n\nIn the preceding screenshot, we can see how a message was sent to Slack after a new branch was made on a repository this team is watching. This data wasn't explicitly requested by a team member, but it was automatically sent to the channel as a result of the incoming webhook.\n\nOther popular examples include a Jenkins integration, where infrastructure changes can be monitored in Slack (for example, if a server watched by Jenkins goes down, a warning message can be posted immediately to a relevant Slack channel).\n\nLet's start by setting up an incoming webhook that sends a simple _Hello world_ message:\n\n 1. First, navigate to the Custom Integration Slack team page ().\n\nThe various flavors of custom integration\n\n 2. Select **Incoming WebHooks** from the list, and then select the channel you'd like your webhook app to post messages to:\n\nWebhook apps will post to a channel of your choosing\n\nCustom webhooks (that is, webhooks created for your team only) use the selected channel as a default channel to send message to. It is possible to use the same webhook to post to different channels, as we'll see in a moment.\n\n 3. Once you've clicked on the **Add Incoming WebHooks integration** button, you will be presented with an options page that allows you to customize your integration a little further.\n\nNames, descriptions, and icons can be set from this menu\n\n 4. Set a customized icon for your integration (for this example, the `wave` emoji was used) and copy down the webhook URL, which has the following format:\n\n`https:\/\/hooks.slack.com\/services\/T00000000\/B00000000\/XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX`\n\nThis generated URL is unique to your team, meaning that any JSON payloads sent via this URL will only appear in your team's Slack channels.\n\nNow, let's throw together a quick test of our incoming webhook in Node. Start a new Node project (remember you can use `npm init` to create your `package.json`) and install the familiar `superagent` AJAX library by running the following in your terminal:\n\n **npm install superagent -save**\n\nCreate a file named `index.js` and paste the following JavaScript code within it:\n\n const WEBHOOK_URL = [YOUR_WEBHOOK_URL];\n\n const request = require('superagent');\n\n request\n .post(WEBHOOK_URL)\n .send({\n text: 'Hello! I am an incoming Webhook bot!'\n })\n .end((err, res) => {\n console.log(res);\n });\n\nRemember to replace `[YOUR_WEBHOOK_URL]` with your newly generated URL, and then run the program by executing the following command:\n\n **nodemon index.js**\n\nTwo things should happen now: firstly a long response should be logged in your terminal and secondly you should see a message like the following in the Slack client:\n\nThe incoming webhook equivalent of \"hello world\"\n\nThe `res` object that we logged in our terminal is the response from the AJAX request. Taking the form of a large JavaScript object, it displays information about the HTTP POST request we made to our webhook URL.\n\nLooking at the message received in the Slack client, notice how the name and icon are the same as what we set in our integration setup in the team admin site. Remember that the default icon, name, and channel are used if none are provided, so let's see what happens when we change that around. Replace your `request` AJAX call in `index.js` with the following:\n\n request\n .post(WEBHOOK_URL)\n .send({\n username: \"Incoming bot\",\n channel: \"#general\",\n icon_emoji: \":+1:\",\n text: 'Hello! I am different from the previous bot!'\n })\n .end((err, res) => {\n console.log(res);\n });\n\nSave the file and `nodemon` will automatically restart the program. Switch over to the Slack client and you should see a message like the following pop up in your `#general` channel:\n\nNew name, icon, and message\n\n### Note\n\nIn place of `icon_emoji`, you could also use `icon_url` to link to a specific image of your choosing.\n\nIf you wish your message to only be sent to one user, you can supply a username as the value for the `channel` property:\n\n channel: \"@paul\"\n\nThis will cause the message to be sent from within the Slackbot direct message. The message's icon and username will match what you either configured in the setup or set in the body of the POST request.\n\nFinally, let's look at sending links in our integration; replace the `text` property with the following and save `index.js`:\n\n text: 'Hello! Here is a fun link: '\n\nSlack will automatically parse any links it finds, whether it's in the format `http:\/\/www.example.com` or `www.example.com`. By enclosing the URL in angled brackets and using the `|` character, we can specify what we would like the URL to be shown as:\n\nFormatted links are easier to read than long URLs\n\nFor more information on message formatting, visit .\n\n### Note\n\nNote that as this is a custom webhook integration, we can change the name, icon, and channel of the integration. If we were to package the integration as a Slack app (an app which is installable by other teams), then it is not possible to override the default channel, username, and icon set.\n\nIncoming webhooks are triggered by external sources--an example would be if a new user signs up to your service or if a product is sold. The goal of the incoming webhook is to provide easy-to-reach and comprehensible information for your team. The opposite would be if you want users to get data out of Slack, which can be done via the medium of outgoing webhooks.\n\n## Outgoing webhooks\n\nOutgoing webhooks differ from the incoming variety in that they send data out of Slack and to a service of your choosing, which in turn can respond with a message to the Slack channel.\n\nTo set up an outgoing webhook, visit the custom integration page of your Slack team's admin page again (). This time, select the **Outgoing WebHooks** option.\n\nIn the next screen, be sure to select a channel, a name, and an icon. Notice how there is a `target` URL field to be filled in; we will fill this out shortly.\n\nWhen an outgoing webhook is triggered in Slack, an HTTP POST request is made to the URL (or URLs, as you can specify multiples) you provide. So first we need to build a server that can accept our webhook.\n\nIn `index.js`, paste the following code:\n\n 'use strict';\n const http = require('http');\n \/\/ create a simple server with node's built in http module\n http.createServer((req, res) => {\n res.writeHead(200, {'Content-Type': 'text\/plain'});\n\n \/\/ get the data embedded in the POST request\n req.on('data', (chunk) => {\n \/\/ chunk is a buffer, so first convert it to \n \/\/ a string and split it to make it more legible as an array\n console.log('Body:', chunk.toString().split('&'));\n });\n\n \/\/ create a response\n let response = JSON.stringify({\n text: 'Outgoing webhook received!'\n });\n\n \/\/ send the response to Slack as a message\n res.end(response);\n }).listen(8080, '0.0.0.0');\n\n console.log('Server running at http:\/\/0.0.0.0:8080\/');\n\n### Note\n\nNotice how we require the `http` module, despite not installing it with NPM. That is because the `http` module is a core Node dependency and is automatically included with your installation of Node.\n\nIn this block of code, we start a simple server on port 8080 and listen for incoming requests.\n\nIn this example, we set our server to run at 0.0.0.0 rather than `localhost`. This is important as Slack is sending a request to our server, so it needs to be accessible from the Internet. Setting the **Internet Protocol** ( **IP** ) of our server to 0.0.0.0 tells Node to use your computer's network-assigned IP address. Therefore, by setting the IP of our server to 0.0.0.0, Slack can reach your server by hitting your IP on port 8080 (for example, `http:\/\/123.456.78.90:8080`).\n\n### Note\n\nIf you are having trouble with Slack reaching your server, it is most likely because you are behind a router or firewall. To circumvent this issue, you can use a service such as `ngrok` (). Alternatively, look into the **Port Forwarding** settings for your router or firewall.\n\nLet's update our outgoing webhook settings accordingly:\n\nThe outgoing webhook settings, with destination URL\n\nSave your settings and run your Node app; test that the outgoing webhook works by typing a message into the channel you specified in the webhook's settings. You should then see something like this in Slack:\n\nWe built a spam bot\n\nWell the good news is that our server is receiving requests and returning a message to send to Slack. The issue here is that we skipped over the **Trigger Word(s)** field in the webhook settings page. Without a trigger word, any message sent to the specified channel will trigger the outgoing webhook. This causes our webhook to trigger on a message sent by the outgoing webhook in the first place, creating an infinite loop.\n\nTo fix this we could do one of two things:\n\n * Refrain from returning a message to the channel when listening to all the channel's messages\n * Specify a trigger word or trigger words to ensure we don't spam the channel\n\nReturning a message is optional, yet it is encouraged to ensure a better user experience. Even a confirmation message such as **Message received!** is better than no message, as it confirms to the user that their message was received and is being processed.\n\nLet's presume we prefer the second option and add a trigger word:\n\nTrigger words keep our webhooks organized\n\nNow, let's try that again, this time sending a message with the trigger word at the beginning of the message. Restart your Node app and send a new message:\n\nOur outgoing webhook app now functions a lot like our bots from earlier\n\nGreat, now switch over to your terminal and see what that message logged:\n\n Body: [ 'token=KJcfN8xakBegb5RReelRKJng',\n 'team_id=T000001',\n 'team_domain=buildingbots',\n 'service_id=34210109492',\n 'channel_id=C0J4E5SG6',\n 'channel_name=bot-test',\n 'timestamp=1460684994.000598',\n 'user_id=U0HKKH1TR',\n 'user_name=paul',\n 'text=webhook+hi+bot%21',\n 'trigger_word=webhook' ]\n\nThis array contains the body of the HTTP POST request sent by Slack. In it, we have some useful data such as the user's name, the message sent, and the team ID. We can use this data to customize the response or to perform some validation to make sure the user is authorized to use this webhook.\n\nIn our response, we simply sent back a **Message received** string. However, like with incoming webhooks, we can set our own username and icon. The channel cannot be different from the channel specified in the webhook's settings. The same restrictions apply when the webhook is not a custom integration. This means that if the webhook was installed as a Slack app for another team, the webhook can only post messages as the username and icon specified in the setup screen. We will cover Slack apps in detail in Chapter 7, _Publishing Your App_.\n\nAn important thing to note is that webhooks, either incoming or outgoing, can only be set up in public channels. This is predominantly to discourage abuse and uphold privacy, as we've seen that it's trivial to set up a webhook that can record all the activity in a channel.\n\nIf you want similar functionality in private groups or DMs, we can use a slash command instead.\n\n# Slash commands\n\nCommands that begin with a slash (`\/`) are commands that can be used from anywhere within the Slack client. You are probably already familiar with the more common ones implemented by Slack themselves. For instance, use the `topic` command:\n\n \/topic Sloths are great\n\nThis will set the channel's topic to \"Sloths are great.\" Like with incoming and outgoing webhooks, Slack allows teams to configure their own custom slash commands. To demonstrate their use, we'll build a bot that uses the popular computational knowledge engine Wolfram Alpha (). The end goal is a bot that returns the results from the query submitted via the slash command.\n\nUnlike webhooks, slash commands can only send data included with the command, so you are guaranteed to only receive data that was intentionally sent. Because of this nuance, we get an additional benefit to using slash commands. They are available to be used from any channel, DM, or private group.\n\nFirst, let's set up the slash command integration and get a Wolfram Alpha API key. Although we don't specifically need a Slack token, we do require one to access Wolfram Alpha's services. Navigate to your team's integration settings (), select **Slash Commands** , and then select **Add Configuration**. We're going to use the `wolfram` string as our slash command, so let's fill that in and continue.\n\nThe slash command must be unique to your team\n\nNow, specify a URL that the slash command will send a request to, similar to what we did earlier with webhooks.\n\nThe slash command can be customized in a different way to webhooks\n\nWe have the choice of which HTTP method to use when requesting the provided URL. If you wish to send data to a server, use the **POST** method. If you wish to retrieve data without sending anything, use the **GET** method. For our Wolfram Alpha bot, we will be using **POST** , as we're sending a query to the server we created earlier.\n\nTake special note of the generated token. This is a unique identifier that you can use to ensure that all requests coming to your server are from this particular Slack slash command, allowing you to reject any unwanted requests. We'll get back to the token later.\n\nNext, we will fill out the autocomplete details. Although optional, it is strongly recommended that you fill them out anyway, as they give clear instructions for your users on how to use your slash command.\n\nHelp text is incredibly helpful to users who have never used your command before\n\nSimilar to other third-party APIs we've used in this book, the Wolfram Alpha API requires an API token to access their computational services. To get one, navigate to the following URL and follow the on-screen sign up instructions: .\n\n### Note\n\nNote that the Wolfram Alpha API is only free up to 2000 requests per month. If your slash command exceeds that amount, your requests will be denied unless you pay for a higher-tier service.\n\nThe Wolfram Alpha API sends responses in XML, which we'll need to convert to JSON for easier use. Luckily, there is an NPM package that can abstract this problem away for us: `node-wolfram` (). Install the `node-wolfram` package by running the following command:\n\n **npm install node-wolfram -save**\n\nOnce you have your key and you've installed `node-wolfram`, paste the following code in `index.js`:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n const http = require('http');\n const request = require('superagent');\n\n const WOLFRAM_TOKEN = [YOUR_WOLFRAM_API_TOKEN];\n const SLACK_TOKEN = [YOUR_SLACK_TOKEN];\n\n const Client = require('node-wolfram');\n const wolfram = new Client(WOLFRAM_TOKEN);\n\n \/\/ create a simple server with node's built in http module\n http.createServer((req, res) => {\n res.writeHead(200, {'Content-Type': 'text\/plain'});\n\n \/\/ get the data embedded in the POST request\n req.on('data', (chunk) => {\n \/\/ chunk is a buffer, so first convert it \n \/\/ to a string and split it to make it legible\n console.log('Body:', chunk.toString().split('&'));\n\n let bodyArray = chunk.toString().split('&');\n let bodyObject = {};\n\n \/\/ convert the data array to an object\n for (let i = 0; i < bodyArray.length; i++) {\n \/\/ convert the strings into key value pairs\n let arr = bodyArray[i].split('=');\n bodyObject[arr[0]] = arr[1];\n }\n\n \/\/ if the token doesn't match ours, abort\n if (bodyObject.token !== SLACK_TOKEN) {\n return res.end('Invalid token');\n }\n\n queryWolfram(bodyObject.text.split('+').join(' '), (err, result) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ send back the result to Slack\n res.end(result);\n });\n });\n }).listen(8080, '0.0.0.0');\n\n console.log('Server running at http:\/\/0.0.0.0:8080\/');\n\n \/\/ make sure to unescape the value so we don't get Unicode\n let query = unescape(bodyObject.text.split('+').join(' '));\n\n queryWolfram(query, (err, result) => { wolfram.query(message, (err, result) => {\n if (err) {\n return done(err);\n }\n\n \/\/ if the query didn't fail, but the message wasn't understood \n \/\/ then send a generic error message\n if (result.queryresult.$.success === 'false') {\n return done(null, 'Sorry, something went wrong, please try again');\n }\n let msg = '';\n\n for (let i = 0; i < result.queryresult.pod.length; i++) {\n let pod = result.queryresult.pod[i];\n msg += pod.$.title + ': \\n';\n\n for (let j = 0; j < pod.subpod.length; j++) {\n let subpod = pod.subpod[j];\n\n for (let k = 0; k {\n res.writeHead(200, {'Content-Type': 'text\/plain'});\n\n \/\/ get the data embedded in the POST request\n req.on('data', (chunk) => {\n \/\/ chunk is a buffer, so first convert it to a string \n \/\/ and split it to make it legible\n console.log('Body:', chunk.toString().split('&'));\n\n let bodyArray = chunk.toString().split('&');\n let bodyObject = {};\n\n \/\/ convert the data array to an object\n for (let i = 0; i < bodyArray.length; i++) {\n \/\/ convert the strings into key value pairs\n let arr = bodyArray[i].split('=');\n bodyObject[arr[0]] = arr[1];\n }\n\n \/\/ if the token doesn't match ours, abort\n if (bodyObject.token !== SLACK_TOKEN) {\n return res.end('Invalid token');\n }\n\n **\/\/ send a message immediately to confirm that**\n **\/\/ the request was receive it's possible that the**\n **\/\/ query will take longer than the time Slack waits**\n **\/\/ for a response (3000ms), so we'll send a**\n **\/\/ preliminary response and then send the results later**\n **res.end('Calculating response, be with you shortly!');**\n\n \/\/ make sure to unescape the value so we don't get Unicode\n let query = unescape(bodyObject.text.split('+').join(' '));\n\n queryWolfram(query, (err, result) => { wolfram.query(message, (err, result) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n return;\n }\n\n **\/\/ send the result from the wolfram alpha request,**\n **\/\/ which probably took longer than 3000ms to calculate**\n **request**\n **.post(unescape(bodyObject.response_url))**\n **.send({**\n **text: result**\n **})**\n **.end((err, res) = > {**\n **if (err) console.log(err);**\n **});**\n });\n });\n }).listen(8080, '0.0.0.0');\n\nAfter confirming that the slash command request came from our team, but before we even start the Wolfram Alpha API request, we return a confirmation message to the Slack channel letting the user know that their request is in the works.\n\nOnce Wolfram Alpha has returned our data, we send an HTTP POST request to the response URL provided to us in the slash command's initial request body. Let's try that last command again:\n\n \/wolfram distance between earth and moon\n\nThis should return a confirmation message:\n\nA confirmation message lets the user know things are happening\n\nA few seconds later, we should see the full result of the slash command query:\n\nOur slash command returns an abundance of data\n\nWith our slash command working as expected, let's look at a quirk of the returned output.\n\n# In-channel and ephemeral responses\n\nYou might have noticed that when the Wolfram Alpha bot responds, it has the text **Only you can see this message** next to its name. As the text implies, the result of our bot is only visible to the user who initiated the slash command. This is an example of an ephemeral response. Note that the original slash command's text is also only viewable to the user that executed it. The opposite of ephemeral is an in-channel response, which can show both the slash command and result in the channel, for all to see.\n\nBy default, all slash command responses are set to ephemeral mode by the Slack API. Let's look at changing that and send in-channel messages instead. Once again, let's replace the contents of `http.createServer`. Go over the changes step by step:\n\n \/\/ create a simple server with node's built in http module\n http.createServer((req, res) => {\n res.writeHead(200, {'Content-Type': 'application\/json'});\n\nThe main difference here is that we've changed the response's header content type to be `application\/json`. This notifies Slack to expect a JSON package in string form.\n\nThe code is as follows:\n\n \/\/ get the data embedded in the POST request\n req.on('data', (chunk) => {\n \/\/ chunk is a buffer, so first convert it to a string \n \/\/ and split it to make it legible\n console.log('Body:', chunk.toString().split('&'));\n\n let bodyArray = chunk.toString().split('&');\n let bodyObject = {};\n\n \/\/ convert the data array to an object\n for (let i = 0; i < bodyArray.length; i++) {\n \/\/ convert the strings into key value pairs\n let arr = bodyArray[i].split('=');\n bodyObject[arr[0]] = arr[1];\n }\n\n \/\/ if the token doesn't match ours, abort\n if (bodyObject.token !== SLACK_TOKEN) {\n **return res.end(JSON.stringify({**\n **response_type: 'ephemeral',**\n **text: 'Invalid token'**\n **}));**\n }\n\nOur error response now requires that it be in stringified JSON format. Also, we add the response type `ephemeral`, which means that the error message will only be visible to the user who initiated the slash command:\n\n \/\/ send a message immediately to confirm that\n \/\/ the request was receive it's possible that the\n \/\/ query will take longer than the time Slack waits\n \/\/ for a response (3000ms), so we'll send a\n \/\/ preliminary response and then send the results later\n res.end(JSON.stringify({\n **response_type: 'in_channel',**\n **text: 'Calculating response, be with you shortly!'**\n }));\n\nNow, we specifically want an `in-channel` response. In this context, it means that both the slash command and the processing response will be visible to all in the channel:\n\nBoth the original slash command and the interim response are visible\n\nAnd finally we query **Wolfram|Alpha** :\n\n \/\/ make sure to unescape the value so we don't get Unicode\n let query = unescape(bodyObject.text.split('+').join(' '));\n\n queryWolfram(query, (err, result) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n return;\n }\n\n \/\/ send the result from the wolfram alpha request,\n \/\/ which probably took longer than 3000ms to calculate\n request\n .post(unescape(bodyObject.response_url))\n **.send({**\n **response_type: 'in_channel',**\n **text: result**\n **})**\n .end((err, res) => {\n if (err) console.log(err);\n });\n });\n });\n }).listen(8080, '0.0.0.0');\n\nHere, we again ensure that the Wolfram Alpha result is visible to the entire channel. Finally, let's make some improvements to the display of the data in our `queryWolfram` function:\n\n function queryWolfram(message, done) {\n wolfram.query(message, (err, result) => {\n if (err) {\n return done(err);\n }\n\n \/\/ if the query didn't fail, but the message wasn't understood\n \/\/ then send a generic error message\n if (result.queryresult.$.success === 'false') {\n return done(null, 'Sorry, something went wrong, please try again');\n }\n\n **let msg = [];**\n\n for (let i = 0; i < result.queryresult.pod.length; i++) {\n let pod = result.queryresult.pod[i];\n\n \/\/ print the title in bold\n **msg.push(`*${pod.$.title}:*\\n`);**\n\n for (let j = 0; j < pod.subpod.length; j++) {\n let subpod = pod.subpod[j];\n\n for (let k = 0; k ). This is a place to shop for apps and bots to add to your Slack team. Like other app stores available, every app submitted to the app directory is controlled and has to be approved by Slack itself to counteract spam and abuse.\n\nIt is possible for other teams to use your bot by means of webhooks, as we saw in the previous chapter. However, if you are trying to reach a wide audience and potentially monetize your bot, the app directory is the most efficient way.\n\nThe app directory makes adding new apps easy\n\nThe end goal of this chapter is to allow users to add a bot to their Slack team by clicking an **Add to Slack** button, which we will cover in detail later.\n\nLet's start by registering an app. In this example, we will add the _Wikibot_ bot, which we built in Chapter 3, _Adding Complexity_.\n\n### Note\n\nPlease note that our registering of Wikibot (and the use of the Wikipedia API) is for demonstrative purposes only. Always check the terms and conditions of a third-party API before using it for a bot you intend to publish. In the case of Wikibot, for example, we can use the Wikipedia API but aren't allowed to publish a bot named `Wikipedia bot`, as we do not own the trademark.\n\n# Registering your app and obtaining tokens\n\nCertain unique tokens are required in order to successfully authenticate with Slack's OAuth servers. This is necessary so that Slack can determine whether we are who we say we are and whether our app or bot is actually integrated with the team we are attempting to get access to.\n\nWe start by navigating to the Slack new app registration page at . Fill out the form by picking a name for your bot, the team it originated from, descriptions of your bot, links to help pages, and a redirect URI:\n\nBe as descriptive as you can when filling out this form\n\nAfter saving your settings, you can choose to set up a bot user, webhook, or slash command. For Wikibot, we will be setting up a bot user.\n\nIf your specified username is taken, Slack will edit it slightly to avoid conflicts\n\nOnce you've saved your changes, you should be presented with OAuth information on the next screen. First, make sure to save the **Client ID** and **Client Secret** codes from this page before moving on:\n\nNever share your client secret with anyone\n\n### Note\n\nThis process does not make your bot visible to the entire Slack user base; it simply registers your intent to develop an app. You will be able to test your app through the OAuth process. We will cover how to submit your bot to the app directory in a later section.\n\n# Understanding the OAuth process\n\nIn order to implement a bot user in a team that is not our own, we require a bot token similar to the ones we created earlier for our own team. We can request this token, but first we must prove that we are who we say we are using the OAuth process. **OAuth** ( **Open Authentication** ) is an open standard for authentication used by many companies, large and small.\n\nThe authentication process works through the following steps:\n\n 1. The user clicks the **Add to Slack** button.\n 2. Slack sends a request to the redirect URI provided in our app's settings page.\n 3. Once the request is received on our server, we redirect it to the authorization API endpoint () and include the following parameters in the query string:\n\n * `client_id`: This is the unique ID given to us when we first created our app.\n * `scope`: This includes the permissions we require for our app. We will go into more detail on scopes later in this chapter.\n * `redirect_uri`: This is an optional parameter. This is the URI that Slack will send the authorization results to. If left blank, the `redirect_uri` specified in the app settings page is used.\n * `State`: This is a string we create; it could contain data we wish to preserve or function as our own identification method. For example, we could populate this field with a secret phrase that only we know, which we can later use to ensure that this request came from a trusted source.\n * `Team`: This is the Slack team ID we wish to restrict our application to. This is useful when debugging our integration.\n\n 4. Slack sends a HTTP GET request to the redirect URI provided in our previous request. If absent, it defaults to the URI we provided in our app's settings page. The request contains the following parameters:\n\n * `code`: This is a temporary code generated by Slack, and it is used to confirm our identity\n * `state`: This is the string we created earlier, and it can be used to make sure this request is legitimate\n\n 5. Armed with all the tools and codes we need, we make a request for a bot user token from Slack in another HTTP GET request, passing the following parameters:\n\n * `client_id`: This is the unique client ID given to us in the app's settings page\n * `client_secret`: This is the unique and secret ID given to us in the app's settings page\n * `code`: This is the code given to us by the request in step 4\n * `redirect_uri`: This must match the previous `redirect_`uri if one was sent; otherwise, it is optional\n\n 6. Finally, if all went well, we will receive a response from Slack with all the data we require. It should look something like this:\n\n { \n ok: true,\n access_token: 'xoxp-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxx',\n scope: 'identify,bot',\n user_id: 'Uxxxxxxxx',\n team_name: 'Building Bots',\n team_id: 'Txxxxxxxx',\n bot: { \n bot_user_id: 'U136YALCW',\n bot_access_token: 'xoxb-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx' \n }\n }\n\nTo make this a bit easier to understand, let's look at a chart of these transactions:\n\nSlack's OAuth authorization procedure\n\nNow, let's look at the preceding code example. In order to make our lives a bit easier, we will use the Express web framework () and the familiar `superagent` AJAX library. Make sure to install both by using the following command:\n\n **npm install -save express superagent**\n\nNext, let's put our server together; create or reuse an `index.js` file and paste the following code:\n\n const request = require('superagent');\n const express = require('express');\n\n const app = express();\n\n **const CLIENT_ID = 'YOUR_CLIENT_ID';**\n **const CLIENT_SECRET = 'YOUR_CLIENT_SECRET';**\n\n app.get('\/', (req, res) => {\n **res.redirect(`https:\/\/slack.com\/oauth\/authorize?client_id=${CLIENT_ID} &scope=bot&redirect_uri=${escape('http:\/\/YOUR_REDIRECT_URI\/bot')}`);**\n });\n\n app.get('\/bot', (req, res) => {\n let code = req.query.code;\n\n request\n **.get(`https:\/\/slack.com\/api\/oauth.access?client_id=${CLIENT_ID} &client_secret=${CLIENT_SECRET}&code=${code}&redirect_uri=${escape('http:\/\/YOUR_REDIRECT_URI\/bot')}`)**\n .end((err, res) => {\n if (err) throw err;\n let botToken = res.body.bot.bot_access_token;\n console.log('Got the token:', botToken);\n });\n\n res.send('received');\n });\n\n app.listen(8080, () => {\n console.log('listening');\n });\n\nThe highlighted areas indicate where you should fill in your own tokens and URIs.\n\n### Note\n\nIt is highly recommended to use a service such as `ngrok` in order for your locally started server to be accessible from the Internet. Visit for more details and setup instructions. You should use `ngrok` only for development purposes. In production, you should use a dedicated server.\n\nNavigate to the Slack button documentation page () and scroll down till you see the following test interface:\n\nYou can use this area to test that your integrations authenticate properly\n\nClick on the **Add to Slack** button and you should be presented with a screen that asks you to confirm whether you'd like to authorize your bot for use in your channel. Click on the **Authorize** button and switch over to your terminal. The bot token we need will show up in a log:\n\n **listening**\n **Got the token: xoxb-37236360438-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx**\n\nWe can use our token to start our bot user and have it respond to and interact with users from other teams. Let's do that with Wikibot now. We will take the Wikibot code featured earlier in this book and alter it to function with the OAuth procedure outlined before. Replace the contents of `index.js` with the following:\n\n 'use strict';\n\n const Bot = require('.\/Bot');\n\n const wikiAPI = 'https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/api.php?format=json&action=query&prop=extracts&exintro=&explaintext=&titles=';\n const wikiURL = 'https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/';\n\n const request = require('superagent');\n const express = require('express');\n\n const app = express();\n\n **const CLIENT_ID = 'YOUR_CLIENT_ID';**\n **const CLIENT_SECRET = 'YOUR_CLIENT_SECRET';**\n\n app.get('\/', (req, res) => {\n **res.redirect(`https:\/\/slack.com\/oauth\/authorize?client_id=${CLIENT_ID} &scope=bot&redirect_uri=${escape('http:\/\/[YOUR_REDIRECT_URI]\/bot')}`);**\n });\n\n app.get('\/bot', (req, res) => {\n let code = req.query.code;\n\n request\n **.get(`https:\/\/slack.com\/api\/oauth.access?client_id=${CLIENT_ID} &client_secret=${CLIENT_SECRET}&code=${code}&redirect_uri=${escape('http:\/\/[YOUR_REDIRECT_URI]bot')}`)**\n .end((err, result) => {\n if (err) {\n console.log(err);\n return res.send('An error occured! Please try again later');\n }\n console.log(res.body);\n\n let botToken = result.body.bot.bot_access_token;\n console.log('Got the token:', botToken);\n\n startWikibot(result.body.bot.bot_access_token);\n\n res.send('You have successfully installed Wikibot! You can now start using it in your Slack team, but make sure to invite the bot to your channel first with the \/invite command!');\n });\n });\n\n app.listen(8080, () => {\n console.log('listening');\n });\n\n function startWikibot(token) {\n const bot = new Bot({\n token: token,\n autoReconnect: true,\n autoMark: true\n });\n\n \/\/ The rest of the familiar Wikibot code follows.\n \/\/ Visit https:\/\/github.com\/PaulAsjes\/BuildingBots for the \n \/\/ complete source code\n }\n\nLet's try this out. Run the Node application after making sure that your `client_id`, `client_secret`, and `redirect_uri` are inserted in the highlighted sections of the preceding code. To test the integration, navigate to the documentation on the **Add to Slack** button here: . As before, scroll down till you see the test widget, tick the **bot** box, and click on the **Add to Slack** button.\n\n### Tip\n\nBelow this test widget is the embed code you should use when placing the **Add to Slack** button on your website.\n\nNote how Slack has automatically renamed our bot to @wikibot2 to avoid conflict\n\nOnce authorized, you should see the following message:\n\n**You have successfully installed Wikibot! You can now start using it in your Slack team, but make sure to invite the bot to your channel first with the \/invite command!**\n\nWe returned a simple string in this example. As per best practices, we need to redirect to a web page with some instructions on how to operate Wikibot.\n\nSwitch to the Slack client and to the channel you'd like to incorporate Wikibot. As we discussed in Chapter 2, _Your First Bot_ , bot users have to be manually invited to a channel, so let's do that and test our bot:\n\nOur bot is successfully integrated and working!\n\nWikibot will now continue to function as long as our Node service is running.\n\nNext, we will look at the other scopes available for our use.\n\n# Scopes\n\nOAuth scopes allow you to specify exactly what access your app needs to perform its functions. In the previous example, we requested the `bot` scope, which gives our bots access to all the actions a bot user can perform. For example, the `channels:history` scope gives us access to the channel's chat history and `users:read` allows us to access the full list of users in the team. There is a long list of scopes available (which you can review at ), but we will focus on the three most likely to be used scopes in our apps:\n\n * `bot`: This provides a bot token, allowing us to connect to the team as a bot user\n * `incoming-webhook`: This provides an incoming webhook token\n * `commands`: This provides a Slack token, which we can use to ensure that the incoming slash command requests are valid\n\n### Note\n\nScopes of the bot variety automatically include a subset of other scopes needed for the bot to perform. For more information, visit .\n\nMultiple scopes can be requested without issue. Here's an example of the bot, incoming webhook and command scopes being requested in our initial redirect:\n\n app.get('\/', (req, res) => {\n res.redirect(`https:\/\/slack.com\/oauth\/authorize?client_id=${CLIENT_ID}&scope=bot+incoming-webhook+commands&redirect_uri=${escape('http:\/\/YOUR_REDIRECT_URI\/bot')}`);\n });\n\nNote how the requested scopes are separated with a `+` symbol. This will return the following object after we authenticate:\n\n { \n ok: true,\n access_token: 'xoxp-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxx',\n scope: 'identify,bot,commands,incoming-webhook',\n user_id: 'Uxxxxxxxx',\n team_name: 'Building Bots',\n team_id: 'Txxxxxxxx',\n incoming_webhook:\n { channel: '#bot-test',\n channel_id: 'Cxxxxxxxx',\n configuration_url: 'https:\/\/buildingbots.slack.com\/services\/xxxxxxxxx',\n url: 'https:\/\/hooks.slack.com\/services\/Txxxxxxxx\/Bxxxxxxxx\/xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx' },\n bot:\n { \n bot_user_id: 'Uxxxxxxxx',\n bot_access_token: 'xoxb-xxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx' \n }\n }\n\n### Note\n\nInstead of using the `+` symbol, scopes can also be comma separated.\n\nWe now have all the pieces we need to create a bot (the `bot_access`_token), an incoming webhook (the `url` parameter in the `incoming_webhook` object), and the `access_token` we use for slash commands.\n\n# Submitting your app to the app directory\n\nOnce you have tested your integration within your team's channel, and you are happy with your bot, it's time to submit it to the app directory. To do so, first ensure that your application conforms to Slack's checklist for deploying an app (). In short, your app must:\n\n * Request only those scopes that are actually in use.\n * Display the **Add to Slack** button on a webpage. You are required to have your own website with instructions and help for new users.\n * Have an appropriate name (for example, no trademark or copyright infringement).\n * Have an app or bot icon that is clear and distinctive.\n * Have a high-quality icon that is at least 512 x 512 pixels in size.\n * Include short and long descriptions of your bot's actions.\n * Include an installation link (this can simply be a webpage displaying the **Add to Slack** button and a guide on how to use your bot).\n * Feature an customer support link and e-mail, in case users run into problems installing your bot.\n * Include a link to a privacy policy. Your bot could potentially be listening on private conversations, so you will need to specify exactly what data your bot will be collecting (if any).\n * Have correct formatting and spelling. Your bot should use clear language and not contain any errors.\n\nNote that our example, Wikibot, fails the _appropriate name_ clause, as Wikipedia is clearly a registered trademark to which we do not own the rights. On this basis alone, Wikibot would be rejected.\n\nOnce you have confirmed that your app or bot conforms to the previous points, you can submit your application for review at .\n\nLike other app stores, a review process is mandatory for all new submissions. The length of the review period is highly dependent on the complexity of your app and on the quantity of submissions the Slack admissions team has to process.\n\n### Note\n\nWhen you are ready to publish your app to the Slack app directory, you require hosting. A great way to get your bot up and running quickly is to use Beep Boop . A paid service, Beep Boop will host your Slack bots for you so you can focus on developing rather than infrastructure.\n\nTo ensure that your bot reaches your intended audience, consider submitting it to useful websites such as Botwiki (), botlist (), and Product Hunt () in order to get maximum exposure.\n\n# Monetizing your bot\n\nMonetizing your bot, of course, is entirely optional and how you monetize it is dependent on the function of your bot and whether there is a market. Bear in mind that if your goal is to sell your bots for a one-off price, the Slack app directory does not support monetary transfers.\n\nAll apps in the app directive are free to install, but how you convert your user base to paying customers is left up to you.\n\nThere are a variety of methods to do this and there is no single correct way or Slack- _sanctioned_ method. A popular method employed by companies such as Zoho Expense () is a payment plan based on users. The service is free for small teams, but once you require more than three users to have access, you have to migrate to a paid tier.\n\nThe idea here is similar to APIs we have encountered, such as Wolfram Alpha. This means using a tiered approach where a free tier exists (tied either to amount of calls made or an expiration date), but paid tiers are optional if more requests are needed.\n\nRemember that when attempting to monetize your bot, the \"try before you buy\" sales tactic is key here. Users are unlikely to convert into paying customers if they don't have an idea of how your bot works and whether it is actually beneficial for them. Consider having either a free trial period or a free tier with limited functionality.\n\nAbove all, the most important aspect is ensuring that you have a product that is truly worth paying for. As useful as our _to-do_ bot from Chapter 4, _Using Data_ is, it's unlikely that anyone would pay money for such a simple bot, as free alternatives are readily available or easily recreated.\n\nTherefore, the focus of your bot should be the solving of a particular problem first and monetizing a distant second.\n\n# Summary\n\nIn this chapter, you saw how to make your app accessible to other teams via the Slack App Directory. You saw how to request scopes from Slack to ensure that your apps have the correct permissions to perform actions. Finally, you learned how to correctly authenticate your apps with Slack and obtain the tokens required to make your bots, webhooks, and slash commands work.\n\nBy following the lessons in this book, you have obtained all the knowledge and tools required to create a world-class Slack bot. It is now up to you to create the next leap forward in bot technology and to push the boundaries of how we interact with bots to solve problems and achieve optimum efficiency.\n\nTo perhaps inspire you further, you should be aware that chat bots in general and Slack bots in particular are enjoying an unprecedented explosion in popularity and recognition.\n\nAt the beginning of his keynote speech at the 2016 Microsoft Build developers conference, Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella prophesized the future of bots:\n\n> _\"Bots are the new apps. People-to-people conversations, people-to-digital assistants, people-to-bots and even digital assistants-to-bots. That's the world you're going to get to see in the years to come.\"_\n\nHis argument is an intriguing one: that bots will potentially replace apps as the main source of communication between a company and their clients.\n\nFacebook has also seen the potential in bots. In April 2016, they announced bots for their Messenger Platform, which is expected to see tremendous activity in the coming months and years.\n\nAlthough this book focused on building bots specifically for the Slack platform, the techniques, best practices, and theory are all valid for any bot platform. Armed with this knowledge, you have everything you need to become a competent developer in this new bot revolution.\n\nHappy coding!\n\n## Further reading\n\nIn this book, we used the Node Slack client directly to build our bots. Following this package on GitHub is the best way of staying up to date with new features and changes in the Slack ecosystem. There are, however, alternatives to using the official Node Slack client. Botkit () is a fantastic package meant to abstract away a lot of the underlying concepts and streamline the bot creation process. Botkit also supports creating bots for Facebook Messenger for easy cross-platform bot development. If you wish to bootstrap the creation of your bot and get it up and running as soon as possible, consider using Botkit.\n\n# Index\n\n## A\n\n * access\n * restricting \/ Restricting access\n * Add to Slack button\n * URL \/ Understanding the OAuth process\n * admins\n * adding \/ Adding and removing admins\n * removing \/ Adding and removing admins\n * URL \/ Adding and removing admins\n * app\n * registering \/ Registering your app and obtaining tokens\n * registration, URL \/ Registering your app and obtaining tokens\n * submitting, to app directory \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n * deploying, URL \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n * app directory\n * about \/ The Slack app directory\n * app, submitting \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n * application program interface (API) \/ Introduction to Slack\n * asynchronous \/ Saving and retrieving data\n * authenticated event \/ The authenticated event\n * authorization API endpoint\n * URL \/ Understanding the OAuth process\n\n## B\n\n * Beep Boop\n * URL \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n * bot\n * debugging \/ Debugging a bot\n * commands \/ Bot commands\n * inputs, sanitizing \/ Sanitizing inputs\n * monetizing \/ Monetizing your bot\n * bot, building\n * about \/ Preparing your environment\n * Node.js, installing \/ Installing Node.js\n * development tools installing, NPM used \/ Installing the development tools using NPM\n * new project, creating \/ Creating a new project\n * Slack API token, creating \/ Creating a Slack API token\n * bot, connecting \/ Connecting a bot\n * channel, joining \/ Joining a channel\n * message, sending to channel \/ Sending a message to a channel, Sending a message to a channel\n * slack object \/ The slack object\n * channels. getting \/ Getting all the channels\n * members, getting in channel \/ Getting all members in a channel\n * botlist\n * URL \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n * bots\n * connecting \/ Connecting bots\n * Botwiki\n * URL \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n\n## C\n\n * channel\n * joining \/ Joining a channel\n * message, sending \/ Sending a message to a channel, Sending a message to a channel\n * getting \/ Getting all the channels\n * members, getting \/ Getting all members in a channel\n * classifiers\n * about \/ Classifiers\n * trained classifiers, using \/ Using trained classifiers\n\n## D\n\n * data\n * saving \/ Saving and retrieving data\n * retrieving \/ Saving and retrieving data\n * displaying, in natural way \/ Displaying data in a natural way\n * Dice coefficient \/ String distance\n * direct message (DM)\n * sending \/ Sending a direct message\n * dynamic storage\n * about \/ Dynamic storage\n\n## E\n\n * entities \/ Using trained classifiers\n * ES6 \/ Preparing your environment\n * ES2015 \/ Preparing your environment\n * Express web framework\n * URL \/ Understanding the OAuth process\n * external API integration\n * about \/ External API integration\n * error handling \/ Error handling\n\n## H\n\n * hashes\n * about \/ Hashes\n * Hubot\n * URL \/ Slack as a platform\n * Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) protocols \/ External API integration\n\n## I\n\n * in channel\n * and ephemeral responses \/ In-channel and ephemeral responses\n * incoming webhooks\n * about \/ Incoming webhooks\n * URL \/ Incoming webhooks\n * inflection\n * about \/ Inflection\n * Internet Protocol (IP) \/ Outgoing webhooks\n * iron-node\n * URL \/ Debugging a bot\n\n## J\n\n * Jaro-Winkler \/ String distance\n * JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) \/ Creating a new project\n * JavaScript object notation (JSON) format \/ External API integration\n\n## K\n\n * keywords\n * responding to \/ Responding to keywords\n * classes, using \/ Using classes\n * reactive bots \/ Reactive bots\n\n## L\n\n * latency\n * URL \/ Best practices\n * Levenshtein distance \/ String distance\n * lists\n * about \/ Lists\n\n## M\n\n * Matt Jones\n * URL \/ The uncanny valley\n * mentions\n * about \/ Mentions\n * message event\n * using \/ Using the message event\n * Mozilla Developer Network (MDN) \/ Using classes\n\n## N\n\n * Natural\n * URL \/ A brief introduction to natural language\n * natural language processing (NLP) \/ Summary, Slash commands\n * about \/ A brief introduction to natural language\n * fundamentals \/ Fundamentals of NLP\n * uses \/ When to use NLP?\n * generation \/ Natural language generation, When should we use natural language generation?\n * natural language toolkit (NLTK)\n * URL \/ A brief introduction to natural language\n * ngrok\n * URL \/ Outgoing webhooks\n * node-wolfram\n * URL \/ Slash commands\n * Node.js\n * installing \/ Installing Node.js\n * Node.js (Node) \/ Preparing your environment\n * Node ES6 guide\n * URL \/ Preparing your environment\n * nodemon\n * URL \/ Installing the development tools using NPM\n * Node Package Manager (NPM)\n * used, for installing development tools \/ Installing the development tools using NPM\n\n## O\n\n * OAuth (Open Authentication) process\n * about \/ Understanding the OAuth process\n * OAuth (Open Authentication) scopes\n * about \/ Scopes\n * URL \/ Scopes\n * Open Weather Map\n * about \/ Displaying data in a natural way\n * outgoing webhooks\n * about \/ Outgoing webhooks\n * URL \/ Outgoing webhooks\n\n## P\n\n * Product Hunt\n * URL \/ Submitting your app to the app directory\n\n## Q\n\n * Query GeoParser\n * URL \/ Using trained classifiers\n\n## R\n\n * reactive bots \/ Reactive bots\n * Real Time Messaging (RTM) client \/ Creating a new project\n * Real Time Messaging (RTM) platform \/ Slack as a platform\n * Redis\n * about \/ Introduction to Redis\n * URL \/ Introduction to Redis, Mac OS X\n * client implementations, URL \/ Introduction to Redis\n * installing \/ Installing Redis\n * connecting to \/ Connecting to Redis\n * client, URL \/ Saving and retrieving data\n * best practices \/ Best practices\n * simple to-do example \/ Simple to-do example\n * Redis, installing\n * on Mac OS X \/ Mac OS X\n * on Windows \/ Windows\n * on Unix \/ Unix\n * representational state transfer (REST) service \/ External API integration\n * responses\n * about \/ Basic responses\n * authenticated event \/ The authenticated event\n * message event, using \/ Using the message event\n * spam, avoiding \/ Avoiding spam\n\n## S\n\n * sets\n * about \/ Sets\n * sorted sets \/ Sorted sets\n * Slack\n * about \/ Introduction to Slack\n * URL \/ Introduction to Slack, The Slack app directory\n * as platform \/ Slack as a platform\n * goals \/ The end goal\n * app directory \/ The Slack app directory\n * Slack API token\n * creating \/ Creating a Slack API token\n * slash commands\n * about \/ Slash commands\n * and webhooks, using \/ Using webhooks and slash commands\n * spam\n * avoiding \/ Avoiding spam\n * stemmers\n * about \/ Stemmers\n * string distance\n * about \/ String distance\n\n## T\n\n * tokenizers\n * about \/ Tokenizers\n * URL \/ Tokenizers\n * tokens\n * obtaining \/ Registering your app and obtaining tokens\n * trained classifiers\n * using \/ Using trained classifiers\n * typing indicator \/ External API integration\n\n## U\n\n * uncanny valley\n * about \/ The uncanny valley\n * Uniform Resource Link (URL) \/ External API integration\n\n## W\n\n * webhooks\n * about \/ Webhooks\n * incoming webhooks \/ Incoming webhooks\n * incoming webhook \/ Incoming webhooks\n * outgoing webhooks \/ Outgoing webhooks\n * and slash commands, using \/ Using webhooks and slash commands\n * Wolfram Alpha\n * URL \/ Slash commands\n\n## Z\n\n * Zoho Expense\n * URL \/ Monetizing your bot\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}} +{"text":"\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTitle Page\n\nCopyright Page\n\nDedication\n\nList of Tables\n\nTable of Figures\n\nAcknowledgements\n\nI. - Introduction\n\nTHEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS\n\nTOPIC ORIENTATIONS\n\nETHNOGRAPHIC SETTINGS\n\nTHE FRAMEWORK OF THE BOOK\n\nII - Chinese Medicine: Continuity and Modern Transformations\n\nMODERN TRANSFORMATIONS\n\nTHE PROBLEM OF THEORY AND CONTINUITY OF CHINESE MEDICINE\n\nCONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES AND DEBATES\n\nIII - The Chinese World of Shenti (Body-Person)\n\nTHE PROBLEM OF SOMATIZATION AND THE BODY\n\nA SEMANTICS OF SHENTI (BODY-PERSON)\n\nAN AESTHETICS OF SHENTI\n\nTONG (FLOWING AND CONNECTING)\n\nDU (DEGREE\/POSITION AND MODERATION)\n\nHE (HARMONY)\n\nIV - Contextualizing Qingzhi (Emotions)\n\nUNRAVELING QING (EMOTION)\n\nPHYSIOLOGY OF QINGZHI\n\nV - Understanding Zhongyi Clinical Classification\n\nZHENG (SYMPTOMS), ZHENG (PATTERNS), AND BING (ILLNESSES\/DISORDERS)\n\nREDEFINING BIANZHENG LUNZHI\n\nZHONGYI ILLNESS NAMES AND QINGZHI DISORDERS\n\nVI - Manifestations of Yu (Stagnation)\n\nUNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF \"YU\" (STAGNATION)\n\nCLINICAL CONFIGURATIONS OF YU (STAGNATION)\n\nQIYU HUAHUO (STAGNANT QI TRANSFORMED INTO FIRE)\n\nVII - Clinical Process of Tiao (Attuning)\n\nMICROANALYSIS AND ITS RELEVANCE TO ZHONGYI CLINICAL ENCOUNTERS\n\nTHE CASE OF STAGNATION OF EMOTIONS\n\nDIAGNOSING YU (STAGNATION OF EMOTIONS)\n\nNEGOTIATING A PATH TO EFFICACY\n\nVIII - Conclusion\n\nAPPENDIX - Transcription Conventions Used in the Text\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\nTable of Figures\n\nFigure 4.1 The Sequence of Production and Restriction\nList of Tables\n\nTable 4.1 Summary of the Functions of the Five Visceral Systems\n\nTable 4.2 Wuxing and the Five-Zang Systems\n\nTable 4.3 Emotions and Counteremotions\n\nTable 6.1 Zheng (Pattens) and Qinzghi Disorders\n\nTable 6.2 Distribution of Qingzhi Disorders According to Zheng (Patterns) Among 150 Patients\nSUNY series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture\n\nRoger T. Ames, editor\nPublished by \nSTATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK PRESS, \nALBANY\n\n\u00a9 2007 State University of New York\n\nAll rights reserved\n\nPrinted in the United States of America\n\nNo part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher.\n\nFor information, address \nState University of New York Press \n194 Washington Avenue, Suite 305, Albany, NY 12210-2384\n\nProduction by Christine Hamel \nMarketing by Michael Campochiaro\n\n**Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data**\n\nZhang, Yanhua.\n\nTransforming emotions with Chinese medicine: an ethnographic account from contemporary China \/ Yanhua Zhang.\n\np. cm. -- (SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture)\n\nIncludes bibliographical references and index.\n\nISBN-13: 978-0-7914-6999-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) \nISBN-13: 978-0-7914-7000-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)\n\neISBN : 97-8-079-14805-9\n\n1. Medical anthropology--China. 2. Medicine, Chinese. 3. Traditional medicine--China. 4. Ethnopsychology--China. 5. Emotions--Social aspects--China. I. Title. II. Series.\n\nGN296.5.C6Z53 2007\n\n306.4 '610951--dC22\n\n2006012941\n\n10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1\n_For my parents._\nAcknowledgments\n\nThis book has benefited from the generous assistance and support of many individuals and institutions. The study leading to this book began at the University of Hawaii at Manoa when I was a graduate student. I have had wonderful teachers: Roger Ames, Jack Bilmes, Fred Blake, Nina Etkin, Allen Howard, Thomas Maretzki, Anthony Marsella, Gregory Maskarinec, and Geoffrey White. They have directly and indirectly contributed to the formation of many ideas in this book. I owe special thanks to Fred Blake, the chair of my dissertation committee, whose guidance and encouragement saw me through the arduous process of dissertation writing, and to Roger Ames, who read the manuscript several times and whose critical comments are largely responsible for the improvement of the present book from the original dissertation. Several other people have read the entire or parts of the manuscript at its different stages. John DeFrancis meticulously went over my bilingual transcript of the clinical interaction and offered detailed corrections and suggestions; Judith Farquhar read and commented on an earlier version of the chapter on _zhongyi_ clinical classifications; and Louis Bregger at Clemson University proofread the entire manuscript at least twice. My colleague, Joan Bridgwood, helped with the final proofreading of the book. I am thankful for their assistance.\n\nDuring the long process of the research and writing of this book, I learned a lot from my fellow graduate students and colleagues through conversations and discussions. I benefited from the insights, criticism, and camaraderie of Weirong Cai, Nancy Cooper, Dphrosine Daniggelis, Bingzhong Gao, Melissa Schrift, Chenshan Tian, Yanyin Zhang, Deborah Zvosec, and many others.\n\nMy field research benefited greatly from the help and support of many friends and colleagues in Beijing, China. I want to thank my affiliated institution in Beijing, the School of Ethnology and Sociology at Central University for Nationalities, for hospitality and institutional support. I want especially to thank Yang Shengmin and Teng Xing for introducing me to their network of social relations and helping arrange my fieldwork site. I thank all the students and practitioners of Chinese medicine I met and interacted with in Beijing, particularly Wang Xiuzhen and Cao Pei. They generously shared their knowledge and experience of Chinese medicine with me and patiently answered my questions. Director Zhou Shaohua of Xiyuan hospital provided me with the best fieldwork environment I could ever hope for. He was not only the best zhongyi teacher to me, but also my most knowledgeable resource in Chinese medicine. I am also deeply grateful to the patients involved in my research for their trust and generosity. My responsibility to protect their anonymity prevents me from naming them individually, but my deepest gratitude goes to them.\n\nMy field research was funded by a grant (Grant No. 5668) from the Wenner-Gren Foundation. I would also like to acknowledge the assistance and support from the Center for Chinese Studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. The opportunities to work in their various China-related projects and access to their resources facilitated the completion of the original dissertation. For this, I am particularly thankful to Cynthia Ning, the associate director of the Center, and Daniel Tschudi. Course relief provided by the Department of Languages of Clemson University helped speed up the writing of the final version of this book.\n\nMy thanks also go to everyone at SUNY press whose hard work helped to turn my manuscript into this book.\n\nMy parents supported my professional pursuit in every way they could. They acted as surrogate parents to my daughter for many years while I was away doing my graduate studies in the U.S.; and they housed me while I was doing fieldwork in Beijing.\n\nCover Calligraphy by Michael M. Chen.\nI.\n\nIntroduction\n\nThis book offers an ethnographic account of emotion-related disorders as they are understood, experienced, and treated in the clinics of Chinese medicine or _zhongyi_ in contemporary China. Central to this enquiry is a _zhongyi_ category of illness, _qingzhi bing_ or _qingzhi lei jibing_ (emotion-related disorders), attributable to disordered emotions and treatable with ordinary Chinese medical therapies. What needs to be emphasized from the very beginning is that _qingzhi bing_ is not a direct translation of the Western psychiatric concept of \"emotional disorder\" or \"mental disorder.\" Not a strictly defined discrete illness entity in a biomedical sense, the _zhongyi_ construct is used somewhat loosely to include a group of illness patterns, originating from \"internal damages attributable to excessive emotions\" ( _qingzhi neishang_ ) and marked with certain configurations of physical, emotional, and behavioral symptoms. While to group disorders predominantly involving emotions and thoughts under the heading of _qingzhi_ is nothing modern, the meaning of _qingzhi_ disorders encountered in today's _zhongyi_ clinics reflects ongoing social and political dynamics in contemporary Chinese society and changes in the profession of Chinese medicine itself through decades of the state-sponsored _zhongyi_ modernization under the guidance of science. Biomedical terminology and technology are commonly present in contemporary _zhongyi_ practices, yet the way in which a _qingzhi_ disorder is conceptualized, experienced, diagnosed, and treated remains remarkably \"Chinese.\" It is not \"culturally bound,\" but certainly \"permeated with culture.\"\n\n# THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS\n\nIt is quite common for a medical anthropologist to imagine culture as a shared, unified set of beliefs and values that produce, cause, or govern and thus explain illness and health behaviors. The earlier studies of \"culture-bound syndromes\" exemplifies this approach, in which culture is seen as playing either a \"pathogenic\" or \"pathoplastic\" role in the manifestation of syndromes, such as _amok_ and _latah_ in Southeast Asia. Most cross-cultural studies of psychiatric disorders in Chinese society also problematize the connections between cultural institutions and universal psychiatric disorders. The emphasis on harmonious family and interpersonal relationships is identified as the main factor that influences mental health in Chinese society. Arthur Kleinman's anthropological study of neurasthenia and depression in Chinese society is also typical. Traditional cultural values and norms are said to lead Chinese to suppress distressing emotions and somatize social and psychological problems, thus transforming a universal disease of depression into a culturally particular illness\u2014neurasthenia.\n\nThis \"culture versus a universal disease\" approach is problematic in several ways. First, local knowledge is measured against the Western conceptual categories understood as normative and universal; the difference is perceived as deviant from the norm and then explained by referring to local cultural beliefs and practices. Sometimes, the argument can go the other way around. A harmonious and therapeutic traditional culture is presented in contrast to disintegrated, alienating, and pathogenic modern society. Either reflects the same orientalist imagination that constructs a cultural other \"in terms of specifically Western discursive categories.\" Second, as shown in recent medical anthropological studies, illness behavior and health-seeking strategies are complicated processes that respond to a complex of personal, social, and material exigencies and involve negotiating among diversified perspectives and resources available to patients and their families. To assume that people make rational decisions simply based on what they believe and explain the complexity of health and illness in terms of a few oversimplified cultural rules and beliefs offers an impoverished understanding of both culture and medicine.\n\nMy ethnographic account of emotion-related disorders in the context of Chinese medicine is informed by three different theoretical perspectives.\n\nMy approach to the Chinese experience of emotions and illness is inspired by the recent anthropological discourse of embodiment that locates culture in \"the lived body\" of everyday practice and directs analytical attention to the experiential aspect of culture in everyday life. Culture is not simply understood in symbolic or structural terms as representations or abstract structures detached from bodily performance and presence. Ethnographic writing has shown increased interest in \"embodied culture.\" In her ethnography _Training the Body for China,_ Brownell makes a compelling argument that \"an ethnography account that overlooks the body omits the center of human experience.\" Increasingly, medical anthropologists focus on \"lived body\" as a way to think and talk about illness and distress as they are experienced and to produce \"experience-near\" ethnographic accounts of suffering. Jenkins and Valient analyze the narratives of Salvadoran women to show _el calor_ (heat) as a culturally specific body experience that is \"existentially isomorphic with anger and fear.\" Ots offers a semantic and phenomenological analysis of some of the most common symptoms presented in _zhongyi_ clinics and explores the meanings of bodily perceptions both in _zhongyi_ discourse and in patients' presentations. He suggests that the Chinese experience of body and emotion provides insight into the correspondence of emotions and bodily manifestations in emotion-affected disorders, and that bodily organs or emotional metaphors in Chinese medicine, such as \"the angry liver,\"\"the anxious heart,\" and \"the melancholy spleen,\"\"may serve as evidence for the role of the body in generating culture.\"\n\nDesjarlais, in an ethnography based on his field experience among the Yolmo of Nepal, proposes an analytical approach that attends to the \"surface imagery, felt quality, and embodied values intrinsic to moments of illness and healing.\" In my writing of _qingzhi_ disorders, I pay similar attention to felt quality of culture that informs and gives styles and meaning to Chinese experience of pain and malaise. By attending to aesthetics of body-person ( _shenti_ ) that ordinary Chinese are tacitly oriented to in their everyday lives, my study explores the interplay among the bodily sensibilities, _zhongyi_ constructions, and local social processes and gives a sense as to how it might \"feel\" for someone suffering a _qingzhi_ disorder and the feeling of the heart-emotion ( _xinqing_ ) blocked from flowing and extending freely.\n\nMy research also draws extensively from current language theories that give primacy to language use in its social context. As Good and Good argue, any approach to studying illness and medicine, especially cross-culturally, has to address meaning and thus is embedded in a particular theory of language. Ethnomedical research based on \"emic\" studies of folk nosologies and combining \"emic\" categories with \"etic\" measures of biosciences is grounded in the conventional theory of meaning that links a word to an object or a concept. The medical discourse is therefore seen as establishing connections between a patient's pathological condition and a particular disease category. Accordingly, the meaning of a folk illness can be uncovered through a series of mappings, such as mapping \"emic\" symptom expressions onto the indigenous categories of illnesses, then onto the underlying physiological process, and finally onto the \"etic\" diagnostic entities of scientific medicine. This referential approach to meaning and its application for cross-cultural comparisons have been faulted for its serious limitations in accounting for meanings in particular sociocultural contexts. As noted by many medical anthropologists, illness realities are never merely reflections of human biology but are socioculturally constituted and therefore need a different articulation of meaning.\n\nByron Good, in his study of \"heart distress\" in a small town in Iran, systematically records the domains of meaning associated with core symbols and symptoms in medical lexicon and reveals a configuration of meanings that associate old age, sorrow and sadness, ritual mourning, poverty, worries and anxiety, blood problems, and so on. He argues that \"such a syndrome is not merely a reflection of symptoms linked with each other in natural reality, but a set of experiences associated through networks of meaning and social interaction in a society.\" This conception of medical language directs research attention to the creative use of medical discourse in articulating experience of social distress and in negotiating meanings of suffering. Adding a critical dimension to this meaning-centered approach, some medical anthropologists argue that cultural analysis of illness and medicine have to take into consideration sociopolitical dimensions of power, interest, and resistance. For these medical anthropologists, healing is also an ideological practice, and medicine can be analyzed as part of the social order, which also engages itself in the process of objectification and mystification of social facts, specifically, the process of medicalization of social problems and political oppression. In her analysis of the disorder of nervosa among impoverished shantytown dwellers in northeast Brazil, Scheper-Hughes points to multiple meanings associated with the illness, such as a refusal of \"demeaning and debilitating labor\" and a response to violence and tragedy in everyday life. Similarly, Kleinman & Kleinman analyze illness narratives of Chinese patients suffering chronic pains and emotional disorders to show the connection between physical complaints and political violence, personal or collective demoralization and delegitimization.\n\nMy own research is aligned with the above outlined meaning-centered enterprise of medical anthropology but goes beyond the symbolic and semiotic dimensions of meaning by including interactive aspects of actual clinical encounters. If it is agreed that talking is an act that is socially effective, the interactive dimensions of social discourse\u2014how a person presents and evaluates his\/her own experience and how he\/she is interpreted, understood, and responded to by others\u2014offers a practical and useful way for understanding local experience in everyday life. Various medical discourse analyses, for example, demonstrate that a close examination of \"talk\" could be an effective tool to explore how illness realities are actually constructed and social roles and relations are enacted through clinical interactions. Taking _zhongyi_ clinical encounters as real-time sociolinguistic events, my ethnographic research incorporates microanalytical concepts and methods developed by various discourse analysis scholars in examining interactive exchanges between doctors and patients during the routine clinical process of \"looking at illness\" ( _kanbing_ ) to trace and demonstrate how and at what point various clinical decisions were made and therapeutic transformations achieved. From this perspective, culture is examined as local processes and resources that members are oriented to from different subject positioning and that are evoked by the members in everyday social interactions to negotiate with and make sense of one another. It is in this mundane practice that culture is confirmed, contested, destabled, and transformed.\n\nFinally, contemporary _zhongyi_ scholar-physicians see their profession as built upon \"a unique body of medical theories\" ( _dute de yixue lilun tixi_ ) that is deeply rooted in \"ancient [ _gudai_ ] Chinese people's scientific practice and philosophical thinking.\" In other words, Chinese medicine not only is grounded in collectively accumulated practical experience ( _jin-yan_ ) but also owes as much to particular ways of thinking and theorizing. Classic Chinese philosophy and medical reasoning employ the same language, such as _yin-yang_ and _wuxing_ (five transformative phases) interactions and correlations as well as _qi_ (vital energy) transformations. This language evokes a world of transformation, in which myriad things and events are constantly in motion and extension and changes are seen as resulting from inherent complementary and contradictory _yin-yang_ dynamics rather than resorting to any transcendental power or force essential in the Western intellectual traditions. This particular way of philosophizing and theorizing is very much present in contemporary _zhongyi_ texts and clinical reasoning under the name of rephrased \"simple materialism and dialectic thinking\" ( _pusu weiwuzhuyi he bianzhengfa sixiang_ ). Any interpretation of Chinese medicine then has to be aware of the fundamental difference of the intellectual environment that has bred and nourished Chinese medicine and to be informed by classic Chinese cosmological assumptions distinctive from those underlying modern scientific thinking.\n\nIt is this enriched meaning-centered interpretive approach combining analysis of local, interactive, and embodied meanings with a sensitivity to the epistemology and with a \"civilization awareness\" that provides the general conceptual and methodological orientations of this book. It explores how indigenous Chinese medical concepts and knowledge related to _qingzhi_ and its disorders are constructed, explained, and embodied in everyday _zhongyi_ clinical practices and experiences. It also examines the interactive dimensions of medical and social discourse of _qingzhi_ illnesses and analyzes how the _zhongyi_ discourse links the illness construction to expressed and tacit cultural orientations, and how this indigenous illness category that recognizes simultaneously bodily, mental-emotional, and social experience in the illness provides meaningful forms of suffering for Chinese patients. Although I do not resort to reductive, objective, and standardized categories of comparison, I nevertheless see my study as comparative. For the ethnographic work to grasp the meaning of the \"lived\" life of a people and to convey it effectively to a reader who is linguistically and culturally alien to that people, the comparativeness must be already immanent in the ethnographic translation itself.\n\n# TOPIC ORIENTATIONS\n\nDoes Chinese medicine treat disordered emotions or emotional distresses? Contemporary _zhongyi_ physicians seem unequivocal about Chinese medicine's role in treating disordered emotions. They insist that _zhongyi_ has always paid considerable attention to emotional or psychosocial aspects in illness and health, and they could cite numerous examples from _zhongyi_ classics to support this claim. My own observations in Beijing confirmed that Chinese patients do habitually seek help in _zhongyi_ clinics for what, in the West, might be considered psychological distress or a psychiatric disorder. Typically, patients present their complaints in \"bodily language,\" yet without denying affectivity as a source of their suffering. They take herbal remedies or other \"traditional\" forms of treatment and claim to feel much better ( _haoduo le_ ). Both patients and doctors of Chinese medicine with whom I interacted in Beijing insisted that _zhongyi_ enjoys a special efficacy with such \"functional disorders\" ( _gongneng xing jibing_ ), while xiyi (literally, \"Western medicine,\" referring to the biomedicine practiced in modern China) shows no effective means in treating such illnesses.\n\nYet, the question remains a problematic issue for anthropologists and scholars of Chinese medicine. For some, the topic is a slippery terrain that is better to be circumvented. The underlying concern is that Chinese medicine does not presuppose a dualistic separation of mind and body, nor does it typically make a categorical distinction between psychological and physical disorders, therefore any discussion of _zhongyi_ focusing on emotion inevitably makes modern clinical psychology or psychiatric medicine a comparative reference, thus imposing on Chinese medicine the structure of the Western biomedical model that typically views diseases as having a separate ontology as if they are either \"in the body\" or \"in the mind.\"\n\nThis is a legitimate concern. The ordinary Chinese terms for body, mind, and emotion do not evoke a simple divide between the physical and the psychological. _Shenti,_ a word with a connotation of \"person\" and \"self,\" is much more active and intentional than body, which etymologically is in English a physical \"container\" devoid of the mind. _Shenti_ is both physical and extraphysical, capable of feeling, perceiving, creating, and resonating or embodying changes and transformations in the social world as well as in the natural world. It is the world: at the same time, emotive, moral, aesthetic, and visceral. Neither is _jingshen_ an equivalent to soul or spirit in English. It does not imply a disembodied mentality or a higher order of existence. In fact, _jingshen,_ the combination of two characters of _jing_ (concentrated basis of vitality) and _shen_ (vitality as manifested through functional activities of mind and body), suggests a dynamic and inseparable relationship in the lived world of mind-body. Similarly, _xin_ is both heart and mind; _qingzhi_ is also a process both mindful and visceral. These are not considered as essentially different kinds of existence but different in functions or manifestations that are temporal and contingent.\n\nIn other words, the domains of body, mind, and emotion are mutually penetrating and activating. Such correlativity is embodied in the most mundane levels of everyday life, in the patterns and rhythms of work, exercising, eating, sleeping, and becoming ill and being healed. Apparently, Chinese medicine heals _qingzhi_ disorders in a world that is not consistent with the epistemological structure of the Western biomedical model of knowing and practice. Its practical logic involves a language of \"bodies\" in dynamic process and constant transformation and a language of relations. The _zhongyi_ language of _yin-yang, jing_ (concentrated basis for vitality), _qi_ (vital energy), _shen_ (vitality), _zangfu_ (the visceral systems), _jingluo_ (meridian tracts), has its roots in a distinctive cultural tradition and a unique history and evokes a different sense and experience of order and disorder. Its cultural and therapeutic efficacy evolves through a process of attuning ( _tiao_ ), which in different clinical contexts is demonstrated as the actions of reordering ( _li_ ), unblocking and freeing ( _tong_ ), calming and neutralizing ( _ping_ ), harmonizing and mediating ( _he_ ) releasing and dissolving ( _jie_ ), and so on.\n\nTherefore, language itself becomes problematic and a subject of focus for this book. It seeks to understand _qingzhi_ disorders as they are treated in the clinics of a _zhongyi_ hospital on its own terms. In the words of my _zhongyi_ teacher in Beijing, that means not to use a Western scientific way of thinking ( _siwei fangshi_ ) to frame _zhongyi_ theory and practice but to understand how it really works within the relations between its own theory and practice ( _zishen lilun he shijian de guanxi_ ). The primary concern is not only to translate the relevant terms and concepts but also to make sense of a distinctive embodied experience of being ill and being healed.\n\nFor many scholars engaged in cross-culture psychiatric studies in Chinese society, _zhongyi,_ because it does not recognize the separation of the mental from the physical, not only does not offer a legitimate way to treat an emotional distress but also exerts a negative cultural influence on developing a modern mental health care system for China. Previous cross-cultural psychiatric and medical anthropological research on emotional distress and disorders was mostly carried out in the Western psychiatric context in Chinese society using biomedical models as the standard for comparative investigations. Studies of this paradigm, in general, fail to assign any significant meaning to Chinese medicine in treating emotion-related disorders. They tend to interpret the way Chinese present, experience, and seek help for emotion-related disorders in terms of cultural beliefs and norms that emphasize somatic experience, \"cognitive coping strategies\" that patients and families employ to cope with highly stigmatized dysphoric affects, or simply cognitive and linguistic deficiency in expressing feelings. In short, it is conceptualized as \"somatization,\" a cultural process that transforms \"an essential psychological event into a secondary somatic expression.\"\n\nSomatization has been seen as \"a basic feature of the construction of illness in Chinese culture\" and for some time was alleged to be a \"culture-specific trait typical of the Chinese people.\" _Zhongyi_ language is said to lack explicit terms for the description of emotional states and contributes to the somatization of affective illness among Chinese. Tseng, too, argues that the characteristics of Chinese medicine, such as emphasis of visceral organs and the concepts of \"exhaustion,\" \"weakness,\" and \"emptiness,\" strongly influence Chinese psychiatric patients.\n\nThis book shares the cross-cultural psychiatric interest in emotion-related disorders in Chinese society; however, my research is of a different type. It is situated in a context of Chinese medicine, in which the basic psychiatric conception of \"mental\" versus \"physical,\" \"emotion\" versus \"cognitive,\" or \"illness entity\" versus \"illness behavior\" is questionable. I question applicability of the concept of somatization in Chinese experience. In fact, Chinese psychiatrists in actual clinical settings have no difficulty making connections between bodily and emotional changes as Chinese medical doctors habitually do. They agree that symptom expression, be it somatic or psychological, depends on how the individual experiences these changes at the specific moment and that Chinese patients do not limit their complaints to a somatic mode but present psychological and emotional symptoms too. I also question the soundness of any national or community-based mental health policy and service in China that excludes _zhongyi_ from playing an active role despite the fact that Chinese people routinely utilize _zhongyi_ themselves in their fight against the illnesses allegedly emotional or mental according to the biomedical model.\n\nMy study lies outside the paradigm of cross-culture psychiatry and asks different questions. _Zhongyi_ doctors in the past and present do not have to resort to the underlying assumption of modern psychiatry\u2014the dichotomy of mind and body\u2014in order to understand and treat the disorders that predominantly involve emotions and thoughts. This does not mean that _zhongyi_ clinicians have been unable to see the distinctions, but rather their epistemological and professional \"bias\" emphasizes interconnections among emotions, thoughts, and various visceral systems. These underlying connections are actively explored by them as sources for fighting illnesses, physical as well as emotional. To _zhongyi_ clinicians, disordered emotions or thoughts can have physiological consequences and vice versa, and a clinical intervention may start from either end or both. Then the questions are Does _zhongyi's_ distinctive approach to disordered emotions and thoughts have any therapeutic value in contemporary China? If the answer is yes, how does it actually work clinically today? Can _zhongyi_ be incorporated as effective resources into the national and community programs and services to improve mental health care for Chinese people? There is an applied dimension implied in this book. It shows that _zhongyi_ has a unique role to play in its care for the emotionally ill and that social and mental health facilities can benefit from _zhongyi's_ participation.\n\nIn my study, _qingzhi_ disorder is seen as a _zhongyi_ construct, complete and valid in itself, not a culturally mediated version of a \"real\" psychiatric disease. It is an ethnographic research without psychobiological measurements. Throughout the book, _qingzhi_ disorder remains a Chinese experience: a meaningful form of suffering for those who seek to balance and to put back in order their upset world of _shenti_ (body-person). Surely it is possible to compare _qingzhi_ disorder with relevant psychiatric constructs of depression or anxiety, yet it requires a different type of research that goes beyond the frame and the scope of this book.\n\nThis book is not meant to offer a comprehensive account of the practice of Chinese medicine in contemporary China. Yet it is helpful to situate my own ethnographic investigation of _qingzhi_ disorders in relation to some of the recent anthropological studies of Chinese medicine in contemporary China.\n\nIn the early 80s, Judith Farqhar spent eighteen months studying and conducting participant observation at the Guangzhou College of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Her book _Knowing Practice: The Clinical Encounter of Chinese Medicine_ (1994) is based primarily on this experience. In the book, Farquhar discusses in great detail the process of \"looking at illness\" ( _kanbing_ ) in _zhongyi_ clinical encounters and the practical logic of this process, which a _zhongyi_ practitioner has to follow in order to effect healing. My study is indebted to her insights in clinical encounters of Chinese medicine, and I benefit from her discussions on the epistemological incompatibility between the biomedical sciences and Chinese medicine.\n\nA number of factors set my study apart from hers. Farquhar makes extensive use of _zhongyi_ textbooks and published cases for her analysis. My own study focuses mostly on the actual clinical work with all of its interactive implications. Second, the process of _kanbing_ is understood as the process of doctor and patient looking at illness together. Farquhar's analysis is more directed to the professional point of view, that is, what a doctor needs to know in order to effect a cure. My study that takes a face-to-face interaction as a strategic site for understanding the clinical process presents both the professional and the patient's perceptions and shows the role that the patient plays in both the diagnosis and the healing. Finally, my focus is on _qingzhi_ disorders where affective factors in Chinese medicine have received an ultimate attention, while in Farquhar's study, affectivity is not a topic of concern.\n\nAny writing of Chinese medicine in contemporary China will inevitably confront the issue of plurality. Diversity is observable at every level of Chinese medical discourse and practice. The heterogeneity of Chinese medicine in the past and present has been widely described and commented on by scholars mostly in the West. Chinese sources tend to take _zhongyi_ pluralities for granted and see little need for further justification, whereas unity or uniformity is seen as something that needs to be established. Scholar-physicians of different schools in the past found their identity by tracing their professional genealogies to _Huangdi Neijing_ (Yellow Emperor's Inner Classics), _Shanghan Lun_ (Discussions of Cold Damage), and other canonical texts, and to great masters in the history of Chinese medicine. For contemporary _zhongyi_ scholars, there is not only a need to show continuity of their profession from the past but also a pressure to demonstrate its alignment with modern science. Interestingly, while the process of standardization ( _guifanhua_ ) or systemization ( _xitonghua_ ) based on biomedical models has significantly transformed the face of _zhongyi_ organization and practice, original styles, personal experience, and individual virtuosity are continuously valued in the profession and deliberately sought by patients. In a sense, the participation of biomedicine adds more dimensions to the existing pluralities of Chinese medicine.\n\nScholars of Chinese medicine in the West, from a different background in which existence of the objective truth is presupposed, are more likely to feel a compelling need to explain and justify diversity in Chinese medicine. In Elisabeth Hsu's ethnography, _The Transmission of Chinese Medicine,_ the plurality is embedded in the transmission of knowledge in contemporary Chinese medicine. She shows that medical knowledge acquired through different modes of transmission and within different social relationships is understood and \"known\" differently. She describes three different modes of knowledge transmission in correspondence with three distinctive social settings, namely, the transmission of \"secret knowledge\" within a master-disciple relationship, \"the personal transmission of knowledge\" between a mentor and a follower characteristic of classical scholarship, and \"the standardized mode of transmission\" in the context of modern classroom learning. Volker Scheid takes plurality and diversity as the main thesis of his book, _Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China: Plurality and Synthesis,_ which examines \"a plurality of agencies and processes involved in the shaping of contemporary Chinese medicine,\" including politicians and state, patients and physicians, classical scholarship and modern health care systems, institutions, networks, and training of _zhongyi_ physicians. In my own ethnography, plurality is not a topic but a context. I take Scheid's conclusion that plurality is \"an intrinsic aspect of contemporary Chinese medicine\" as a starting point and explore how multiple perspectives and sources of knowledge play out in an actual clinical process. In this sense, my case studies of _qingzhi_ disorders should be read as an analysis of a microprocess of a local synthesis rather than as an attempt to provide a complete or comprehensive presentation of how _qingzhi_ disorders are diagnosed and treated generally in clinics of Chinese medicine.\n\n# ETHNOGRAPHIC SETTINGS\n\nAfter being away from China for about four years, I went back to Beijing in January 1994 to conduct a twelve-month fieldstudy for my ethnographic study on emotion-related disorders in the clinics of Chinese medicine, on which this book is based. However, my research for the book has continued beyond the original fieldwork through correspondence and interactions with _zhongyi_ professionals and scholars both in and outside China, as well as subsequent visits to the original field sites and through reading the published literature on Chinese medicine.\n\nFor this anthropological research, I relied heavily on participant observation as well as semistructured and unstructured interviews with patients, doctors, and ordinary Chinese citizens, whom I came to know by different means and at different times. My own personal background as a Chinese native who grew up and was educated in China permitted me ready access to the Chinese cultural resources and social networks, which were very much needed in doing such research. Needless to say, however, the way I formulated my theoretical positions and interpreted the empirical data and the way in which I actually went about doing my interviews and observations bore the cultural and experiential marks of me as a Western trained native anthropologist.\n\nMy fieldwork took me to various hospitals and clinics of Chinese medicine in Beijing, but the major part of the clinical observation was carried out in one of the affiliated hospitals of the Beijing Academy of Chinese Medicine. The hospital was built in the mid-1950s. Over the decades, it has been expanded and developed into one of the largest _zhongyi_ hospitals as well as a major clinical research and teaching center for Chinese medicine in the Beijing area. Many physicians who work in the hospital divide their time among clinical work, research, and teaching. Clearly my ethnographic account of clinical encounters reflects the practice of this elite and professionalized Chinese medicine, which, as an integrated part of the national health care system, is sanctioned and closely supervised by the state.\n\nThe organization and management of the hospital resembles, in every important way, a modern biomedical hospital in Beijing. It consists of 24 clinical departments ( _ke-shi_ ), including _qigong_ (breathing exercises for improving health or curing disease) and _zhenjiu_ (acupuncture and moxibustion) clinics that are not common divisions in most biomedical hospitals in China, and 13 labs and research departments of medical sciences and technology, which centrally reflect the policy of \"using modern science and technology to conduct scientific research of traditional Chinese medicine.\" I chose Shenjing Ke (Clinic of Neuropathic Disorders) as the primary site for my clinical observations. Like many other structural categories in a modern _zhongyi_ hospital, the name of Shenjing Ke itself came from the biomedical model in an attempt to establish greater authority in the culture of modern science. The reason I chose Shenjing Ke as the base of my research is mainly because it has a large concentration of patients with _qingzhi_ disorders. When referring to an illness, ordinary Chinese do not typically make distinctions between \"of nerves\" ( _shenjing_ ) and \"of mind or spirit\" ( _jingshen_ ). Chinese use \"neurological disorder\" ( _shenjing_ bing ) casually to mean \"mental illness\" ( _jingshen bing_ ). The doctors I worked with in this particular clinic estimated that about 75 % of their patients who came to seek medical help suffered a _qingzhi_ related disorder. In addition, the director of the clinic is recognized as an expert in treating such disorders, especially, stagnation syndrome ( _yuzheng_ ), in which I was particularly interested.\n\nI was introduced to the head of the clinic, who is a senor doctor known for his efficacy in treating _qingzhi_ disorders, through a mutual friend. At our first meeting, he emphasized that _zhongyi_ and _xiyi_ (Western biomedicine) are of two different \"ways of thinking\" ( _siwei fangshi_ ) and that I should be cautious not to interpret _zhongyi_ simply in terms of Western scientific categories and language. According to him, a good understanding of _zhongyi_ requires a completely different language, and it takes time to slowly \"understand through direct experience\" ( _tihui_ ) _zhongyi_ theories and practices. I could not agree more with this advice. A good rapport between the senior doctor and me started from this straightforward conversation. I was later given permission to do participant observations in his clinic. In an anthropological expression, I was \"adopted\" into the community by assuming a student role. The doctor took it to be his responsibility to see that I really understood Chinese medical concepts and clinical actions so that I would not misrepresent Chinese medicine in my research. I followed the doctor in his clinic for about ten months like one of his student doctors, though I did not wear their uniform. As a result, I became familiar with his colleagues working in the same consulting room, his graduate students, and some of his patients. Most of all, I gained considerable _tihui_ of Chinese medicine. Toward the end of my fieldwork, my doctor friends told me that I used their language and asked \"correct\" questions, and they joked that I could even open a clinic of Chinese medicine myself some day.\n\nDuring my clinical observations, I recorded more than four hundred cases. The procedure was to sit beside the doctor, take notes, and later with the participants' permission to record clinical interactions. I was encouraged to move along with the clinical process, when appropriate, to feel a patient's pulse, look at his\/her tongue, and ask questions. Sometimes, the doctor would directly put me on the spot by suggesting that a patient talk with me, and he introduced me as an anthropologist doing a research project on emotion-related disorders. Only a few patients actually agreed to sit down for an interview. Most patients would simply decline the invitation citing various reasons. Most of my interviews of patients were semistructured and took place outside the clinical room. The questions centered on the informants' illness history and experience as well as their _zhongyi_ knowledge. The purpose of my questions was to understand a patient perspective on his or her illness and the role of emotion in his or her illness experience and also to record patients' narratives regarding how they coped with and accounted for or made sense of their sufferings, and why they chose to see a _zhongyi_ doctor. My one disappointment was that I was not able to build up a closer rapport and have more in-depth interviews with the patients. Conducting an interview with a patient proved to be challenging and, sometimes, frustrating. Partly this was due to the clinical settings of my research. Patients came to the clinic for treatment because they were suffering. They had little time or interest in talking to a stranger, much less talking about their personal lives beyond their immediate concerns of their illnesses. I also felt little justified to probe into a patient's personal life. In fact, _zhongyi_ doctors are very subtle when coming to sensitive personal questions. I was told that a doctor should not probe into anything that a patient was deliberately avoiding talking about, because that could only add stress and anxiety to the patient and interfere with the efficacy of the therapy. This is especially a concern with patients who suffer from a _qingzhi_ disorder. However, I was able to carry out lengthy and in-depth interviews with the patients whom I happened to know well and friends and relatives who suffered emotion-related disorders and sought Chinese medical treatment.\n\nMy experience with doctors was quite different. I saw them several times a week and had lunch with them at the hospital's cafeteria. They were interested in my experiences in the United States. My interaction with them was informal and relaxed. Unstructured interviews were carried out with them whenever it was convenient. These interviews covered broad medical, social, cultural, and political topics, as well as personal experiences.\n\nMy participant observation also went beyond the major field site. Directly under the Ministry of Health, this hospital closely reflects the official policies to promote _zhongyi_ to a modern scientific realm and to explore ways to combine Western and Chinese medicines. In terms of funding and other forms of government support, it has advantages over many other smaller hospitals. My experience in other Chinese medical institutions that are less prestigious provided a comparative perspective.\n\nComing back to the much changed neighborhood in the Haidian district where I used to live, I was impressed by the number of _zhongyi_ clinics in the neighborhood. Within the area where I live, there were two _zhongyi_ outpatient clinics with a Chinese pharmacy attached, a small _zhongyi_ hospital, a _zhongyi_ clinic within a community hospital, and a new _zhongyi_ consulting room added to a health clinic. I frequented these smaller Chinese medical institutions, especially the small _zhongyi_ hospital, which lay hidden in a small lane behind tall buildings. The hospital specialized in treating chronic and difficult diseases ( _manxing yinan bingzheng_ ) by combining Chinese and Western medicines ( _zhong-xi yi jiehe_ ). I was surprised to find a _Jingshen Ke_ (mental health clinic) in this small hospital, which was not a common division in _zhongyi_ hospitals. From the information provided in the various posters, pictures, and banners in this location, I recognized quite a few names of famous senior doctors ( _laozhongyi_ ) and professors, who were invited to work part time there, while keeping their permanent positions in other hospitals and research or teaching institutes. Their presence made this small hospital popular. Some of my interviews with patients were carried out in this small hospital.\n\nThe economic reforms that gained momentum in the 1980s and the movement toward the free market system have changed the face of _zhongyi_ practice in an important way. The new economic policies have encouraged the flow of _zhongyi_ knowledge and practitioners from the large state institutions to smaller community clinics and private hospitals. Not only do well-established senior doctors run their own private clinics, but the young graduates of _zhongyi_ colleges and universities may also engage in sideline businesses. Between large state-sponsored institutions and smaller or privately owned practices, there is no strict boundary but a constant flow of knowledge and resources.\n\nDuring my residency in Beijing, I stayed in a community where my parents lived and where families had known one another for a long time and shared many social occasions. In this community I was a true participant in every sense, visiting my neighbors, helping out and being helped, listening to gossip in the mail room, and talking to people while taking a walk in the neighborhood parks. Not only did I observe daily social and emotional interactions and actual management of emotional crisis and illnesses, but I was also sometimes part of that process. Former classmates, friends, and relatives were also valuable resources for my research. I was given access to their medical records and prescriptions and was allowed to accompany them to see a doctor. With them, I carried out lengthy and in-depth interviews regarding their personal and emotional experience. I understood them and shared many of their worries, anxieties, confusions, and hopes.\n\n# THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BOOK\n\nIn this introduction, I have outlined some theoretical and conceptual considerations that are central to a cultural understanding of _qingzhi_ disorders in contemporary practice of Chinese medicine and introduced the ethnographic subjects and settings. I situate my research in the anthropological discourse of body, emotion, illness, and medicine. I show how my study is related to and different from other relevant studies theoretically and empirically. Chapter 2 discusses the continuity and modern transformation of Chinese medicine. One purpose of this chapter is to historicize the form of _zhongyi_ practice in contemporary China. It explores how the manifold historical events and forces since the late nineteenth century have been at work in shaping the traditional indigenous _\"yi_ (medicine)\" into present day cosmopolitan _zhongyi._ This chapter also seeks to ground \"modern\" _zhongyi_ in an epistemological tradition that approaches knowledge, theory, and practice differently from that of the modern Western science and that gives Chinese medicine a sense of continuity from its distant and recent past. Chapter 3 explores the Chinese world of body-person ( _shenti_ ), through the analysis of cultural semantics and aesthetics of _shenti_ embodied in the way Chinese talk about their body and experience the \"loss of balance\" ( _shitiao_ ) or \"being in discord\" ( _weihe_ ). I show that the way Chinese patients experience _qingzhi_ disorders and the Chinese medical therapeutic process in healing them are profoundly embedded in the cultural sensibilities and the meanings of body, person, and society. In other words, the cultural aesthetics and values persistent in Chinese society are embodied and are thus particularly visible when the body-person is in \"dis-ease.\" Chapter 4, focusing specifically on the Chinese concept of _\"qingzhi\"_ (emotion-mind), explores the sociocultural and ethnomedical contexts where _qingzhi_ and disordered _qingzhi_ are formulated, talked about, and experienced. Chapters 5 and 6 examine the meaning and the categorization of _qingzhi_ disorders in relation to the zhongyi clinical process of \"differentiation of syndromes and determination of therapies\" ( _bianzheng lunzhi_ ). Chapter 7 offers a close examination of an actual face-to-face clinical interaction, which shows how the syndrome of a particular _qingzhi_ disorder is defined through ordinary clinical work and how the process of _tiao_ (attuning) works to transform the patient's experience. Finally, Chapter 7 offers some general conclusions based on previous analysis and discussions. It is evident that _qingzhi_ disorders\u2014illnesses resulted from disordered emotions and social difficulties\u2014in contemporary Chinese medicine offer a meaningful form and a viable language for Chinese patients to make sense of their sufferings and a practicable regimen to manage a lived body that falls out of order.\n\nThroughout the book, Chinese medicine is used interchangeably with _zhongyi_ to refer to the professional Chinese medicine practiced in contemporary China and its classic form of scholarly medicine, from which the present day _zhongyi_ has evolved and transformed. Accordingly, _xiyi_ and Western medicine, its direct translation, are also used interchangeably to refer to the form of biomedicine practiced in modern China. Translation of Chinese medical terminology proves to be a difficult task. My translation does not follow one single source. Instead, I consulted various sources and decided on the ones I feel best reflect my understanding of the terms in the context. In other words, the translation itself may not be mine, but the choice is. Some Chinese terms are used untranslated, such as _qi_ and _yin-yang,_ which have been largely accepted as English words. For other commonly used terms that appear repeatedly in this book and of which no simple English translation is sufficient to capture an array of meanings, such as _qingzhi,_ I tend to use the original Chinese term in _pinyin_ transcript, which is supplemented with a suggested English translation at least when it appears for the first time in the chapter. Chinese characters of the term are also provided at least once in a chapter. I appreciate the challenge that this makes for non-Chinese readers, but I feel that it was important to include Chinese characters for those readers who read Chinese and depend on characters for specific meanings and sources of the terms.\nII\n\nChinese Medicine: Continuity and Modern Transformations\n\nAlthough I did not expect to find \"pure\" Chinese medicine in practical clinical work, observing doctors in _zhongyi_ (Chinese medicine) clinics handling the results of various biomedical tests and examinations with considerable confidence and skill was impressive. _Zhongyi_ doctors and students I met in Beijing tend to see _zhongyi_ and _xiyi_ (Western medicine) as complementary and that both have their particular strengths ( _youshi_ ) in treating illnesses. They agree that nowadays, a good _zhongyi_ doctor has to be knowledgeable in _xiyi_ as well. Patients also seem to lack respect for the boundaries between these two different medical practices. They do not hesitate to show _zhongyi_ doctors the results of their recent electroencephalograms or CAT scans and to discuss their previous clinical encounters in biomedical hospitals. _Zhongyi_ physicians are expected not only to understand biomedical test results but also to be able to use biomedical concepts and terms. They, too, sometimes order laboratory tests for a patient and take his\/her blood pressure or prescribe biomedicines, often at a patient's request. The influence of modern science and its epistemology on the practice and organization of professional Chinese medicine has been so extensive that the very identity of _zhongyi_ practice as \"traditional medicine\" ( _chuantong yixue_ ) calls for reflection.\n\nMoreover, Chinese people do not seem to be confused at all as to which system is Chinese and which is not. _Zhongyi_ versus _xiyi_ remains a significant distinction recognized by both medical professionals and the general population. Patients choose to utilize _zhongyi_ or _xiyi,_ or a combination of both according to commonly recognized features of the different medical systems in relation to their specific illnesses or illness episodes, knowledge, previous experiences, and other practical concerns, such as cost and convenience. Judith Farqhuar, in her book _Knowing Practice,_ argues for \"historical toughness\" and epistemological distinctiveness of this non-Western healing practice. \"The practical logic\" of _zhongyi_ and \"its ways of seeking efficacy\" observed by Farquhar in the 1980s remained largely true in the 1990s when my study began. The present situation of _zhongyi_ has to be understood both in its continuity as a body of medical knowledge and practices that have been evolving for more than two thousand years and as the product of the particular historical moment of the modern era.\n\n# MODERN TRANSFORMATIONS\n\nBefore Western medicine began to stream into China in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the indigenous medicine in China was simply called _\"yi\"_ (medicine). Historically, _yi_ coexisted and interacted with other healing practices, such as shamanic and religious healings. The boundaries among them in practice might not be clear cut. However, it was documented that as early as the Spring and Autumn of the Zhou Dynasty (770\u2013476 BCE) yi had acquired an identity distinctive from _wu_ or _zhu_ (shamanic\/spiritual healing) in its therapeutic rationalization and technology. _Yi_ (medicine), as the historical source of today's _zhongyi,_ refers mainly to a body of accumulated healing knowledge and practices based on a naturalistic explanation of disease and health rationalized in the language of \"yin-yang\" and _\"wuxing\"_ (the five transformative phases),\" and \"passed down by China's educated elite.\"\n\nThe 1949 founding of the People's Republic of China is commonly recognized as the significant historical moment that marked a drastic transition in _zhongyi_ practice and education in China. According to the contemporary Chinese historical narratives, before the Liberation (founding of PRC in 1949), _zhongyi_ was \"on the verge of dying out\" ( _binlin miewang_ ) under the old national government's discriminating policies against _zhongyi,_ and it was with the establishment of the New China that _zhongyi_ \"acquired a new life\" ( _huode xinsheng_ _)._ _8_ In the past, most traditional Chinese medical doctors were individual practitioners working in their private clinics and pharmacies (often not completely separated from their living quarters). The practice was generally inherited within a family or passed down from a master to disciples. The beginning of the twentieth century witnessed increasing _zhongyi_ activities in establishing academies and hospitals, organizing professional groups, and standardizing the knowledge. However, lacking in governmental support and endorsement, these activities remained largely weak and localized.\n\nThe modern institutionalization of Chinese medicine started in the mid-1950s. The Chinese Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the first _zhongyi_ institution directly under the Ministry of Public Health, was set up on December 19, 1955, through the merging of five different medical and research institutions. The hospital where I did most of my field research was one of the two _zhongyi_ hospitals affiliated with the academy. They were among the first few _zhongyi_ hospitals and colleges established in the mid-1950s. In 1956, four _zhongyi_ colleges were established respectively in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Chengdu to train advanced Chinese medical doctors and pharmacists. Following this trend, many provincial governments established their own higher educational institutions of Chinese medicine. At the same time, the individual practitioners of Chinese medicine who had been working in private clinics were invited to treat patients in hospitals, and many of them were assimilated into the different levels of public health institutions. \"The diverse and scattered practitioners of traditional medicine, with their small academies and family clinics, were organized into a rapidly growing national hierarchy of clinical and academic institutions.\"\n\nHowever, to understand the contemporary situation of _zhongyi_ in China, we should also pay attention to the manifold historical forces that have been at work in shaping yi into today's _zhongyi_ since the second half of the nineteenth century when China was transformed abruptly into a shattered semicolonial society.\n\nThe practice of Western medicine in China before the second half of the nineteenth century was practically insignificant. It did not pose a serious challenge to Chinese medicine until the turn of the century when Western medicine, armed with modern experimental science and imported into China together following the Western military powers and the Christian God, established its permanent presence in China. However, for many reform-minded intellectuals and revolutionaries, what Western medicine offered at the turn of the century was not as much effective healing as the promise of Western scientific culture for national salvation. The decades of humiliation following the brutal encounter with the modern Western civilization set many intellectuals to search for \"salvation\" beyond the boundary of their own civilization. Western science became a powerful intellectual resource that the Chinese reformists and revolutionaries drew on for an extensive cultural criticism of their own tradition, reaching its climax in the May 4 movement in 1919. \"Mr. Science\" (Sai Xiansheng ), as well as \"Mr. Democracy\" (De Xiansheng ), became an overwhelming voice in twentieth-century China, so powerful that, as Hu Shi declared in 1923, \"there is not a single person who calls himself a modern man and yet dares openly to belittle science.\"\n\nWithin this historical atmosphere, the tension and polarity between Chinese and Western learning were obvious. This can be seen in the labels that identified traditional Chinese scholarship as \"Chinese learning\" ( _zhongxue_ ), \"national learning\" ( _guoxue_ ), or \"old learning\" ( _jiuxue_ ), the Western knowledge as \"Western learning\" ( _xixue_ ) or \"new learning\" ( _xinxue_ ). Accordingly, indigenous medicine ( _yi_ ) became \"Chinese medicine\" ( _zhongyi_ ), \"national medicine\" ( _guoyi_ ), or \"old medicine\" ( _jiuyi_ ), while the biomedicine became \"Western medicine\" ( _xiyi_ ) or \"new medicine\" ( _xinyi_ ). Building a strong \"new China\" under the guidance of a scientific spirit has been the dominant national sentiment from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present. It is reiterated in the contemporary discourse of the Four Modernizations, which draws heavily from the historical experience of the Chinese people at the turn of the century. The phrase backwardness incurring humiliation ( _luohou jiuyao aida_ ) is a frequently used rhetoric in both official and popular discourse.\n\nDuring the Republic period, attempts at eliminating _zhongyi_ were a constant threat to the _zhongyi_ profession. _Zhongyi,_ seen as a partner of the old feudal culture and incompatible with modern scientific thinking, was an obstacle on the way to \"wholehearted-modernization.\" In 1914 Wang Daxie, the minister of education of the government of Northern warlords (1912\u201327), declared that \"[the government] had made up its mind to eliminate the traditional Chinese medical system and discard the use of Chinese material medica.\" On the occasion of the first convention of the Central Committee for Public Health of the Kuomingtang government in 1929, a few members of a committee headed by Yu Yunxiu presented a motion to \"wipe out obstacles in hygiene work by eliminating the traditional Chinese medicine system.\" Many intellectuals within the Communist Party in the 1920s and 30s also argued vigorously against traditional medicine.\n\nIn the decades of adversity, _zhongyi,_ in resistance to official and elite pressure and in adaptation to the competition of _xiyi_ for economic and political resources, transformed itself in several important ways. First, when facing the external challenge of an alien knowledge system of Western medicine, the internal tension among diverse doctrines and interpretations of Chinese medicine was reduced. Prior to its encounter with Western medicine, Chinese medicine from the Song-Yuan period (960\u20131368 AD) was characterized by tension between different schools of medical doctrines. Especially, from the end of the Ming dynasty (1368\u20131644 AD) when the school of febrile\/warm illnesses ( _wenbing xuepai_ ) emerged, the competition and even hostility between the school of cold damage illnesses ( _shanghan_ ) and the febrile\/ warm illness ( _wenbing_ _)_ school became increasingly furious as if they were as \"incompatible as water and fire.\"1he reduction of internal tension was due as much to intentional efforts to form a united front against encroachment of Western medicine as to the fact that in reference to Western medicine, the common intellectual foundations and shared qualities of the different schools of Chinese medicine suddenly stood out. The differences in knowledge inheritance, in interpretation of medical concepts in the classics, and in emphasis on particular illness factors ( _bingyin_ ) and illness mechanisms ( _bingji_ ) became less significant. Focusing on the common characters of Chinese medicine in antithesis to Western medicine, the knowledge of Chinese medicine was inevitably reconstructed and shaped into a more coherently represented body of knowledge. The rhetoric of \"contention between different schools of medical thought\" ( _xuepaizhizheng_ ) was overshadowed by the discourse of _zhongyi_ versus _xiyi._\n\nSecond, in reaction to the official attempts to delegitimize the practice and teaching of _zhongyi_ in the 1920s and 30s, the _zhongyi_ practitioners and pharmacists were mobilized to stage national protests, which did force the government to step back from its radical policies to abandon Chinese medicine. These protests also led to the establishment of the national organization of Chinese medicine. _Zhongyi_ at this moment began to see emergent professional communities and institutions. In the two decades between the 1920s and 30s, about seventy _zhongyi_ schools and ninety _zhongyi_ professional organizations were set up nationally. Although these institutions were still largely regional, their influences cut across the boundaries maintained in the past by the vertical relationship between masters and disciples, and the practitioners became aware of their common identity as _zhongyi_ (Chinese medical practitioners).\n\nFinally, many analyses of Chinese medicine of this period emphasize the theme of nationalism, which identified _zhongyi_ as \"national essence\" ( _guocui_ ) and thus an important basis for its modern legitimacy. In the case of _zhonyi,_ however, the voice of preserving \"national essence\" did not go far. It was ridiculed as conservative and unpractical both before and after 1949. After all, the success of _zhongyi_ could not be based solely on its \"antiqueness\" that needed to be preserved, but lay in its value as a practiced and organized way against diseases comparable to Western medicine in the modern world. The voices that had lasting influence on the modern form of _zhongyi_ came from the discussions and publications that focused on integrating _zhongyi_ and _xiyi_ ( _zhongxiyi huitong_ ) represented by renowned Chinese physicians, such as Zhang Xichun (1860\u20131933) and Yun Tieqiao (1878\u20131935). Yun realized that _\"zhongyi_ has no way out but to deal with Western medicine\" and that _\"zhongyi_ has demonstrated its capacity of integrating and evolving, and it will surely absorb the strength of _xiyi_ , and integrate it into its system to form a new _zhongyi.\"_ _24_ Although how to integrate Chinese and Western medicines remained a debate for a long time to come, erudite Chinese physicians recognized the need for change. They expected to see a \"new Chinese medicine\" emerge from communication and convergence with the strengths of Western medicine. This articulation of the combination of Chinese medicine and Western medicine continues to inform the discourse and practice of Chinese medicine today.\n\nAs discussed above, the full legitimization and institutionalization of Chinese medicine in the early 1950s and the later years under the government's supporting policies was not without historical basis. However, compared to indigenous medical practices in other Asian societies and in other parts of the world, the ideological support for _zhongyi_ education and practice from the new government by the Communist Party was unprecedented. In fact, the first generation of leadership of PRC, including Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Liu Shaoqi, gave instructions regarding incorporating _zhongyi_ into the formal health care systems of the new society. At the First National Conference on Health held in 1950, Mao called for \"uniting all the health care workers, the old and new, Chinese and Western, to form a strong united front line for the cause of people's health.\" The principle of \"uniting Chinese and Western medical professionals\" ( _tuanjie zhongxiyi_ ), and later \"giving equal emphasis to both Chinese and Western medicines\" ( _zhongxiyi bingzhong_ ) has been the basic approach to developing the dual state health system. Mao's famous comment of 1958 that \"Chinese medicine and pharmaceutics are a great treasure house, and (we) must make all efforts to uncover it and raise its standard\" has been frequently quoted to give _zhongyi_ an official voice and political status.\n\nChinese writings on modern _zhongyi_ history tend to credit the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)'s \"historical materialistic attitude toward the cultural legacy\" ( _dui wenhua yichan de lishi weiwuzhuyi taidu_ ) with much of the responsibility for the fast growing of zhongyi after the establishment of the PRC. It is said that such a historicism recognizes the value of _zhongyi_ as accumulated knowledge and experience against diseases throughout a long history of \"practices of the masses\" and calls for \"inheriting\" ( _jicheng_ ) and \"developing or carrying forward\" ( _fazhan_ ) the traditional Chinese medicine.\n\nThe new government's strong support for _zhongyi_ also came from practical considerations. At the time when the Communists took power, the country's public health situation was appalling, and biomedical resources were scarce and unevenly distributed. Scholars are generally convinced that the formidable task for the new government to provide a large population with basic health care motivated the policy makers to bring the traditional Chinese medical practitioners into the public health construction. One of the most effective approaches that characterized the revolution led by the CCP was the emphasis on mobilizing the masses, that is, working with whatever forces possible to form \"a united front\" ( _tongyi zhanxian_ ) against the main enemy of the time. At the time, Chinese medicine, which did not have the elite status of Western medicine, was more aligned with the masses to be mobilized and incorporated into the public health programs. The slogan of _tuanjie zhongyi_ (uniting with Chinese medical workers) thus was not just a pragmatic strategy but also a politically significant move. Moreover, combining Western and Chinese medicines for a practical health care purpose was nothing new for the CCP. The Communist Party, in its long period of armed resistance, accumulated experience of having both Chinese and Western doctors work together in its base areas. The policy to encourage both Chinese and Western doctors to learn from each other ( _huxiang xuexi_ ) worked well to produce a cooperative relationship between the Chinese and Western doctors, which was not found outside CCP's liberated bases ( _jiefangqu_ ). Arguably, the combination of Western and Chinese medicines ( _zhong-xiyi jiehe_ ) for practical purpose has been largely a continuous health care policy for the CCP, although it has not gone without controversies at the theoretical level.\n\nAs shown above, the drastic transformation of Chinese medicine after 1949\u2014the hospital-based practice, standardization of knowledge, and classroom-centered education,\u2014was built upon continuous changes that happened during the Republic era or even earlier. The move to modernize and scientize Chinese medicine had started long before the 1950s. _Zhongyi_ professionals, particularly those well-known physicians and staunch advocates of _zhongyi_ practice and education in the 1920s and 30s, were willing participants and active agencies in the process of _zhongyi_ transformation in the 1950s. As Scheid notes, many of them \"became key players in the shaping of Chinese medicine after 1954.\" In addition, the newly acquired political status and professional space in the official health care system further motivated the _zhongyi_ community to align with the political and practical goals of the new government.\n\n# THE PROBLEM OF THEORY AND CONTINUITY OF CHINESE MEDICINE\n\nModern _zhongyi_ writings habitually make discursive connections between the present practices and past achievements to highlight the continuity of the present from the ancient. Discussions of _zhongyi_ basic theories inevitably cite the _Huangdi Neijing_ (Yellow Emperor's Inner Classics) for laying out the theoretical foundations of Chinese medicine. Similarly, the exposition of formulas ( _fangjixue_ ) consistently credits the ancient books on formulas ( _jingfang_ ), especially Zhang Zhongjing's _Shanghan Zabing Lun_ (Discussions of Cold Damage and various Disorders) for setting up the basics for Chinese medical formulas.\n\nFor many Western scholars of Chinese medicine, the stories told by the Chinese physicians at best constitute an imagined continuity or a false impression that the so-called _zhongyi_ consists of a well-defined, unified, and coherent system of knowledge comparable to the Western biomedicine and \"basically unchanged since antiquity. To them, this tradition has been marked by conceptual contradictions, heterogeneous origins, historical ruptures, and continuous adjustments to sociopolitical changes. Any historical narrative is a form of construction; the story of the evolution of Chinese medicine is not an exception. However, to assume _zhongyi_ scholars' emphasis on continuity and connections inevitably entails a denial of diversity and changes is a misreading reflecting the Western epistemological bias that dichotomizes unity ( _tongyi_ \u2014) and diversity ( _chayi_ ).\n\nFrom the perspective of the Chinese correlative way of thinking evident in the Chinese philosophic reflections and historical discourses, continuity and creativity or unity and diversity presuppose each other. They are viewed as interdependent, thus forming a pair of complementary oppositions. For instance, _Shanghai Lun_ (Discussion of Cold Damage) is considered another paramount achievement in the history of Chinese medicine after the publication of _Neijing_ (the Inner Classics). Its author, Zhang Zhongjing, an East Han physician, was said to have produced the highly innovative treatise on treating cold-damage related and other disorders, drawing on his intensive studies of various medical texts of and before his time, including the classic _Neijing._ His accomplishment is often talked about in terms of continuity from the previous monumental achievements, such as _Neijing._ Yet the content of _Shanghan Lun_ shows an obviously different approach from _Neijing. Neijing's_ discussions of \"meridian channels\" ( _jingluo_ ) and \"visceral organ systems\" ( _zangfu_ ) feature little in Zhongjing's \"six patterns of diagnosis\" ( _liujing bianzheng_ ). The theoretical elaboration of _wuxing_ (five transformative phases) found in _Neijing_ is completely absent from _Shanghan Lun._ _38_ However, he drew freely from the ancient texts on formulas ( _jingfang_ ). By virtue of the differences, innovations, and physician's unique synthesis of the past knowledge with his own clinical practices and experiences, _Shanghan Lun_ positions itself in a particular relationship to _Neijing_ and therefore constitutes a continuity that not only brings the past to the present but also opens new directions for the future. This correlative way of explaining the transformative process of Chinese medicine can be found in the classic Chinese thought of \"continuity through changes\" ( _tongbian_ ) traceable to the earliest Chinese philosophic reflections in _Yijing_ (Book of changes) and in the language of \"inheriting\" ( _jicheng_ ) and \"developing\/carrying forward\" ( _fazhan_ ) of the modern discourse of \"historical materialism\" ( _lishi weiwuzhuyi_ ).\n\nInterestingly, the different explanation and use of medical concepts and the innovative clinical approaches in _Shanghan Lun_ are not viewed by Chinese scholar-physicians as something invalidating the _Neijing_ teachings; similarly, the _Neijing_ doctrines are not used as the basis to judge and disqualify _Shanghan Lun._ Both are equally esteemed for offering valid and invaluable theoretical and practical guidance for _zhongyi_ clinical work and have been studied diligently by generations of Chinese scholar-physicians. In fact, Chinese medical classics are marked by a lack of consistency and, sometimes, by obvious disagreements. Yet Chinese physicians seem to take the diversity for granted and are not concerned much by seemingly conflicting statements in the medical theories. Such is the case. The articulation of theory ( _lilun_ ) within Chinese medicine therefore merits critical attention.\n\nModern _zhongyi_ scholar-physicians never fail to stress that _zhongyi_ possesses \"a distinctive body of theories\" ( _dute de lilun tixi_ ) grounded in 2000 years of practice ( _shijian_ ), embodied in ever-increasing canonical texts ( _jingdian lunzhu_ ), and manifested in the virtuosity of exemplary physicians ( _dayi_ ). Experienced senior physicians of the modern time invariably emphasize the relevance of Chinese medical theories ( _lilun_ ) in clinical practices. Senior doctors sometimes complain that the younger generation of Chinese medical doctors has not paid sufficient attention to _zhongyi_ theories. My _zhongyi_ teacher claimed that the questions and even the sequence of questions he asks during a clinical consultation are not random at all; like the therapeutic actions he chooses and the formulas he designs, all have a theoretical basis ( _lilun genju_ ). He frequently cautioned his student doctors who were busy taking notes that it would not help with their clinical work no matter how many formulas they took down if they did not understand the underlying logic of his questions and his therapeutic decisions. The senior doctor's claim was sometimes verified by younger doctors' frustrations. My friend, Dr. Wang, once complained, \"We use a senior doctor's formula the same way as he did, but we never get the same effect.\" Then, what do Chinese scholar-physicians actually mean when they talk about _zhongyi lilun_ (Chinese medical theories) or simply _yili_ (medical theories), and in what sense these _lilun_ are considered \"distinctive.\"\n\nThe Chinese character _li_ has the meaning of naturally formed patterns or relations within the dynamic process of things ( _shiwu_ ). As a verb, _li_ means to \"trace out\" or \"map out\" the \"correlated details and the extended pattern of relationships.\" _Lilun_ (theory) in Chinese medicine is rather a discussion of and a reasoning out of the concrete and complicated relations among all the factors relevant to a particular illness course and manipulating the particular relations to effect a cure. _Zhongyi lilun_ as shown in the canonical texts employs a language of imagery and metaphor ( _xingxiang siwei yuyan_ ) and allows direct access to concrete details and nuances. As such, _lilun_ in the context of Chinese medicine should not be understood as referring to a coherent set of normative principles distinguished from practice. Accordingly, the canonical Chinese medical texts should not be read as norms or standardized methods by which practice is produced. Chinese medical classics, as Farquhar argues, \"function more as allegorical resources for clinical thinking than as first principles.\"\n\n_Zhongyi lilun_ are seen as typically embodied in the canonical texts, and learning them by heart is the way to master Chinese medical theories. As I observed in clinics, a senior doctor would frequently quote a sentence or two from the medical classics to show his students the connection of his present clinical action to past knowledge and practice. Reference to such knowledge is more than just providing \"symbolic anchors\" to the past. For many _zhongyi_ doctors, those who master the medical classics well and are able to connect skillfully their own clinical actions to the practices of the past masters are considered strong in _lilun._ They believe that classical learning functions as a foundation for _zhongyi_ clinical thinking.\n\nThe traditional way of becoming a _zhongyi_ physician involved years of personal apprenticeship to a master physician and reading and memorizing _zhongyi_ canonical texts. The importance of knowing classical texts has been always emphasized in the profession. The classic texts, such as _Neijing_ (The Inner Classics), _Nanjing_ (On Difficult Medical Issues), _Shanghan Lun_ (Discussions of Cold Damage), and _Jinkui Yaolue_ (The Golden Principles), had been required readings in medical education for generations until the recent past. Although, standardized textbooks and classroom teaching are the dominant form of contemporary _zhongyi_ education, _Neijing_ still \"figures particularly prominently in contemporary teaching of the theoretical foundations of Chinese medicine, serving as a fund of ultimate explanations on which many modern writers draw.\" For advanced students of Chinese medicine, a good knowledge of the classical medical texts is indispensable. Compared with modern biomedical technology, _zhongyi's_ power over life and death is limited. Clinical actions therefore involve a comprehensive awareness of interdependent conditions and relations, a careful weighing of all the obvious or latent possibilities, and a grasping of the moment of opportunity for action to bring about changes. In this sense, a good clinician needs to cultivate in himself or herself an almost intuitive ability to discern subtle changes and multitude relations concerning the entire pathological condition and to flexibly deploy all the resources available for a successful intervention. A diligent study of _zhongyi_ classics is a time-honored way to further prepare oneself for such complicated clinical tasks. The process of learning medical classics is then a process of familiarizing oneself with the way, the style, and the language by which a particular exemplary physician demonstrated his art of medicine. Learning in this sense, similar to Hall and Ames' interpretation of \"learning\" (xue ) in Confucian thinking, \"refers to an unmediated process of becoming aware rather than a conceptually mediated knowledge of a world of objective fact.\"\n\nPractically, _lilun_ in Chinese medicine is very much a summarized or textualized form of accumulated experience from practice ( _shijian jingyan_ ). It provides concrete instances and events as models and resources for organizing clinical actions. In fact, a large proportion of the publications concerning Chinese medicine throughout history have been records of medical cases (yian ), treatment formulae ( _fangshu_ ), and the personal and professional reflections ( _xinde_ ) by renowned scholar-physicians. Classic texts like these do not function to set up standards or principles for clinical practices, but to invoke, to enrich, and to inspire creativities. Since the 1980s, collections of medical cases by and biographic writings of exemplary scholar-physicians of the modern time have been published in large quantity and read by new generations of physicians.\n\nTheory or knowledge understood in this sense is not a representation of any abstract underlying truth or objective principle and therefore is not typically amenable to the absolute judgment of right or wrong. It speaks about the success of a particular moment with all its contingency and temporality. It becomes \"truth\" or useful knowledge when it becomes relevant to one's own moment of practice and thus becomes an integral part of the process of creating that moment. An individual physician then becomes a center or a transmitter that is both inheriting ( _jicheng_ ) and developing ( _fazhan_ ) _zhongyi_ knowledge and bringing the past into the present and the future. This \"distinctive\" style of knowing is deeply rooted in the traditional Chinese nontran-scendental and nonessentialistic worldview rather than as the product of any psychologized Chinese cognitive dynamics. As a medical tradition, Chinese medicine is quintessentially embodied and transmitted in the moment of clinical practice. In its emphasis of personalized, textualized, and accumulated experience ( _jingyan_ ) based on clinical practice ( _shijian_ ) _,_ the modern world of _zhongyi_ demonstrates its unity and continuity.\n\n# CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES AND DEBATES\n\n_Zhongyi's_ identity in modern times is ambiguous. It is said to be ancient ( _gulao_ ), traditional ( _chuantong_ ) _,_ and as such, is aligned with the past. It is also claimed as having \"scientific components\" ( _kexuexing_ ) demonstrated in its therapeutic effectiveness. Yet it does not fit comfortably into the paradigm of modern scientific medicine. \"Science\" ( _kexue_ ) _,_ since the early twentieth century, has been continuously evoked to both legitimize and delegitimize _zhongyi_ and to justify the _zhongyi_ official policies. However, the concept of _\"kexue\"_ (science) does not always mean the same in different historical contexts. In the early twentieth century, _kexue_ meant more as the Western scientific culture\u2014a new value system that provided an intellectual resource for China's new cultural movement aimed at overhauling the traditional Chinese culture, including Chinese medicine. From the 1950s to the 70s, _kexue_ was aligned with the Maoist \"dialectical materialism\" ( _weiwu bianzhengfa),\"_ referring more to the methodology or ideologically correct way in understanding \"laws or patterns of the existence and development of things\" ( _shiwu fazhan de guilu_ ) through the unity of theory and practice, to which _zhongyi_ finds closer affinity than to the epistemological foundation of the modern scientific medicine. In the post-Mao era, _kexue_ is predominantly identified with modern Western experimental science and is viewed as the objective knowledge system, independent of any cultural, ideological, and philosophical matrix. This reading of science helped to inspire a surge of scientism that has impacted all the domains of the contemporary _zhongyi_ field.\n\nUsing advanced bioscience concepts and techniques to explicate _zhongyi_ theories, evaluate clinical work, and chemically analyze Chinese material medica and formulas has become mainstream in _zhongyi_ research. The _zhongyi_ administration at its various levels and the regulations it imposes are also increasingly modeled on their Western counterparts. In some areas, the \"westernization of Chinese medicine\" ( _zhongyi xiyi hua_ ) is so severe that it is satirized as \"running a temple as a church and having a priest guiding monks\" ( _siyuan dang jiaotang shenfu guan heshang_ , ).\" The contemporary system of _zhongyi_ education that values biosciences more than classic _zhongyi_ theories as basic theoretical foundations is now faulted by many _zhongyi_ scholar-physicians for producing _zhongyi_ professionals who have a hard time identifying with _zhongyi_ theories and methods or are merely \"technologists\" knowing more about treating a mouse in a laboratory setting than using zhongyi's way of reasoning to treat real patients ( _yong zhongyi siwei fangshi_ ),\n\nMany _zhongyi_ scholars, especially senior physicians, fear that the current process of _\"zhongyi_ modernization\" following the biomedical model will cut Chinese medicine from its cultural heritage ( _wenhua chengchuan_ ) and eventually render it lifeless. The various concerns for _zhongyi's_ present situation and future have been discussed in a series of controversial articles under the title of \"Somber Reflections on the Development of Chinese Medicine\" calling for repositioning ( _chongxin dingwei_ ) or redefining _zhongyi_ in relation to modern science. This discussion has extended beyond the _zhongy;_ profession and has attracted the attention of scholars from various disciplines, including scientists, historians, and philosophers, who, from the perspectives of their own specialties, advance various strategies to advocate for _zhongyi's_ independent existence and development apart from the dominance of the bioscience and its value system. These strategies include: (I) detaching _kexue_ (science) from the narrowly defined model of the modern experimental science and recognizing the plurality of sciences or knowledge systems; (2) aligning _zhongyi_ with frontier scientific research, such as nonlinear and complexity sciences; (3) acknowledging _zhongyi's_ humanistic tradition ( _renwen chuantong_ ) of not separating the natural world from the human sphere and \"scientific\" activities from meaning systems. One thing is clear; the contending discourses of _kexue_ (science) are continuing to shape the course of _zhongyi_ development.\n\nThe contemporary doctors of Chinese medicine also tend to locate legitimacy of _zhongyi_ in its efficacy of treatment ( _liaoxiao_ ). For many doctors, effectiveness indicates a scientific value, as they like to say \"what is effective is scientific\" ( _youxiaode jiushi kexuede_ ). This statement finds its force in Mao's famous words in _On Practice (Shijian Lun_ ) \"practice is the criterion of the truth\" ( _shijian shi jianyan zhenli de biaozhun_ ), which was made into powerful political rhetoric by the post-Mao reformists in China in the early 1980s. Yet, assessing and demonstrating _zhongyi_ efficacy remains a problem. Should _zhongyi_ adopt the biomedical criteria and use quantifiable data based on laboratory tests to validate the claim of efficacy? It seems that _zhongyi_ clinical research is moving toward such a direction. As my _zhongyi_ teacher told me, \"nowadays you can't just say that a therapy works; you have to show the numbers (quantitative data) and biological indications.\" \"To establish systematic and scientific criteria for assessing _zhongyi_ clinical efficacy\" is recognized as one of the urgent tasks of present _zhongyi_ clinical research.\"\n\nIt is also realized that using a biomedical model to evaluate _zhongyi_ therapies can lead to serious consequences, as shown by the well-known incidence of _xiao chaihu tang_ (decoction of blupeuri). Recent debate over the toxic side effects ( _du-fu zuoyong_ ) of _zhongyao_ (Chinese pharmaceutics) is another example. It raises the question: how should a toxic\/side effect of a Chinese therapy be evaluated and determined? _Zhongyi_ scholar-physicians, such as Yue Fengxian and Lu Guangshen, insist that when a Chinese therapy is used outside of its _zhongyi_ context, for example prescribed by a biomedical doctor based on the biomedical knowledge, the unintended reaction of the medication then should not be labeled as the toxic side effect of a _zhongyao_ (Chinese pharmaceutic). They argue that the use of a Chinese medical therapy has to be determined through the process of \"differentiating patterns and determining therapies\" ( _bianzheng lunzhi_ ) as guided by _zhongyi_ theories before one can talk about a toxin or side effect of that specific Chinese medical therapy. Similarly, should _zhongyi_ efficacy also be tested and evaluated within its own theoretical framework and therapeutic expectations? In light of the increasingly globalized _zhongyi_ presence, Chinese medicine is forced to develop its own system to assess efficacy that is both accommodating to _zhongyi's_ particularity and easily accepted by the international community of medicine.\n\nPhysicians and scholars of Chinese medicine emphasize its social and cultural values in addition to its therapeutic effectiveness. They insist that _zhongyi_ is a healing system that \"fits Chinese national conditions\" ( _fuhe guoqing_ ), or that _zhongyi_ has \"the support of the masses\" ( _you qunzhong jichu_ ). As many Chinese medical professionals have recognized, the continuous coexistence of Chinese medicine with Western medicine in the modern scientific era in China depends on two measures, that is, to \"improve\" ( _tigao_ ) its efficacy and to \"spread\" ( _puji_ ) its knowledge. The relationship between these two aspects is very well captured in Lu's (1988) introduction to a set of popularized _zhongyi_ readings:\n\nIn order to promote Chinese medicine, it is extremely important to _tigao_ (raise) the research level of professional Chinese medicine. . . . The central concern here is to improve clinical efficacy and to illuminate its logic by employing modern scientific methods in every possible way. . . . Yet, the process of _tigao_ cannot be separated from the work _of puji_ (popularization). Without _puji_ as foundation, _tigao_ is no different from building a mansion in the air. . . . Only after we have a large population who understand Chinese medicine, care about its future, and are willing to contribute to its cause, can we have a stable foundation to develop Chinese medicine.\n\nThe official Chinese medicine, no matter how rigorous it has become, is only a limited part of the permissive _zhongyi_ culture. To understand Chinese medicine, one's gaze has to go beyond the institutions of Chinese medicine and into the communities and families. Many Chinese families practice \"folk versions\" of _zhongyi,_ using herbal remedies for minor illnesses or \"as part of continuing programs of preventive home care.\" Nowadays, in addition to keeping herbal medicines at home, families tend to store various kinds of _zhongchengyao_ (ready-made Chinese medicine in forms of pills, powder, and small balls), which are easy to understand and easy to prepare. Patients can get them without prescription in most pharmacies. Many hospitals are either associated with pharmaceutical companies or make the medications themselves. They encourage their staff to develop new medicines. Experienced _zhongyi_ doctors engage themselves in developing patent Chinese medicine based on classic herbal medicine formulas. On the one hand, this development makes many classic remedies readily available to people with modern lifestyles, who either do not have the time or the knowledge to prepare herbal medicines or do not care to drink bitter herbal concoctions. On the other hand, the easy access to _zhongyi_ patent medicine does not come without a compromise. The flexible and individualized use of drugs based on each patient's particular condition, which is the core of a _zhongyi_ therapy, gets lost in the simple matching of symptoms with the standardized ready-made medicine.\n\nMany home medications are for treating minor disease and illness, for example, flu and cold, indigestion, and so on, but a closer look reveals that many of such therapies are meant for the complaints related to _qingzhi_ disorders. Jieyu anshen chongji (medicine to dispel stagnate emotions and calm the mind), a ready-made medicine developed by my _zhongyi_ teacher, is meant for treating emotion-related disorders, especially \"stagnation syndrome\" ( _yuzheng_ ). Even many widely used herbal \"tonics\" and medicinal foods, while functioning to nourish the heart and blood, are taken for the symptoms associated with the emotions.\n\nApparently, culture does not exist just as away of thinking or only in philosophical reflections. It is also an embodied sense of order\u2014persistent aesthetic values and orientations embodied in everyday bodily practices and social interactions. The Chinese cultural aesthetics that prioritize connections, transformations, and harmony manifested in the mundane practice of every day, are also the cultural sources grounding the \"science\" of _zhongyi_ and legitimizing its practice. The next chapter offers a detailed discussion of the embodied world of Chinese culture.\nIII\n\nThe Chinese World of _Shenti_ (Body-Person)\n\nPhenomenologically informed medical anthropology advocates a radical role for the body as \"the existential ground of culture.\" This \"anthropology of embodiment,\" drawing on Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of perception and Bourdieu's theory of practice, locates culture in \"the lived body\" of everyday practice and directs analytical attention to the experiential aspect of culture in everyday life. The concept of \"embodiment\" with its intended resistance to mind\/body and subject\/object dichotomies in understanding human experience lends a conceptual bridge in talking about Chinese conceptions and experience of _shenti_ (body-person). In my analysis of _qingzhi_ (emotion) disorder, I seek to situate the Chinese experience of illness and healing in the context of \"embodied culture.\" By this, I mean the persistent and pervasive cultural values and sensibilities that are deeply rooted in bodily practices of the everyday and thus have become \"natural\" or habitual ways of being and doing for the local people. The idea is to make \"embodied culture,\" or \"cultural aesthetics,\" to follow Robert Desjarlais'use, an interpretive context for understanding emotion-related disorders in the context of contemporary Chinese medicine. In this chapter, I consider how ordinary Chinese construe and experience their bodies in everyday life, what meanings and sensibilities such bodily knowledge and dispositions embody and communicate, and how these sensibilities reflect a world orientation of the people, which is also embodied in the knowledge and practice of Chinese medicine. My concern is fundamentally with meaning and the \"felt quality\" of cultural experiences.\n\nThis chapter centers on an exploration of the Chinese notion of _\"shenti\"_ (routinely translated as \"body\" in English) and the related categories. Before we step into this Chinese world, a critical examination of the Western body in the context of Chinese culture and medicine is necessary, because when we use the English word body as a neutral analytical concept, there is always the possibility that we unconsciously read the Euro-American body into the cultural experience that is based on a different tradition of embodiment, and \"necessarily import a variety of Western value orientations.\" This problem is particularly evident in the discussions of somatization in Chinese society.\n\n# THE PROBLEM OF SOMATIZATION AND THE BODY\n\nChinese are widely believed to be \"particularly prone to somatization.\" A simple and familiar logic goes: psycho-emotional disorders are psychobiological entities; while cultural legitimization of emotional disorders leads to an emphasis on the psychological aspect of the disorders, the cultural stigmatization of emotional disorders leads to an emphasis on the somatic aspects of such disorders. Psychologization and somatization are therefore seen as two opposite illness constructions. The former is dominant in Western industrialized society, and the latter is characteristic of more tradition-oriented society, such as China, where a \"long-standing tradition of repression of emotions leads to utmost emphasis on somatic dysfunctions.\" Seeking help with Chinese medicine for emotion-related disorders is an utmost evidence of Chinese somatization.\n\nYet my fieldwork reveals that Chinese patients frequently relate their sufferings to emotional, psychological, and social factors in the clinics of Chinese medicine. As a matter of fact, most patients I observed in _Shenjing Ke_ (the Clinic of Neuropathic Disorders) of the hospital presented emotional distress as well as bodily complaints. In my observation, Chinese patients have no problem with emotions as a source of their sufferings. They are more likely to hide from others their problem of infertility rather than their feelings of anger or sadness. In some cases, instead of \"somatizing\" their emotional distress, Chinese patients are inclined to reject the diagnosis of an organic disease.\n\nMs. Wang's case is an example. Ms. Wang, in her fifties, was diagnosed as having coronary disease ( _guanxin_ _bing_ ) in a biomedical hospital and was hospitalized for one month. Soon after she was discharged from the biomedical hospital, she went to see a senior zhongyi physician. She claimed one month of hospitalization and medication failed to cure her illness, and her symptoms became even worse. She complained about a sense of blockage ( _du_ ) in her heart, palpitation of her heart ( _xinhuang_ ), frequent hicuups, difficulty sleeping, depletion of sweat ( _xuhan_ ) and cold extremities. She refused to accept that she had coronary disease and insisted that her illness was anger related ( _qide_ ). According to the _zhongyi_ doctor, the patient suffered from liver _qi_ stagnation ( _ganqi yujie_ ) _,_ obviously, a _qingzhi_ (emotion) related disorder. For many patients, the emotion-related quality of their sufferings is precisely the reason why they come to _zhongyi._ 10 _Zhongyi_ doctors accordingly see themselves as particularly strong in treating emotion-affected functional disorders, that is, _qingzhi_ disorders.\n\nMost _zhongyi_ doctors simply dismiss the concept of \"somatization\" as irrelevant, whereas Chinese psychiatrists find themselves caught at the center of the controversy. On the one hand, they feel it important to \"fit\" in _(jiegui_ ) with the international community of psychiatric medicine; on the other hand, the epistemological tension between the Chinese culture of health and the modern biomedicine has to be addressed. Many of them question the general application of somatization and the related concepts to the Chinese context and suggest limiting its use. For example, on the one hand, Xu argues that Chinese patients from the rural areas do not make a distinction between organic and functional disorders. On the other hand, patients from cities readily present emotional symptoms and acknowledge emotions as the source of their illness in the context of a good doctor-patient relationship. For them, \"bodily distress and psychic suffering are integrated and context-specific.\" Indeed, as Yamamoto and colleagues report, instead of finding somatizing Asians versus depressive Caucasians as expected, their study of psychiatric outpatients in California reveals that symptoms of both depression and functional somatic complaints are higher among the Taiwanese than in the Caucasian comparison group.\n\nAdding complexity to this problem of somatization, Chinese verbal expressions cannot be easily categorized as somatic and psychological. For example, common symptoms presented by Chinese patients in the clinic of Chinese medicine, \"blockage in the heart\" ( _xinli du_ ) and \"vexation\" ( _xinfan_ ) are experienced both somatically and psychologically. Zheng and his colleagues in their studies of styles of verbal expression of emotional and physical experience in China notice that many of the Chinese expressions do not easily fall into the categories of psychologization and somatization. They have to label the same expression, \"do not want to do anything,\" in one place as psychological and in another place as somatic. Apparently, Chinese verbal expressions of distress are mostly experiential, both emotional and somatic, neither purely psychological nor purely somatic. To categorize embodied experience according to dualistic categories can be very confusing.\n\nIn away, this picture of somatizing Chinese represents a classic example of the Western \"ethnocentrism\" which, in this case, involves redefining the Chinese experience within modern Western biomedical epistemology that presupposes an essentialistic distinction between mind and body, psyche and soma, and thus psychiatric and general medical diseases. This biomedical epistemology, as Fabrega shows, postulates a \"model of illness\" that connects illness process and behaviors to correspondent changes in body and in mind. Deviations from these norms imply either somatizing or, possibly, psychologizing. In applying this dualistic model of illness to the Chinese illness experience, researchers in fact create the very image of somatizing Chinese, which they believe to be their discovery. In fact, as illness constructions, both somatization and psychologization are products of a cultural tradition that essentializes and dichotomizes body and mind, and should only be understood in that context. They are two-way reductions of the same dualistic process.\n\nIronically, somatization makes much more sense in the context of modern American culture. As Pollock points out, \"The fundamental bifurcation of persons in American culture into bodies and minds surely forms the cultural and historical ground for the parallel fundamental bifurcation of illnesses into the physical and the mental, and of professional medical specialties into physical medicine and psychiatry\/clinical psychology.\" Within each of these spheres of medicine, conceptions of illness as well as forms of practice tend to reflect and reproduce the basic aspect of American personhood. American patients are noticeably oriented to this dualistic principle of body and mind. As Jean Jackson shows in her study of chronic pain, patients \"protest loud and clear at any hint that a given pain is 'emotional' and therefore not ultimately produced by a physical cause,\" because they are aware that their problems could be interpreted as \"not real\" or explained as mental illness or \"some form of character flaw.\" In the context of the contemporary general biomedical epistemology, a physical pain must be accompanied with a physical cause, therefore, a given pain without a physical explanation implies an illness \"inauthentic if not fictive.\" Similarly, the name of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) has been a topic of controversy for some time in North America. Some medical professionals feel they need to legitimatize a disorder by implying a biological basis, such as an immune dysfunction or virus infection. Patients, too, do not like the label of CFS. They insist that without a reference to a biological cause their sufferings are trivialized. This type of illness experience contrasts sharply with what I observed in the clinics of Chinese medicine, where pain is simply pain experience and event, legitimate in itself, regardless of whether it is emotionally or organically caused.\n\nThe cultural dualism that bifurcates the American person and medicine has a firm grounding in the Western mainstream philosophic tradition, which from its classic beginning posits inherent determinate essence as the defining principle for things. Things are different by virtue of their fixed essences. The language of essentialism and the separation of the determining and the determined paved the way for the post-Cartesian framework of mind versus body, which has since permeated every aspect of the modern Western commonsense world and grounded the Western views of nature, culture, the individual, and society. They are not just \"cognitive habit\" or a philosophic presumption; they are social values and aesthetic orientations embodied in everyday practices of the people.\n\nAlthough the essentialized material body has been challenged in various postmodern writings, the fundamental dualism of mind\/body \"seems to be especially difficult to theorize into abandonment.\" One reason for this tenacity lies perhaps in the English language itself. As Nancy Sheper-Hughes and Margret Lock point out, \"we lack a precise vocabulary with which to deal with mind-body-society interactions and so are left suspended in hyphens, testifying to the disconnectedness of our thoughts.\"\n\nWhenever we use English key terms, such as _body, emotion,_ or _disease,_ we invoke a variety of cultural and philosophical assumptions. In the context of Chinese medicine, taking these assumptions for granted, we in fact read an ontology of substance into a more process-oriented \"ontology of events,\" an epistemology that privileges structure and form into a more temporally organized process of transformation, a representation into more experientially oriented presentation, and a strict dualism into correlatively situated polar relations. The bodies that Chinese medicine works on and Chinese patients experience take different forms and entail a different set of vocabularies.\n\n# A SEMANTICS OF SHENTI (BODY-PERSON)\n\nBy semantics, I do not refer to an ethnosemantic analysis of the concept of _shenti,_ which only deals with referential meaning. My approach, in principle, resembles Good's \"semantic network analysis,\" which \"seek(s) out for analysis the potent elements in the idiom of social interaction and explore(s) the associated words, situations and forms of experience which they condense.\" In fact, Chinese culture is biased toward such sense of meaning in which \"a term is defined non-referentially by mining relevant and yet seemingly random associations.\"\n\nIn the contemporary Chinese language, the most commonly used expression denoting \"body\" or \"bodily\" is _shenti,_ which, in fact, is composed of two root words _shen_ and _ti_ . Both can be translated as \"body,\" but the difference between _shenti_ and the English word body is crucial. The English body comes from Old German _budha_ meaning \"tub\" or \"container.\" When body is used without further explanation and definition, it evokes in readers an image of physical, objective, or anatomic entity separate from what is spiritual and social. It requires further modification and explanation in order to convey the nondualistic experience of embodied person, such as using combined or hyphenated terms: lived body, perceiving body, mindful body, or body-mind. The English body speaks of and to a dualistic reality. In contrast, when _shenti_ is used without further clarification, it implies a person or self with all the connotations of the physical, social, and mindful. As May Tung reports in her study of symbolic meanings of body in Chinese culture, with no exception, all her informants identify _shenti_ with the person, the self. Some of her informants simply substituted body ( _shen_ ) in her questionnaire for \"the person,\" \"the self,\" or simply used a personal pronoun. It is the specific meaning of _shen_ (regarding specifically physical, emotional, spiritual, or social aspects of a person or self) that requires further context. In other words, Chinese _shenti_ is undifferentiated; its specific meaning, sometimes, requires a second character as an environment, as in the words of _shenqu_ (body trunk) or _xingti_ (shape of a body).\n\nMark Elvin also notices that _shen_ appears in most Chinese phrases that imply \"person,\" \"self,\" or \"lifetime\" in English translations. For example, _anshen_ \u2014settle down in life; _shenfen_ \u2014social status; _benshen_ \u2014oneself; _zhongshen_ \u2014to the end of one's life; _shenshi_ \u2014personal history. It is for this reason that Elvin translates _shen_ as \"body-person.\" The claim that due to increasing dichotomization between heart-mind and bodily emotions, the meaning of Chinese _shen_ has been reduced to \"body-object\" seems to be problematic.\n\nSimilar to _shen, ti_ _,_ the second character of _shenti,_ has polysemic dimensions in use. Surely it denotes physical body, but it also extends to include meanings of form, shape, convention, style, and so on, as in _wenti_ (writing style), and _zhengti_ (polity). What is remarkable about _ti_ is that it is often used as a verb or in a verbal phrase, meaning \"to contain,\" \"to intimate,\" \"to implement,\" \"to formalize,\" and \"to understand,\" suggesting an agency of lived body that perceives and acts. Chinese common expressions are full of such verbs, such as _tiyan_ (experience body personally) and _tihui_ (understand body personally), and even _tiren_ (know body personally).\n\nSusan Brownell, comparing the Chinese words _shen_ and _ti,_ with German _leib_ and _korper,_ suggests that _shen_ is similar to the German concept of _\"leib\"_ which is the subjective, experienced body, while _ti_ somehow resembles the concept of _\"korper,\"_ the \"alienated object body.\" However, she seems not quite comfortable with this comparison herself and suggests that one should not take the parallels between the two Chinese and German conceptions of the body too literally because the Chinese does not exhibit strict subject-object dualism as the German does. Recognizing that in fact both _shen_ and _ti_ contain a subjective, experiential component, she qualifies her observation: \"(N)either word has the disembodied Western sort of connotation in which a person is somehow inside the body that is experiencing life\u2014a body that is separate from the experiencing subject.\" If we have to make a distinction between _shen_ and _ti_ as bodies, we may say that _shen_ implies a socially informed body-person or body-self, while _ti,_ frequently used in or as a verb, emphasizes \"embodying\" as a process of knowing and acting. Both concepts resist dualistically positioned mind and body, subject and object. Even the modern concept of _\"tiyu\"_ (physical education) need not be reduced to training a physical body object. _Tiyu_ is still very much an intense process to embody social values and ideology through a highly formalized body. In this sense, _shenti_ (both _shen_ and ti) is centrally important in Chinese social life.\n\nBesides _shen_ and _ti,_ other single characters may also have the connotations of \"body,\" for example, _xing_ (form, shape), _qu_ (body trunk), and _shi_ (corpse). In modern Chinese, they are often combined with either _shen_ or _ti_ to create multiple senses that indicate different states of embodiment, for example, _xingti_ (body shape) and _shenqu_ (body build).\n\n## _Jing_ , _Sh\u00e9n_ , and _Qi_\n\nWithin the Western cultural dialectic going back to Plato, mind has been defined typically as a quality that transcends the body (as something that animates the body and is distinct from it). So to claim that mind is part of the body evokes contradictions. Although _jingshen_ is translated in English as \"mind\" or \"spirit,\" it is very much part of _shenti. Jingshen_ is formed by two root characters: _jing_ (concentrated basis of vitality); and _sh_ _\u00e9_ _n_ (vitality as manifested through functional activities of mind and body as a whole). To understand the concept of _\"jingshen,\"_ we may first go to its root words: _jing_ and _sh_ _\u00e9_ _n._ Both are centrally important in the Chinese conceptualization of life.\n\nAs is stated in _Neijing: Suwen_ (Inner Classics: Simple Questions), _\"jing_ is the (concentrated) basis or root of life\" ( _shen zhi ben_ ). In contemporary Chinese medicine, it is often described as \"tangible\/visible life-giving substance\" ( _you shengming huoli de youxing wuzhi_ ). It is implied in this statement that tangible human bodies (or any bodies), composed of muscles, skin, hair, viscera, and bones, are the results _of jing_ transformation, and _that jing_ as a life-giving substance is itself alive, constantly generating the new and transforming the old. _Jing_ also has a narrower definition ( _xiayi_ ) _,_ which refers to the functions of _shen_ (the kidney system). This _jing_ is sometimes translated as semen that is stored in the viscera of the kidney and is responsible for reproductive functions, affecting growth and aging. It is therefore also called \"kidney essence\" ( _shenjing_ ) _._ In addition to reproductive functions, _shenjing_ is also said to be responsible for bone growth ( _zhugu_ ) and for producing marrow and brains ( _shengsui_ ), therefore affecting the development of intelligence. The narrower definition of _jing_ bears more clinical relevance. The symptoms of deterioration of memory, poor concentration, and mental retardation are all seen as connected to deficiency in _shenjing_ (kidney essence).\n\n_Jing_ is further differentiated as \"primary _jing\"_ ( _xiantianzhijing_ ), which is inherited from one's parents ( _bing yu fumu_ ) and \"acquired _jing\"_ ( _houtianzhijing_ ) _,_ derived from food. Primary _jing_ provides the basis for the process of transforming the energy distilled from food and is enriched and strengthened by \"acquired _jing.\"_ Chinese medical theories view _jing_ and _qi_ (air, breath, vital energy) as the same life-giving energy. When it is concentrated, it is _jing;_ when it is dispersed, it turns into _qi._ If _jing_ is the nurturing aspect of this energy, qi is the active configurational aspect of the same energy. They come together as _jingqi_ which is the basis of all forms of vitality.\n\nHowever, although _jing_ is described in contemporary Chinese medical discourse as \"visible\" ( _youxing_ ) and referred to as \"substance\" ( _wuzhi_ ), it cannot be isolated. Its existence can only be known and felt through its functions and effect. Healthy muscles and skin, shining hair, strong and well-formed bones, and clear memories indicate a sufficiency of _jing._ However, poorly developed bones, muscles, and intelligence may indicate insufficient _jing_ in the visceral system of the kidney.\n\nThe ordinary Chinese may not be familiar with the classical or medical nuances of _jing,_ nevertheless, it is part of everyday language. In lay language, _jing'_ is frequently used in combination with _li_ (strength, energy), both physical and mental, as something experienced, felt, and demonstrated with one's _shenti._ A person who is full of energy is said to \"have plenty energy of _jing\"_ ( _enjingli wangsheng_ ); a person who is bogged down with endless worries may complain about \"insufficient _jing\"_ ( _jingli bugou_ ); to concentrate is to \"gather one's strength of _jing\"_ ( _jizhong jingli_ ); a person growing old may feel _\"jing_ decreasing gradually\" ( _jingli yitian buru yitian_ ); after a strenuous task one may feel _\"jing_ tired out and strength used up\" ( _jingpi lijin_ ).\n\nHere, _sh\u00e9n_ (manifested vitalities) comes in. If _jing_ and _qi_ are the basis of life, then _sh\u00e9n_ is the manifestation of that life. _Neijing: Lingshu_ (The Inner Classics: Spiritual Pivot) says \"when two _jing_ (male and female _jing_ ) react to each other ( _xiangbo_ ), this (confrontation) is called _sh\u00e9n.\"_ In other words, _sh\u00e9n_ is the phenomenon of life activity itself. It is typically said to be manifested in the appearance of the whole person: facial complexion and expression, especially expressions through eyes ( _yanshen_ ), the way of talking and responding, and the movement and position of one's body. _\"Sh\u00e9n_ present\" ( _youshen_ ) or _\"sh\u00e9n_ absent\" ( _wushen_ ) is important information that an experienced Chinese medical doctor pays attention to when examining a patient. When _sh\u00e9n_ is absent, even though the presented symptoms are minor, the illness is considered more serious. I noticed that while taking a patient's pulse, my _zhongyi_ teacher usually spent a few quiet minutes just observing the patient before starting an extensive inquiry. He would also make some comments to bring his students' attention to any signs of _sh\u00e9n_ of the patient. To his returning patients, he often made observations regarding their _sh_ _\u00e9_ _n,_ such as \"the manifestation of _sh\u00e9n_ ( _shense_ ) looks much better this time.\"\n\n_Sh\u00e9n,_ in a narrow sense, may refer specifically to an individual's mental and emotional activities. This narrow sense is known as _shenzhi_ (consciousness) and _qingzhi_ (emotions) and is also referred to in the modern language as _\"jingshen,\"_ the combination of _jing_ and _sh\u00e9n._ Although _jingshen_ is translates as mind or \"mentality,\" it is embedded in the cultural physiology of _jing_ and _sh\u00e9n,_ and it carries distinctive cultural semantics. One of the common complaints that Chinese present in and outside clinics is the \"low level of _jingshen_ \" ( _jingshen cha_ ) or \"lack of _jingshen\"_ ( _mei jingshen_ ). The expressions may include meanings from low physical energy and tiredness, to difficulty in concentration, poor memory, lack of interest in doing things, and depressed emotions. Lin comments that since the kidney stores _jing_ and the heart governs _sh\u00e9n_ , according to Chinese physiology, a mental disorder which is _jingshen bing_ in Chinese is literally a disorder involving the heart and the kidney. The point is that _jingshen_ is not perceived as opposite to _shenti_ but constitutive of it.\n\n## _Xin_ (Heart-Mind) and _Nao_ (Brain)\n\nXin commonly translated as \"heart\" or \"heart-mind,\" is surely part of _shenti._ It lies literally at the heart of the Chinese understandings of person, particularly of thought and emotion.\n\nThe Chinese commonsense understanding of \"the heart\" is more in tune with the Chinese medicine concept of _\"xin.\"_ It is, on the one hand, understood as the most important visceral system that \"governs the flow of blood in circulation vessels\" ( _xin zhu xuemai_ ), thus, it is responsible for coordinating the harmonious functioning of all the visceral systems of the body. On the other hand, it is the place where _sh\u00e9n_ (spirit-vitality) is stored. _Xin_ is likened to the court of a king\u2014\"the central governing visceral system where _shenming_ (knowing and understanding; ethics and morals) arises.\" _Xin_ or heart-mind, though different from the anatomic organ of the heart designated usually by the term _xinzang_ , is believed to be located within the chest. Its normal functioning can be felt and recognized in regular heartbeats, an even pulse, a healthy facial complexion, and also \"appropriate behavior, clear mind, joyful feelings, and lucid language.\"\n\n_Xin_ has social and moral significance. On the one hand, a person who is thoughtful and considerate of others and is generous and willing to help others in need is said to have a good heart-mind. On the other hand, a person is considered to have a bad heard-mind or does not even have a heart-mind if he is greedy and harbors selfish intentions toward others. Asking my friends and informants what they meant by _xin hao_ (good heart-mind), I was always given concrete descriptions as to how the person behaved in relation to others. For example, a student doctor was described by others as extremely good-hearted when she volunteered to fill in on weekend duty for a colleague so this colleague could take care of an urgent family matter. Certainly, this use of the heart as moral discourse rings familiar. In English there are expressions such as a good-hearted person or a person with a golden heart. However, \"heartedness\" in English is generally a reference to a person's inner self. Yet Chinese do not typically understand _xin_ as some fixed interior essence that defines a person but rather as a person's behaviors and attitudes toward others. The moral meaning of heart-mind lies in how a person relates himself or herself to others in the social context. \"Judgment of whether a person is good or bad is therefore in terms of how this person feels and acts toward other persons.\"\n\nConsciousness, memorization, thinking, and forming ideas are the activities belonging to the _xin_ system. The Chinese concept of \"heart-mind\" encompasses the functions of _nao_ (brain). _Zhongyi_ doctors like to say that heart-mind and brain are interconnected ( _xinnao xiangtong_ ). The words _thinking_ and _reflection_ ( _si_ ), _desiring_ and _imagining_ ( _xiang_ ), _meaning_ and _intention_ ( _yi_ ) _, desiring_ and _wanting_ ( _yu_ ), and planning ( _lu_ ) all have a heart radical \" \"indicating that thinking, reflecting, desiring, imagining, and planning are the domains of one's heart-mind. Interestingly, _psychology_ translated into Chinese becomes \"studies of the patterns of heart-mind\" ( _xinlixue_ ). Nowadays, though people use both _nao_ (brain) and _xin_ (heart-mind) interchangeably sometimes, there is a subtle difference in meaning. The phrase I do not have the _nao_ ( _brain_ ) to do something emphasizes mental capability, but lacking the _xin_ (heart-mind) to do something, the emphasis is on motivation and intention. While _nao_ is reserved for more specialized discourse which is related to school or academic work and intelligence, _xin_ is a more encompassing concept, appearing more in talking about the ethics, morals, intentions, desires, and emotions. A lay person's understanding of \"illness of the heart\" ( _xinbing_ ) may include disorders ranging from an organic heart disease to illness caused by excessive thinking and worries, worry itself, illness caused by strong desires and longings, and mental disorders.\n\nEmotions are the domain of _xin._ The very word for \"feeling\" or \"emotion\" in Chinese is _qing_ which also includes _xin_ as a radical, suggesting heart is also the seat of emotion. In fact, the seven emotions recognized by _zhongyi_ as important elements in health, with the exception of _xi_ (happy), all have _xin_ as part of the characters. Chinese use _xin_ to directly talk about their state of mind and emotions. The English expression I am in a bad mood in Chinese would be The circumstance\/condition\/sentiment of my heart is not good ( _Wo xinqing buhao_ ). _Xin_ appears everywhere in emotion language. Joy is literally \"opening the heart\" ( _kaixin_ ); happiness is \"heart-sentiments flowing freely\" ( _xinqing shuchang_ ); sadness is \"the heart injured\" ( _shangxin_ ); compassion and affection is \"heartache\" ( _xinteng_ ); and despondence is \"heart-emotion depressed\" ( _xinqing jusang_ ). Most Chinese emotion words bear heart radicals, such as sadness ( _bei_ ), anger ( _nu_ ), worry ( _you_ ), fear ( _kong_ ), and fright ( _jing_ ) _._\n\nAccording to my field notes, Chinese patients who suffered _qingzhi-_ related disorders tended to report symptoms directly related to _xin._ Frequently, they complained of \"heart nervous\" ( _xinhuang_ ), \"palpitation\" ( _xinji_ ), \"heart agitation, vexation\" ( _xinfan_ ), \"heart-emotion depressed\" ( _xinqing yayi_ ), or \"heart-mind not at peace\" ( _xinshen buning_ ). Sometimes, a patient would attribute his or her illness to problems that also have something to do with _xin,_ such as \"small heart-mind\" ( _xinyan xiao_ ) \"narrow heartedness\" ( _xinxiong xiazhai_ ), or \"working one's heart-mind too much\" ( _tai caoxin_ ). _Xin_ clearly occupies a centrally important role in Chinese experience of _qingzhi_ disorders.\n\n_Xin_ grows throughout one's life but may also shrink. A patient's wife once complained about her husband, \"When he gets older his heart-mind gets smaller that he cannot hold anything in his heart and constantly _xia caoxin\"_ (operating heartmind blindly, meaning worry uselessly and unnecessarily). A person with a big heartmind is described as being able to contain and assimilate more. Heart-mind in this sense is also referred to as \"heart-chest\" ( _xinxiong_ ) or even \"capacity of one's _abdomen\"_ ( _duliang_ ) _._ My _zhongyi_ teacher, Dr. Zhou, is universally praised by his students and colleagues as having \"broad heart-mind\" ( _xinkuan_ ). Once a student doctor said half jokingly: \"people say a prime minister's abdomen is big enough to pole a boat\" ( _zaixiang duli neng chengchuan_ ), \"but Dr. Zhou's abdomen is even more spacious where a warship is able to move freely.\" An exemplary person ( _junzi_ ) is said to have a heart-mind that is broad and open ( _tandang_ ); a small person ( _xiaoren_ ) entangled in his narrow heart-mind is always sullen and unhappy ( _qiqi_ ).\n\nIn a way, _xin_ is a system of functions that forms a continuous process of being or becoming a person, involving the physiological, psychological, and sociological. The frequently quoted passage from _Neijing: Lingshu_ (Inner Classics: Spiritual Pivot) describes this somato-psychic-social process of _xin_ as the following:\n\nWhat responds to environment is called _xin_ (heart-mind). \nWhat _xin_ brings out is called _yi_ (imagery) \nWhat _yi_ stores is called _zhi_ (memory; memorization) \nBecause of _zhi,_ knowledge is reorganized. \nThis is called _si_ (thinking; reflection). \nBecause of _si_ , _one_ thinks for the future. \nThis is called _lu_ (strategy; plan). \nBecause of _lu,_ one makes decisions and takes actions. \nThis is called _zhi_ (wise; wisdom).\n\nAgain, _yi_ _, zhi_ _, si_ , _lu_ , and _zhi_ are not different things but descriptions of different phases of the same continuous process of heart-mind, where emotions and morals are not separated from thinking and perceiving. _Zhi_ is _shenzhi_ (consciousness) and also _qingzhi_ (emotion). When much planning and calculations fail to lead to a solution, worries and anxieties arise ( _bailu bu jie ze si_ ); on the other hand, when actions taken at the critical moment transform a dangerous situation into a favorable one, happiness arises ( _fengxiong huaji ze xi_ ). What is particular about this process-centered heart-mind physiology is not very much what Ots calls \"heart-mind controlling body-emotion model,\" but the commitment to an unobstructed process of transformations in accordance with a given social context and natural environment.\n\nIn fact, a persistent tendency throughout Chinese intellectual culture is to see \"motion and transformation\" ( _yundong_ ) as generative of \"the myriad things\" of the world. For Zhuangzi , \"the _Dao_ of nature constantly transforms without stagnation, whereof myriad things are generated\" ( _tiandao yun er wusuoji, gu wanwu sheng_ ) In _Neijing: Suwen_ (Inner Classics: Simple Questions), \"unceasing movement leads to transformation ( _dong er buyi ze bianzuo yi_ ) For generations growing up reading Mao's _On Contradictions_ ( _Maodun Lun_ ) _, yundong_ is intrinsic to existence. _Dong_ (motion) is seen as given, while _jing_ (stasis, stableness) is relative and conditional, a constitutive silence or latency that marks rhythms and variations of an on-going process of _dong._ In a deeply embodied way, Chinese live in \"a world of transforming effects.\" In this world of ceaseless generative process ( _shengsheng buxi_ ), everything is related and yet unique (not in kind) in terms of degree ( _du_ ), aspect or manifestation ( _xiang_ ), situation ( _qing_ ), and configuration ( _shi_ ). What is essential to this world is to note \"the qualities and forms of manifestations and the changing time and space relationships among them\" and to look \"for effective combinations that can influence developments in a desired direction.\" Li Yiyuan also comments that Chinese throughout their lives strive to seek the best time configuration ( _jishi_ ) in taking any important step in life. Many Chinese folk religious practices involve the idea of active manipulation of timing to coordinate with auspicious cosmic time in order to exercise some control over the course of a person's life.\n\nThen, how is _yundong_ (motion\/change in time) perceived and explained in the Chinese cultural world; what does this transformative cosmos mean to the people; and how does the cultural elaboration on process and change correlate to the aesthetic values and sensibilities that help shape bodily experience of everyday life and give meanings to it?\n\n# AN AESTHETICS OF _SHENTI_\n\nI use the term _aesthetics_ to indicate cultural orientations and bodily spontaneity that pattern the ways Chinese people live their lives and give meaning to their experience of _shenti_ as it is nurtured ( _yang_ ), cultivated ( _xiu_ ), out of balance ( _weihe_ ), or healed and restored ( _kangfu_ ). An aesthetics of _shenti_ is then a sense of order that is embodied through visceral experience and manifested in social interactions. My use of 'aesthetics' is influenced by Desjarlais' discussion of \"aesthetic experience,\" in which he relates aesthetics to \"the tacit leitmotivs that shape cultural construction of bodily and social interactions.\" 'Aesthetics' in this sense refers more to cultural sensibility or orientation rather than to appreciation of artistic beauty. Illness and suffering, though lack of beauty, are still aesthetically relevant because they are \"experienced and interpreted through a lens of aesthetic value.\" An aesthetics of ordinary experience then offers a point of view to examine cultural experience as embodied, spontaneous, tacit, and also patterned, a depth that other categories of cultural analysis, such as cultural structures, models, beliefs, ideals, or rules usually do not accommodate.\n\nThe Chinese sense of order has its roots in the concept of _\"dao\"_ (orderly processes of change) characterized by _yin-yang_ dynamics. _Yin-yang_ is a descriptive language to talk about change and is fundamental in Chinese medical reasoning. In classical Chinese thinking, any phenomenon or process can be resolved into two opposite and complimentary aspects, that is, _yin_ and _yang._ The quality of the phenomenon depends on the relationship between dynamic polarities of the _yin_ aspect and _yang_ aspect. For example, the daily cycle of the sun can be described in terms of waning and waxing of light and darkness. When light is maximal at noon, darkness is completely immanent. When light begins to decline after it peaks at noon, darkness begins to increase. This process of waning and waxing ( _xiaozhang_ ) continues. When darkness reaches full expression at midnight, and light is at the lowest point, the process reverses. Nathan Sivin suggests that _yin_ and _yang_ \"are best considered the active and latent phases of any process in space and time.\"\n\nThe point of _yin-yang_ is process, tension, and relationship of mutual constraining and generating. As summarized in modern standard textbooks of Chinese medicine, the essential meaning of _yin-yang_ reasoning is about \"continuity of the two opposed aspects\" ( _duili-tongyi_ ) that are rooted in each other ( _hugen_ ), constraining each other ( _xianghu zhiyue_ ), and transforming into each other ( _xianghu zhuanhua_ ). This tension within a unity accounts for the universal dynamics of the unceasing process of generation and transformation ( _shenghua_ ). However, _yin_ and _yang_ are not causes of this process but descriptions of how it happens. Although abstract, they \"remain rooted in concrete experience.\" Sivin also cautions that _yin_ and _yang_ are not taxonomies, and they do not sort things into fixed categories according to certain inherent essences. A passage from _Neijing: Suwen_ is a good illustration:\n\n _Yin_ and _yang_ are the _dao_ of sky and earth ( _tiandi zhidao_ ), the network of myriad things, the parents of transformation and change, the root and the beginning of life-giving and life-taking ( _shengsha zhi benshi_ ), the seat of vitality and intellegence ( _shenming zhi fu_ ). To treat illness, one must trace this root. Thus, accumulated _yang_ is sky, accumulated _yin_ is earth. _Yin_ is contained ( _jing_ ) and _yang_ restless ( _zao_ ). . . . When cold reaches an extreme, it gives rise to heat; when heat reaches an extreme, it gives rise to cold. Cold _qi_ generates turbid ( _zhuo_ ); hot _qi_ generates clear ( _qing_ ) _._ When clear _qi_ (which is supposed to rise) is trapped in the lower parts of the body, it gives rise to diarrhea; when turbid _qi_ (which is supposed to descend) is in the upper body, it produces swelling and fullness. This is abnormal action of _yin_ and _yang._ This countermovement of _yin_ and _yang_ results in disorders.\n\nAs shown in the passage, \"the _dao_ of sky and earth\" mirrors the _dao_ of _shenti._ In fact, the \"orderly process of change\" of the microcosmos of _shenti_ is isomorphic to that of the macrocosmos of universe and human society. A person who has attained the _dao_ coordinates and resonates with, in his\/her _shenti,_ the rhythmic pulse of the changes in nature. In the everyday life of ordinary Chinese, _dao_ is not a philosophic or religious concept, but an aesthetic realm ( _jingjie_ ) where the coordination of a person to his or her environment has achieved bodily spontaneity. This aesthetic spontaneity of _dao_ is achieved through the \"mindful\" process of \"habituation,\" in concrete existence of everyday practice. _Dao_ is not an objective entity of truth; it can never be independent from a particular person who practices it. For example, the _dao_ of medicine ( _yidao_ ) exists only in the way that a specific doctor brings his own unique knowledge and experience and the patient's unique circumstance together and effects a healing. The spontaneity in timing; harmony in rhythms; and smooth, flowing coordination of the movements are aesthetically salient in the experience of _dao._\n\nIn what follows, I shall outline the aesthetic values that are key to Chinese experience as they relate to illness, health, and healing.\n\n# _TONG_ (FLOWING AND CONNECTING)\n\nMs. Zhu went to the doctor in early April 1994. She suffered acute chest and back pain whenever she took a deep breath. Any emotional disturbance aggravated her pain. The therapeutic principle the doctor chose for treatment was \"smoothing the movement of _qi_ and activating the blood\" ( _liqi huxue_ ). His prescription for the patient did not include a drug that was directly related to killing the pain. Noticing my puzzled expression, he explained that the patient's pain was related to the stagnation of her liver _qi_ ( _ganyu_ ). In her case, the _yang qi_ was gathered and trapped ( _yuzhi_ ) within the chest that blocked the passage of normal movement of _qi._ He quoted the Chinese medical wisdom that \"when the circulation (of _qi_ ) is blocked, pain arises, when the passage is open, pain disappears\" ( _butong ze tong, tong ze butong_ , ). The idea of his treatment was to get _qi_ moving again. Once that was accomplished, the patient's pain would disappear automatically. The association of the experience of pain ( _tong_ ) to the blockage ( _butong_ ) of _qi_ is a marked clinical manifestation of Chinese medical disorders. Pain then has a culturally distinctive meaning and pattern of a blocked circulation. The experience is certainly informed by a culturally cultivated sense of order: a continuous process that should be well coordinated at all the levels of human existence\u2014the cosmic, social, personal, and the bodily.\n\nChinese people are oriented to the sense of a smoothly flowing process, which is characterized by such images as _tong_ (open, through, extending, connecting, continuing, and flowing), _huo_ (alive, active, and flexible), or _shun_ (unobstructed, smooth). These images are positively valued by Chinese in their _body_ as well as in their social world. Negative images opposite to _tong, huo,_ and _shun_ are blockage, obstruction, stagnation, death, and lifelessness.\n\nThis aesthetic orientation of the everyday is also played out in Chinese social life. The Chinese are known for placing great emphasis on cultivating social networks ( _guanxi_ ). _Guanxi_ networks have acquired \"personal circulation vessels\" ( _renmai_ ) as in the expression of _Renmai fengpei_ , meaning, literally, \"having rich and numerous personal circulation vessels.\" These circulation networks are developed to ensure \"personal or group survival and development.\" The image of the expression is physiological. Similar values applied to physiological circulation are also oriented to in social circulations. Persons who are good at cultivating networks are described as having many\/flexible channels ( _luzi duo\/huo_ ). The image for those who do not cultivate _guanxi_ is death ( _si_ ). In some areas, those who are disadvantaged in establishing networks are described as \"dead doors\" ( _si menzi_ ) that lead to nowhere. The aesthetic values shown in _tong, huo,_ or _shun_ also guide Chinese people in creating and developing social relationships through all forms of reciprocity of giving and taking.\n\nThe sense of obstruction or disconnection ( _butong, bushun_ ) in the social world can be simultaneously experienced bodily and emotionally. A patient, who was a computer technician, told me that his life was not going anywhere no matter how hard he tried, as if he had reached a wall and could never get over. He explained that most of his classmates who had graduated from college at the same time as he were either promoted to higher positions, found a better job, or went abroad. He, a good student at school, was now left behind. He could not keep up with the pace of others. Noticeably, others are the reference points for a person to assess how well he or she \"moves\" in the social world. Feelings of being left behind can be overwhelming. He used to think that as long as he worked hard he could get ahead. But now he devotes almost all his waking hours to his studies and work, and the result was the opposite. His memory seems weak, and he can hardly concentrate on his work, as if the functions of his whole _shenti_ slowed down, leading to a slow reaction ( _fanying man_ ), low vitality level ( _jingshen cha_ ) _,_ nervous heart beating ( _xinhuang_ ); feeling of closure\/pressure in the chest ( _xiongmen_ ), and heart-emotion depressed ( _xingqing yayi_ ). According to the Chinese doctor's diagnosis, this patient also suffered from _ganyu_ (stagnation of _qi_ in the liver system).\n\nChinese medicine has numerous words describing all kinds of blockages and stasis in subtle differentiations. _Yu_ is mainly stagnation of _qi,_ which is invisible ( _wuxing_ ) and which is closely related to disordered emotions; _yu_ is stasis of tangible ( _youxing_ ) fluids, such as blood; _zhi_ is sluggish movement (of _qi_ ); _ji_ is accumulation of something ( _shiji_ is accumulation of food); _jie_ is coagulation, sometimes in the form of a lump; _zu_ is obstruction or blockage of the circulation passages. These physiological dysfunctions are often experienced by Chinese patients as _tong_ (pain), _du_ (blockage usually in heart or in one's throat), _men_ (stuffiness in the chest), and _zhangman_ (fullness in chest area). _Yu_ (stagnation\/blockage) occupies such an important role in the clinical manifestation of Chinese medicine that some famous doctors in the history of Chinese medicine insist that _yu_ is the single most important factor that results in medical disorders.\n\nIf a phenomenology of depression is universally characterized by \"soul loss\" (feeling of emptiness), then the Chinese experience of _yu_ disorders is strikingly different phenomenologically, though some of the symptoms may appear familiar. In fact, emptiness ( _kong_ or _xu_ ) is not always a negative feeling. _Kong_ or _xu_ can be positive in the Daoist sense of a \"dissolved self\" ( _wuwo_ ) that by virtue of its \"emptiness\" permeates everywhere. In modern everyday Chinese, the image of emptiness is also used to convey the sense of open-mindedness or humbleness. A tolerant and openminded person is \"having an inside as empty or spacious as a valley\" ( _xuhuai-ruogu_ ). A morally mature person is able to \"make room in oneself to accommodate others\" ( _xuji-dairen_ ). The quality of \"emptying one's heart\" ( _xuxin_ ), meaning modesty or readiness in opening oneself to see other people's point of view, is a widely advocated virtue in a person. As for experience of feelings, _kong_ as in \"empty and quiet\" ( _kongji_ ) and _xu_ as in \"empty and peaceful\" ( _xujing_ ) describe an aesthetically pleasant meditative state of peacefulness and wholeness. The Chinese experience of _qingzhi_ disorders is largely characterized by _yu_ (stagnation), a sense of _butong_ (almost opposite to emptiness)\u2014obstruction and blockage to orderly motions and extensions. The main form of _qingzhi_ disorders is _yuzheng_ (illness of _qi_ stagnation). The character _yu_ appears in the Chinese translation of the psychiatric term of depression _yiyu_ . It is also part of the word _youyu_ , which, in modern Chinese, means sadness and melancholy. Revealingly, the Chinese feelings of unhappiness and sadness are associated with the experience of stagnation and blockage in one's existential world. Happiness is associated with the experience of unblocked and unimpeded flowing as shown in the expression of \"freely stretching and flowing of heart-mind\" ( _xinqing-shuchang_ ).\n\n# DU (DEGREE\/POSITION AND MODERATION)\n\nIn the Chinese aesthetic world, a myriad of things are connected in an unceasing process of changes and transformations and are differentiated according to \"numerous positions on the continuum\" of the process between extremes, such that things are recognized as different according to their _du,_ the degree or position, rather than solely or mainly to any fixed essence. _Du_ is therefore centrally important in understanding Chinese experience.\n\nFor example, mental illness in Chinese is _jingshen bing_ , but not all the psychogenic disorders are labeled as _jingshen bing._ In the Chinese understanding, psychological or emotional disorders, only when they come to a certain degree, can be labeled as _jingshen bing._ As Lee and Wang report in their Hong Kong studies, neurasthenia is perceived to be psychogenic by Hong Kong Chinese students, however, they also insist it is not a mental illness. At the same time they agree that when neurasthenia becomes severe, it may lead to schizophrenia, which then becomes a mental illness. Psychiatrists working with Chinese culture mostly interpret this \"contradiction\" as caused by stigmatization of mental illness in Chinese society. Surely, severe mental illness may be socially stigmatized, yet this is not a phenomenon unique to Chinese culture. It is also commonly known that in Western society, mental illnesses are stigmatized socially if not medically. In China, _jingshen bing,_ in commonsensical language, almost always refers to relatively severe psychiatric disorders that upset the normal social functions of a person and create disturbance to the family and the community. General emotion-related disorders are perceived as some form of \"body-heart disorders\" ( _shenxin jibing_ ) or recently \"subhealth conditions\" ( _ya jiankang zhuangtai_ ), which are viewed as benign and highly reversible. Similarly, the Chinese translation of major depression is _\"zhongxing yiyuzheng\"_ (severe depression), which translates a typological concept into a concept of degree. This \"translation difficulty,\" Lee suspects, might account partially for miscommunication between Chinese psychiatrists and their Western counterparts and might also account for differential diagnosis of major depression in China.\n\nWestern students easily miss the centrality of _du_ (degree, tensity, quantity) in Chinese experience. The interpretation that since excessive emotion is seen as detrimental to health, emotions or an overly demonstrative expression of emotions are therefore highly stigmatized. This is echoed in many major studies of emotion and emotional disorders in Chinese society. For example, Ots argues that in Chinese medicine: \"According to the theory of systematic correspondence ( _wu xing xueshuo_ ) these emotions, when in excess, hurt their corresponding viscera as well as the encompassing heart-mind. Emotional behavior, therefore, is heavily stigmatized.\" From the _zhongyi_ point of view, such logic is problematic. The concept of \" _guodu_ \" (surpassing the _du_ ; excessive) to Chinese is itself valid in defining and establishing a situation. Emotions that surpass the _du_ are sufficiently different in significance from the emotions within the _du._ In addition, emotions are seldom talked about and experienced as abstract concepts, but always in relation to concrete social situations that also specify appropriate _du_ of actions. In other words, it is not \"emotion,\" but the excess defined in concrete social contexts with certain social and bodily effects that is harmful to one's health. My impression is that it is almost \"natural\" for Western-trained scholars to see excessive as merely an adjective, a qualifier. It is emotion, which is essentialistically determined, that defines and counts. The sense of _du_ gets lost when excess of emotion is interpreted as simply emotion or emotional expressions or behavior. In addition, excess not just in emotion but in almost everything else is viewed negatively by the Chinese: for example, excess in thinking may be harmful to one's heart and spleen _qi_ ( _silu guodu shang xinpi_ ), and excess in eating and drinking hurts one's spleen and stomach systems ( _yinshi guodu shang piwei_ ). It would be absurd therefore to assert that Chinese culture also stigmatizes thinking and eating.\n\nAppropriate sense of _du_ is also a form of _de_ (virtue, morals), the heart of Confucian doctrine of _zhongyong_ (the mean) which advocates a social political order that does \"not lean to any one side\" ( _bupian buyi_ ) and is \"neither excessive nor insufficiant\" ( _wu guo buji_ ). This moral sense of _du_ is well expressed in Confucius's own words: \"Grieve but not to the extent of injury, enjoy but not to the extent of excess\" ( _ai er bu shang, le er bu yin_ , ). One of the major tasks of \"cultivating one's body-person\" ( _xiushen_ ) is to develop the spontaneity of _du_ and the sensibility of harmony and moderation ( _zhonghe_ ). A mature person (an adult) is expected to demonstrate the sensibility of _du,_ knowing the boundaries ( _fencun_ ) (literally decimeters and inches) and limits ( _jindui_ ) (literally advance and retreat). Both excess ( _guo_ ) and insufficient ( _buji_ ) are considered undesirable. It is a clich\u00e9 among Chinese that truth, taken a step further, becomes false. Many commonly used phrases convey this cultural sensibility of _du,_ such as \"stop when it is right\" ( _shike'erzhi_ ) or right to the appropriate point ( _qiadao haochu_ ).\n\nThe sense of _du_ is embodied, acquired, and developed in concrete everyday existence through the ways the Chinese interact with each other, care for their young and old, enjoy a piece of music, or cook a bowl of soup. _Du_ is not a normative concept or a fixed standard by which one determines if a behavior is excessive or not. Therefore, assuming overt expression of emotion or emotional behavior is meant by Chinese as excessive and therefore is highly disvalued and cautiously guarded against is a misinterpretation. _Du_ is rather an experiential concept, which can only be sensed and felt in concrete human situations. Excess or not is not determined by standard measurement but is contingent on the actual circumstances and effects. This is common sense to Chinese medical doctors. Each person is a unique unity of psycho-physical dispositions ( _xing_ ) and socioenvironmental conditions, such that for one person at one time and place, it is normal, and for another person or at another time and place, it may be excessive. In simple words, a doctor said to me, \"I may eat as many pieces of cold watermelon as I like without feeling any discomfort. You may have a stomachache or diarrhea after just having two pieces, so in your particular case, one piece is right to the _du_ and two pieces are excessive.\"\n\nExcess (surpassing the _du_ ) cannot be judged independently from its effect. Asking my Chinese friends to define emotional excess, instead of getting abstract normative answers, I was offered various emotional scenarios. For instance, the story of Fan Jin passing the provincial imperial examination was mentioned to show excess in the emotion of joy. In the story, when Fan Jin heard that he had passed the provincial imperial examination after many years' disappointment, he was so overjoyed that he suddenly went crazy. Similarly, when Potter asked her informants about emotional excess, she was told about an old woman who, after the death of her child, cried so much that she became blind. Excess and effect mutually entail each other in this sense. If excessive thinking and worrying ( _silu guodu_ ) \"causes\" (the Chinese sense here is closer to \"contributes to\") the syndrome of \"heart-yin deficiency\" ( _xinyin buzu_ ) characterized by symptoms of \"hot sensation in five-centers\" ( _wuxin fanre_ ), \"disturbed heart-mind\" ( _xinshen buning_ ), \"heart vexation\" ( _xinfan_ ), and \"insomnia\" ( _shimian_ ), these symptoms may also indicate an excess in thinking and worrying.\n\nSince _du_ is not a normative concept, it should not be seen as an external constraint forced on members of the society from the outside and leading to \"repression and suppression of emotions.\" It is rather an aesthetic value that people are oriented to and engaged with in their daily lives. It functions constitutively and immanently within the order of everyday life itself.\n\n# _HE_ (HARMONY)\n\nThe concern of harmony ( _he_ or _hexie_ ) is evident everywhere in Chinese culture from highly ritualized ceremonial perfomance and structured social relations to mundane practices of the everyday. Some scholars believe that \"seeking balance and harmony\" ( _zhizhonghe_ ) has been an enduring cultural sensibility in Chinese tradition that guides how Chinese, including well-cultivated elites and rudimentally educated laborers and peasants as well, live their lives. The common expressions of today, such as \"harmony brings wealth\" ( _heqi shengcai_ ) and \"all flourishing when there is harmony at home\" ( _jiahe wanshixing_ ) still echo the passage in the classic _Zhongyong_ ( _The Doctrine of the Mean_ ): \"When harmony is reached, the sky and the earth follow their proper routes and myriad things flourish in life\" ( _Zhi zhonghe, tiandi wei yan, wanwu yu yan_ , , ). Ordinary Chinese are often found quoting the proverb from the _Analects:_ \"harmony is most valuable\" ( _heweigui_ ) when persuading others to resolve conflicts or explaining their own behaviors of reconciliation. The origin of the saying can be traced back to the statement \"the most valuable function of propriety is to ensure harmony ( _lizhiyong, heweigui_ ) in _Lunyu_ ( _The Analects: 1_ ) more than two thousand years ago. The recent discussions of \"culture of harmony\" ( _hehe wenhua_ ) in China stress that \" _he_ \" is a persistent and most commonly accepted cultural value throughout Chinese history.\n\nAccording to Li, the overall sense of harmony for Chinese depends on harmonious relationships at three levels: harmony at the level of natural environment, harmony at the level of body-person ( _shenti_ ) _,_ and harmony of social relations (both interpersonal and to the spiritual world). Since an aesthetics of harmony is embodied, disharmony at any of the three levels upsets the bodily sense of order. Therefore, _he_ as a key aesthetic value is quintessentially reflected in Chinese medicine, an art of health and healing. _Zhongyi_ sometimes is actually referred to as \"medicine of harmony\" ( _zhonghe zhi yi_ ). As is stated in _Neijing,_ \"when _qi_ and _blood_ move in harmony, no illness will arise\" ( _qixue chonghe, baibing bu sheng_ ). So falling ill is the \"body-person falling out of harmony\" ( _shenti weihe_ ). In fact, many Chinese medical disorders can be summarized simply as \"out of harmony\" ( _buhe_ ) or \"out of balance\" ( _butiao_ ). Many times, the doctors I observed simply explained to their patients that they suffered \" _yin_ and _yang_ not in harmony\" ( _yinyang buhe_ ) \"spleen and stomach _qi_ not in harmony\" ( _piwei buhe_ ), or \" _qi_ and blood out of balance\" ( _qixue butiao_ ) so that the patients could grasp basic ideas without the doctors using too much _zhongyi_ jargon.\n\nAccording to Chinese medical reasoning, \"a human body-person resonates with the way of sky and earth\" ( _ren yu tiandi xiangying_ ). The movement of _qi and_ blood and the functions of the visceral systems and other bodily systems may demonstrate different characteristics in accordance with the changes of \"sky and earth.\" A person is encouraged to anticipate the changes and adapt one's behavior to the changes. The importance of harmony of a person in relation to the changes of the macroenvironments, such as the changes of seasons, weather, temperature, and moisture during the day or the year is stressed in all kinds of popular publications on \"cultivating life\" ( _yang-sheng_ ) _._\n\n_He_ (harmony) is often cited as the most important factor leading to social success and achievement. Three elements are considered by Chinese as important in virtually any kind of success. These are right time ( _tianshi_ ), advantageous position ( _dili_ ), and harmonious interpersonal relationship ( _renhe_ ). In comparison, harmonious interpersonal relationship is deemed more important than the other two elements, as shown in the still popular expression quoted from _Mencius_ that \"the right time yields to advantageous position; advantageous position yields to harmonious interpersonal relationship\" ( _tianshi buru dili, dili buru renhe_ , ). The cultural aesthetics of _renhe_ (harmonious interpersonal relationship) finds its full expression in Chinese family ethics that guide the way the family members care for and interact with each other according to their places within the family. The harmonious family also includes a vertical dimension. This concern for harmonious family relationships extends to the deceased members of the family, that is, the spiritual world. Apparently, the cultural sense of harmony ( _he_ ) is also at work when Chinese take care of their ancestors' tombs, and offer foods and burn paper money to their ancestors. It is still a common practice in many rural areas that family members, believing in a harmonious reciprocity with one's ancestors, pay respect to their ancestors following a personal success such as passing a college entrance examination. Here, the Chinese spiritual world is connected with the present world. This is also related to the Chinese sensibility of _tong_ (connection and flowing) discussed above. For the Chinese, harmony presupposes a healthy process of connecting and extending.\n\nIt is also important that the cultural aesthetics of _renhe_ (harmonious interpersonal relations) extend beyond one's immediate circle of family members and relatives through extensive networks of \"human emotions\" ( _renqing_ ) created and maintained diligently by all forms of social exchanges, of gifts, labor, services, respect, and so on. Li points out that the ultimate goal of Chinese exchange relationship is to seek harmony and balance in the social world, that resonates harmoniously with the macrocosmos of nature and the microcosmos of body-person.\n\nWestern scholars often tend to associate an emphasis on harmony with repression or suppression of emotions in Chinese social life, as if there is an intrinsic conflict between harmony and emotions. Yet, if we give the Chinese concept of harmony, \" _he_ ,\" a close examination, we can see that _he_ does not mean forcing a conformity by appealing to a single existing standard. According to the _Zhongyong_ ( _The Doctrine of the Mean_ ), \"latent emotions of happiness, anger, sadness, and joy are called neutral ( _zhong_ ); when active and yet appropriate ( _zhongjie_ ), they are called harmony ( _he_ ).\" Harmony defined here is related to the Chinese sense of _du_ (degree, extent, position) discussed previously. _Zhongjie_ literally means \"hit the rhythm,\" or \"right to the mark\" conveys the sense of _du_ that is neither excessive nor insufficient ( _wu guo buji_ ). In other words, in a dynamic interactive environment, harmony is brought out when each particular unfolds itself in its unique way and to an appropriate _du_ such that \"each shines more brilliantly in the other's company\" ( _xiangde-yizhang_ ). In fact, early Chinese thinkers had already made a clear distinction between the concept of harmony ( _he_ ) and that of \"sameness and conformity\" ( _tong_ ). For example, in Guo Yu: Zheng Yu : (compiled during the Easten Zhou period 475 BC\u2013221 BC), it is stated that \"to complement one thing with a different thing is called harmony, with which things flourish and join each other; yet to strengthen one thing by adding the same thing (which is called conformity), brings an end to everything.\" In the Chinese sense, harmony presupposes diversity, differentiation, and confrontation. Similarly, Ames and Hall translate _he_ as \"attuning\": \"combining and blending of two or more ingredients in a harmonious whole with benefit and enhancement that maximizes the possibilities of all without sacrificing their separate and particular identity.\"\n\nAs shown above, Chinese people in their everyday lives are, explicitly or tacitly, oriented to a set of cultural aesthetic values. The aesthetic sensibilities are evident in their way of \"making the world,\" in their experience of illness when the world is \"unmade\" by blocked circulations ( _butong_ ) _,_ lack of moderation ( _shidu_ ) _,_ or loss of harmony ( _weihe_ ) _,_ and in the process of \"remaking their world\" through healing, known also in Chinese medicine as attuning ( _tiao_ ). Emotions, as viewed from the perspective of Chinese medicine, are centrally important to this process of making and unmaking the world of body-person. The following chapter focuses on the Chinese concept of \"emotions\" and explores the cultural world of emotional meanings as they relate to illness and healings.\nIV\n\nContextualizing _Qingzhi_ (Emotions)\n\nAn ethnographic study on illness and health that addresses socioculturally constituted \"body-person\" necessarily entails a translation of a cultural world of emotional meanings. This is particularly relevant to our understanding of the disorders that are perceived locally as \"emotion-related,\" such as _qingzhi_ disorders in Chinese medicine. Two recent lines in anthropological thinking of emotion lend complementary perspectives to this enquiry. The sociocultural construction approach advocated and practiced by anthropologists such as Abu-Lughod, Lutz, and White, focuses typically on emotions as discursive (meaning making) social practice, while the phenomenologically inspired approach adopted by such anthropologists as Cosdas, Desjaleis, Lock and Sheper-Hughes pays ultimate attention to the felt or embodied quality of emotional experience. Seeing _qingzhi_ and disordered _qingzhi_ as an interactive social phenomenon and embodied experience informed with the cultural sensibilities of _tong_ (flowing, extending), _du_ (degree, position, intensity), and _he_ (harmony), this chapter explores the sociocultural and ethnomedical contexts where _qingzhi_ and disordered _qingzhi_ are formulated, talked about, and experienced.\n\n# UNRAVELING QING (EMOTION)\n\nThe studies that theorize the Chinese experience of emotions are marked by their contradictory observations and rivaling interpretations. Arthur Kleinman, for example, in his works about the Chinese experience of illness and health, describes emotion-tacit Chinese who through socialization have learned that personal affects, especially negative or disphoric emotions, should not be openly expressed. He generalizes that in Chinese society negative emotions such as depression, sadness, and irritability are suppressed and not to be revealed outside one's family. Ots also argues that Chinese culture stigmatizes emotional behaviors and that open expression of emotion is devalued and carefully guarded against. However, Potter and Potter contend that such a generalization does not conform to the observed social reality. According to Potters' observation in a village in Guangdong, villagers are actually emotionally expressive in every sense including the emotions that could be listed as dysphoric, strong, and negative or even hostile. They then argue that Chinese emotions are natural phenomena lacking important social and symbolic significance \"for the maintenance and perpetuation of social relationships.\" Andrew Kipnis, drawing on his own ethnographic experience in the countryside of Shandong, takes issue with Potter and Potter. He argues that Chinese emotion is indeed a social performance through which social relationship is established and maintained. One of the most obvious points of evidence he mentions is that during the cultural revolution, the cross-class crying at funerals was banned because ritual crying at a funeral, a mode of emotional expression, was perceived as establishing and consolidating a social relationship, and any such cross-class demonstration of relationship was deemed politically incorrect at the time. Kipnis argues if it were true that Chinese emotion, as Potter and Potter have argued, did not have any formal social significance, cross-class crying at funerals would not have been a concern at all.\n\nThese observations, seemingly inconsistent, do have a contribution to make. The cultural sensibility of shame and face-saving does play its role in the way Chinese express and experience their emotions. In clinical interactions, doctors usually do not explicitly pursue sensitive personal information, but rather rely on their own developed sensitivity to ascertain the problems. Yet emotions are expressed openly everywhere, sometimes very forcefully. For example, Chinese are notorious for their open displays of anger on buses. Martin Schoenhals observed that every day or two, he encountered an argument or a fight on the street or on the bus. An American friend also told me that he was surprised to see how ordinary Chinese could openly display their strong emotions toward authoritative figures. He referred to an incident he saw in Beijing where a cyclist, after being stopped by a policeman, yelled angrily at the policeman and drew a crowd of onlookers. I personally observed at numerous times in the clinics that patients cried openly in front of doctors and other patients while talking about their illness, frustrations, and sadness. Of course, such expressiveness does not logically lead to the conclusion that Chinese emotion has no formal social significance. On the contrary, expressing emotion is always open to social and moral interpretations and judgment. Emotions, such as \"moral indignation\" ( _yifen_ ) and \"public indignation\" ( _gongfen_ ) are used frequently to justify social actions. I agree with Schoenhals who suggests, in his ethnographic study of a Chinese middle school, that expression of emotions in Chinese society is highly contextualized and that in certain social contexts expressiveness and aggression are tolerated, sanctioned, and even expected. We may also say that certain emotions or certain ways of doing emotions are called for in certain contexts or within certain structural relationships. The absence of them invites interpretations and judgment, too. In other words, a good understanding of the Chinese experience of emotion lies in the culturally informed sensitivity to contexts, given that the Chinese cultural tradition in general is interested more in process and events rather than in essence and agency.\n\nIf we take \"emotion inside out\" as Geoffrey White suggests, the understanding of emotion, then, does not require a commitment to any particular ontology of emotions, but involves \"the study of meaning making practices of persons engaged in ordinary talk and interactions.\" At the same time, we need to see how emotion is conceptualized within the culture and how a particular emotion \"fits into the systematic world view, language, and way of life of the society.\" What is involved is \"a tracing out and unraveling of the relationships and conditions of the phenomenon's context, and its multiple correlations.\" In other words, a more informative way to understand the meaning of Chinese emotion is to map out a network of meanings, situations, experience, and events that typically associate with _\"qing\"_ (emotion). Again, this approach is inspired by Byron Good's model of semantic network analysis, which fits well in the enduring Chinese mode of knowing characterized by the \"one evoking many\" model. It is particularly relevant to how _zhongyi_ works, where certain symptoms, experiences, and situations are viewed as typically associated with one another to form a cluster or pattern known as \"syndrome cluster or pattern\" ( _zhenghouqun_ ). One obvious difference between an experienced doctor and an inexperienced one in clinical work, according to my _zhongyi_ teacher, is that an experienced doctor is familiar with _zhenghou qun_ and thus is more efficient in mapping out the illness situations and tracing the roots of the problem. Similarly, understanding of _qingzhi_ will benefit from mapping out a network of associated meanings and events of _\"qing\"_ and tracing the meaning to its root.\n\nLike many other key terms in the Chinese language, _qing_ hardly translates unambiguously. _Li Ji_ (The Book of Rituals ca. 465\u2013450 BCE) defines _'qing'_ as the human feelings of \"joy, anger, sadness, fear, like, dislike, and desire\u2014the seven (abilities) acquired (by human beings) without the deliberate effort of learning.\" Xunzi also sees _qing_ as a person's natural tendency ( _xing_ _)_ of \"likes and dislikes, joy, anger, and sadness.\" Dong Zhongshu, the Confucian scholar of the early Han dynasty, refers to _qing_ as \"human capacity of desiring, wanting, and motivating\" ( _ren zhi yu_ ). The definition of _qing_ that has more or less continued up to today stresses the interaction of human beings with their environment. For example, Han Yu of the Tang dynasty writes, _\"Qing_ arises when (a person) comes into contact with the world\" ( _qingyezhe, jieyuwu er sheng_ , ). Q _ing_ seems to be broader than emotive states and \"includes all reality inputs\" or perhaps all reality configurations. _Qing,_ therefore, is _\"ganqing,_ \" (sentiments or feelings, emotional attachment), _\"aiqing_ \" (good feelings and love between couples), and _\"qingyu_ \"\u2014(sensual desires). _Qing_ is also _\"qingmian_ \" (social face), _\"renqing_ \" (social obligation and ethics, a social network), _\"qingli_ \" (commonsense, reasons), and _\"qingkuang_ \" or _\"qingxing_ \" (situations, circumstances, or reality). _Qing_ presupposes participation in social relations and interactions. Indeed, as Solomon comments, one cannot feel any of the emotions, such as love, anger, sadness, shame, without engaging others in one's experience. Importantly, _qing_ is a relational and situational concept. Chinese tend not to conceptualize emotions as pure inner feelings separated from concrete situations. Emotions are not talked about and experienced as abstract concepts but in relation to particular social situations. _Qing,_ therefore, is correlated with reason or rationality ( _li_ ), speech or language ( _yan_ ), behavior or action ( _xing_ ), and appropriateness ( _yi_ ).\n\n## _Qing_ as _Sensibility of Face_\n\nThe English expression _hurting somebody's feelings_ may simply translate as \"injuring somebody's face\" ( _shang mianzi_ ) in Chinese. As many scholars have previously pointed out, the concept of \"face\" is central to the Chinese experience and is an important mechanism of social control. In addition, face is frequently expressed and experienced in terms of emotions.\n\nThe Chinese sense of face is recognized as having two aspects: _mianzi_ (social face) and _lian_ (moral face). _Mianzi_ is talked about in terms of social status and prestige. It is the personal merit recognized by the public. This type of face is constantly under public scrutiny and subject to society's evaluations. Logically, some have bigger _mianzi_ than others. Those who are more educated and cultured ( _you wenhua_ ), those who are distinctively recognized, and those who have higher social status, have bigger _mianzi_ and consequently bear the burden of living up to higher expectations. They are subject more easily to public humiliation and hence to the experience of losing face ( _diu mianzi_ ) which can be intensely emotional. I personally experienced such an incident when I accidentally parked my bicycle along with several other bicycles in an area where bicycle parking was not allowed. After I showed my identification card, the old guard deliberately pointed out for everybody to hear that with my background as a teacher what example I was setting for my students if I could not follow the rules myself. This retired worker, without his red band around his left arm, would be perfectly negligible. But with his indignant look and raised voice accusing somebody well educated, he suddenly gained social face and became more important. Moreover, I was made to lose face and to feel totally humiliated. Under the circumstances, the only thing for me to do was to leave the scene as quickly as possible. To argue was to lose face even more. The experience of losing face can be very painful.\n\nThe sense of _mianzi_ is not just something superficial or skin deep. It is said to have something to do with one's \"heart of self-respect\" ( _zizunxin_ ). Those who have a strong sense of self-respect are more sensitive to _mianzi. Lian_ , is used in talking about moral and ethical sensibility. A person whose conduct trespasses moral codes loses his or her \"moral face\" ( _dui lian_ ), which is considered more serious. \"Do not want moral face\" ( _buyao lian_ ) is one of the most insulting remarks one can make, implying that the person \"has laid aside all claims to be a person.\" The sense of _lian_ depends on the sense of shame ( _xiuchi xin_ ), a painful feeling similar to guilt. Some scholars consider that the sense of _lian,_ unlike the sense of _mianzi,_ which depends on external sanction of behaviors, functions as an \"internal moral restraint.\" However, _mianzi_ and _lian_ are not two totally separate phenomena. Both involve social norms and a personal sense of pride and shame. _Mianzi_ and _lian_ are rather the same process of being a person seen or talked about from different points of view. _Mianzi_ is seen from the outside extending to the inside, while _lian_ is seen and experienced from the inside extending outside. In the experience of a real life situation \"moral face\" and \"social face\" are integrated. For this reason I prefer to use _lian-mian_ (face), except in the situations where one meaning is overwhelmingly dominant, to indicate the complexity of the Chinese concept of face.\n\nFace is an integrative part of becoming a person, and every mature Chinese person (adult) is expected to be sensitive to face. Sometimes talking about face is another way of talking about \"feelings.\" However, face is more a dynamic phenomenon in Chinese social life that one can lose, gain, give, protect, or even buy. In fact, it is fair to say that Chinese in everyday life engage themselves actively in the process of a \"face economy.\" Compared to other aspects of face, the loss of face or a threatened loss of face is more experienced and talked about in terms of emotions. Schoenhals argues that loss of face is \"fundamentally an emotional reaction (usually temporary) of a person who failed to live up to others expectations.\" A patient informant clearly related his illness to his feeling of loss of face. He told me that he used to be a very good student in college, and everybody thought he was smart. His company spent money sending him to Japan for training and made him the director of his section. He was overcome by the burden of having to live up to his reputation. He was worried that he might be found to be incompetent in his position and unworthy of his reputation. He therefore spent all his energy trying to stay ahead of his colleagues. Now with an exhausted body-heart ( _shenxin_ ), he thought that the colleagues who came to the company much later could perform better work than he did. \"Now everybody knows I am not that smart after all,\" he said. This, to him, was very face threatening. Yet the intensity of a person's experience of loss of face is not necessarily coordinated with the public's evaluations. Sometimes with little actual public display, a person may feel an intense loss of face. It depends more on a person's perception of the public's response or on how much a person is oriented to social norms and moral codes. An informant talked about his feelings of guilt\/shame ( _kuijiu_ ) and incompetence ( _wun-eng_ ) when he, the first son of the family, had to delay his aging mother's coming to live with his family because he did not have enough space in his one-bedroom apartment. He kept telling his mother he was going to be assigned a bigger apartment soon, but each time he was disappointed. He became suicidal, feeling that he had failed both his social and moral obligations.\n\nLike the Chinese concept of \"person,\" face can extend to include groups with which one is identified. Literally, one can lose one's parents' face ( _diu fumu de lian_ ), one's family's face ( _diu jiaren de lian_ ), and even lose one's country's face ( _dui guojia de lian_ ). Chinese society is connected in such an extensive way that everybody can potentially lose everybody else's face. A misbehaving child may lose her parents' face, and an incompetent or immoral parent may also lose his or her child's face. We often hear Chinese parents scold their children by asking where they expect their parents to show their (the parents') face. One important motivation for a child to excel in school is to enhance his or her parents' face. This mutual invocation of face also happens between students and teachers. The students with good academic performance enhance the teacher's face, and a teacher may also lose face over his or her students' poor performance.\n\nSchoenhals points out that face is so central in Chinese social life that Chinese virtually make any performance a face arena and an evaluating ground. Performing well in school and on exams, particularly in the once-a-year college entrance exams, can entail enormous pressure for students and their families, especially for those with a good reputation to uphold and those from \"intellectual\" families. During my clinic observation, I met several student patients whose illnesses were clearly related to feelings of loss of face or to the anxiety of potential loss of face involving exams and schoolwork. One young female patient was brought to the clinic by her mother who reported that after the daughter failed her college entrance exams, she suffered a mental trauma ( _jingshen ciji_ ), felt she could not show her face to the world anymore, and refused to come out of her room during the day. A patient who was a graduate student was worried so much about the coming English qualification exam that he developed a headache.\n\nIn the culture that makes _lian-mian_ central to the concept of person, emotional expression itself is the performance of a person, which is subject to social evaluation and interpretation. What is important is not whether emotion is expressed or not, but in what context and how it is expressed. The relevant questions are rather to whom, in what situation, with what purpose, and to what effect one expresses what emotions. As said above, those with higher status and higher expectations to live up to tend to be more sensitive to _mianzi_ (social face) than those who do not have much _mianzi_ in the first place. Those with high social status therefore tend to be more cautious about their behavior in public, including displaying their emotions. They tend to be more aware of the cultural norms regarding interpersonal behavior and cultural aesthetic values of connecting, appropriateness, and harmony. Demonstrating aggressiveness in public is considered low-status behavior. For a person with higher social status to engage him or herself in a public conflict is considered to \" _diu mianzi_ or _diu shenfen_ \" (lose face or social status). Therefore, a person with higher social status tends to disengage himself from those conflicts that get intense and ugly. However, those who do not have social status to lose usually tend to be more aggressive. Ironically, if through aggressiveness the lower status person is able to engage the higher status person in an argument at the same level, he actually gains social face by dragging the other person down. So the higher status person who restrains from engaging in the conflict is said \"not to give the other person face\" ( _bu gei lian_ ). However, this does not mean that a person with higher social status will never display emotions inappropriately but rather that such display is subject to negative public sanction.\n\nIn any actual incidence, there may be several cultural factors at work involving social status, gender relations, and age difference. For example, when women grow older, they, at least among the less educated, become least restrained by face considerations and are expected to be more expressive and aggressive. When someone's face is threatened and attacked, he is expected to be angry. When a person loses a family member or a close friend, he is expected to demonstrate grief and sadness. In fact, when such demonstration is lacking, an explanation is called for. In the context of a village where the community is closely knit, sometimes the entire village is related in kinship terms, and everyday emotion experience may take different forms and styles. Emotional activities tend to be more observable. In addition, inappropriate display of emotions, at most, involves more of social face than moral face, and villagers care more about fulfilling their moral obligations toward each other than social prestige. They are more worried about a gift being returned or a favor being shared.\n\nThe communication of emotions in the clinical context is a slightly different matter. How a doctor and patient interact with each other depends on how they perceive the relationship. A senior doctor with a good reputation commands more trust from a patient than a younger doctor. In front of a doctor, a patient who normally occupies a lower status does not theoretically have much _mianzi_ to lose. What makes the difference is if the doctor is perceived as \"having a good attitude\" ( _taiduhao_ ), meaning being kind and understanding. Facing an understanding senior doctor, patients tend to express anger, sadness, and frustration quite freely. In fact, by the action of revealing his or her own emotions to the doctor and receiving emotional consoling, the impersonal doctor-patient relationship is somehow transformed into a more personal type of relationship. Once a woman in her thirties came to see the doctor at the clinic. They talked as if they were old friends. Then the doctor told her that the personal stamp she carved for him was of no use because she had the second character of his name carved incorrectly. He joked that after the many sessions that she had cried through, she did not even know the characters of his name. Their conversation was friendly and informal. Later, the doctor told me that this patient used to come to his office once a week. She was always the first to come to the clinic in the morning. As soon as she sat down, she started to cry. According to the doctor, she really cried, not just became teary-eyed, but cried loudly. She talked about her problems of infertility and family. She was depressed and suicidal. By the time I saw her, she had recovered and was back at work. In my field notes, I described her as \"having a healthy facial complexion and talked and laughed at ease.\" She promised to carve a stamp for the doctor as a token of her gratitude. By revealing her emotions openly to the doctor, the young female patient presented herself not only as a patient that needed treatment for her illness but also as a suffering person who needed understanding and sympathy and thus defined and transformed this particular doctor-patient relationship.\n\n## _Qing_ as Social Relations\n\nA most commonly used emotion word is _ganqing_ . The term is composed of two characters: _gan_ (to feel, experience, or be moved) and _qing_ (feelings, emotions). The concept takes various meanings in Chinese everyday conversation, and its translation depends on the context in which it is used. What is unique about _ganqing_ is its use is always embedded in specific dynamity of social relations as _qin qing_ (emotional attachment between family members), _fuqi qing_ (affection between husband and wife), _shisheng qing_ (feelings between teacher and student), _youqing_ (friendship), and more. In this sense, _ganqing_ is simply _renqing_ , which I translate as \"human emotions existing in\/as specific social relations.\" Hwang identifies _renqing_ as the essential meaning of the Chinese concept of emotion, and Kleinman and Kleinman clarify it as \"a contextualized response, a response one feels in experiencing the concrete particularity of lived situations.\" Yan suggests that _renqing_ commonly has four different meanings. They are (1) human feelings which are basic emotional responses of an individual to everyday situations, (2) a set of social norms and moral obligations, (3) a favor, a gift, greetings, a visit and assistance, and (4) a social network. In short, _renqing_ is seen fundamentally as social relations.\n\nHaving a good relationship\" in Chinese is actually \"having good feelings\" ( _ganqing hao_ ) or simply \"having feelings\" ( _you ganging_ ) _._ Though translated as \"feelings,\" \"to have _ganqing\"_ in this Chinese sense is not something simply \"to have,\" but a process of \"doing\" a relationship in concrete social situations, and its communication therefore relies more on contextualized actions ( _xing_ ) than merely on talk and speech ( _yan_ ). The Potters notice that in Chinese culture, relationship is confirmed through the language of work and suffering rather than by referring to the emotion of love. I can certainly see the point of the statement, but the problem with Potters' analysis is that it dichotomizes \"work\" and \"affection\" as if they are mutually exclusive in the Chinese experience. The result is a double reduction: \"work\" is stripped of its affective dimension, and \"emotion,\" of its social significance. In fact, good feelings ( _ganqing_ ) are best seen as unfolding through how one behaves within the social context. This is true especially among intimate relations. In these relations, _ganqing hao_ is often described as _moqi_ (tacit coordination between the parties developed through intimate interactions on a daily basis). Anticipating the other's needs and acting accordingly without being explicitly told is most valued as the true manifestation of _ganqing._ It takes a lot of good feelings to be aware of the situation that others are in and to care enough to take actions accordingly. It is in reciprocation of doing things for each other that _ganqing_ is created and substantiated. \" _Ganqing_ exists only when sentiment, emotional attachment, and good feelings are felt by people involved in social interactions.\" As Schoenhals points out, \"[h]elping others to do things they cannot do alone, even mundane things, has great significance for the Chinese, as it is a primary means of expressing friendship and love.\" Thus, the Chinese elderly like to receive gifts and help from their children and are proud of them because this not only lets them know that they are loved but also enhances the social face of the parents and the family. Refusing to reciprocate in sharing work is considered a \"problem of emotions\/feelings\" ( _ganqing wenti_ ). One female informant complained that her husband never helped her with housework, not even when she was sick. She summarized the relationship as \"lack of good feelings\" ( _mei ganqing_ ). For most Chinese, _ganqing_ is expressed through actions taken and decisions made for each other on an everyday basis. A retired teacher described her relationship with one of her students as having good _ganqing._ After almost thirty years had passed, the student was still coming to visit her and brought her gifts on holidays.\n\nWhen Chinese say that a person does not have _renqing_ (human emotion) sensibility, they talk about a person's attitude and behavior toward others. A typical story involved a son who upon marriage took over his parents'apartment and forced the parents to make a bedroom out of the balcony. The story aroused emotional comments to the effect that the son was not a person, and he did not have a sense of _qinqing_ (emotional attachment between family members), not to mention _renqing_ in general. A positive example of having good _ganqing_ involved a young couple who lived in the same building where I stayed while in Beijing. The neighbors would talk about them admiringly as \"having really good relationship\/feelings\" ( _ganqing zhenhao_ ), comparable to saying that they really loved each other. They would mention such things as: every morning before he went to work, the husband would take the wife on the back of his bicycle to the bus stop, and in the evening he would wait at the bus stop and take his wife back home on his bicycle. What makes the community recognize this couple is the harmony and intimacy cultivated in mundane everyday experience. Good feelings, as recognized by family-oriented Chinese, come from familiarity and embody understanding that nurtures spontaneous coordination and cooperation among the members of a community.\n\nObviously, _renqing,_ based on concrete social relations, is not conceptualized as something that can be isolated as \"inner feelings.\" Chinese do have the concept of \" _nei_ \" (inside), yet _nei_ exists meaningfully only when it is manifested to the outside. There is no meaningful inside that is without an outside correspondence in speech, action, or inaction. This inside and outside conceptualization is evident in the _zhongyi_ mode of knowing, which is actually based on meticulous observations of the correspondence between functions of the inside _zang_ (visceral systems) and the outside _xiang_ (outside manifestations). This inside is not understood as a fixed entity, but a process constantly in motion. In this sense, the outside manifestations can be seen as an integrative part of the same functional process. Interestingly, introspection ( _neixing_ ) in the Chinese sense does not have the meaning of reaching deeply into oneself \"for discovering the really real\" but refers to a morally oriented self-examination of one's behavior. A typical example of this type of self-examination comes from Zengzi, Confucius' disciple. He once said, \"Everyday I examine ( _xing_ ) myself on three counts: whether I have done my best working for others, whether I have kept my promise to friends, and whether I have appropriated and acted upon the teachings received from my teacher.\"\n\n_Renqing_ is an interactional phenomenon, established, confirmed, and maintained through everyday reciprocation of favors, labor, care, food, assistance, kindness, and understanding. The relationship between parents and children is marked by the typical Chinese sense of mutual obligations and reciprocity. Chinese parents are known to put a major part of their resources and energy into their children's education and make great efforts to satisfy the children's needs. Children are expected to understand the parents' \"labored heart\" ( _kuxin_ ) and appreciate their parents' efforts by being good students and honoring the parents' expectations. This is vividly captured in a newspaper article in which a ten-year-old girl told the reporter about her mother, whose job with a state-owned business had been cut:\n\nDuring the two years while my mother was out of work, she endured much hardship. In the afternoon and at night she worked in a restaurant. In the morning, she worked in another place. My relatives and friends all said that my mother seemed to become old suddenly. Not 40 yet, she has already lots of gray hair. I know my mother worked this hard for my sake. The way I can repay her is to study hard; otherwise I am not treating my mother right.\n\nThe mother's response to the girl's words was that knowing the child cherished such a heart, all the hardship she suffered had been rewarded.\n\n## _Qing_ as Social Norms and Moral Comments\n\nThe Chinese concept of emotion, captured in the expressions of _renqing_ and _ganqing_ is not something that is strictly opposite to reason ( _li_ ) and moral significance ( _yi_ ). The common expressions that Chinese use to advance their opinions, such as _juede_ or _gandao_ have aspects of both thinking and feeling. Emotion, reason, and moral appropriateness are integrated in the Chinese language and experience. When a person is said not to understand human emotions ( _butong renqing_ ), the meaning may actually be that the person is not reasonable or does not act in accordance with common sense.\n\nIf we say that _renqing_ is the human emotional response or sentiment embedded in a series of concrete social relations, then it can also be read as \"a set of social norms and moral obligations\" operative in everyday practices. They are sometimes referred to as \"affective reason\" ( _qingli_ ) and \"emotionally charged moral appropriateness\" ( _qingyi_ ). Different social relations may evoke a different set of _li_ (reasons) and _yi_ (moral significance\/appropriateness) that demand styles of behavior and of emotion appropriate to the relational context. Demonstrations of _qing_ and the intensity of such demonstrations are justified or unjustified in the light of _li_ and _yi,_ which are contigent on the concrete social contexts. For example, a basic type of _qinqing_ ( _ganqing_ between family members) is _qing_ between parents and children, which is traditionally characterized as _ci_ (caring) for parents and _xiao_ (filial piety) for children. In everyday life, ci and _xiao_ are both emotions and codes of conduct.\n\nIn Chinese everyday language, idioms of emotions are frequently used in moral discourse. Anger is such an idiom. It is one of the frequently encountered emotions in the clinics of Chinese medicine. Many patients complain that their illness is \"anger related\" ( _qide_ ). If anger is considered a negative or stigmatized emotion that presents a potential threat to the existing social structure, why do people openly admit that they are angry to the extent of injuring their health? The Chinese tend to associate anger ( _qi_ , _nu_ ) with illness and even death, as reflected in the Chinese saying that \"one does not need to pay with his life if he 'angers' a person to death\" ( _qisiren bu changming_ ). This may seem to be an exaggeration, but Chinese often take it quite seriously. Many of them know the historical account of Zhu Geliang, the minister of the state of Shu who tricked Zhou Yu, the general of the state of Wu three times and finally \"angered\" him to death. Claiming to be angry is not to say that one feels personal frustration but to say that somebody else hurts a person by violating _qingli_ or _qingyi._ A middle-aged female patient, a police officer, complained about her insomnia and the involuntary trembling of her hands. The trembling got worse when she was angry. After giving a description of her symptoms, she told the doctor that her illness resulted from anger caused by her mother-in-law ( _bei popo qi de_ ), who, according to her, was not reasonable ( _bu jiangli_ ). According to her story, her mother-in-law's husband went to Taiwan just before 1949 and did not come back until recently. Now that the husband had returned, her mother-in-law became even more unbearable, as if the whole world owed her. Everybody in the family had to defer to her will, and she found fault with everybody, especially with her daughter-in-law. The patient commented that \"it is true that my mother-in-law has suffered a lot from the political stigma and raising a child by herself, but that does not give her the right to make everybody else suffer.\" She also said that though she was very angry with her mother-in-law and really wanted to shout back at her to make her understand what she was doing, as a police officer (police officers and government officials are supposed to set good examples as civilized citizens), she could not do it. Others would say that if she could not handle her own family problem appropriately, how could she \"take control of\" ( _guan_ ) others? By presenting herself as angry, she formulated her illness and emotion as a moral comment on her mother-in-law's violation of _qingli_. So by complaining that their illnesses are anger related, patients hold somebody else morally accountable for their sufferings\u2014sufferings that are measurable in the \"body.\"\n\n## _Qing_ as Embodied Experience\n\nThough the term _qingzhi_ itself is used mostly in the context of Chinese medicine in reference to the function of emotions in relation to health and illness, the content of _qingzhi,_ the so called \"seven emotions\" ( _qiqing_ ) or \"five emotions\" ( _wuzhi_ ) are concrete emotions that are part of everyday language and experience. By glossing these emotions over as _qingzhi, zhongyi_ doctors specify a medical context for talking about and evaluating emotions and finally transforming an experience of emotion into a treatable disorder.\n\n_Qingzhi,_ on the one hand, is unmistakably recognized as social in nature and always understood as the concrete emotions of _xi_ (joy, happy), _nu_ (anger, rage), _you_ (sorrow, worries), _si_ (thinking, pensiveness), _bei_ (grief), _kong_ (fear), and _jing_ (fright). These are \"contextualized responses\" of an individual \"in experiencing the concrete particularity of lived situations.\" Therefore, disordered _qingzhi,_ though seen as having something to do with the patient's personal psycho-physiological dispositions ( _bingfu_ ) is often recognized by traditional Chinese medical doctors as closely and directly related to a person's social environment. My zhongyi teacher unequivocally marked interpersonal relationship ( _renji guanxi_ ) and inability to deal with it ( _chuli bukai_ ) as the main factors contributing to _qingzhi_ disorders. He stressed that the ideal way to treat _qingzhi_ disorders is to combine medical treatment ( _yaowu zhiliao_ ) and persuasion ( _quandao_ ) or disentanglement ( _shuli_ ) of the patient's personal and emotional blockage in life. He believed that if he did not have to treat so many patients each day, he would be able to spend more time with each patient, and the efficacy would have been much better. Nowadays, this nonmedical method is also referred to as \"psychological counseling\" ( _xinli zixun_ ). The more traditional method for such nonmedical treatment for _qingzhi_ disorders is \"treating an emotion with a counter emotion\" ( _yi qing sheng qing_ ). However, the so-called _xinli zixun_ (psychological counseling) is different from the concept of psychological counseling in that it is not aimed at discovering and revealing intrapsychic conflicts, but it is more sociomorally oriented as fostering a \"correct\" or adaptive attitude and perspective in order for patients to handle their social situations better. Moreover, these \"correct\" insights into one's life are culturally embedded. Since Chinese medicine routinely incorporates nonmedical aspects into its clinical intervention, doctors, though spending limited time with their patients, seldom leave out the nonmedical part of _zhongyi_ in their interaction with patients. This aspect will be discussed in detail in the following chapters.\n\nMoreover, there is no doubt from the _zhongyi_ point of view that _qingzhi_ is embodied and experienced as dispersed _qi_ , flares of liver, stagnated digestive functions, palpitations of the heart, and so on. Emotion and thought are seen as integrated parts of the human psycho-physiological process. As Sivin points out, Chinese do make a distinction between bodily and psychological functions when they feel it necessary, but Chinese physicians \"were much more interested in their underlying integrity and interaction.\" For them, changes in thought\/feelings will have consequences in physiological changes, and therefore, experiential changes. The converse is also held to be true. Ots believes that there is a \"correspondence of emotions and bodily complaints in psychosomatic disorders and suspects that through specific bodily symptoms or symptom patterns, _zhongyi_ doctors may be able to identify some specific emotional changes.\n\nWithout elaborated _zhongyi_ language that connects emotive activities to specific bodily functional systems, ordinary Chinese talk about their emotions as the experience of _shenti_ (body-person), which, as clear from the last chapter, is both body and person. It is very common for Chinese to calm their angry friends by saying, \"Don't stay angry, or you will harm your _shenti_ ,\" or persuade somebody in grief to \"restrain the feelings of grief\" ( _jieai_ ), or he will destroy his own _shenti._ Chinese believe that one's emotion is experienced in _shenti,_ as they say \"a smile makes you ten years younger, while worry brings you gray hair.\" The experience of a friend, an established middle-aged scholar, may illustrate how emotion\/social\/bodily changes are intertwined in real life experience. The following is translated from my notes of our conversation in the summer of 1994.\n\nFor some time, I felt my _shenti_ (body-person) was not good. I had insomnia, and I could not fall asleep at all. I was in low spirits ( _qingxu buhao_ ) and was anxious and irritable all the time. I was afraid that my _shenti_ might fall apart, and so I went to see _zhongyi_ doctors. I was told that I had \"nerves functional disorders\" ( _shenjing guannengzheng_ ). The doctor said my problem was related to \"excessive worry and thinking\" ( _silu guodu_ ) that disturbed my spleen and stomach system ( _piwei_ ) and weakened my heart system and that I needed to take some Chinese herb medicine to modulate ( _tiao_ ) my _shenti._ I thought he was right. During that period, Deng Xiaoping had just published his speech on his south inspection trips, and the whole country was plunged into an economic frenzy. Everything became commercialized as if money was everything. I was constantly thinking about what I was going to do: follow the trend of \"jumping into the sea of market economy\" ( _xiahai_ ) like many others, or be content to be poor and do things I was good at? What would happen to an academic institution like ours that definitely could not survive the ups and downs of a market economy by itself? In those days I couldn't sleep well and had no desire for food. I was uncertain about the country's future and was worried about my future and my family's. This was the hardest period for me. I went to see _zhongyi_ twice. The doctor prescribed some herbal medicine. After some time, I forget how long.... my symptoms mitigated. I am not sure if I was healed by the medicine or simply because I had thought things through and made my decision to stay within the academy.\n\nThe interconnections between feelings\/thinking and bodily changes are meticulously coded in _zhongyi_ physiology and considered essential in order to understand _qingzhi_ disorders.\n\n# PHYSIOLOGY OF _QINGZHI_\n\nAs mentioned above, _qingzhi_ refers specifically to seven emotions ( _qiqing_ ): happiness ( _xi_ ), anger ( _nu_ ), worry and anxiety ( _you_ ), thinking and obsession ( _si_ ), sadness and grief ( _bei_ ), fear ( _kong_ ), and fright ( _jing_ ). In order to correspond to the functions of the five _zang_ viscera, \"seven emotions\" are sometimes reduced to \"five emotions\" ( _wuzhi_ ) by consolidating _you_ (worry) with si (obsession) and _kong_ (fear) with _jing_ (fright). Both ' _qing_ ' and ' _zhi_ ' can be translated as \"emotions\" and are frequently used in combination. However, some Chinese medical professionals recognize distinctions between _qing_ and _zhi_. They argue that _qing_ are manifested emotions and _zhi_ are latent. They are sometimes referred to as \"internal emotion\" ( _neizhi_ ) and \"external emotion\" ( _waiqing_ ). Yet, we should not mistake zhi as some sort of subconscious or hidden emotion. Rather _zhi_ is understood as the \"latent or neutralized\" ( _zhonghe_ ) state in the process of emotions. In other words, ' _qing_ ' and ' _zhi_ ' are two terms referring to different stages of the same process.\n\n## _Qingzhi_ and the Visceral Systems\n\n_Qingzhi_ is closely related to the functions of the visceral systems. _Neijing: Suwen_ (The Inner Classics: Simple Questions) states that \"a human being has five visceral systems which transform five kinds of _qi_ ; the five kinds of _qi_ produce _xi_ (joy), _nu_ (anger), _bei_ (sadness-grief), _you_ (anxiety\u2014sadness), and _kong_ (fear).\" The seven emotions are also the external manifestations of the functions of the five visceral systems. Distinctions among the visceral systems influence changes in emotions, and emotional changes induce physiological changes. These emotional activities when kept in certain _du_ (degree of intensity) are said to be normal phenomena. Only when activities of any of such emotions become excessive ( _guoji_ ) will emotion become pathological.\n\nThe visceral function systems in Chinese medicine fall into two categories: the five _yin_ viscera ( _wuzang_ ) and six _yang_ viscera ( _liufu_ ). The five _zang_ viscera include the heart ( _xin_ ), the lungs ( _fei_ ), the spleen ( _pi_ ), the liver ( _gan_ ), and the kidneys ( _shen_ ). Although designated as _yin_ organs, they are the dominant functional systems in the holistic physiology of traditional Chinese medicine. The five _zang_ systems are paired with six _fu_ viscera: the small intestine ( _xiaochang_ ), the large intestine ( _dachang_ ), the stomach ( _wei_ ), the gallbladder ( _dan_ ), the urinary system ( _pangguang_ ) and the untranslatable _sanjiao_ . The _zang_ and _fu_ are considered as complementary in functions. It is characteristic of the physiological functions of the _zang_ systems to transform ( _shenghua_ ) and store ( _zhucang_ ) vital essence and energy ( _jingqi_ ) and characteristic of the functions of the six _fu_ viscera to accept, digest, transmit, and separate the water and food ( _shuigu_ ). As shown in table 4.1, the five _zang_ and the six _fu_ systems join each other to form a complex of functions that links \"all parts of the body in processes of producing normal and pathological effects.\" _Zhongyi_ physiology depends little on the knowledge of anatomy. _Zhongyi_ theory of visceral systems is called \" _zangxiangxue_ \" (studies of visceral system imagery) in which _zang_ refers to the dynamic and relational processes of visceral systems of a living body and _xiang_ to be observable manifestations of the functions of the visceral processes. The Chinese medical theory stresses that the viscera in _zangxiangxue_ are not anatomic concepts. \"Most importantly they are the concepts that generalize the physiological and pathological functions of the bodily systems.\" The phenomena that _zhongyi_ investigates are different from those of biomedicine. When a Chinese medical doctor is taking a pulse ( _qiemai_ ), the attention is not on the pulse or the rhythmic dilating and contracting of arteries but on the movement of _mai_ \u2014the flow of _qi_ and _xue_ (blood) that sometimes resembles \"a pearl rolling on a plate\" and sometimes \"water gushing out of a spring,\" registering the status of function and coordination of the visceral systems at the moment.\n\nThe physiological correlations elaborated in _zangxiangxue_ appear at several levels. First, each _zang_ corresponds to a particular _fu_ and interacts with other _zang_ systems according to the _wuxing_ sequence of influence to form a functional network of physiology. At another level, each _zang_ system has its manifested configurations that are specifically related to certain sensual organs or surface openings to form continuity from the inside to the outside. For example, the tongue ( _she_ ) is called \"the seedling of the heart.\" Changes in physiological functions of the heart system are said to manifest not only in color and coating of the tongue but also in taste and speaking. We can still find another level of correlation. The physiological functions of the five _zang_ systems are closely associated with human mental or \"brain\" activities including cognition and emotions. The heart is said to store _sh\u00e9n_ (spirit\/consciousness) and is associated with the emotion of _xi_ (joy, happiness); the liver system is said to store _xue_ (blood) and _hun_ (ethereal soul) and is associated with the emotion of _nu_ (anger, rage). Therefore, _zangxiangxue_ of Chinese medicine not only specifies that the physiological functions of the five _zang_ systems and the six _fu_ systems are interconnected and that their equilibrium and harmony are essential for a healthy process of _shenti_ but also indicates that the physiological network extends to include the mental and social environments through the demonstrated continuity from inside to outside and from _zangfu_ systems to mental and emotional aspects of a person. Thus, the _zangxiang_ system in fact implies a larger physiology of body-person that goes beyond the boundary of \"physical body.\" This holistic physiology is the basic logic underlying _zhongyi's_ approach to _qingzhi_ disorders.\n\nTable 4.1 Summary of the Functions of the Five Visceral Systems\n\nThe physiology of the _zangfu_ systems is systematized in terms of _wuxing_ (the five transformative phases) into complicated cycles of production ( _sheng_ ) and restraint ( _ke_ ). Emotions, though viewed directly relevant to the heart system, are assigned separately to each one of the five visceral systems and are therefore subject to the same logic of interactions.\n\n## The Five Transformative Phases\n\nLike _yin-yang_ theory, \" _wuxing_ \" is another ancient Chinese philosophical concept that has been integrated into the theoretical foundation of traditional Chinese medicine. _Wuxing_ are the characteristic activities of the five phases: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Because of the materialistic appearance of the five elements, it was routinely translated as the \"five elements\" and seen as comparable to the Greek four elements of earth, air, fire, and water, which are the ultimate roots of all natural things. However, as Sivin points out, _wuxing_ are not elements in an \"Aristotelian and medieval European form\" but are \"primarily concerned with process and change.\" What links the five materials in nature to the five transformative phases is not what the five materials essentially are but what are observed to be characteristics of the former. Therefore, the wood phase of _wuxing_ is characterized by the functions of growing ( _sheng-zhang_ ), dispersing upward and outward ( _shengfa_ ), and stretching and extending ( _tiaoda shuchang_ ). The fire phase is characterized by the functions of warming ( _wenxu_ ) and rising ( _shengteng_ ). The earth phase is characterized by the functions of transforming ( _shenghua_ ), carrying ( _chengzai_ ), and absorbing ( _shouna_ ). The metal phase is noted for the functions of clearing ( _qingjie_ ) and contracting ( _shoulian_ ). Finally, the water phase is characterized as cooling ( _hanliang_ ), moisturizing ( _zirun_ ), and moving smoothly downward ( _runxia_ ). All the effects that are perceived as characterized by the similar processes can be described with their respective phases. Thus the functions of the five- _zang_ visceral organs are described in the language of _wuxing_.\n\nSince the five phases are characteristically understood as processes and functions, what is important is not substance but relations: how each phase, in its own way, acts on other phases according to certain sequences. The forms of interactions are known as production ( _sheng_ ), restraint ( _ke_ ), violation ( _hui_ ) and encroachment ( _cheng_ ). Production means promotion of the function of the next phase in the sequence. The sequence of production of the five phases is the following: wood produces fire, fire produces earth, earth produces metal, and metal produces wood. In human physiological terms, the liver system facilitates the function of the heart system, the heart systems facilitates the spleen system, and so on. The sequence of restraint is the following: wood restrains earth, earth restrains water, water restrains fire, fire restrains metal, and metal restrains wood. Again, in physiological terms, the activities of the liver system restrain the activities of the spleen system, the spleen system restrains the kidney system, and so on.\n\nTable 4.2 _Wuxing_ and the Five- _Zang_ Systems\n\n_Five Zang Systems_ | _Wuxing_ | _Characteristics_ \n---|---|--- \nthe Heart ( _xin_ )| Fire| Governing the flow of blood, having a warming function ( _wenxuzhigong_ ). \nthe Spleen ( _pi_ )| Earth| Transforming the water & food ( _yunhua shuiguo_ ), transfer refined nutrients ( _shusong jingwei_ ), nourishing viscera and limbs and bones. Sources of generation of blood and _qi_. \nthe Lungs ( _fei_ )| Metal| Clearing and dredging ( _shujiang_ ). \nthe Kidneys ( _shen_ )| Water| Moisturizing, cooling, moving downward, and constraining. \nthe Liver ( _gan_ )| Wood| Extending and reaching out ( _xi tiaoda_ ), having function of spreading, and dredging ( _shuxie gongneng_ ). \nThis table is based on Yin et al. 1983.\n\nTherefore, every single phase stands in four-way relations: producing and produced, restraining and restrained. For example, wood produces fire and is produced by water; it restrains earth but is restrained by metal. It is understood that through these interactions of generation and restraint the world obtains its harmony and balance. Yet Chinese are constantly aware that any of these activities may surpass its _du_ (appropriate degree\/intensity) and become excessive or may fall short in its _du_ and become insufficient. This is when encroachment ( _cheng_ ) and violation ( _hui_ ) happen. For example, when the wood phase becomes too strong, it may exercise too much restraint on earth and weaken the function of the earth. This is known as encroachment. This may also happen when the activities of a phase are not sufficient and thus invite overrestraint. Violation happens when an overactive phase turns to suppress the function of the phase that is above it in the sequence of production. The result will be pathological imbalance. In this network of mutual influence, \"a disorder appearing in one system can quickly ramify into others and produce symptoms implicating additional visceral systems or even masking the role of the visceral system that is its primary source.\" In any given case, there are many possible positions for analyzing the pathological condition. The clinical action in this sense is always personal and contingent on the doctor's experience and strength.\n\nFigure 4.1 The Sequence of Production and Restriction\n\nHowever, _wuxing_ reasoning together with _yin-yang_ theory provides a unifying language and a practical guide for mapping the illness condition, anticipating the pathological development, and designing a therapy to effect a treatment. It certainly helped me to understand the _zhongyi_ clinical language and to grasp the logic behind the doctors' clinical actions. I was impressed by Dr. Zhou's ability to tell the patients what symptoms they might have been experiencing and to get wholehearted confirmation from the patients. Once a surprised female patient asked Dr. Zhou how he could possibly know that she experienced lower abdominal pain and irregular menstruation before she told him, especially considering that he was a male doctor. Dr. Zhou laughed and said that knowledge came from his experience ( _jingyan_ ). He explained to me and his student doctors that an incompetent doctor sees a symptom as an isolated phenomenon, but no symptom appears in isolation. Since all the visceral systems are interconnected, certain symptoms always appear in correlation with others. For example, when the liver system is stagnant ( _ganyu_ ), a doctor should pay attention to the symptoms from the heart system. This is because, according to the _wuxing_ model, the liver system as a wood phase facilitates the functions of the heart system, which is fire and will therefore possibly transmit the illness to the heart system. This is known as \"the mother's sickness transmitted to the son\" ( _mu bing ji zi_ )\" So when the blood in the liver system is stagnant, it will fail to nurture ( _ruyang_ ) the heart. Since the heart stores _sh\u00e9n_ (spirit, manifested vitalities), when the heart _yin_ is deficient, _sh\u00e9n_ may lose its attachment ( _shen shi suo gui_ ), and the patient may experience insomnia, excessive dreams, or difficulty in concentration. Similarly, when the liver system is replete with fire ( _ganhuo wang_ ), a doctor might need to think about the kidney system. It might be the deficiency of the kidney _yin_ that results in excessive fire in the liver system. This is called \"the water failing to immerse the wood\" ( _shui bu han mu_ ). Dr. Zhou used a pot of boiling water as an example:\n\nWhen we hear the loud sound of the boiling water and see the enormous amount of steam coming out of the pot, we tend to think of the temperature as the only factor. But it is very likely that there is little water in the pot. In fact, less water will make a louder sound and more steam. What we do is to add water. This is called \"adding water to immerse the wood\" ( _zishui hanmu_ ). Clinically, this is to nourish the kidney _yin_ to soften the liver system.\n\n_Wuxing_ reasoning has a particular role in treating emotional disorders. Since the emotions are said to be correspondent to specific functions of different visceral organ systems, they are also accountable in terms of the _wuxing_ relationships. As shown in figure 4.3, sadness\/grief is the emotion of the lungs, therefore, belonging to the phase of metal. Anger is the emotion of the liver, therefore, its mode is \"metallic.\" According to the conquering or restraining sequence that metallic overcomes the wooden, the emotion of sadness\/grief is said to overcome the emotion of anger. So when a person is excessively angry, bringing out the sadness may lessen the anger and thereby reduce the related symptoms. Such an emotional way of treating emotions is known as \"treating emotions with emotions\" ( _yi qing sheng qing_ ), which can be found in the earliest medical records. According to _Neijing: Suwen_ \"anger hurts the liver, sadness overcomes it; . . . joy hurts the heart, fear overcomes it; . . . worry\/thinking hurts the spleen, anger overcomes it; sadness hurts the lungs, joy overcomes it; fear hurts the kidneys, worry\/thinking overcomes it.\" Zhu Danxi (1281\u201358), a famous Yuan physician, was recognized for his skill at handling emotion-related disorders. One of Zhu's cases was retold by Zhang Jiebin (1560\u20131640), a renowned Ming physician, in his medical work, _Jingyue Quanshu: Yuzheng Mo_ : ( _Complete Collection of Jingyue: Yu Illnesses_ ):\n\nAfter a girl was engaged, her fiance went away on business. For two years, he had been away. Because of this, the girl did not eat and was lying in bed as if she was _chi_ (of dementia). She had no other symptoms but lying in the bed facing the wall. This was due to the fact that her persistent longing and thinking ( _si_ ) caused _qi_ to congeal ( _jie_ ). Medicine could not be effective by itself. [The doctor reasoned] that when there was joy ( _xi_ ), the illness could be remitted, or she could be made angry so that the _qi_ of wood could rise and extend and the _qi_ of spleen would open. This was because wood could restrain earth. Therefore, the physician went to the girl and provoked her into rage. She cried for quite a long time and was given a bag of herbal medicine. After that, the girl asked for food. Though her illness was remitted, only joy could cure her completely. Therefore, an arrangement was made for her fianc\u00e9 to return. After that, the illness did not recur.\n\nZhang Congzheng (1156\u20131228), a physician of the Yuan, was also known to be good at using emotions to treat emotions (see table 4.3). The following are two cases from his book _Rumen Shiqin_ (The Confucian Way of Caring for One's Parents, compiled during 1217\u201321):\n\nGuan's wife had a strange illness. She did not eat and had a bad temper. She was often heard shouting angrily. Many doctors were invited but failed to cure her. Zhang was invited. After an examination, he told the husband that his wife's illness could not be cured only by medicine, but had to use the methods of \"curing emotion with an emotion.\" Then two actor\/dancers were invited. They put on makeup and performed in front of the wife. The patient was induced to laugh. The second day, these two actors put on makeup and performed wrestling. This made the patient laugh unceasingly. At the same time, the doctor had two women with good appetites sitting beside the wife. While eating joyfully, they complimented each course of food. By this, the patient began to want food. After a few days, her appetite improved, and her anger was cured too.\n\nTable 4.3 Emotions and Counteremotions\n\nAnother case involved a wife from a rich family who suffered insomnia for three years. No medicine was effective.\n\nDoctor Zhang Congzheng was invited. He diagnosed that the illness was the result of excessive worrying and thinking due to the task of taking care of a large extended family. He decided that the illness could only be cured by emotion. He arranged a cure with the husband. The doctor accepted a lot of money from the husband and in front of the wife, lived and feasted in the house for days, and left without leaving a single prescription. The wife was outraged and then began sweating. That very night she fell into a deep sleep and did not get up for eight to nine days. After that, the wife was cured. This is the case of \"anger overcomes worry.\"\n\nThis ancient method of emotion being cured by counteremotion can still be found in contemporary _zhongyi_ practice. An author of a popularized _zhongyi_ book tells the story of his own experience in treating a pregnant female patient. The patient came to seek help for her obsession with a past experience. She was troubled by the image of her high school male teacher who had hugged her in an inappropriate way. The image of this teacher refused to go away. Drawing on theories that _xi_ (usually translated as \"joy,\" but here is better translated as \"excitement\") that injures the heart can be overcome by fear and mitigated by anger, the author (the doctor) began by accusing the teacher of having made an unforgivable mistake and being irresponsible. Doing this, he managed to make the woman angry at the teacher. Then he started to point out that she had a loving husband and was expecting a baby and asked her to think about the consequence for her coming baby and her family if she indulged herself in unrealistic fantasy. By resorting to the emotion of anger and fear, the author successfully helped the patient to let go of the past.\n\n## _Qingzhi_ and Transformative _Qi_\n\nWhat is really transformative in _zhongyi_ physiology is _qi_ which is translated variously as \"air,\" \"breath,\" and \"vital energy\". _Qi_ is defined in contemporary _zhongyi_ textbooks as \"the material basis of life.\" Since _qi_ itself is constantly in motion and in transformation, and it promotes ( _tuidong_ ) the activities of life and functions to warm up ( _wenxu_ ) the body, _zhongyi_ explains human physiological changes and activities in reference to the changes and transformations of _qi_. Although _qi_ is defined as \"material,\" yet it is not a tangible or measurable entity. What is central about _qi_ is what it does\u2014its functions. They are summarized as promoting ( _tuidong_ ) human physiological activities, keeping up ( _wenxu_ ) the body's temperature, defending ( _fangyu_ ) the body from the invasion of \"heteropathic _qi_ \" ( _xieqi_ ), reinforcing and conserving ( _gushe_ ) the vital substance of the body, and transforming ( _qihua_ ) bodily substances. Normal functions are achieved through orderly motions of _qi_ characterized as moving up, going down, coming in, and going out. The dynamic balance is upset if the certain _qi_ is supposed to go up but goes down instead, or if certain _qi_ moves too fast or too slow. For example, the heart _qi_ goes down, while the kidney _qi_ is going up. The liver _qi_ spreads out while the lung _qi_ clears downward. When the movement of _qi_ is obstructed, the result is the disordered _qi_ mechanism, such as stagnation, congestion, blockage, and closure of _qi_ , which lead to all kinds of somatic and psychological symptoms.\n\n_Qingzhi_ functions are also understood in terms of _qi_ transformations. The emotional impact on bodily processes is not significant in terms of chemical changes but in terms of altered _qi_ movement. For example, when angry, _qi_ moves up; when happy, _qi_ is relaxed; when sad, _qi_ is dissipated; when scared, _qi_ moves down; when startled, _qi_ is disturbed; and when thinking too hard, _qi_ tends to congeal. Excessive emotional activities are said to upset the normal motion of _qi_ relevant to its specific visceral functions. Once excessive emotions are sustained for long, the circulation of _qi_ is obstructed, and the functions of visceral systems are disturbed, which results in various physical and psychological symptoms. With excessive emotions as clear illness factors, the disorders are very likely described as _qingzhi bing_ (emotion-related disorders). However, the _zhongyi_ clinical process understood as \"differentiating patterns and determining treatment\" ( _bianzheng lunzhi_ ) should not be confused with the diagnostic process found in biomedical settings as labeling the disease and matching it with a standardized treatment. The following chapters focus on the _zhongyi_ clinical process of _bianzheng lunzhi_ and discuss how a particular diagnosis is arrived at and a treatment is determined.\nV\n\nUnderstanding _Zhongyi_ Clinical Classification\n\nWhen I first started my fieldwork at the hospital, I was confident that through my participant observation in the actual clinic settings, the picture of _qingzhi bing_ (emotion-related disorders) would present itself clearly to me and that it would not be difficult for me to define and classify various _qingzhi_ disorders according to how they are organized in actual clinical settings. I remember that I was anxiously waiting for the doctor to give a diagnosis after he examined the patients. I was concerned about how a group of symptoms were associated with a particular illness and if this particular illness was considered a _qingzhi_ disorder. To my great disappointment, despite my diligent notetaking, these two categories of information remained mostly blank in my notes. I noticed that diagnosis in terms of labeling an illness was not a necessary part of _zhongyi_ clinical process at all, and it did not make a significant difference in determining therapy if a given illness was a _qingzhi_ disorder or not. Several times, I directly asked the doctor exactly what illness he was diagnosing or treating. This was apparently a layperson's ( _waihang_ ) question, for the doctor would answer my question as he did those patients who pressed for an illness name. He would say that according to Western medicine, it was neurosis ( _shenjing guanneng zheng_ , literally, \"nerves functional disorder\") or \"vegetation nerves out of balance\" ( _zhiwushenjing shitiao_ ). Answers to my question of whether a case belonged to the category of _qingzhi bing_ were usually ambiguous. Frequently, I was told that a certain case was related to _qingzhi._\n\nNot until sometime into my clinical observation did I begin to realize that the whole time I was trying to read the _zhongyi_ clinical process in terms of the \"biomedical way of thinking\" ( _xiyi siwei fangshi_ ),\" which my _zhongyi_ teacher had cautioned against at the very beginning of my clinical observation. I automatically assumed that _zhongyi_ clinical work would lead to the diagnosis of an illness based on the presence or absence of certain distinctive symptoms and the matching of the illness with an herbal prescription. Apparently, _zhongyi_ diagnosis does not always involve creating a clear-cut taxonomy by appealing to a few distinctive features that mark phenomena belonging to the same category. The classificatory logic of the _zhongyi_ clinical process that transforms the disordered _qingzhi_ into an ordered pattern of an illness needs to be understood in light of a different mode or tradition of knowing. The focus of this tradition has been preeminently eventful or processual as discussed in the previous chapters. It is not that _zhongyi_ clinicians are not able to understand the world structurally, but rather that their priority has been given to movements ( _dong_ ) and changes ( _bianhua_ ). Scientific rigor and structural intelligibility have to give way to the readiness of accounting for dynamic relations and situational concreteness.\n\nThe central part of _zhongyi_ clinical work is summarized as _bianzheng lunzhi_ (pattern differentiation and therapy determination) or _bianzheng shizhi_ (pattern differentiation and therapy application) in contemporary _zhongyi_ writings. _Bianzheng_ is to differentiate patterns of syndromes and therefore is a form of _zhongyi_ classificatory technique. Determination of an effective therapeutic action ( _lunzhi_ ) depends on accurate _bianzheng._ A textbook starts with:\n\nOne distinctive feature of _zhongyi_ clinical process of treating illnesses is _bianzheng lunzhi._ The practice of so-called \"treating same illness with different therapies\" ( _tong bing yi zhi_ ) and \"treating different illnesses with the same therapies\" ( _yi bing tong zhi_ ) takes _zheng_ (patterns\/ syndromes) as its basis. Therapies change when _zheng_ changes.... The focus is all on _zheng,_ also known as _zhenghou._ 1\n\nThe Chinese medical concept of \" _zheng_ \" is not the same as the biomedical concept of \"syndrome\". Similarly, _bing_ is not the _zhongyi_ equivalent of disease. To understand the pivotal process of _bianzheng luzhi,_ we need to understand a set of related concepts: _\"zheng\"_ (symptoms\/signs), _\"zheng\"_ or _\"zhenghou\"_ (patterns), and _\"bing\"_ (illness\/disorder). Judith Farqhuar's _Knowing Practice_ (1994) offers a detailed and systematic analysis of the clinical process of syndrome\/pattern differentiation and therapy determination. Her analysis of the temporal form of _kanbing_ (looking at the illness) is particularly relevant to my description of _zhongyi_ classification. In the following passages, especially in those discussing symptom and syndrome differentiation, her work is frequently referenced. Scheid's recent book has one chapter on _bianzheng lunzhi,_ which offers a detailed account of the modern evolution of the concept and is also an important source of reference for the analysis in this chapter.\n\n# _ZHENG_ (SYMPTOMS), _ZHENG_ (PATTERNS), AND _BING_ (ILLNESSES\/DISORDERS)\n\nIn contemporary _zhongyi_ texts, _zheng_ (symptom), _zheng_ (pattern), and _bing_ (illness\/disorder) are discussed as three different but related medical concepts. They all reflect pathological conditions resulting from \"loss of yin-yang balance of lived body\" ( _renti zishen de yinyang pingheng_ ) and \"disturbed equilibrium between internal and external environments\" ( _nei-wai huanjing tongyi xing zhang'ai_ ) but have differential significance in relation to the clinical process of diagnosis.\n\nThe term _zheng_ (symptom) refers to various anomalies ( _yizhang ganjue_ ) experienced by the patient and external manifestations ( _waibu biaoxian_ ) of pathological changes observed by the doctor. They provide the basis for the doctor to differentiate patterns and diagnose illnesses. Farquhar makes a further distinction between _zheng_ (signs) and _zheng_ (symptoms). Not following the conventional biomedical distinction between \"objective signs\" and \"subjective symptoms,\" Farquhar's separation of _zheng_ (signs) from _zheng_ (symptoms) is rather temporal. _Zheng_ are signs initially reported and presented to the doctor by the patient or directly elicited from the patient by the doctor. The signs of illness are then processed by the doctor and turned into \"medicalized\" _zheng_ (symptoms), which bear conventional medical implications. In a biomedical setting, the distinction might be more significant since some of the signs may not be taken as relevant symptoms of a particular disease. In a _zhongyi_ clinic, what the patient reports and what the doctor takes as symptoms are not significantly different, and the temporal transition from signs to symptoms is usually unmarked. _Zhongyi_ physicians do not categorically separate (sign) from the symptom, but rather use _zheng_ (symptom) to mean both signs and symptoms. Symptoms recognized in a _zhongyi_ clinic, such as \"palpitation\" ( _xinhuang_ ), \"shortness of breath\" ( _qiduan_ ), or \"restlessness\" ( _zuowo bu an_ ), are very much descriptive and experiential, and the patient's voice remains authoritative regarding what are medically significant symptoms. Farquhar also recognizes that the patient's own narrative of his illness \"plays a major role in delimiting the nature of the illness for both doctor and patient.\" In _zhongyi_ clinics, a patient is invited to report on whatever signs and symptoms she or he experiences. Any reported symptom is accepted as legitimate and contributing to the understanding of the whole pathological condition. This contrasts sharply with the clinical process in a biomedical hospital, where since a disease is understood as a discrete entity with clear boundaries, only certain signs and symptoms are accepted as legitimate or relevant.\n\nAn incident that happened to one of my friends brought me to this awareness. He had an acute migraine and was introduced to a doctor working at a prestigious biomedical hospital in Beijing. Afterward when I talked to the doctor, the doctor asked if my friend was really a college professor and said that he behaved like an old peasant who did not know how to _kanbing_ (look at illness). My friend complained about a headache and then moved on to talk about his back pain and then jumped to complain about his stomach and later mentioned his vexation and irritability and his sweaty hands and feet. The doctor had to remind him what he was there for. In a disease-oriented biomedical clinic, sweaty hands and feet are perceived as bearing little relevance to a of migraine. However, in _zhongyi_ clinics, such patient behavior is perfectly normal and expected. Not just common complaints, but idiosyncratic complaints are also treated with the same seriousness. Once I was amused by a patient who complained that he could feel his heart beat everywhere on his body, and he insisted that wherever on his body he touched, he could count his heartbeat. Afterward, the doctor seriously said to me that we healthy people may never experience what a patient experiences, but that does not mean what the patient experiences is not real or relevant.\n\n_Zheng_ (symptoms) are subject to further abstraction and generalization and are made \"amenable to perception as a pattern.\" This pattern is then called _\"zheng\"_ ( ). The step from _zheng_ (symptoms) to _zheng_ (pattern\/syndrome) is referred to as _\"bianzheng\"_ (pattern differentiation). This _zheng_ is also called _\"zhenghou\"_ , where the second character implies a configuration of various factors observed over a period of time. The same character is used in the term _qihou_ (climate). Based on the pattern of the syndrome, a therapeutic method is determined, which is known as _lunzhi_ (therapy determination). Together, this process is referred to as _\"bianzheng lunzhi\"_ or simply _\"zhengzhi\"_ (syndrome differentiation and therapy determination). Different from symptoms and illnesses, _zheng,_ as syndrome configurations, refers more to \"patterns of history\" that \"characterize a group of symptoms typical of a particular condition or disturbance\" than to the \"structure of the body or disease.\"\n\nThe classificatory principles of the clinical process of _bianzheng_ (differentiation of patterns) summarized in contemporary _zhongyi_ textbooks include \"the eight rubrics differentiation\" ( _bagang bianzheng_ ), \"the visceral system functions differentiation\" ( _zangfu bianzheng_ ), \"illness factors differentiation\" ( _bingyin bianzheng_ ), \"six types differentiation\" ( _liujing bianzheng_ ), and \"defensive, active, constructive, and blood _qi_ differentiation\" ( _wei, qi, ying, xue bianzheng_ ). Of all these aspects for consideration, the eight rubrics are basic differentiation guidelines known as determining \"the core syndrome patterns\" ( _hexin zhenghou_ ). The eight rubrics consist of four pairs of polaric relations: yin and yang, exterior ( _biao_ ) and interior ( _li_ ), cold ( _han_ ) and hot (re ), and depleted ( _xu_ ) and replete ( _shi_ ). This system of pattern differentiation is said to reflect the quality or nature of an illness ( _bing xing_ ). Liu Yanchi summarizes the eight guiding principles of differentiation as\n\n\u2022 _yin_ and _yang,_ which describe the general type of the illness.\n\n\u2022 interior and exterior, which describe the location of the illness.\n\n\u2022 cold and heat, which describe the specific nature of the illness.\n\n\u2022 deficiency and excess, which describe the state of the struggle between anti-pathogenic _qi_ and the pathogenic factor.\n\nThese guidelines provide the preliminary dimensions for organizing symptoms. Yet not only do these differentiation methods allow many different combinations, but also the qualities of _yin_ and _yang_ constantly shift so that the exterior may move inward and the interior outward, and repletion may turn into depletion. In addition, from either end of a polaric pair, there is continuity and difference in degree. Therefore, any syndrome differentiation according to the eight guidelines is a description of an illness condition in time. The actual clinical differentiation of syndromes is always flexible. As is generally recognized by _zhongyi_ doctors, \"the principle of suiting the measures to the specific conditions of the person, the illness, the time and space, ... is not only clinically necessary, but is also where the quintessence of _zhongyi'_ s way of thinking lies.\"\n\nIn addition to the eight rubrics as basic diagnostic methods for the differentiation of syndromes, the states of _qi_ and _xue_ (blood) are also most frequently considered dimensions in the process of pattern differentiation. Together with the eight principles, they are considered as reflecting the quality and nature of an illness process. For _qi,_ the considerations are on its movement: deficient ( _xu_ ), sinking ( _xian_ ), stagnation ( _zhi_ ), or adverse ( _ni_ ), and so on. For blood, similarly, the qualities of its flow and functions are considered, such as deficiency, stagnancy, and congestion.\n\nA group of symptoms can also be subject to further differentiation according to the dimensions of the visceral functions. This process of differentiation is said to describe the illness location ( _bingwei_ ). A basic name for any syndrome differentiation at least includes two types of information, that is, the nature and the location of a disorder. For example, the syndrome of liver stagnation ( _ganyu_ ) uses two characters to describe the nature of the disorder, which is the stagnant flow of _qi_ and the affected visceral system, the liver. Other aspects are also involved in the process of differentiation of patterns, such as illness-factor differentiation ( _bingyin bianzheng_ ), which includes the factors of the six excesses ( _liu yin_ ): wind, cold, heat, dampness, dryness, and fire, and the seven emotions ( _qiqing_ ). There are always more aspects to look at as is necessary in the real clinical situation. As we discern more dimensions for consideration, it becomes more difficult to construct an unambiguous taxonomical hierarchy. In fact, the different methods of _zhenghou_ differentiation should not be understood as taxonomic. They are best understood as practical and pedagogical guidelines for clinical actions, as Farquhar argues. They offer various dimensions for clinicians to think about and to refer to when mapping out the underlying conditions of physiological and pathological changes and when designing therapeutic principles and formula.\n\nThere are endless possibilities in terms of clinical manifestations and the direction of an illness's development over time. The doctor's understanding of the nature of a particular pattern and its possible transformation, and the methods of intervention available to deploy, rely heavily on an individual doctor's knowledge, experience with similar symptom configurations, and flexibility and creativity.\n\nAs Farquhar points out, the _zhongyi_ clinical work\n\nentails a great attentiveness to temporality, an understanding of illness developments and healing techniques as process. This stands in contrast to a medicine of anatomical structures and fixed lesions, reductive causality, and mechanical influence.... A focus on the clinical work of Chinese medicine that privileges the practical and the temporal reveals Chinese medical classification as a method of deploying material from the medical archive within specific projects of healing, a continuing subordination of formalized knowledge to the concrete demands of the moment.\n\nThe attentiveness to temporality and processual nature of differentiation of syndrome patterns also characterizes _zhongyi_ classificatory logic and methods. In view of the language of _yinyang_ and the five transformative phases that characterize the dynamic network of Chinese psychophysiology and pathology, any classificatory statement is a temporal and spatial description of dynamic configurations of the manifestations of an illness condition. Such configurations captured at one time are subject to constant reconfigurations. Thus one _zheng_ may shift to another.\n\n_Zhenghou_ thus conceptualized poses a fundamental difficulty for standardization of pattern differentiations based on the modern scientific classificatory systems that underlie the biomedical diagnosis of disease. In the last two decades, _zhongyi_ scholars have shown increased concerns as to how to make classification of _zhenghou_ more scientifically rigorous and at the same time to retain its characteristics of flexibility, concreteness, and pragmaticity. By the standards of modern scientific nosological principles, the present practices require considerable improvement. In fact, continuous attempts have been made to standardize the concepts and classification of _zhenghou._ 20 Yet it is also realized that if _zhongyi_ adopts modern nosological principles to bring differentiation of patterns of syndromes closer to modern scientific classification as has been pushed and experimented recently, these highly systematic and standardized categories and types, though more accessible to students in modern classroom learning, will then be more arbitrary ( _renwei xing_ ), will be less reflective of the complexity of actual interrelatedness and transformations among symptoms and syndrome patterns, and most of all, will detach the classification from the concrete clinical work that takes practice as its guide.\n\nMany contemporary debates of _bianzheng_ involve distinctions and relations between _zheng_ (patterns\/syndromes) and _bing_ (illness\/disorder). _Bing_ is also called _\"jibing\"_ , which is more formal. Roughly, there have been about four thousand illness names recognized in _zhongyi._ 23 Some of these illness names still have value and are used in today's zhongyi clinics. In fact, a typical textbook of _zhongyi_ internal medicine ( _neike_ ) is organized according to illness names. However, _zhongyi_ illness names are not clearly defined categories based on a set of consistent criteria and systematic methods. _Bing_ (illness\/disorder), _zheng_ (symptoms), and _zheng_ (pattern\/syndromes) in many cases are not mutually exclusive categories. For example, cough ( _kesou_ ) and palpitation ( _xinji_ ) are referred to as _\"bing\"_ in _zhongyi_ textbooks, but they are not completely different from symptoms. Sometimes illness names are used to indicate patterns and syndromes. For example, the six cold damage illnesses ( _shanghan liujing bing_ ) are talked about as _bing,_ but many scholars and physicians see them as _zheng_ (patterns) reminiscent of the eight rubrics. At other times, the names of _zheng_ (patterns) are used to designate _bing_ (illnesses), such as block of dampness ( _shizu_ ) and liver _qi_ stagnation ( _ganyu_ ). Occasionally, one illness name corresponds to only one pattern, and \"differentiation of illness\" then equals \"differentiation of patterns.\" According to Chen Xiaoye, the distinction between _zheng_ and _bing_ is relative, and they are not categorically different concepts. When a condition is talked about as \"an object of investigation\" ( _renshi duixiang_ ), it is habitually referred to as _\"bing,\"_ but as \"the result of investigation\" ( ), it is more likely to be referred to as _\"zheng.\"_ 27 The difference is rather positional than conceptual.\n\nA pathological condition may be described as _bing_ or _zheng,_ but when coming to determination of treatment ( _lunzhi_ ) and designing drug formulas ( _nifang yong yao_ ), it is the differentiation of _ben_ (the root) of the disorder experienced by the particular patient that matters most. This _ben_ as \"the result of a medical investigation\" captures the temporal and concrete pathological changes manifested in a particular patient and at a particular stage and is very often presented in the language of \"yin-yang imbalance\" ( _yin-yang shitiao_ ), \"the relative advances and retreats between the body's own orthopathic and heteropathic forces\" ( _zheng-xie xiaozhang_ ), and \"patterns of bodily functional changes\" ( _jineng bianhua tedian_ ). In this sense, the _ben_ of a disorder corresponds largely to contemporary _zhongyi_ articulation of _zheng_ (patterns). Chen Xiaoye, in his article on the uniformity of _zheng_ (pattern) and _bing_ (illness), also argues that there have not been two separate systems of _bianzheng_ (differentiation of patterns) versus _bianbing_ (differentiation of illnesses) in _zhongyi_ diagnostics. Diagnosis in terms of illness names in _zhongyi_ then is not as significant as in biomedicine. It bears little relevance in determining a specific treatment. As long as the doctor can reach an accurate _bianzheng_ (pattern differentiation), a therapeutic strategy can be determined and a remedy can be found. Very often, illness names are left out of the doctor's written records, which routinely include key symptoms, differentiation of syndrome patterns, therapeutic principles, and herb prescriptions.\n\n# REDEFINING _BIANZHENG LUNZHI_\n\nNothing is superficial about _zhongyi'_ s claim that _bianzheng lunzhi_ (differentiating patterns and determining therapies) is a defining feature _of zhongyi_ clinical practice and that _bian zheng_ is fundamentally different from _bian bing_ when _bing_ is defined in the biomedical sense of disease. Contemporary _zhongyi_ scholars trace the theorized practice of _bianzheng lunzhi_ to _Shanghan Zabing Lun_ (Discussions of Cold Damage and Various Disorders) by the East Han scholar-physician Zhang Zhongjing (150-219 AD). This classic treatise is said to have established the principle of _bianzheng lunzhi._ The procedure of differentiating patterns and determining specific herbal formulas based on _\"liujing\"_ (the six types) contains core elements similar to _\"ba gang bianzheng\"_ (the eight rubrics differentiation) outlined in contemporary _zhongyi_ texts. However, the use of the terms of _bing_ (illnesses) and _zheng_ (patterns) was not systematically defined. Disorders were grouped and named generally as _bing,_ and formulas were usually designated as _zheng-_ specific patterns of disorders ( _yi fang ming zheng_ ). The late Ming scholar-physician Zhang Jiebin (1560-1639) is another historical figure credited with major contributions to the development of the _bianzheng lunzhi_ principle. His pattern differentiation theory based on _\"liang gang\"_ (two rubrics of yin-yang) and _\"liubian\"_ (six variations of internal and external, depletion and repletion, and cold and hot) led to _\"bagang bianzheng\"_ (pattern differentiation based on the eight rubrics), one of the major methods of pattern differentiation used today. Other forms of differentiating patterns were also practiced and theorized in the history of Chinese medicine. Zhang Yuansu (1151\u20131234), the scholar-physician of Jin, is credited with establishing the theory of _\"zangfu bianzheng\"_ (pattern differentiation based on the visceral systems). The Qing scholar-physician Ye Tianshi (1667\u20131746) is recognized for developing the theory of _\"wei, qi, ying, xue bianzheng\"_ (differentiation based on defensive, active, constructive, and blood _qi_ ).\n\nIt seemed that generations of Chinese scholar-physicians used _'bing'_ (illness) and _'zheng'_ (pattern) flexibly in an unexamined manner and concerned themselves more with how to capture the temporal and spatial changes of a pathological process for the purpose of determining an effective therapy. Indeed, before the Western \"anatomoclinical medicine\" was introduced and spread in China in the early twentieth century, there seemed to be no compelling need to systematically distinguish _zheng_ (patterns) and _bing_ (illnesses) and no apparent reasons for Chinese scholar-physicians to reflect on distinctive features of their own profession. For them, tracing the problem to its sources ( _qiu ben_ ) through differentiating _yin-yang,_ interior and exterior, depletion and repletion, and environmental and other factors constituted \"the natural way of doing medicine\" (yidao ). Only when it was challenged by the unfamiliar and powerful knowledge system of \"the medical other\" did _zhongyi_ practitioners began to \"discover\" what was distinctive about the theory and practice of their own profession, and the distinctive meanings of Chinese medical concepts, including the diagnostics of _bianzheng,_ were then made available to consciousness.\n\nSimilarities and differences between _zhongyi_ and _xiyi_ became commonly debated issues in the 1920s and 30s in medical circles, such as, _zhongyi_ differentiates patterns ( _zhongyi bian zheng_ ), and Western medicine differentiates diseases ( _xiyi bian bing_ ). Zhang Xichun (1860\u20131933), the earliest advocate for \"integrating Chinese and Western medicine,\" stated \"the way western medicine uses drugs is to seek localized effect and the emphasis is on symptoms of an illness [ _bing zhi biao_ ]; the way Chinese medicine uses drugs is to seek the causes and the emphasis is on the roots of an illness _[bing zhi ben_ ]. Yun Tiejiao (1878-1935), another early advocate for integrating Chinese and Western medicine, also pointed out that the physiology of Western medicine is based on anatomy ( _xiyi zhi shengli yi jiepou_ ), and the physiology of Chinese medicine originated from the Inner Classics is based on transformation of _qi_ ( _\"Neijing\" zhi shengli yi qihua_ ). Against this historical background, _bianzheng lunzhi_ (differentiation of patterns and determination of therapies) began to emerge as the diagnostic principle that centrally reflects Chinese medical theory ( _yi li_ ) and defines its practice.\n\nHowever, it was not until 1958, in the first national textbook, _Zhongyixue Gailun_ (Outline of Chinese Medicine), that _bianzheng lunzhi_ as the defining feature of _zhongyi_ was first clearly stated. The reconstruction of _bianzheng lunzhi_ was made possible by the fundamental transformation in the _zhongyi_ profession in the 1950s. This included reorganization of space of _zhongyi_ practice into modern hospitals, a newly defined status of _zhongyi_ as comparable to biomedicine in the public health systems, the established relationship between the _zhongyi_ institution and the state, and the newly acquired vocabulary of \"dialectics\" ( _bianzhengfa_ ) to articulate _zhongyi_ theories and methods. Scheid argues that _bianzheng lunzhi_ became important because it accomplished several goals: allowing _zhongyi_ professionals to define their profession as categorically different from Western medicine and thus promising a possible solution for the integration of two medicines; establishing a connection with the cultural tradition that is politically appropriate; and facilitating the systematic teaching of Chinese medicine in the newly institutionalized _zhongyi_ education. For many veteran scholar-physicians, who had been instrumental to redefining _zhongyi_ before and after the 1950s, the concept of _bianzheng lunzhi_ quintessentially embodies _zhongyi siwei fangshi_ (way of thinking). From this way of thinking, illness is approached as an event of loss of equilibrium resulting from dynamic interactions between a person's own positive\/defensive ability ( _zheng_ ) and pathogenic forces ( _xie_ ), and treating illnesses entails using whatever way to alter the dynamics and to facilitate positive changes leading to gaining a new balance, that is, health.\n\n# _ZHONGYI_ ILLNESS NAMES AND _QINGZHI_ DISORDERS\n\nThe _zhongyi_ illness categorization is still considered valuable in diagnostics, despite several efforts to abolish the _zhongyi_ illness nosology and to adopt the more scientific disease classifications of biomedicine. Then, in what way is a _zhongyi_ illness name functional and meaningful? It should be clear that a _zhongyi_ illness name is not used in the same way as a is diagnosis in a biomedical setting, where a diagnosed disease is generally matched with a prescription of therapy with little consideration for an individual patient's psycho-physical and social particularities. However, _zhongyi lunzhi_ (determination of therapy) relies predominantly on differentiation of these particularities. According to the contemporary _zhongyi_ textbooks, illnesses ( _bing_ ) and patterns ( _zheng_ ) are practically related. A correctly diagnosed illness name can help the doctor to gain an overall understanding of changes of an entire pathological process and to determine a general therapeutic strategy. For instance, if a pathological condition is classified as \"phlem-rheum illness\" ( _tanyin bing_ ), a physician then knows that since all patterns of phlem-rheum illness are caused by _\"yin_ pathogenic factors\" ( _yin xie_ ) and are cold ( _han_ ) in nature, the general therapeutic strategy should be \"using warm drugs to harmonize it\" ( _yi wenyao he zhi_ ). Yet whether to use a warm drug or not or what warm drugs to use will have to be further determined based on differentiating particular patterns manifested on a particular patient. In addition, a correctly diagnosed illness can offer information on the possible direction of illness development so that a physician can anticipate the rise of certain problems in the course of treatment and take the anticipated problems into consideration in designing therapeutic strategies. For example, \"stagnation illness\" ( _yuzheng_ or _yubing_ ) includes various syndrome patterns that are perceived as resulting from disordered emotional or mental activities. It normally starts with the liver _qi_ stagnation ( _ganqi yujie_ ), which could lead to restrained functions of the spleen ( _ganyu yi pi_ ) and eventually to the depletion of the heart ( _xinyin kuixu_ ). When a problem is classified as a stagnation illness, although the current manifestations indicate that only the liver system is affected, an experienced doctor would consider the anticipated problems with the spleen or the heart in deciding on therapeutics.\n\nFrom the clinical point of view of _\"kanbing\"_ (looking at illness), an illness name also functions as a topic or a point of focus that both the patient and the doctor are oriented to while the doctor engages in studying various manifestations, tracing complicated connections and mapping out the pathological conditions. When the doctor translates the patient's complaint of \"unable to sleep\" ( _shuibuzhao jiao_ ) into an illness name \"insomnia\" ( _bumei_ ), he or she makes the \"topic\" medically relevant and makes available all the professional \"comments\" relevant to the topic, including accumulated experience ( _jingyan_ ) of the past. A _zhongyi_ illness name then is used as a resource rather than a constraint. By bringing an illness name into the diagnostic process, the physician juxtaposes the current case with the similar ones that were encountered and recorded by other scholar-physicians and derives an appropriate treatment strategy for the concrete case at hand through his personal synthesis based on all the information available to him. For instance, when a pathological manifestation is identified as \"the running pig _qi_ illness\" ( _bentunqi_ ) characterized by an experienced sensation of _a_ gust of _qi,_ like a running pig, dashing from the lower abdomen up to the throat, usually accompanied with a severe stomach ache, the physician then connects this particular case with a pool of relevant discursive comments and practical treatments. My _zhongyi_ teacher brought in discussions of _\"bentunqi\"_ (running pig _qi_ illness) in _Jingkui Yaolue_ (Essentials) of Golden Casket to impress his student doctors about using the classic knowledge as resources to facilitate one's clinical reasoning. Yet the identification of an illness as _bentunqi_ does not oblige the doctor to use Zhongjing's running pig _qi_ formula ( _bentun tang_ ) or \"strengthened cinnamon formula\" ( _guizhi jia gui tang_ ). The determination of an actual therapy depends on the physician's own analysis and synthesis of the information based on the particular case and patient.\n\nIn this sense, _qingzhi bing_ (emotion-related disorders), sometimes called _\"shenzhi bing\"_ (mind-related disorder), should not be understood as a particular disease entity but a _zhongyi_ illness term that groups various recurrent manifestation patterns that are viewed as typically having an excess of the seven emotions as the illness factors ( _bingyin_ ) and disturbed flow of _qi_ as the illness mechanism ( _bingji_ ).\n\nThe categorization of _qingzhi bing_ reflects the inconsistency and plurality of _zhongyi_ classification of illness names ( _bing ming_ ) _._ Some _zhongyi_ texts include the illnesses such as _dian_ (apathy\/despondence) and _kuang_ (maniac\/madness) in the category of _qingzhi_ disorders since these illnesses are perceived as mental\/emotional\/physiological abnormalities that also originated from disordered activities of the seven emotions. Others categorize _dian_ and _kuang_ separately from _qingzhi_ disorders. In the textbook _Zhongyi Internal Medicine_ ( _Zhongyi Neikexue_ ), _qingzhi_ is not used explicitly as an illness name, but _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness) and _diankuang_ (apathy and madness) are listed as separate illnesses. However, in the chapter on _yuzheng,_ other _qingzhi_ disorders such as _meiheqi_ (the plum pit _qi_ syndrome) and _bentunqi_ (running pig syndrome) are listed and discussed. In other words, _yuzheng_ is used in a broader sense to refer to typical _qingzhi_ disorders in general.\n\nI can certainly see the logic of this arrangement since the boundaries among _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness), _meiheqi_ (the plum pit _qi_ syndrome), and other _qingzhi-_ related disorders are not clear-cut. They are seen as specific illness conditions observed and summarized at a specific point of a pathological process related to disordered emotions. _Yu_ (stagnation of _qi_ ) frequently dominates the initial stage of this process. As has been repeatedly demonstrated, in the Chinese world of constant change and transformation, differences are seen more in terms of position in time and place. In fact, even _dian_ (apathy\/despondence) and _kuang_ (maniac\/madness) are not essentially different from _yuzheng._ The stagnant _qi_ may proceed to produce pathological phlegm that could \"blind the heart-mind\" ( _mengbi xinshen_ ) and cause \"chaotic mind\" ( _shenzhi niluan_ ) and \"agitation and restlessness\" ( _kuangzao buning_ ) characteristics of _diankuang._ Therefore, in the coming chapter I choose to focus on _yu_ (stagnation of _qi_ ) as the core meaning of _qingzhi_ disorders and show how other meanings in connection to _yu_ arise when the syndrome manifestation changes. The next chapter describes various clinical manifestations of _yu-_ related patterns of _qingzhi_ disorders.\nVI\n\nManifestations of _Yu_ (Stagnation)\n\nDuring the course of my clinical observation, I started to associate the specific patterns of disturbed _qi_ movement, particularly the liver _qi_ stagnation ( _ganqi yujie_ ) with _qingzhi_ disorders (see tables 5.2 and 5.3 for reference). It is also abbreviated as _\"ganyu.\"_ Sometimes it is referred to directly as \"stagnation syndrome\" ( _yuzheng_ ). A typical description _of ganqi yujie_ syndrome in a _zhongyi_ textbook starts:\n\n[Main symptoms]: dark complexion, low spirit, miserable facial expression, depressed mood, no aspiration, pessimistic, withdrawn, avoiding talking with people, feeling lonely, aversion to loud sound, restless, short tempered and feeling of fullness and swelling in the chest, lower abdomen discomfort and pain, pressure in stomach area, poor digestion and no appetite, irregular bowel movement, (female) irregular menstruation, menstruation pain and feelings of breasts swelling and pain, tongue coating thin and white sometimes with grease, pulse strung.\n\nThe clusters of the symptoms are presented as having their origins in human conditions, as the author's analysis goes on to show:\n\nThis syndrome pattern originates frequently from one's disappointment in getting what one seeks ( _suoqiu busui_ ), or one's failure to achieve his\/her goals ( _zhiyi buda_ ), or from wrongs with no channel of redress ( _yinqu nanshen_ ), thoughts and feelings tangled up without a solution ( _quyi nanjie_ ), or from being constantly worried, sad, and pensive ( _youchou silu_ ), or from anger and indignation ( _fenmen naonu_ ).\n\nThese illness factors, in fact, accompany _qingzhi_ disorders in general. Zhang Jingyue (1562\u20131639) wrote that an illness of stagnation caused by excessive worries and concerns ( _youyu_ ) has everything to do with daily worries and concerns relating to food, clothing, and personal interest. This chapter focuses particularly on _yu_ as the core meaning of _qingzhi_ disorders and explores various clinical manifestations associated with the pathological condition of stagnation of emotions.\n\n# UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF _\"YU\"_ (STAGNATION)\n\nAs discussed in chapter 3, a persistent tendency in Chinese thinking is to see motion and change ( _dong_ ) as generative of \"the myriad things\" of the world. In this world of ceaseless transformations, health is maintained by orderly flow and exchanges of the life forces of _jing_ (fine essence), _qi_ (life\/vital energy), and _xue_ (blood). According to Chinese medical theory, when the orderliness of bodily processes is upset ( _dong shi qi chang_ )\u2014for example, what is supposed to go up fails to go up and what is supposed to move down fails to move down\u2014the physiological circulations would be obstructed, and illness would arise. Seven unchecked emotive activities are the common reasons for the loss of dynamically maintained equilibrium of human physiology.\n\n_Neijing: Suwen (39):_ \"When thinking excessively ( _si_ ), thoughts are stored in the heart, concentrated in one place, whereby the orthopathic _qi_ stops moving and becomes static. That's why _qi_ is congealed ( _jie_ ).\"\n\n_Neijing: Lingshu:_ \"When sad and worried ( _youchou_ ), passage of _qi_ closes and its movement stops.\"\n\n_Zhubing Yuanhou Lun: \"Qi_ congestion illness ( _jieqi bing_ ) is produced by sadness and worry ( _yousi_ ). When thoughts weigh in the heart, spirit stops, _qi_ gets stuck and therefore congealed inside.\"\n\n_Gujing Yitong Daquan: \"Yu_ refers to the blockage of the seven emotions, which leads to congestion of _qi._ Once _qi_ gets stagnated, it gradually turns into various pathological forms.\"\n\nApparently, _yu,_ and _jie,_ in earlier _zhongyi_ texts, refers frequently to the pathological condition of _qi_ congestion and stagnation resulting from an excess of the seven emotions. Descriptions and concepts of illnesses related to emotion-induced _qi_ stagnation and congestion can be found in the earliest _zhongyi_ classics. The plum pit _qi_ illness ( _meiheqi_ ) discussed in Zhang Zhongjing's _Jingkui Yaolue_ (Essentials of Golden Cabinet), refers to the pathological condition related to stagnation of emotions ( _qingzhi yujie_ ) that results in _qi_ congestion and consequently coagulation of phlegm. This illness is still commonly present in contemporary _zhongyi_ clinics. A similar disorder is called _\"qi_ congestion illness\" ( _jieqibing_ or _qibing_ ) in _Zhubing Yuanhou Lun_ (On the Sources and Origins of Various Illnesses).\n\n_Yu_ became a more focused concern of the Danxi School of medical approach originated by the famous Yuan scholar-physician Zhu Danxi (1281\u20131358), who emphasized \"the internal injuries\" ( _neishang_ ) as causes of illness and was well known for treating various difficult illnesses ( _za bing_ ) such as _yu. He_ maintained that \"human illnesses largely result from _yu._ \" He divided the _yu_ disorder into six subtypes. They are \"stagnation _of qi\"_ ( _qiyu_ ), \"stagnation of dampness\" ( _shiyu_ ), \"stagnation of heat\" ( _reyu_ ), \"stagnation of mucus\" ( _tanyu_ ), \"stagnation of blood\" ( _xueyu_ ), and \"stagnation of food\" ( _shiyu_ ). Although the six types show different syndrome configurations, they are related temporally. Typically, stagnation of _qi_ is the initial problem that progresses into other types of _yu._ Wang Andao (1332-91), a student of Zhu Danxi, following the Neijing language, classifies _yu_ disorder into five patterns according to their associations with five transformative phases ( _wuxing_ ), thus connecting _yu_ with the five visceral systems. Wang named them \"wood stagnation\" ( _muyu_ ) manifested in the liver system, \"fire stagnation\" ( _huoyu_ ) manifested in the heart system, \"earth stagnation\" ( _tuyu_ ) manifested in the spleen system, \"metal stagnation\" ( _jinyu_ ) manifested in the lung system, and \"water stagnation\" ( _shuiyu_ ) manifested in the kidney system and also talked about different methods to release different types of stagnations. Danxi's other student, Dai Sigong (1324-1405), followed Danxi's classification of six types _of yu_ but argued that stagnation of _qi_ in the spleen and stomach system were most common. He devoted a chapter to discussing _yubing_ ( _yu_ illness). The disorder _of yu_ was understood by physicians of the Danxi school in a much broader term, namely, obstructions of the flow of _qi_ in any forms and in all visceral systems caused by any pathogenic factors including excessive emotions.\n\nDuring the Ming and Qing periods, discussions of _yubing_ or _yuzheng_ tended to center more on emotions as illness factors. Zhao Xianke (1573-1644), a Ming physician, who also had a chapter on _yubing_ in his book, _Yiguan_ (On Uniformity of Medicine), felt it necessary to argue against the narrow definition of _yu._ He argued that _yu_ should not be interpreted narrowly as \"stagnation of sadness\/worries\" ( _youyu zhi yu_ ). He insisted on a broader definition of _yu_ as simply \"blockage\" ( _butong_ ), which included \"stagnation of sadness\/worries\" ( _youyu_ ), an illness of the seven emotions ( _qiqing zhi bing_ ). Zhang Jiebin (1560\u20131640), another Ming scholar-physician, was the first to make a distinction between \"stagnations originating from physiological disorders\" ( _yin bing er yu_ ) and \"illness due to stagnation of emotions\" ( _yin yu er bing_ ),or simply \"stagnation of emotions\" ( _qingzhi zhi yu_ ). Zhang pointed out that since the latter originated from the heart-mind ( _zong you hu xin_ ), drugs ( _yaoshi_ ) alone might not be able to dissolve the stagnation. Miu Xiyong (1546\u20131527), a later Ming scholar-physician, also cautioned about the limitations of using only drugs to treat illnesses resulting from excessive seven emotions. He argued that even if the herbal remedy could help unblock the stagnant _qi_ and activate the circulation of the blood, the problem would relapse if the illness of the heart-mind ( _xin bing_ ) persisted. He suggested using \"medicine of the heart-mind\" ( _xin yao_ ) to treat \"an illness of the heart-mind\" ( _xin bing_ ) _,_ that is, \"use thought to dispel\/change thought and use reason to dissolve\/transform emotions\" ( _yi shi qian shi_ ; _yi li qian qing_ ). Ye Tianshi (1666-1745), in his chapter on _yuzheng,_ made a clear remark that healing _yuzheng_ \"all depends on the patient's ability to transform emotions and change personalities\" ( _quan zai bing zhe neng yi qing yi xing_ ).\n\nApparently, once _qingzhi zhi yu_ (stagnation of emotions) was separate from other forms of stagnation disorders, affective aspects of _yu_ began to receive more focused attention, not just in the description of illness factors ( _bing yin_ ), illness mechanisms ( _bingji_ ), but also symptoms and signs ( _bing zheng_ ) and therapeutic methods ( _zhifa_ ). At least in the late Ming period, the semantics of _yu_ gradually acquired a distinctive affective dimension of sadness, unhappiness, and melancholy. When Western psychology and psychiatric medicine was introduced to China, \"stagnation of sadness\/worries\" ( _youyu_ ) was used to translate the Western concepts of \"depression\" and \"melancholy.\" The commonly used psychiatric disease name of depression ( _yiyu_ ) also has the character _'yu'_ in its Chinese translation. As the _zhongyi_ concept of _yu_ was appropriated for modern use, the phenomenological sense of \"blockage of flow\" ( _butong_ ) inherited in the Chinese concept _of yu_ would inevitably be slipped into the Chinese commonsensical understanding of depression ( _youyu_ or _yiyu_ ) _._ Conversely, the modern use of _yu_ as a psychological and psychiatric term has definitely influenced its meaning in contemporary _zhongyi_ discourse and practice and reinforced its _zhongyi_ conception as _qingzhi_ related, thus allowing a possible referential connection between a _qingzhi_ disorder and a Western psychological disorder. _Yuzheng_ in contemporary _zhongyi_ textbooks and practices refers predominantly to the narrower sense of _qingzhi zhi yu_ (stagnation of emotions). In today's _zhongyi_ textbooks, _yuzheng_ is used to include a group of illnesses and patterns of syndrome that originate from \"the blocked flow of emotions\" ( _qingzhi bu shu_ ) and \"the impeded _qi_ mechanism ( _qiji yuzhi_ ).\n\n# CLINICAL CONFIGURATIONS OF YU (STAGNATION)\n\nIn _zhongyi_ clinics, as discussed previously, differentiation of patterns is the central focus of the clinical work and is directly relevant to the determination of therapeutic methods. Often an illness name, such as _yuzheng_ is implied in the process of differentiation of patterns ( _bianzheng_ ) and therapy determination ( _zhifa_ ) _. Yuzheng,_ like all other _zhongyi_ illnesses, is perceived as a disordered psychophysiological process, and hence attention is always given to the temporal and spatial qualities of the dynamic relations of the symptoms. As shown in table 6.1, _yuzheng_ in general may appear as various pattern configurations and may even acquire different illness names. On the one hand, these pattern configurations can be seen as different stages of the same illness process. From _qi_ stagnation, to fire, to phlegm, and to depletion, we can easily recognize the temporal and spatial continuities among these patterns. On the other hand, they are unique configurations of particular social and psychophysiological environments of the time that call for different names and different therapies. Emotion stagnation affects the three visceral systems of the liver, the spleen, and the heart most frequently.\n\nTable 6.1 Zheng (Pattens) and Qinzghi Disorders\n\nThe patterns listed in table 6.1 are by no means all of the configurations that are pertinent to _qingzhi_ or _yu_ disorders, but they are the most common ones that I encountered during my clinical observations of a particular physician who is known as especially adept at treating various _yu_ illnesses. The cases I present below demonstrate both the shared clinical knowledge of treating _yu_ disorders by _zhongyi_ physicians in the past and present and the particular physician's experience, styles of doctoring, and personal synthesis of various sources of knowledge in his approach to emotion-related illnesses.\n\nOccasionally, _qingzhi bing_ or _yuzheng_ is directly referred to in the clinics, but very often it is implied in a particular pattern of syndrome manifestation and unfolded in the process of pattern differentiation and therapy determination. Then, for the researcher, recognizing a _qingzhi-_ related disorder itself is an interpretive process involving the making out of meaningful connections among symptoms ( _zheng_ ), syndrome patterns ( _zhenghou_ ), therapeutic principles ( _zhifa_ ), herbal formulas ( _fangyao_ ), and references to the materials of the medical classics, and most of all involving the understanding of clinical communications between the doctor and the patient.\n\n## _Ganqi Yujie_ (the Liver _Qi_ Stagnation)\n\nAs discussed above, clinically _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness) starts when imbalanced emotions upset the _qi_ circulation. Once excessive anger causes the _qi_ movement to reverse and to block the circulation, it hurts the liver system first since the liver functions to disperse _qi._ It is very likely that the accumulated stagnant qi in the liver system encroaches on the stomach system ( _ganqi fan_ wei ). Therefore, the manifestations also include the symptoms pertaining to the spleen and the stomach system, such as \"feelings of pressure in the stomach area and frequent hiccups,\" \"abdominal gas and loss of appetite,\" \"vomiting,\" and \"abnormal bowel movement.\" For a female patient, since qi is the driving force of the movement of blood in circulation ( _qi wei xue zhi shuai_ ), and when _qi_ gets stagnant, the blood tends to congeal, the patient may experience disordered menstruation. _Yuzheng,_ in its narrow sense, refers particularly to the illness manifestation at this stage of liver _qi_ stagnation. The temporal and spatial dimension is marked by an extension from the liver system to the stomach system and to the congestion of the blood. In my clinical observation, _ganyu_ was a frequent initial manifestation of the _qingzhi_ disorder. As shown in table 6.2, among the 150 patients who suffered _qingzhi_ disorders, 15 percent suffered purely from liver _qi_ stagnation. But, if we consider the cases of liver _qi_ stagnation combined with liver fire and pathological phlegm, the percentage of the liver _qi_ stagnation is 41 percent.\n\nTable 6.2 Distribution of _Qingzhi_ Disorders According to _Zheng_ (Patterns) Among 150 Patients\n\nIn my first illustrative case, a 53-year-old woman came to the clinic originally for a headache. She was diagnosed as suffering from a heat-related disorder and was prescribed medicine to nourish the blood and clear heat ( _yangxue qingre_ ). She came back a week later. She looked even more depressed and unhappy. She told the doctor that after taking six bags of herbal medicine, her headache seemed to improve, but she felt _qi_ pressure in her heart ( _xinli bieqi_ ), and there was a sense of blockage ( _fadu_ ) in her chest. She gave long sighs as if by doing this she could help herself release some of the _qi_ stuck inside her chest. She also had experienced a bloated stomach and abdomen and complained of heart vexation ( _xinfan_ ) and bad temper. While talking, she broke into tears. She began to tell the doctor that she had moved to Beijing from Shandong province in 1985 following her husband's transfer. She had not had a permanent job since. She regretted moving to Beijing. In Shandong she was a high school teacher and her work was meaningful and respected by others. Now she worked as a temporary elevator operator. She felt her life was completely meaningless. Her mother had died several months before at the age of 89. After that, she cried almost every day. Her son had been admitted into Beijing College of Political Sciences, and she hated the idea that her son was going to study something related to politics, which, she thought, was useless, empty, and potentially dangerous. She wanted him to be an engineer.\n\nThe doctor proceeded with his examination while listening to the patient. The patient's pulse was heavy and thin (chenxi ), the color of her tongue was dark, and the coating was white and thin. According to the syndrome differentiation, the patient suffered liver _qi_ stagnation ( _ganqi yujie_ ) _._ Therapeutic principle was determined to disperse the liver system and revitalize the flow of _qi_ and to dissolve the stagnancy and eliminate vexation ( _shugan liqi, jieyu chufan_ , ). The patient was prescribed the modified Chaihu Shugansan (the formula of bupleuri for dispersing the stagnant liver _qi_ ).\" Five more herbs were added to the original formula.\n\nThe patient's illness was obviously _qingzhi_ related and had a clear social origin. The first time she came in, she mainly complained about the headache and the sensation of heat in five hearts ( _wuxin fanre_ ). The tip of her tongue was red, and the coating was yellow. All symptoms pointed to heat damage. On the second visit, the symptoms were different, and the whole pathological configuration changed. Therefore, a new diagnosis was required. The doctor commented that the patient's illness came from a situation in which everything was going against her heart's will ( _zhushi bushunxin_ ), and therefore her heart-emotion was constrained ( _xinqing yayi_ ), which caused the impeded _qi_ mechanism leading to _qi_ accumulation in the liver system. I expressed doubts that the herbal medicine would be effective, since we already knew that the patient's problem resulted from her social situations and emotional experiences. The doctor responded positively without hesitation: \"It will definitely work\" ( _kending guanyong_ ). He explained that the herbs help attune the bodily functions. Once the bodily functions improve, the symptoms will recede, the patient's bodily experience will be altered, and the patient's heart-emotion ( _xinqing_ ) will certainly change for the better. For _zhongyi_ doctors, the symptoms, such as blockage in the heart, pressure in the chest, and empty-fullness ( _piman_ ) in the stomach are not imagined or secondary to anything. They are real experiences that can be treated by taking herbal medicine. I personally heard many times that a patient came back to the clinic and claimed, \"My heart-emotion is feeling much better\" ( _xinqing hao duo le_ ). The doctor also agreed that the patient suffering from a _qingzhi_ disorder tended to relapse. \"Once you see a patient coming for treatment and recovered, and then coming back again, you immediately know that there must be problems in her social environment. But a doctor can only do as much as he can.\"\n\nDoctors do much more than just prescribe herbal medicine. In the above case, the doctor was engaging the patient in a conversation while examining her and composing a herbal formula. He showed his sympathy with the patient and agreed with her that it was not always good to give up everything just to get into Beijing. He then went on to say that there were still thousands of people on the waiting lists for a residential quota in order to move into Beijing, and she would be considered lucky by those who were still waiting. When the patient talked about the death of her mother, he asked about the age of her mother. The doctor then said that the mother had lived a \"long life\" ( _gaoshou_ ), was something, in the ancient times, worth celebrating. As for the patient's complaint about her son's choice of school, the doctor commented that everybody, even the patient's son, has a piece of his own sky above his head and she could not live for him. He spoke of his experience with his own son who, against his will, insisted on going into business. Finally, he said jokingly to the patient, Who knows, someday your son might became an important political figure.\" The patient could not help but smile.\n\n# _QIYU HUAHUO_ (STAGNANT _QI_ TRANSFORMED INTO FIRE)\n\nAccording to the zhongyi physiology, once the stagnant _qi_ is accumulated and condenses for some time without an open passage to channel it out, it turns into fire ( _yu jiu hua huo_ ). Different symptom configurations reflect this physiological change. Since liver fire tends to flare upward, the patient may experience headaches and dizziness, and the facial complexion tends to be slightly red. Since the liver is connected with the gall bladder, the fire together with the _qi_ of the gall bladder moves upward and the patient may experience dry throat and bitter mouth. With the wood (the liver system) losing its elasticity (ability to extend) ( _tiaoda_ ), the patient may be short tempered and irritable. As the liver fire disturbs the functions of the stomach, the patient may also experience gastric discomfort with acid regurgitation ( _caoza tunsuan_ ) and dry stool. The liver fire also extends to the heart system (which is next to the wood phase in the _wuxing_ production sequence) and disturbs the heart-mind ( _xinshen_ ), and the symptoms of vexation and agitation appear. The tongue is red, the coating yellow, and the pulse strung and fast. All these symptoms show that the stagnation of _qi_ has transformed into fire. However, excessive anger and rage damage the liver systems directly and may lead to liver fire without an initial period of liver _qi_ stagnation. Some clinicians see this syndrome as a prelude to more serious mental illness, since if the condition worsens, it can lead to \"craziness\" ( _kuangluan wuzhi_ )\n\nIn my second illustrative case, a woman of 25 years old, was married several months before she came to the clinic. She complained that she had disturbed sleep. It was difficult for her to fall sleep, and she woke up easily. She was irritable and bad tempered ( _piqida_ ). She said she did not know why she had such a \"big fire\" ( _huoqida_ ) and became angry so easily. She had an urge to break things and had already smashed the mirror and the cassette player at home. In reply to the doctor's question whether she felt wronged ( _weiqu_ ) and tended to cry a lot, the patient said that she had seldom cried before she was married, but found herself constantly crying after she was married. She complained about her husband's narrow-mindedness ( _xiao xinyan_ ) and said that her husband found fault with her over trifling things. The doctor told her that insomnia was not her problem; the problem was her vexation. Her case belonged to the category of insomnia caused by vexation of the heart-mind ( _xinfan bude mian_ ), so the treatment should focus on her heart-mind problem. The doctor then asked about the patient's background, such as if she was the youngest in her family and if she was considered to be spoiled ( _jiaoqi_ ). The patient was actually the oldest child with a younger sister and a brother. She also denied that she was spoiled but said before her marriage she was generally considered nice and good tempered ( _piqi hao_ ). She broke into tears. At the end of the consultation, the doctor referred the patient to me, saying that she should talk with me and that I was doing research on emotion-related problems.\n\nThe patient's complexion was slightly red. She had a bitter mouth and dry throat, suggesting the liver fire and the gall-bladder _qi_ moving up. The tip of her tongue was red, but the coating was white, which did not totally support the other symptoms. Her pulse was strung and fast. Her syndrome was differentiated as \"the stagnant liver _qi_ turning into fire\" ( _ganyu huahuo_ ), though the doctor pointed out that some of the symptoms did not totally support the syndrome differentiation. For example, the white coating of the tongue did not support the presence of the fire. However, the doctor, in consideration of the whole symptom configuration, came to the conclusion that the stagnant _qi_ had just started to turn into fire. He explained that the patient's main problem was _ganyu_ that had already shown the sign of fire. Therefore, the therapeutic principle was to disperse the liver qi, dissolve the stagnation, and eliminate vexation ( _shugan, jieyu, chufan_ ). The patient was prescribed _xiaoyao san_ (xiaoyao powder), with two other herbs added to strengthen the function of eliminating vexation.\n\nIn this case, the patient and the doctor both recognized that the patient's suffering was not a simple physical discomfort. The patient complained mainly about her insomnia but pointed to her anger and her dissatisfaction with her marriage as the source of her suffering. The doctor's questions were also directed to the social origin of the illness and he concluded that insomnia was not the problem, but _ganyu_ (the liver qi stagnation). Liver _qi_ stagnation is understood as an emotion disorder coming from the blocked circulation in an emotional, social, and physical sense. When this _qi_ is blocked for a period of time, it starts to turn into liver fire that manifests itself in a person in the form of excessive anger and irascibility. This _zhongyi_ concept has long become \"commonsense.\" In everyday language, when somebody is irritable and tends to become angry easily, she is said to be \"having a big fire _qi\"_ ( _huoqi da_ ) _or_ \"having a big liver fire\" ( _ganhuo wang_ ).\n\nThe patient and I walked out of the clinic together and found a relatively quiet corner in the waiting area for a conversation. It was not a strict interview format. My role as an anthropologist at the moment was dubious. I was incorporated into the clinical process, more to listen and offer my support than to elicit answers to anthropological questions. When I came back to the clinical room and supplied the doctor with more detailed information about the patient, he said that the _zhongyi_ tradition has encouraged the doctor to consider information that goes beyond the immediate physical symptoms. For example, _Neijing_ : _Suwen_ (77) emphasizes that a doctor, when treating a patient, has to take into consideration changes in the natural environment ( _tianshi_ ), the social and economic situation ( _renshi_ ), and the visceral ( _zangxiang_ ) and pulse ( _maise_ ) manifestations. It is considered a mistake ( _guo_ ) for the doctor not to enquire about the patient's social background and emotional changes, such as if the person has experienced changes from a high status to a lower status, financial changes, ambition for power or sudden joy, sadness, or anger. Traditionally, such information was more readily accessible to the doctor, who, usually, was a knowledgeable and well-respected member of the community and was routinely called to the patient's home to treat the patient. However, the doctor said that today's _zhongyi_ practice is organized in a way different from what it used to be and that a doctor has to make a deliberate effort to get personal information beyond a patient's immediate illness concerns. Yet a modern _zhongyi_ doctor is cautious about asking sensitive questions. He or she depends more on personal experience and intuition as well as communication skills to understand the patient's situation. In addition, unlike a typical psychologist, who depends on insight into the patient's intrapsychic conflicts for effective treatment, a _zhongyi_ doctor does not need to know every detail of the patient's personal life and social relations to differentiate a syndrome or design an herbal formula.\n\n## _Qizhi Tanyu_ ( _Qi_ Stagnation Leading to Congestion of Phlegm)\n\nThe syndrome is also known as \"congestion of phlegmatic _qi\"_ ( _tanqi yujie_ ). When the liver _qi_ is stagnant, it encroaches on the spleen system that belongs to the earth phase. It interferes with the spleen's functions of transforming and transmitting ( _yunhua_ ) nutrients and water throughout the body. The dampness is then accumulated to form phlegm, which further blocks the movement of _qi_ in the body. This particular doctor offered a different explanation for the phenomenon of phlegmatic _qi_ congestion. His logic was that _ganyu_ leads to fire, which dries up the bodily fluid ( _jinye_ ) and turns it into relatively thick phlegm. This pathological process is known as \"burning the bodily fluid into phlegm\" ( _zhuojin huatan_ ), which points to two physiological consequences. One is the potential depletion of vital fluid, which will lead to the condition _of yin_ depletion; the other is the blockage of circulation which is much harder to treat than the stagnation of _qi._\n\nWhen the blockage formed by congealed phlegm is above the thoracic area, the patient experiences the sensation of an alien object stuck in the throat, which cannot be spit out or swallowed. This manifestation type has acquired the rather vivid illness name, \"the plum pit _qi\"_ ( _meiheqi_ ). This illness term was first used by the Han dynasty physician, Zhang Zhongjing to refer to an illness that was later included _in yu_ disorders. During my clinical observation, I noticed two cases of the plum pit _qi._ One such case was particularly interesting. The patient frequently cleared her throat and found a thread of blood in her phlegm. She feared that there was something growing in her throat. The doctor, after examining her, told her that there was nothing growing in her throat and that her illness was actually _\"qi_ congestion\" ( _qi bing_ ) originating from anger ( _shengqi_ ). Hearing this, the patient agreed completely with the doctor that her illness all started from her resentment about her husband's intimate relationship with one of his female colleagues. She asked the doctor to tell her husband exactly what he had told her when her husband called to inquire about the clinical result. In a sense, by involving the doctor in an interaction with the family members, the patient successfully employed the doctor's help in manipulating her social relations. The patient later told me admiringly that the doctor was so experienced ( _you jingyan_ ) that he could immediately detect what the real problem was.\n\nIf the heteropathic _qi_ of phlegm continues to block the passage, it may finally disturb \"the clear openings\" ( _shangrao qingqiao_ ) and \"blind the heart-mind\" ( _mengbi xinshen_ ). This particular stage of the pathological course is called \"the phlegm blocking the opening of the heart-mind\" ( ). The symptom configuration then may include \"depressed mood,\" \"indifferent expressions,\" \"quietness and motionlessness,\" \"illogical speech,\" \"self-talk,\" and \"unpredictable changes of mood between happiness and anger.\" This manifestation of syndrome configuration is also known as _\"dian_ ,\" characterized by quietness, absentmindedness, incoherent language, and a perpetual \"happy facial expression.\" _Dian_ is also discussed in relation to _\"kuang_ ,\" characterized by \"loudness and restlessness,\" \"violent behavior,\" and being \"full of anger.\" These two illnesses cannot be strictly separated in symptoms and are able to transform into each other. Therefore, _dian_ and _kuang_ are sometimes discussed together as one illness, _diankuang._ 20\n\nSince the mental and emotional disturbance of _dian_ is serious enough to be recognized as full-blown mental illness ( _jingshen bing_ _),_ in many textbooks _dian_ is not included in the discussions of _qingzhi_ (emotion-related) disorders. Yet the difference between a _qingzhi_ disorder and _dian_ is seen mainly as a difference _of \"du\"_ (degree, position). Patients suffering from _dian_ do come to see doctors of _zhongyi._ During my entire period of clinical observation, there were only two cases for which the doctor used _dian_ as the illness name. In one case, a young female patient visited the clinic with her husband. Throughout the interview, the patient remained emotionless and motionless. She did not say a single word. Her husband did all the talking. The patient was a manager of a sweater factory. She had signed six contracts with clients within several months and had become extremely worried about her factory's ability to fulfill the contracts. She had developed insomnia and was constantly restless. The symptoms were getting worse. She was suicidal, weeping, and became increasingly absentminded, to the point that she was not able to work at all. The doctor's diagnosis was \"the opening of the heart-mind blocked by congealed phlegm\" ( _tan mi xin qiao_ ) _._ He added, \"according to _zhongyi,_ this is _dian.\"_ This patient did not return to the clinic after her first visit. No further information on this patient was obtained.\n\nThe second case was a 22-year-old male university student. He came to the clinic three times, showing steady improvement each time. The first time he came, he did not talk at all. He was expressionless and withdrawn. His mother did most of the talking. According to his mother, he was a student in a prestigious university in Beijing. He was traumatized and became ill. He experienced delusions, was depressed, and wanted to kill himself. The doctor said that in _zhongyi_ language, the patient was suffering _dian_ illness or _tan mi xinqiao._ The third time, I saw him, though he still looked passive, he talked about his illness himself and told the doctor that he had felt an improvement. At least he could sleep for several hours at a time. Other cases that were related to \"heteropathic phlegm that disturbed the heart-mind\" ( _tan rao xinshen_ ) were not as serious as _tan mi xinqiao._ Therefore, the doctor did not explicitly talk about those cases as _dian._\n\nIn the third illustrative case, a 50-year-old man accompanied by his wife came to see the doctor. He was the last patient of that morning. He seemed very reluctant to come into the clinic, and his wife literally pushed him into the consulting room. He looked melancholy and diffident. His voice was soft and low. He complained about dizziness, heart-mind not together ( _jingshen huanghu_ ), difficulty sleeping, thinking too much, suspiciousness ( _duoyi_ ), and lack of confidence ( _zuoshi weisuo_ ). He said that he created trouble for himself ( _ziji gen ziji guo buqu_ ). and that he was oversensitive ( _xiao xinyan_ ). He thought his problem started with worry over the health of his son, who was diagnosed as having myocarditis just before the patient had left home on a performance tour (he was a musician). He was worried about his son and called home almost every day. He was self-reproachful and felt guilty for his son's illness. His wife added that the patient had his only son at the age of 43. The patient talked about his son inheriting his own weakness of oversensitivity. He blamed himself for influencing his son's personality. He talked about his difficulty in concentration and said that he constantly made mistakes while playing on stage. He told the doctor that he found his fingers involuntarily brushing against things without control.\n\nSyndrome differentiation pointed to liver _qi_ stagnation leading to phlegm congestion. The turbidity of phlegm obscures the patient's heart-mind ( _shenming_ ). The doctor told the patient that his problem was mainly mental in nature ( _jingshen xing de_ ). A therapeutic treatment was set to clear the heart, disperse the phlegm, calm the mind, and stabilize the intellect ( _jingxin huatan, anshen dingzhi_ , ). He was prescribed decoction of pinelliae and magnoliae officinalis ( _banxia houpu tang_ ) with several more herbs added to it to strengthen the function of eliminating the heat. The doctor thought the patient's illness showed the tendency of _dian_ but not to the full extent of _dian,_ but if the condition went on without appropriate treatment, the illness could develop into a serious mental disorder.\n\nIn many cases, excessive thinking and worrying ( _silu guodu_ ) can be the direct cause of the syndrome of phlegm congestion. As known in _zhongyi,_ thinking and worrying ( _silu_ ) are emotions of the spleen system. When a person thinks and worries too much, the spleen system is directly affected. Dampness is collected to form the pathological phlegm, which converges with the phlegm problem caused by liver _qi_ stagnation. The pathological process _of yu_ up to this point demonstrates the pattern of repletion. The body's orthopathic _qi_ ( _zhengqi_ ) is not yet significantly consumed, and the heteropathic _qi_ ( _xieqi_ ) is dominantly present.\n\n## _Xinyin Kuixu_ (the Heart _Yin_ Depletion)\n\nAs can be seen from the above, when the pathological condition of the stagnation of _qi_ continues, it turns into fire. The fire consumes the heart-blood ( _haoshang xinxue_ ), and the _yin_ aspect of the heart becomes deplete. Once the heart _yin_ blood is depleted, it is not able to nourish ( _ruyang_ ) the heart-mind ( _xinshen_ ). The mind and spirit that reside in the viscera of the heart lose their home ( _shen bu shou she_ ), and the symptoms of heart-mind uneasiness ( _xinshen buning_ ), absent-mindedness ( _jingshen huanghu_ ) _,_ forgetfulness, insomnia, and excessive dreaming appear. Once the heart _yin_ is depleted, the unchecked heart-fire rises up to disturb the heart-mind, and the patient feels upset and perturbed ( _xinfan yiluan_ ) and unable to sit still ( _zuowo buan_ ). Once heart-mind lacks nourishment, the ability to make judgments and solve problems is seriously impeded, and the patient shows slowness in response and a depressed mood. Since the depleted _yin_ is not able to constrain or balance the _yang_ ( _yin bu lian yang_ ), the fire due to depleted _yin_ becomes rampant ( _xuhuo wangdong_ ), and somatic manifestations appear, such as hotness in the five hearts ( _wuxin fanre_ ), sweating palms, dry mouth and throat, slightly red complexion, red tongue with little coating, and thin and fast pulse.\n\nThis syndrome is also referred to in the medical classics and in present day _zhongyi_ clinics as _\"zangzao_ \" (the visceral agitation) characterized by the symptoms of restlessness, sadness, and a tendency to weep and sigh. The illness name _zangzao_ appears early in _Shanghan Zabing Lun_ ( _Discussion of Cold Damages and Various Disorders_ ) _,_ which describes the illness as \"constantly feeling sad and weeping\" ( _xi beishang yuku_ ). The same author, Zhang Zhongjing, in _Jingui Yaolue_ ( _Essentials of Golden Casket),_ included _zangzao bing_ in his discussion of women's illnesses: \"A woman who suffers _zangzao_ is sad and likes to weep, as if possessed by a spirit, and tends to yawn frequently.\" The meaning of _zao_ is fairly clear, suggesting disturbance and restlessness of emotions. There have been discussions as to what in the visceral system the character _zang_ refers. Some believe that since _zangzao_ was originally seen as a woman's illness, _zang_ may stand for \"womb\" ( _nuzibao_ ). Others insist that it refers to the heart system, since the heart system is responsible for _shenming_ (consciousness, intellect). Since _zangzao_ describes a mental and emotional disturbance, _zang_ must stand for the heart. This was clearly stated in _Yi Zong Jinjian_ (Standard Collection of Medical Works), edited by Wu Qian and others (1742): _\"Zang,_ refers to the heart ( _xin_ ) _._ When the heart is tranquil, _sh\u00e9n_ (the mind; consciousness) is contained. When the heart system is injured by the seven emotions, it loses its peacefulness, and _sh\u00e9n_ would become agitated and restless.\" Yet, in actual practice, doctors tend not to limit their scope to a single visceral system. Tang Rongchuan (1846\u201497), a Qing physician, stated that doctors should not be restricted to a single visceral system, when the symptoms of _zao_ (emotional agitation or disturbance) are obvious. \"When there are symptoms of sadness and weeping as if the patient is possessed by ghosts, it is clear that the heart has been afflicted; when there are symptoms of excessive yawning and stretching, it is clear that the kidney has been affected.\"\n\nIn modern _zhongyi_ clinics, _zangzao_ is found in both males and females. The patient suffering _zangzao_ is described as \"feeling like to walk but could not, feeling like to sleep but could not\" ( _yuxing bude xing, yuwo bude wo_ ).\n\nIn my fourth illustrative case, a 55-year-old male patient who came across the manufactured \"herb concoction to disperse stagnation and stabilize the mind\" at a pharmacy tried it and found it helpful. So he came to see the doctor who developed the medicine, hoping he could be cured of the illness that had bothered him off and on for more than fifteen years. He complained that he was feeling restless ( _zuowo buan_ ) and heart-mind disturbed ( _xinshen buning_ ) _._ He had to walk outside constantly regardless of whether it was raining or snowing. He also complained that his vision was not clear and that he had a runny nose. He had difficulty in sleeping,. and often had to take sleeping pills. He first became ill during 1977 and 1978 when he was busy studying English in preparation for going abroad. He thought that his illness must have been caused by anxiety and stress. While he was talking to the doctor, his hands were trembling slightly. The teeth marks on his tongue were clearly visible, indicating the depletion of _qi_ that had led to a depletion of _yin._ The coating of his tongue was yellow and thin. The pattern of syndrome was described as excessive thinking and worrying ( _silu guodu)_ that had injured the heart and spleen and led to heart _yin_ depletion. The therapeutic indication was to replenish _yin_ and nourish the blood ( _ziyin yangxue_ ) and to supplement the heart and calm the mind ( _buxin anshen_ ). He was prescribed _tianwang buxin dan_ (king of heaven tonic for the heart-mind) with additions and subtractions, and the concoction to disperse the stagnation and to stabilize the mind to be taken before going to bed.\n\nThe patient came back again after six doses of the medicine. He felt less agitated, and his sleep had improved. By taking his pulse the doctor surmised that the stagnation was still present. Two more herbs were added to the original prescription. The doctor said that if the prescription worked, he would not change the formula. Unlike the previous discussed syndromes, in this case \"the stagnation\" ( _yu_ ) was treated as a depletion syndrome. That is because when the stagnation is caused internally by the seven emotions, it starts damaging the _qi_ movement, and when the stagnation continues, the illness hurts the blood and subsequently consumes the vital substance and life force.\n\n## _Xinpi Liang Xu_ (Depletion of the Heart and the Spleen)\n\nAs the _yin_ aspect of the heart is further depleted, the result can be depletion in both the heart _yin_ and spleen _qi._ The depletion of the heart and the spleen can also be understood as resulting directly from the excessive emotion of \"thinking\/worrying\" ( _silu_ ) _._ Since _si_ directly affects the spleen system, it restrains its function to transmit and transform nutrients (the source of both _qi_ and blood) and to provide nourishment to the heart. In turn, the depleted heart _yin_ is not able to facilitate the function of the spleen and the stomach system. The result is that both blood that is _yin_ and _qi_ that is _yang_ are depleted. The manifestation includes \"excessive worrying and thinking\" ( _duosi shanlu_ ), \"palpitation and fearfulness ( _xinji danqie_ ),\" insomnia and forgetfulness\" ( _shaomei jianwang_ ). In fact, in _zhongyi_ clinics, _bumei_ (insomnia) and _xinji_ (heart palpitation) are two frequent symptoms that bring the patients to the doctors. Chinese patients often complain of _xinji_ and _bumei, two illnesses_ recognized in _zhongyi._ They overlap with _qingzhi_ disorders, especially with the pattern of depletion in the heart and the spleen.\n\nIn the fifth illustrative case, the patient was a 64-year-old retired male. His neighbor, a young woman, accompanied him to the clinic. The patient complained about a dry and bitter mouth. He had no appetite and no taste for food. He was in a bad mood and felt vexed all the time. He had low energy ( _jingshen buhao_ ) during the day. His head was heavy, and his neck was stiff, and he had sleeping problems. He had been to a biomedical doctor before he came to the _zhongyi_ clinic and was given two types of tranquilizers to help him sleep. The color of his tongue was pale, and the coating was white, which indicated depletion of _qi_ in the spleen. He was given herbal medicine to strengthen the spleen system. He came back after a week and told the doctor that some of his symptoms, such as dizziness and the heaviness of his head, seemed alleviated. But other symptoms, for example, his dry and bitter mouth, poor appetite, low energy, and poor sleep remained the same. He also had new symptoms\u2014fluttering heart, palpitation, and shortness of breath\u2014which also suggested depletion in his heart system. The tongue manifestation remained the same.\n\nThe patient had an angry and depressed look. The doctor asked him if he felt \"wronged or self-pity\" ( _weiqu_ ), and the patient replied with an affirmative nod. Then the doctor said, as if to himself, that a person needs to feel grateful ( _zhizu_ ) and that everybody occupies a place in life where he was better off than some and was worse off than others. At this point, the doctor turned to the young woman standing behind and told her that she should take her father out more to let him relax ( _sansan xin_ ). The young woman answered that she was his neighbor. The patient was living by himself. His wife had died not long ago, and his only son was abroad. Listening to the young woman's words, the patient looked even more miserable. We thought that the patient's son had settled in a foreign country and would not come back. Asking for more information, we learned that the son was sent out to work for two years and would be back in less than a year. The doctor then became more encouraging, assuring the patient that his illness was not serious and that he needed to be more active. He told the patient not to stay at home by himself dwelling on his own unhappiness but to visit neighbors ( _cuancuan men_ ) and play chess ( _xiaxia qi_ ) or play cards ( _dada pai_ \" ).\n\nThe syndrome was described as depletion in both the heart and the spleen. The excessive _silu_ (sadness and worries) directly damped his spleen function to transform and transmit vital materials of the body and led to the depletion of the heart since the spleen system failed to provide _yin_ to nourish the heart. The therapeutic indication was to strengthen the spleen and replenish the _qi_ ( _jianpi puqi_ ) and to nourish the heart and calm the mind ( _yangxin anshen_ ). The patient was prescribed _guipi tang_ (decoction for invigorating spleen and nourishing heart).\n\nThe patient came back once more seeming a little improved. The doctor told me that the patient might not be totally healed before his son came back. He referred to the _zhongyi_ saying \"an illness due to emotion can only be completely cured by emotion\" ( _Yi qing bing zhe, fei qing bu jie_ ).\n\n## _Yinxu Huowang_ (Yin Depletion Leading to the Rampant Fire)\n\nWhen the illness is prolonged, the _yin_ of the visceral systems continues to be depleted. The heart _yin_ is depleted, the liver _yin_ is depleted, and finally the kidney _yin_ is depleted. With the depleted visceral _yin,_ the \"false _yang\"_ ( _fuyang_ ) manifested as rampant fire arises. My _zhongyi_ teacher used the metaphor of boiling water to illustrate the situation. He explained that when the water in a pot is getting less and less, we hear a louder sound and see a large amount of steam coming out of the pot as if the temperature is very high. The excessive activity inside the pot is actually due to insufficient water rather than the actual increase of the temperature intside. Similarly, when a person suffers from a chronic illness, and the visceral _yin_ in various forms of vital fluids (blood, water, semen, and so on) is consumed without replenishment, there will be overexcitement of \"false yang\" or \"fire.\" Since this excessive activity of fire is not caused by actual heteropathic invasion, it is also referred to as \"fire of depletion\" ( _xuhuo_ ). The patient may demonstrate symptoms that suggest \"liver fire or heart fire,\" such as a red face and eyes, agitation and anger, dizziness, palpitation, insomnia, red tongue with dry coating, dry mouth and throat, and so on. The more serious depletion involves the kidney system. According to the _wuxing_ (five transformative phases) relationship, the kidney system is said to belong to the water phase and it stores _jing_ (vital essence) that is either inherited from one's parents or transformed from the nutrients taken into the body. The kidney is the storage of the life force and also the source of marrow ( _sui_ ) and the brain since the brain is seen as \"a sea of marrow\" ( _suizhihai_ ). Therefore, when the depletion has drained the kidney _jing,_ the patient may experience symptoms of memory decrease, excessive dreams, tinnitus, back pain, seminal emission (in males), irregular menstruation (in females), and coldness in the lower limbs. This illness configuration may have variations. It can appear as kidney water not sufficient to moisturize the liver wood ( _shui bu hanmu_ ) or as the heart fire not connected to the kidney water ( _xinshen bujiao_ ). The therapeutic procedure usually involves replenishing _yin_ and cleansing the heat.\n\nIn the sixth illustrative case, the patient was a 29-year-old male. He complained about difficulty sleeping during the night, fatigue and sleepiness during the day, nervousness, agitation, and abnormal sweating. His head seemed heavy and clouded. His eyes were tired, and his vision was blurred. He also had lower back discomfort. He thought that his illness had started with a routine physical examination ten months before. It was found that one of his physiological indexes was higher than normal, which indicated the possibility of hepatitis B. He had been worried about being ill with hepatitis B ever since. He said his work was stressful, involving constant business trips. Although he had been taking some manufactured Chinese medicine, the effect was little. At most he was able to sleep only four hours a day. The experience was painful, and he said he would rather have hepatitis B than his present disorder that rendered him dysfunctional and depressed. The patient's symptom configuration suggests both the unchecked \"empty fire\" that disturbed the heart-mind and depletion of the liver and kidney _yin._ The doctor explained to the patient that his excessive obsession with his _shenti_ (health) actually led to the stagnation of _qi,_ which in turn was transformed into fire that consumed and harmed the visceral _yin_.\n\nThe syndrome differentiation was _yin_ depletion leading to rampant \"empty fire.\" The therapeutic indication was \"replenishing the kidney _yin_ and reducing the liver fire\" ( _ziyin pinggan_ ). The patient was prescribed _qiju dihuang tang_ (the decoction of rehmanniae with fructus lycii and chrysanthymi) with additions and subtractions.\n\n_Yuzheng_ (stagnation illness) as the core meaning of _qingzhi_ disorder demonstrates variations from stagnation to depletion, from the disordered liver function to the disordered spleen and stomach function, and to the disordered heart and kidney function. Such variations as shown above appear in different cases, yet they also appear in the same pathological process. A patient's illness condition may go through different syndrome configurations responding to the dynamic clinical process of attuning ( _tiao_ ), which will be analyzed in the next chapter.\nVII\n\nClinical Process of _Tiao_ (Attuning)\n\nIn the previous chapters, I have discussed various cultural, sociohistorical, and ethnomedical contexts in which _qingzhi_ (emotion) disorders are conceptualized, talked about, and experienced. My analysis has covered sociocultural and medical constructions of Chinese body-person, emotions, emotion-related disorders, and particularly stagnation ( _yu_ ). The present chapter, focusing on the _zhongyi_ clinical process, examines how the pattern ( _zheng_ ) of a particular _qingzhi_ disorder case is defined through ordinary clinical work and how the process of attuning\/adjusting ( _tiao_ ) works to transform the patient's experience . An underlying idea is that a close look at an actual face-to-face clinical communication maintained jointly by both doctor and patient can provide an important insight into the clinical construction of _qingzhi_ disorders and the dynamics of _zhongyi_ clinical actions and interactions. In this chapter, I deliberately incorporate techniques of microanalysis as an ethnographic tool in place of an ordinary case study that normally does not account for interactional aspects of clinical activities. I use actual recorded clinical interactions transcribed according to the conventions of conversation analysis (CA), examine closely the interactive features and structures of communication between a _zhongyi_ doctor and his patient, and trace how a particular syndrome pattern is determined and the path to efficacy is negotiated among the multiple clinical realities of Chinese medicine.\n\n# MICROANALYSIS AND ITS RELEVANCE TO _ZHONGYI_ CLINICAL ENCOUNTERS\n\nThere has been an extensive English literature on studies of clinical communication and interactions between doctor and patient. Particularly, over the last two decades, various empirical studies have been developed for analysis of actual medical encounters. One shared aspect of these studies is the meticulous examination of the actual communication between doctor and patient. Labov and Fanshel's book _Therapeutic Discourse_ is an early example, which is based on a close sociolinguistic analysis of a fifteen-minute segment from a session between a patient and her psychotherapist. In addition to sociolinguistic and other various forms of discourse analysis, the approach of CA has been widely used in microanalysis of actual clinical interaction. As the name itself suggests, CA is the study of \"recorded, naturally occurring talk-in-interaction\" with the goal to uncover \"the tacit reasoning procedures and sociolinguistic competencies\" that underlie the production and interpretation of such interactions. My analysis in this chapter is particularly informed by the CA approach, which, more than other approaches to discourse, focuses on sequential organization of social interactions and describes the procedures through which participants themselves engage one another \"to produce coherent and intelligible courses of action.\" Since talk-in-interaction is also recognized as embodied social practice, CA has been appropriated to investigate the visual as well as the vocal elements of medical interactions.\n\nConversation analysis (CA) has been widely applied in close analysis of talk in institutional settings including clinical interactions. CA treats talk as sequentially organized social activities and pays ultimate attention to interactional meanings. From this perspective, conversation is organized and managed locally\u2014utterance by utterance\u2014in an orderly manner. The meaning of an utterance is not attributable to \"what is really meant\" by its speaker in terms of his\/her intention or motivation, but can be uncovered from the perspective of how the participants display for one another their understanding of what is going on in their response to a previous utterance. This turn-by-turn unfolding of interaction then provides resources for the researcher to investigate what has been accomplished through the mundane face-to-face interaction. Consequently, for an analyst, meaning is fundamentally negotiated, contextualized, and contingent to the specific interactional history. This chapter takes CA's interpretive stance toward meaning in general and examines closely the interactive features and structures of communication between a senior male _zhongyi_ doctor and his patient in a case of stagnation of emotions.\n\nA typical conversation analysis of clinical interaction systematically examines the \"interaction between doctors and patients as a topic in its own right.\" The purpose of CA in such investigations is \"to determine general rules governing the behavior of speakers that result in the apparent orderliness and structure of the interview.\" This is certainly not my goal as an ethnographer. I do not attempt to discover general rules that account for the orderliness of doctor-patient interactions in _zhongyi_ clinics. Rather, my intention is to do ethnography of the _zhongyi_ clinical process in dealing with a particular case of _qingzhi_ disorder. It is best described as a microanalytically oriented case study. The objective is to uncover what was practically accomplished through the joint effort of face-to-face interaction between the doctor and his patient. Different from more conventional ethnographic writing on Chinese medicine, the CA-informed ethnography uses the transcribed tape recordings of naturally occurring interactions situated in an ordinary unfolding of _zhongyi_ clinic process as data. Using face-to-face interaction \"as a strategic site\" for the analysis of _zhongyi_ clinical encounters, this approach provides a mechanism to trace and demonstrate how and at what point various clinical decisions were made and therapeutic transformations were marked, expressed, and acknowledged. In addition, by focusing on how the participants themselves make sense of and respond to one another, such analysis helps reveal the tacit orientation of the speakers to the shared cultural norms and institutional expectations. Finally, microanalysis can be a process of discovery. As demonstrated by Jack Bilmes in his microanalysis of the mediator's role in a northern Thai negotiation, a close analysis of speech as a tool of ethnography \"can bring us into most intimate contact with our data and give us insights of a sort that we cannot achieve with traditional methods.\"\n\n_The zhongyi_ clinical process appears in various forms, and each actual event of doctor-patient interaction is situated in a particular context involving different participants. My intention is not to give a general account of _zhongyi_ clinical interaction, nor to offer a standard description on how a _qingzhi_ disorder is differentiated and handled in a _zhongyi_ clinic. What is developed here is rather an analysis of a particular case with all its interactional details. The focus is not very much on discovering what most _zhongyi_ doctors would do when facing similar problems, but rather on how a particular doctor and patient actually evoke the professional knowledge and experience, institutional competencies, and cultural and commonsensical logic in the course of interaction to make sense of one another and to negotiate meanings and actions. Moreover, this sequential unfolding of a particular process is also being recognized as a normal and ordinary _zhongyi_ practice. In other words, _zhongyi_ concepts and theories, such as _bianzheng lunzhi_ (pattern differentiation and therapy determination), are approached not as a set of well-defined principles represented in the texts and explained by the scholar-physicians, but are examined based on how they are actually and differentially oriented to in a real-time clinical action and interaction. The CA-informed microanalytical approach is ultimately a meaning-centered interpretive enterprise. The sequential unfolding of the interaction is also an interpretive resource for the analyst to make sense of what is accomplished by the interactional moves. My underlying assumption is that it is in these everyday social interactions that embodied cultural values and social norms are presupposed, evoked, transacted, and reinforced and that cultural traditions are transmitted.\n\nOn preparing for this chapter, I listened repeatedly to the clinical encounters that I taped during my fieldwork. As I listened to exchanges among doctors, patients, family members, and myself the anthropologist, as well as other sounds of activities in the clinic\u2014coughs, the banging of doors, the moving of chairs\u2014the scenes of the clinical activities once more became alive to me, as if I was transferred back to the clinic. Yet any form of transcription of a naturally occurring interactional event into a written text is a form of rendering. Although I use various signs and markers to indicate intonation, pause, prolonged pronunciation, repetitions, overlaps or false starts, the distance between an actual event and a transcribed text is inevitable. My analysis relies very much on my field experience and my sense of the place, as well as years of research on Chinese medicine. I use transcripts as tools to help me \"see\" interaction clearly and to enable \"readers to 'see' what is being referred to in analysis.\" For this latter purpose, I also make the doctor and patient speak English. The English translation of the transcription is a rendering of a rendering, my interpretation of what is communicated between the doctor and the patient.\n\nA face-to-face interaction involves coordination of more than just speech. I do believe that for clinical interaction, video-recorded interactions may do a better job. However, in the situation of my fieldwork, video recording was too intrusive to be of practical use. Therefore, readers have to depend on my descriptions of what was visually going on in the clinic. Frequently, silence is not real silence in terms of no action. For instance, in the case that is analyzed in this chapter, after the patient sat down, the doctor took her medical records ( _bingli_ in the form of a small blue booklet) and silently pushed over a soft pad. The patient put her wrist on the pad. The doctor then started to take her pulse. With his fingers on the patient's wrist, he looked at the patient with a smile. Then the patient started to talk. On the tape, we do not hear the doctor's question. Yet, by his gaze, smile, and his display of readiness, he communicated his inquiry \"Where is your discomfort? ( _nar bu shufu_ ). Both doctors and patients constructively use silence. Understanding lies not only in something said but frequently in something unsaid. However, since I do not have recorded visual data to account for the silence except for my own memories and notes, I focus my microanalysis more on segments of conversation that were carried out more intensively and more tightly structured.\n\nMicroanalysis of face-to-face clinical interactions has been predominantly restricted to the English-speaking context and nonethnographic writing. This raises the issue as to what extent this approach of examining \"talk\" between doctor and patient is applicable in the understanding of _zhongyi_ clinical work, which is often characterized as involving little talk.\n\nA clinical encounter in China, known as _\"kanbing\"_ (looking at illness by both doctor and patient) in both _zhongyi_ and _xiyi_ (Western biomedicine) contexts, is an interactional process. In _zhongyi_ clinics, this process is specifically understood as _tiao_ (attuning, adjusting, balancing). Although not an officially defined _zhongyi_ concept, _tiao_ is characteristically employed by both doctor and patient to describe _zhongyi_ therapeutics. For example, patients like to talk about finding a _zhongyi_ doctor to help \"attune\" themselves a little ( _zhao ge zhongyi daifu tiao yi tiao_ ); similarly a doctor may suggest that a patient take some herbal medicine to regain her balance ( _chi dianr zhongyao tiao yi tiao_ ). The use of _tiao_ implies that _zhongyi_ therapy is a gradual and carefully managed process. It involves differentiation of a group of physical, emotional, and social dysfunctions and flexible use of available techniques, both medical and nonmedical, to \"bring about the conditions\" in which desirable changes in human experience and relationship can take place spontaneously.\n\nDifferentiation of a particular pattern is not arrived at simply within the doctor's head, and it does not always work according to textbook logic. A pattern differentiation emerges through the process of interactions between a particular doctor and his\/her patient and as a result of negotiations between multiple perspectives and different experiences. During the clinical process of \"pattern differentiation and therapy determination\" ( _bianzheng lunzhi_ ), a _zhongyi_ doctor depends on \"four examinations\" ( _sizhen_ ):\" (I) gazing ( _wang_ ), (2) listening\/smelling ( _w\u00e9n_ ), (3) questioning _(w\u00e8n_ ), and (4) feeling pulse ( _qie_ ) to gather information, identify symptoms, and differentiate patterns of syndromes. Theoretically, only the _w\u00e8n_ (questioning) examination involves talking; the other three examinations can be done in complete silence. However, the four examinations are not separate procedures. They overlap to form a coherent process of _kanbing,_ which is a face-to-face interactive phenomenon. Very often, while the doctor is asking questions, he is also taking the pulse or observing the patient. He may recheck the patient's pulse while talking to the patient. Thus, _w\u00e8n_ (questioning), as a procedure to gather information and a way to engage a patient, continues through the whole clinical process. A _zhongyi_ textbook particularly points out the myth of the popular image that a really good doctor needs only to read a patient's pulse to come to a full diagnosis. An experienced doctor may be quick at making connections between observed signs, or he\/she may be more skillful in engaging patients without posing as an interviewer.\n\nHow much the verbal exchange weighs in a clinical encounter varies according to the situation. With some cases, doctor-patient talk may be minimal. In other cases, the doctor and patient may engage in lengthy discussions. In standard _zhongyi_ textbooks, doctors are encouraged to use appropriate language to clear out ( _shudao_ literally \"dredge\") blockages in emotion and thinking and to give suggestions ( _anshi_ ) in order to accomplish the purpose of treatment. This approach is particularly emphasized in the case of _qingzhi_ disorders. With a patient suffering a _qingzhi_ disorder, a doctor tends to spend more time talking to the patient, and such a patient also tends to present more social and emotional problems and ask more questions. In a case of a _qingzhi_ disorder, many symptoms cannot be directly observed. For example, in one patient's medical file, the symptoms that the doctor wrote down included \"vexation of heart,\" \"feeling wronged and having tendency to weep,\" \"lack of interest,\" \"palpitation and short breath,\" \"tongue pale,\" \"coating thin and yellowish,\" \"pulse strung\" and so on. It is notable that, except for the symptoms related to the tongue and pulse, all the other symptoms, particularly those about emotions, came from the patient's self-report.\n\nAlthough a senior _zhongyi_ doctor is respected for his or her clinical experience, as noted by Judith Farquhar, patients in a _zhongyi_ clinic seldom submit themselves completely to the authority of the doctor. They also actively engage the doctor in their perspectives, help define their own illness, and even negotiate their own treatment. To see the clinical encounter only as a mode of action in which the doctor masterfully deploys knowledge and resources to effect a cure is to miss a basic fact of _kanbing._ The determination of whether a certain complaint is an illness, what illness it is, what therapeutic strategy should be adopted, and what formula should be used are very much interactively interpretive and negotiated matters contingent to the clinical moment. In addition, the doctor-patient relationship in a _zhongyi_ clinic is generally less structured, as both doctor and patient initiate topics and bring in their own personal experience. For a patient, this may not seem unique since a patient is expected to talk about his\/her illness experience.\n\n# THE CASE OF STAGNATION OF EMOTIONS\n\nThe microanalysis of a clinical encounter in this chapter is based on a case of stagnation of emotions. The patient was a female middle-school teacher in her late twenties. She first came to the clinic in June 1994. She had been to a psychiatric hospital for her insomnia and had been prescribed some form of tranquilizers. When she came to the _zhongyi_ clinic, she was still taking biomedicine but was anxious to get rid of the drug completely. Based on my observation, patients try different ways to treat their illnesses, using both biomedicine and _zhongyi._ A common explanation they give is that they seek biomedical help for immediate relief of symptoms but come to _zhongyi_ for a slower process of _tiao_ to redress the root(s) of their problems. This does lend some credence to the popular belief that Western medicine treats immediate symptoms ( _xiyi zhibiao_ ) and Chinese medicine treats the root of the problem ( _zhongyi zhiben_ ).\n\nLike a typical patient with a _qingzhi_ disorder, the patient complained about her distressed \"heart,\" such as \"vexed heart-emotions\" ( _xinqing fanzao_ ), \"uneasy feeling in the heart\" ( _xinli bu tashi_ ), and \"the feeling of blockage in the heart\" ( _xinli du de ganjue_ ), as well as the physical discomforts of feeling pressure in the chest and numbness in the head. She had been divorced for two years. Although she insisted that the divorce itself was not a big trauma for her, and that she felt it was a relief, she felt her heart-emotion not flowing smoothly ( _xinqing bu shuchang_ ) since she had not satisfactorily resolved her \"personal problem\" (meaning not being able to find someone to date or marry) in the ensuing two years.\n\nIn my conversation with her, I also found that she, together with her two-year-old son, lived with her father. Sometimes her father helped her to take care of her son. She did not go into detail about this part of her life, nor did the doctor ask any detailed questions about her personal life, such as her relationship with her father and mother, her childhood, and so on. Such information is not perceived as intrinsically important in _zhongyi_ clinical practice. What the _zhongyi_ doctor looks for are the general effects and impacts of the particular social conditions in the patient's life that may contribute to and account for various emotional and physical difficulties. The doctor is more interested in things like financial loss, an unsatisfactory job experience, stress in the workplace and in school, problems in interpersonal relationships at work or within the family, divorce, and other changes in life. At the same time, a _zhongyi_ doctor tries to redress or redirect these effects and impacts.\n\nThe patient talked more about her problems at work. She was disinclined to teach the subject that she had been trained to teach in college. She found the work of homeroom teacher ( _ban zhuren_ ), very stressful. She told her school principal that she did not want to continue teaching, preferring to do administrative work the following semester. However, the school principal was not happy about her asking for a change in her work assignment. As a result, the patient had not been assigned any work for the following semester. The suspension frustrated her. She summarized that both her work and her personal life were not going smoothly as her heart desired ( _shunxin_ ).\n\nThe patient's unhappy personal and social life was accompanied by various physical discomforts such as dry and bitter mouth, numbness of the scalp, pressure in the head, weakness in her shoulders and arms, and sometimes stomach discomfort. The doctor did not specifically use the term _yuzheng_ (stagnation syndrome) to label the illness, but it was implied in the process of differentiation of syndromes and in the therapeutic principle and the herbal formulas the doctor designed for the patient. For the first visit, the therapeutic principle was to dredge the liver system, reorder the circulation of _qi_ ( _shugan liqi_ ) dissolve the stagnation, and eliminate vexation ( _jieyu chufan_ ). The patient was given the ready-made Tea of Dissolving the Stagnation and Calming the Mind ( _jieyu anshen chongji_ ) and a prescription of herbal medicine of modified decoction of Bupleuri for dispersing the depressed liver _qi_ ( _chaihu shugan san_ ).\n\nOne week later, the patient came back for a second visit. She looked brighter and claimed that her health had improved. She felt less vexed. However, her other symptoms, such as palpitation ( _xinhuangh_ ), feeling of pressure in the chest ( _xiongmen_ ), and dry and bitter mouth ( _zui gan kou ku_ ) were persistent. Her sleep was disturbed, too. In addition, she complained about being easily scared and jumpy ( _danxiao_ ). She mentioned that she felt nervous and restless when she was talking to an old lady who, while talking, was constantly flapping a fan. She felt her heart was beating fast and that she had an urge to stop talking and run away, though she understood clearly there was no reason to be feeling that way. Examination found her pulse \"thin and fast\" and the coating of her tongue yellow. The doctor concluded the syndrome of liver _qi_ stagnation had already transformed into \"fire,\" which caused phlegm congestion. The previous prescription was modified, and new elements were added to target the recent illness development. Powdered _chengxiang_ ( _Chenxiang mo_ ) was added to bring down the _qi_ and dissolve the phlegm ( _jiangqi huatan_ . The doctor also suggested that the patient take some ready-made herbal medicine for her woman's ( _fuke_ ) problems. He explained that in the patient's case the \"wet heat\" might have moved downward and caused excessive or yellowish vaginal discharge. To this the patient confirmed that she did have such symptoms.\n\nOn her third visit, the patient claimed that she felt much better. After the two previous sessions, the patient seemed to be more conformable and relaxed with the doctor. Her _xinqing_ (heart-emotion) had improved; she felt less _yayi_ (depressed), and her head was not as tight and numb as before. Yet, she was anxious to know if she could completely dispense with the biomedicine that she had been using, but somehow worried that her condition would relapse if she suddenly discontinued using it. The doctor assured her that gradually she could reduce her dose of biomedicine, but there was a process, and she should be patient. From the symptoms collected and pattern differentiation shown, the doctor concluded that the patient's syndrome configuration moved from a pure repletion type to a combination type, meaning that the patient still retained some of the heteropathic factors ( _xieshi_ ) in her system and at the same time the vital _qi_ had been consumed and depleted. The therapy was designed to attack _xieshi_ and also to replenish _qi_ ( _gongbu jianshi_ ). The principle was to replenish _qi_ , nourish the blood ( _yiqi yangxue_ ), further dissolve stagnation, and eliminate vexation. The patient did not come back to the clinic after the third visit.\n\nThe whole process can be easily identified as three stages. At the first stage, the symptom configuration was summarized as _yu_ (stagnation), and the therapy was designed to dissolve the stagnation by activating circulation of _qi_. At the second stage, the syndrome configuration changed and was summarized as _huo_ (fire), and the therapy was changed accordingly to clear fire. At the last stage, the syndrome type was identified as having _xu_ (depletion) elements, and the therapeutic decision was made to incorporate replenishing measures. I was present at all three of her visits and was able to tape record the first and the last of her clinical visits. The analysis in this chapter is based mainly on the clinical interaction recorded in the patient's first visit.\n\n# DIAGNOSING YU (STAGNATION OF EMOTIONS)\n\nThe clinical process of _tiao_ starts with the differentiation of syndrome pattern among an array of physical, emotional, and social dysfunctions and difficulties. There are many possible ways that symptom manifestations can be grouped and differentiated in practice. _Zhongyi_ classification seeks to summarize or characterize an illness condition at a particular moment, and it certainly opens up to a range of possible interpretations that are influenced by a particular doctor's strength, training, and styles. Some doctors are good at using various replenishing methods, and others may tend to use methods of activating blood and dissolving coagulation very often. Physicians may also emphasize different visceral systems. Dealing with the same illness manifestations, one doctor may choose to start with \"harmonize the stomach system\" (hewei ), and another may choose to \"eliminate liver heat\" _(qing ganre_ ). Sometimes the same doctor may arrive at more than one characterization of a syndrome configuration and have several possible therapeutic methods prepared. If one therapy fails, he will switch to another formula.\n\nHowever, it is in the interactional process of \"looking at illness\" that all these different factors and possibilities are played out. In the patient's illness record booklet, in the entry for the first visit, the doctor wrote down the differentiated syndrome pattern as _ganqi yujie_ (liver _qi_ stagnation) induced by \"emotion-mind not flowing freely and smoothly\" ( _ingzhi bushu_ ) \"the liver system losing its ability to stretch and extend\" ( _an shi tiaoda_ ), and the therapeutic principle of \"dredging the liver and reordering the flowing of _qi_ \" ( _shugan liqi_ ) and \"dissolving stagnation and eliminating vexation\" ( _jieyu chufan_ ). Anyone with a little _zhongyi_ knowledge can recognize that the case is diagnosed and treated as a particular _qingzhi disorder_ , _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness). In the transcript, the most obvious revelation of this differentiation of pattern comes from turn 68 (See transcript segment 7.4), in which the doctor says: \"Let's do dissolving stagnation and eliminating vexation. [Her case is that] heart-emotion is quite depressed.\" One interesting question then is how the doctor comes to this specific revelation at this particular point in the conversation. If we accept that differentiation of patterns is also an interactional process, then through an examination of interactional exchanges between the doctor and patient, we should be able to discover the interactional history leading to this specific diagnosis and to trace how this particular diagnosis emerged from a process of dynamic interaction between the doctor and the patient.\n\nThe patient starts her report without waiting for the doctor to question her. From the transcript (see transcript segment 7.1), we can see her first turn covers a range of symptoms including both emotion-oriented complaints and somatic symptoms. Heart-emotion vexed and uneasiness in heart seem more psychological, while heart flustering and tightness and numbness of the scalp are more obviously somatic. In turn 2, the doctor simply responds to the patient's multiple complaints by repeating a single symptom, \"vexation,\" using a more medically significant term _xinfan_ than _xinqing lao fanzao_ ( ), a term used by the patient. Apparently, what the doctor is doing here is reformulating the patient's illness experience into a more medically relevant symptom ( _zheng_ ). It is noticeable that out of the several complaints, only _xinfan_ is immediately mentioned, but not any other symptoms. A _zhongyi_ doctor routinely jots down the symptoms that are most interesting to him while listening to the patient's narrative of illness. The doctor might just simply vocalize what he is writing down in the patient's illness record booklet. But the sequential place of the utterance makes it an official response to the previous turn, which is understood and addressed by the patient as such in the next turn. Interactively, turn 2 may have several possible interpretations. It can be a question directed to the patient for confirmation. It can also be an acknowledgement the doctor offers to show that he is following the patient's report. And it may be both. Turn 3 shows that the patient is oriented to the sequential organization and reads the doctor's utterance as asking for confirmation. In the first three turns, _xinfan_ becomes the most conspicuous symptomatic component of the illness.\n\nHeart flusters ( _xinhuang_ ), a somatic complaint, is not mentioned again in the whole interview. If the doctor in the second turn picks up _xinhuang_ instead of _xinfan,_ the whole interactive course may be different. At least, the fourth turn, \"feeling wronged,\" would not be there. Instead, the most logical symptoms to look for would be \"shortness of breath\" _(qiduan_ ) or \"tiredness or fatigue\" ( _fali_ ), or other related somatic symptoms. If confirmed, the pattern will point to a possible configuration of a depleted pattern rather than a stagnation pattern as this case is defined. So, in a sense, the second turn shows a doctor's personal judgment where his personal experience ( _jingyan_ ) is displayed. In this case, he unambiguously directed his attention to the emotional aspect, rather than a somatic one, of the patient's suffering at the very early stage of the clinical interaction. It is also noticeable that _xinfan_ is the first symptom that the patient reports. To an experienced doctor, this initial position adds importance to that particular symptom. However, the patient in discussion shows she is also \"experienced\" and perceptive in regards to her own illness, and her illness narrative is consistently oriented to \"heart-emotion\" vexation.\n\nExperienced clinicians look for the relationships of symptoms to each other. Individual symptoms by themselves mean little. It is the symptoms appearing together that enable one pattern to be differentiated from another. _Xinfan_ by itself does not tell much about what syndrome pattern the patient is suffering. What matters is with what group of symptoms it appears. In a way, at least to an experienced doctor, it suggests where to look. When an experienced doctor sees one symptom, he makes the connection to other symptoms. So in turns 4 and 6, the doctor asks if the patient feels wronged and frustrated ( _weiqu_ ).The doctor is looking for an association of symptoms to discover an underlying pattern. The doctor's inquiry received a strong confirmation from the patient in turn 7.\n\nTurn 8 \"anxious\" ( _jiaolu_ )\" is not articulated in a clear question form and seems ambiguous. But since we understand that the doctor is looking for patterns of symptoms, the utterance could be reasonably seen as a guess, subject to confirmation or denial. In contrast to turn 7, the first part of the patient's turn 9 gives an ambiguous noncommittal \" _uhn_ \" and then proceeds to a new information sequence by \" _ranhou_ \" (and). Analysis of the utterance of \" _uhn_ \" is significant for understanding turn 8 and the following conversational development.\n\nExamining closely the sequential organization, turns 8 and 9 are clearly produced as an adjacency pair in that when 8 is produced, 9 becomes conditionally relevant to 8. The utterance of \" _uhn_ \" is indeed produced and apparently accepted as a response to 8. As I listened repeatedly to this part of the conversation, I was puzzled by this utterance of \" _uhn_.\" If 8 is a question produced for eliciting information, 9 should be an answer. However, _\"uhn\"_ is too vague to be a real answer. In addition, there is no reason for the patient not to give a clear yes or no answer. If the patient has no problem talking about vexation, feeling wronged, and weeping, she should have no reason to be vague about feeling anxious. However, there is no reason for the patient to hesitate in giving a negative answer to a question eliciting symptomatic information. In fact, patients understand the importance of giving accurate information. Then, why is _\"uhn\"_ there? The logical inference is that the patient does not read the doctor's utterance in 8 as a simple question.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.1\n\n1.| P: _a_ : _mm (.5)ji\u00f9sh\u00ec x\u012bnq\u012bng l\u0103o f\u00e1nz\u00e0o: mm: r\u00e1nh\u00f2u (...) x\u012b:nhu\u0101: ng (..) ji\u00f9shi (...) n\u00e8ige x\u012bnl g\u0103nju\u00e9 b\u00f9 t\u0101shi (.) ji\u00f9shi (...) ndogu\u0101 p\u00ed zh\u00e8idi\u0103nr f\u0101j n (..) f\u0101m\u00e1: de g\u0103nju\u00e9 (.) ah:: (.5) ji\u00f9 zh\u00e8di\u0103nr (.) h\u00f2umian zh\u00e8r_ | 1.| P: Umm: (.5) Just that my heart-emotion has been feeling vexed. Mm: And (..) my heart feels flustered (..), and I've been feeling _**uneasy**_ in my heart. And, the skin of my head feels tight and (..) numb (.) ah:: (.5) It is right here (.) back here. \n---|---|---|--- \n2.| D: _x\u012bnf\u00e1n_ | 2.| D: Heart vexed. \n3.| P: _\u00e0h: x\u012bnf\u00e1n: (.)\/\/r\u00e1nh\u00f2u_ :=| 3.| P: Yeah:: heart vexed (.) \/\/an:d = \n4.| D: _\/\/\u00e9iqu me_ | 4.| D: \/\/Feeling wronged? \n5.| P: = _\u00e1h_ :| 5.| P: =wha:t? \n6.| D: _w iq\u016b_ : _ma:_ | 6.| D: Feeling wronged? \n7.| P: _**weiq\u016b:: ji\u00f9** xi\u01ceng k\u016b::he::hh:_ ((laugh))| 7.| P: _**Yes**_ **::** _**just**_ feel like crying he::hh: ((laugh)) \n8.| D: _ji\u0101ol_ | 8.| D: Feeling anxious. \n9.| P: _ahn (.5) r\u00e1nh\u00f2u ehm:::ji\u00f9shi_ : _ehm_ : _(.5) z nme shuo ne (.) dui sh\u00e9nme sh\u00ec ba: (..) ehm h\u0103oxiang_ | 9.| P: Uhn (.5) and then uhm::: tha:t um:(.5) how can I say (.) for anything: (..) um seems \n10.| D: _=m\u00e9i sh\u00e9nme x\u00ecngqu_ | 10.| D: =Do not have that much interest \n11.| P: _=b\u00f9 g\u0103n sh\u00e9nme x\u00ecngqu:b\u00f9 g\u0103n sh\u00e9nme x\u00ecngqu:_ | 11.| P: =Not that interested: not that intere:sted. \n12.| D: _y umeiy u sh\u00e9nme b\u00fali\u00e1ng c\u00ecji (.) umeiy u ah: zu\u00ecj\u00ecn_ | 12.| D: Have you been through any trauma (.) Have you ah: recently? \n13.| P: _ahmm:_ | 13.| P: Uhm:: \n14.| D: _hu\u00f2shi sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 shang (.)_ y umeiy u sh\u00e9nme b\u00f9 y\u00faku\u00e0i de shiqing (.) sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 shang y umeiy u \u0101h:| 14.| D: Or in your everyday life (.) are there any unhappy things happening (.) in your everyday life are there any:?\n\nThe doctor's utterance 8 is similar in form to turn 2. As is mentioned, 2 demonstrates the doctor's judgment as an experienced clinician. The 8 does a similar thing. By simply saying _jiaolu,_ the doctor is claiming that the patient is experiencing the symptom of \" _jiaolu_.\" The symptoms to which the doctor pays attention, such as _xinfan_ (vexation), _weiqu_ (feeling wronged\/sad), and _jiaolu_ (anxiety\/nervousness) all have a \"psychological\" implication and are recognized by experienced doctors as symptoms that possibly go together. My _zhongyi_ teacher liked to say that a good doctor, when seeing one phenomenon, is able to trace it to a different but related phenomenon. So in a way, a doctor tends to display her virtuosity of healing by making informed and intelligent guesses about what a patient may be experiencing while moving along with clinical examinations. This clinical element has always been important in _zhongyi_ practice. This is where the popular belief comes from that a really great doctor can grasp the whole condition of illness just by looking at a patient or taking the pulse. There have been many legendary stories about physicians who identify illnesses and their intensity by just observation and pulse taking. In the case under discussion, with the symptoms of _xinfan_ and _weiqu_ confirmed, _jiaolu_ is very likely to coexist. The doctor in 8 is making an informed guess and displaying his knowledge and experience.\n\nThen, a reply to 8 in a social sense is a comment on the doctor's effectiveness and virtuosity. In terms of conversational structure, turn 8 is a claim about another participant's experience, which inevitably makes the next turn relevant to the claim as either a confirmation or a denial. Any answer is consequential in both a social and a conversational sense. Then, the patient's ambiguous _\"uhn\"_ begins to make sense.\n\nFrom turn 9, we see that the patient is very reluctant to reject the doctor's claim directly but at the same time does not feel strongly enough to admit it. Considering that both the doctor and the patient have been into the interview for just a few minutes, a direct rejection to the doctor's claim, which has a special social implication in the _zhongyi_ context, would be somewhat abrupt to a much-desired, smooth clinical interaction. Yet, to the doctor, the conversation participant, 9 may be indirect but not terribly ambiguous. According to the concept of \"preference\" in conversation analysis, not all the possible second part to a first part of an adjacency pair is of equal standing. Responses to a certain first action or part are organized by a preference system. According to Bilmes:\n\nPreference operates with three (or more) alternatives: a preferred (X), a non-preferred (Y), and no mention of X or Y (N). The principle is simply that, if X is preferred, N implies Y. It is this principle that, in all cases, defines preference.\n\nIn the case of 8 and 9, we may say that after a claim, a confirmation is preferred. If no clear confirmation or denial takes place, it is confirmation that is officially absent, and a denial is therefore implied. The doctor must have interpreted the meaning of the first part of 9 as a denial to his claim. After \"uhn\" there is a short pause that could be a potential transitional point for the next turn. But unlike what he did with his previous turns (4 and 8) after the confirmation, the doctor does not take his turn at the immediate transitional point. Given the doctor's interactional pattern shown in the previous turns, if, in any case, the doctor reads the \"uhn\" as a confirmation, he would probably continue tracing the symptoms that are likely to go together with _jiaolu_ such as \"restless\" ( _zuowo buan_ ),\" \"insomnia\" ( _shimian_ ), and so on. These symptoms if occurring with certain tongue and pulse diagnosis may suggest a syndrome configuration of depletion or an illness of visceral agitation ( _zangzao_ ). Yet, from turn 9 the conversational course seems to steer away from that line of inquiry.\n\nTurn 9 does two things: it responds to 8 and introduces new information. With many pauses and hesitations, as well as a presequence \"how can I say,\" the patient is trying to formulate an apparently not quite comfortable statement about her own experience. Anticipating what the patient is likely to say, the doctor in turn 10 says, \"not have much interest.\" He actually completes the sentence for the patient. Again, turn 10 has the quality of displaying the doctor's judgment and understanding, which is then confirmed by turn 11. From the utterances of 9 to 11, the doctor and patient achieve a renewed alignment. Throughout the conversation, we see that both the doctor and patient are closely oriented to each other, engaging themselves in interpreting the previous turns, adjusting and repairing their utterances, and projecting the course of interaction.\n\nBy turn 11, it has been confirmed that the patient has experienced the symptoms of vexation, feeling wronged and sad, weeping, and lack of interest. It should be fairly clear to the doctor that the patient suffers from a _qingzhi-_ related disorder. But it is still not sufficient to enable a particular pattern to be differentiated from other patterns. Since a _zhongyi_ pattern of syndrome is a characterization of a specific illness condition with an array of physical, emotional, and social dysfunctions and difficulties, for an obvious _qingzhi_ -related case, a doctor's examinations often includes questions about a patient's social experience. It is also the pattern of the patient's social experience that is informative to the task of pattern differentiation for a likely emotion-related disorder.\n\nTurn 12 initiates a new direction in the conversation. By asking if the patient has experienced any trauma ( _buliang ciji_ ) in her life, the doctor, on the one hand, evokes the shared ethnomedical assumption that the quality of a person's social life is also an important part of one's health by suggesting that the symptoms that have since been discussed have something to do with her social environment. On the other hand, turn 12 provides a space for the patient to talk about her social life.\n\nTurn 13 shows that the patient is hesitating and is not quite sure how to answer the question. The doctor then reformulates his question by replacing the more technical term _buliang ciji_ with ordinary language, \"unhappy things\" ( _bu yukuai de shi_ . The difference between \" _buliang ciji_ \" and \" _bu yukuai de shi_ \" is not just that one is more technical and the other is more colloquial. The word _ciji,_ meaning literally \"stimulation,\" is not a _zhongyi_ term but a popularized term of psychology. When a person is said to be \" _shou ciji\"_ (traumatized), she or he is believed to demonstrate abnormalities as a result of quick and strong psychophysiological reactions. The expression also implies some form of weakness in personality. The patient's hesitation in 13 is not a result of her ignorance that she did not grasp the meaning of the more technical term _buliang ciji,_ but as should be clear in her narrative in turn 16, it is rather a rejection to formulating her experience in terms of a passive \"mechanical\" reaction to an unfavorable environment. In contrast, _\"bu yukuai de shiqing_ \" (unhappy things) is the language of everyday life, which does not entail a drastic redefinition of the patient's social experience with a negative implication of weakness. So the patient responds to the doctor's reformulated question with a strong confirmation that there have been too many unhappy things in her life.\n\nThe patient's narrative of her personal life and social situations mainly comes in three relatively long turns (see transcript segments 7.2 and 7.3). The first such turn is 17. The first unhappy thing the patient mentions is her divorce two years before. But, quickly referring back to the doctor's turn 12, she claims that the divorce was not really a \"trauma\" but rather a relief. The patient rejects the image of suffering from _ciji._ However, the fact that two years after she was divorced, she is still alone, is what the patient sees as an \"unhappy thing\" that needs to be solved. In today's China, divorce, though not something to be encouraged, is tolerable, particularly if one is able to get remarried and reintegrated into the \"normal\" flow of social life, so to speak. It is the concept of being single that is somewhat alien to the cultural conventions. The patient uses _\"geren wenti_ \" (personal problem), which is a euphemism for \"the matter of finding a spouse.\" In her own presentation, \"the unhappy thing\" is the lack of change in her personal life after her divorce. The image she uses to formulate her experience is blockage and stagnation ( _butong_ ) _._ Because of the blockage in her social life, her heart-emotion \"is always feeling blocked\" ( _bu shuchang_ ).\n\nOn top of blockage and stagnation in her personal life, another important topic that echoes through the entire conversation is her unhappiness with her job. The patient tells the doctor that she is not just a middle school-teacher. She is a homeroom teacher ( _ban zhuren_ ) who teaches two subjects. The repeatedly used sentence structure \" _ranhou ba wo you_ ... (then ... I also)\" piles up one job on another, communicating feelings of pressure and stress, especially considering the shared assumption about what it is like to be an elementary or middle-school teacher in China. They are seen as having too many responsibilities, too little pay, and too much work. In a Chinese school, students in one class ( _ban_ ), usually forty to sixty, stay together for all their classes and many extracurricular activities throughout their years in that school (in elementary school they stay together in one _ban_ for six years; in middle school three years, and in high school three years). A homeroom teacher is ultimately responsible for all concerns of the _ban_ \u2014academic, social, and emotional\u2014but he or she seldom teaches more than one subject. In turn 18, the doctor's repetition of \"two subjects\" in a rising tone at the end shows his surprise that the patient besides being the homeroom teacher also teaches two subjects. In away, the utterance shows that the doctor is paying particular attention to the patient's report and is sympathetic with her situation.\n\nAfter several exchanges about what subjects the patient teaches and where she graduated, the patient continues her narrative in turn 29. The continuation is clearly marked by the same sentence construction ( _ranhou ba wo you_ ...). She piles on top of her job stress the stress of being a single mother. For the second time in her narration she says \"My heart-emotion has been for a long time feeling blocked\" (not flowing smoothly and freely). Then she characterizes her social situation by saying, \"Both my personal life and work have not been going too smoothly\" (not following my heart's desire). Later, in turn 57, after talking about her unhappy experience at the workplace, the patient again claims: \"I feel very uncomfortable in my heart. (.5) I: feel (..) extremely wronged and vexed.\" The Chinese term is _wonang_ . It is a combined feeling of being wronged without a channel to vent the frustration and heart-emotion not flowing freely. A consistent metaphor in the patient's narrative is \"not flowing\" ( _bu shuchang_ ), and the image is blockage and stagnation.\n\nIn _zhongyi_ clinical context, we see that illness experience recognizes no boundaries between what is social, psychological, or physical. In fact, the language the patient uses to talk about her experience does not require these distinctions. For example, expressions such as \"not flowing freely\" ( _bu shuchang_ ),\" \"blocked\" _(du_ ),\" \"pressed and suffocated\" ( _bie_ ),\" and \"not smooth\" ( _bu shun_ ), are used in describing emotional, social, and physical experience. Complaints in any of these aspects are all recognized as symptomatic and contribute to an overall picture of the illness. The much talked about _zhongyi_ \"holism\" is not a conceptual abstract but a concrete reality unfolded in _zhongyi_ clinical interactions.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.2\n\n15.| P: _**t\u00e0i** du\u014d le (..) h\u0103oxi\u00e0ng shi::_ hei: hh ((laugh))| 15.| P: _**Too**_ many (..) I suppose :: hei::hh: ((laugh)) \n---|---|---|--- \n16.| D: uh: ha hh ((laugh))| 16.| D: uh: ha hh ((laugh)) \n17.| P: _y\u012bnw\u00e9i (.3) w ba: en::ji\u00f9shi: (.5) li\u0103ng ni\u00e1n qi\u00e1n (.5) l\u00edh\u016bn le (3) q\u00edsh\u00ed ba:: l\u00edh\u016bn ba:: b\u00fash\u00ec sh\u00e9nme c\u00ecji (.8) \u03c9_ _ju\u00e9_ _de sh\u00ec y\u00ec zh ng ji\u011btu\u014d ha:_ _d\u00e0nsh\u00ec_ _ji\u00f9shi:: gu\u00f2 y\u00ed du\u00e0n sh\u00edji\u0101n ba:: w ju\u00e9: de: ji\u00f9shi:: en:: **z\u01d2ngsh\u00ec** b\u00f9n\u00e9ng:: yu\u01cenm\u01cen de ji\u011bju\u00e9 \u03c9 de g\u00e8r\u00e9n w\u00e8nt\u00ed (.5) x\u012bnl ba:: l\u0103osh\u00ec b\u00f9 sh\u016bch\u00e0ng (.) r\u00e1nhou w b\u00fashi d\u0101ng ji\u00e0osh\u012b me (.) r\u00e1nh\u00f2u w you zu\u00f2 b\u0101nzh r\u00e8n g\u014dngzu\u00f2 (.) r\u00e1nh\u00f2u w y\u00f2ush\u00ec:: ji\u0101o: li\u01ceng m\u00e9n k\u00e8ch\u00e9ng (.3) ah::n_ | 17.| P: Because (.3) I um:: tha:t (.5) two years ago (.5) was divorced (.3) Actually uh:: divorce was not that much a trauma (.8) _I_ _feel_ it's a kind of relief uh:: _But_ that:: after some time uh:: I fe:lt that:: uh:: I _**just**_ can not solve my personal problem satisfactorily (.5) My heart-emotion uh:: is always feeling blocked ((not flowing smoothly and freely)) (.) And then I am also a teacher. And then I am also a homeroom advisor (.) and then I also:: teach: two subjects (.5). Ah::n \n18.| D: _li\u0103ng men k\u00e8ch\u00e9ng_ | 18.| D: Two different subjects?\n\nAfter the patient's utterance (29) that both her personal life and her work have not been going smoothly, the doctor's next question (31) is, \"Do you have a stuffy chest?\"The doctor is now ready to direct his inquiring gaze to the physical symptoms that correspond to the patient's social and emotional experience. The patient answers, \"just feel like:: suffocated\/\/difflcult in drawing a breath (32).\" The patient uses colloquial words for \"suffocated\" ( _bie_ ) and \"difficult in drawing a breath\" ( _shangbulai qi_ ). Again, the difference between the doctor's terminology and the patient's is not that the former is more technical, and the later is more colloquial. In fact, the word that the doctor uses \"the stuffy chest\" ( _xiongmen_ ) is also a common term. Since utterance 32 is not clearly indicated as a negative answer to the doctor's question, the patient must have perceived her experience as somehow similar or at least comparable to that of the symptom of \"the stuffy chest.\" Yet, by using her own expressions, she characterizes her experience as something that does not totally conform to the doctor's characterization from an apparently medical perspective. _Xiongmen_ (the stuffy chest) is a common symptom in _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness). It is understood by _zhongyi_ doctors as originating from a disordered _qi_ circulation that causes _qi_ to accumulate and to be trapped in the liver system, and the patient then experiences a feeling of fullness and pressure in the chest. _Xiongmen_ , therefore, as _zhongyi_ terminology, is more a medicalized description of _qi_ gathered inside without an outlet, or of _qi_ blocked from flowing out. However, the patient uses _bie_ (suffocated) and _shangbulai qi_ (difficult breathing) to describe her experience of obstructed breathing. The emphasis is more on the blockage that obstructs the vital _qi_ of life from coming inside. The doctor's characterization focuses more on disordered internal mechanism that is central to the patient's illness, while the patient's description sees the external pressure (literally and figuratively) as a more significant factor.\n\nWhen the doctor hears the patient say \" _bie de_ ,\" he immediately cuts in and asks if the patient tends to exhale a long breath (33), because _bie_ has both meanings of \"suppress\" and \"suffocate.\" If the patient uses the former meaning of the term, 32 would be a fully positive answer to turn 31. The image of wanting to give out long breaths is an extension of \" _xiongmen_ ,\" since if _qi_ is suppressed inside the chest, the patient tends to help _qi_ out by breathing out hard and long. A more technical term is giving constant sighs ( _xi taixi_ ).\" The doctor's question in turn 33 overlaps the patient's second half of turn 32, which shows that \" _bie_ \" is actually used in its second sense as \"suffocate.\" Therefore, although by utterance 34 \" _uh_ \" the patient gives a confirmation to the doctor's turn 33, the doctor hears the patient's second half of 32 \"difficult in drawing a breath\" as somehow contradictory to her confirmation in 34. He quickly adds another question to follow up, this time by demonstration. He draws in a deep breath first and then lets it out slowly. Interestingly, the patient says \" _uh_ \" to confirm the doctor's demonstration, but at the same time, insists on \" _shangbulai qi_ \" (difficult breathing in). The feeling of blockage at any point normally does involve two-way movement: in and out. However, _zhongyi_ doctors see as the central illness mechanism the stagnant _qi_ stuck within one's system and thus blocking the flow of both in and out. _Zhongyi_ recognizes that it is crucial to activate the person's own systems to move the stagnant _qi_ first. This strategy is reflected in many _zhongyi_ therapeutic methods, such as \"dredging\" ( _shu_ ),\" \"releasing\" ( _xie_ ), \"dispersing\" ( _jie_ ), and \"draining\" ( _tong_ ). However, this particular patient focuses almost stubbornly on the difficulty of breathing in. Her repeated use of the expression _shangbushanglai qi_ (can't breathe) seems to be her bodily comment on her stagnant personal life and suppressive social environment. In everyday Chinese language, people often use similar expressions, such as _chuan buguo qi lai_ to describe suffocation and suppression of one's social and political environment.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.5\n\n29.| P: _Uh:: (.) r\u00e1nh\u00f2u ba: \u03c9 z\u00ecj you d\u00e0i h\u00e1izi: uh: ji\u00f9shi xanq\u00edng ch\u00e1ngq\u012b de l\u0103o::ahi b\u00f9: sh\u016bch\u00e0ng (.5) ji\u00f9shi sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 shang: g\u014dngzu\u00f2 shang d\u014du:: b\u00fa t\u00e0i_ sh\u00f9nx\u012bn::| 29.| P: : Uh:: (.) then: I also take care of my chi: ld by myself. Uh: that my heart-emotion has been for a long: time feeling blocked and unhappy (.5) and both my personal life: and work are not going satisfactorily:: \n---|---|---|--- \n30.| D: _((talk to a previous patient who came back to ask some questions about how to take the medicine)) (15)_ | 30.| D: ((talk to a previous patient who came back to ask some questions about how to take the medicine)) (15) \n31.| D: _xi\u014dng m\u00e8n bu m\u00e8n ah::_ | 31.| D: Do you have a stuffy chest ah::? \n32.| P: _ji\u00f9shi:: bie de \/\/sh\u00e0ngbul\u00e1i q\u00ec_| 32.| P: Just:: feel like suffocated\/\/ difficult drawing a breath. \n33.| D: \/\/ _x hu\u0101n ch\u00e1ng ch\u016bq\u00ec sh\u00ecma:_ | 33.| D: \/\/Tend to give out a long breath, right? \n34| P: \u00e0h:::| 34.| P: Yeh::: \n35.| D: = _sh\u00ec zh\u00e8yang me_ ((the doctor draws a deep breath and lets it out as if giving out a sigh))| 35.| D:= Like this? ((The doctor draws a deep breath and lets it out as if giving out a sigh.)) \n36.| P: _\u00e0h: sh\u00e0ngbul\u00e1i qi: (.) a: h: r\u00e1nh\u00f2u zh\u00e8 d\u00ecfang d_ de _**t\u00e8** n\u00e1nsh\u00f2u::: a:h y u sh\u00edhou ba:ji\u00f9shi x\u012bn I f\u00e1n de sh\u00edhou ba:: w jiu ju\u00e9de w\u00e8ich\u00e1ng g\u014dngn\u00e9ng ba: ji\u00f9shi h\u01ceoxi\u00e0ng:: (.) y u di\u01cenr y\u00f2u xi\u0103ng l\u0101 d\u00f9zi d\u00e0nsh\u00ec you m\u00e9jy_ u| 36.| P: _Yeh: have difficulty in drawing_ a breath. Uh: then here feels like something stuck and _**very**_ uncomfortable::: u:h ((the patient presses one hand on the area that Chinese usually call \"the mouth of the heart\")). Sometimes: when:: my heart feels vexed, I feel the function of my stomach and bowels seems to be: (.) sort of like diarrhea but actually it is not.\n\nFinally, the doctor gets a clearer confirmation when the patient presses her hand on her upper stomach area saying she feels uncomfortable as if there is something stuck there. This in some way supports the doctor's analysis, because according to _zhongyi_ physiology and pathology the accumulated stagnant _qi_ in the liver system is very likely to encroach on the stomach system and cause a feeling of fullness and pressure. In the record booklet the doctor used \"feeling fullness and blockage in the chest and stomach area\" ( _xiongwan biemen_ ). He managed to combine both _men_ (stuffy) and _bie_ (suffocation) in one symptom and was able to accommodate the patient's point of view.\n\nBy now, the emotional symptoms, social difficulties, and physiological symptoms have been considered. Before turn 68, the doctor asks to look at the patient's tongue. Then the examination is completed, and the diagnosis in terms of differentiation of patterns is reached. We notice that the patient is continuing to provide information on her illness in turn 67 saying that she also feels fatigue. Apparently, the patient's 67 utterance about lack of strength is not addressed by the doctor in the following turn. In fact, the patient's complaint is not addressed by the doctor until the patient's third visit when the syndrome pattern of depletion (xu ) is diagnosed. It is always stressed in the _zhongyi_ clinic that among complicated symptom configurations, a doctor should grasp the main conflict ( _zhuyao maodun_ ). By not addressing the new information, the doctor also indicates the end of the stage of _bianzheng_ (differentiation of pattern) and the beginning _of lunzhi_ (discussing treatment). The doctor's utterance 68 begins with, \"Thi::s uh: is like this (.5)\" which is a presequence to the coming concluding remarks. \"Let's do releasing the stagnation and dissolving vexation\" shows both a differentiation of syndrome pattern and determination of a therapeutic strategy. The doctor particularly mentions the patient's suppressed (yayi ) heart-emotion as the main problem, with which the patient agrees completely (69). Apparently, the patient's condition is diagnosed as \"stagnation of emotions\" ( _qingzhi zhi yu_ ) originated from the difficulties and problems in her social environment.\n\nIn the above analysis, I have shown how the _zhongyi_ diagnostic process of differentiation of patterns ( _bianzheng_ ) works in one particular case. I have tried to trace the origin of the diagnosis of yu and demonstrate how this particular pattern differentiation emerges as the result of the process of interaction and negotiation between the doctor and the patient. The purpose is not to present the standard practice of bianzhen lunzhi (pattern differentiation and therapy determination), but rather to show how a particular _zhongyi_ physician, who is known for his efficacy in treating _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness), particularizes this \"standardized\" process through his personal experience, perspectives, language, and style of communication. His attentiveness to the patient's emotional and social problems as shown in the case analyzed here may well show his particular strength that contributes to his reputation with emotion-related disorders.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.4\n\n65.| P: _h\u00e1iyou:: zu::f\u0101g\u0101n:f\u0101k:::_ | 65.| P: And also:: my mouth feels dry: and bitter:::. \n---|---|---|--- \n66.| D: _w k\u00e0nkan sh\u00e9tou k\u00e0nkan:_ (.5) _t\u0101i b\u00f3hu\u00e1ng_ (.5) sh\u00e9zh d\u00e0n:: d\u00e0n (...)| 66.| D: Let me look at your tongue. Look at: (.5) The coating is thin and yellow (.5). The color of the tongue is pale:: pale (...) \n67.| P: _y u sh\u00edhour: ba::ju\u00e9de: ba:: c\u00f3ng: ji\u0101nji\u0101g r:: d\u00e0o li\u0101ng ge b\u00ec ba::ju\u00e9de y\u00ec di\u0103n::r j\u00ecnr dou_ meiy u:: m\u00e9i j\u00ecnr| 67.| P: Sometimes uh:: feel: uh:: from:: the shoulder blades:: to my two arms:: feel no strength at a::ll, no strength. \n68.| D: _(zh\u00e8ge:: e: sh\u00ec zh\u00e8y\u00e0ng_ ) (.5) _ji y\u00f9 ch\u00faf\u00e1n ba::(t\u0101 zh\u00e8 zh ng shi:) x\u012bnq\u00edng b ji\u0103o y\u0101y\u00ec_ | 68.| D: (Thi::s uh: is like this.) (.5) Let's do releasing the stagnation: and dissolving vexation uh:: (Her case is) heart-emotion feels quite depressed. \n69.| P: _**\u00e0hn:** :: x\u012bnq\u00ecng **t\u00e8**_ ::: _y\u0101:: y\u00ec::_ y _u sh\u00edhour xi\u0103ngq zh\u00e8ixi\u0113 sh\u00ecr:: **yu\u00e8::** xiang_ _yu\u00e8_ _::f\u00e1n: (1.5) y u sh\u00edhour (.5)ji\u00f9::jiu xi\u0103ng::n=_ | 69.| P: **Yeh** ::: heart-emotion feels **very** ::: depressed. Sometimes when thinking of these thi::ngs, **the more** I think, _the more_ I feel vexed. (1.5) Sometimes (.5) ju:st ju: st wa::nt=\n\n# NEGOTIATING A PATH TO EFFICACY\n\nSince _zhongyi_ therapy is typically understood as _tiao,_ a gradual and carefully managed process of adjustment, efficacy, or effectiveness _(xiao_ ) can be assessed at any given stage of a treatment. The _zhongyi_ wisdom \"if effective, do not change the formula\/method\" _(xiao bu geng fang_ ) is still evoked by physicians in clinical actions, not so much as a guiding principle but rather as useful accumulated experience _(jingyan_ ) to indicate that _xiao_ is constantly assessed so that therapeutic strategies can be adjusted accordingly. In this sense, _xiao_ or _liaoxiao_ has the meaning of \"proximate effects that indicate the healing\/curing process is under way.\" However, _xiao_ is also used to mean \"the ultimate outcome\" of a treatment. For the purpose of this analysis, _xiao_ or _liaoxiao_ is glossed as both effectiveness and efficacy. I use them interchangeably with the former to indicate more \"proximate effects\" and the latter more \"as the ultimate outcome.\"\n\nIn the _zhongyi_ clinical encounter, the patient's own narrative on how effective or not effective a particular treatment is plays an important role in the doctor's decision to change a therapy or to retain a current one. While it is true that the _zhongyi_ doctor cannot reject the patient's own presentation of the effects of a treatment, the doctor, having professional training and experience, is able to put in medical perspective the signs observed and reported by the patient and persuade the patient to see the signs as proximate medical effects that indicate that the healing process is under way. _Zhongyi_ treatment emphasizes healing as a process; thus proximate effects are given considerable attention. The concept _\"tiao\"_ (attuning or balancing) itself suggests that _zhongyi_ therapy is a long-term task. Since the \"ultimate efficacy\" of being \"attuned\" or balanced cannot be absolute and timeless, _tiao_ might be a lifelong effort.\n\nIn addition, _zhongyi_ efficacy is also seen as emerging from the entire clinical process of _tiao_ involving adjustments in all aspects of the patient's illness conditions. _Zhongyi_ doctors assume that a person's emotions, thoughts, and visceral systems are interconnected in a functional way and that changes in one aspect would lead to changes in other aspects. They generally feel no need to make distinctions between efficacy produced by specific herbal contents and that from \"nonspecific therapeutic sources.\" Doctors consistently prescribe herbal medicine for the patients whose illness conditions are diagnosed as caused by excessive emotions or by social difficulties. Similarly, prescribing herbs does not necessarily negate the need for nonmedical \"talk\" to persuade the patient to change his or her perspectives. Rather, _zhongyi_ doctors make use of all available sources, medical and nonmedical, to facilitate a positive change in the patient.\n\nIn the case analyzed in this chapter, a herbal medication was prescribed at all three of the patient's visits. Clearly, both doctor and patient expected that a particularly tailored herbal medication would work to activate _qi_ movement and thus to dissolve the stagnation of emotions. In fact, the shared confidence in herbal interventions is very much the context in which the _zhongyi_ \"talk\" takes place. The choice to focus on talk is not to deny effectiveness of herbal therapies but rather that the theoretical framework of microanalysis does not accommodate an adequate assessment of the role of herbs. More importantly, this analysis is not meant to assess efficacy of a given _zhongyi_ therapy but to uncover the aspect of the clinical process of _tiao_ that has escaped most ethnographic scrutiny, namely, the discursive attendance to emotions and thoughts.\n\nMedical efficacy \"might lie in the determination of who or what caused the illness and why that particular person was affected.\" In other words, efficacy may start with diagnosis. As shown above, the case analyzed here was differentiated as \"liver _qi_ stagnation\" _(ganqi yujie)_ induced by \"emotion not flowing smoothly\" ( _qingzhi bushu)_ and \"the liver system losing its ability to stretch and extend\" _(gan shi tiaoda)._ The therapeutic principle that the doctor chose was to \"dredge the liver system and reorder the flow of _qi_ \" _(shugan liqi)_ and \"dissolve stagnation and eliminate vexation\" ( _jieyu chufan)._ The above analysis is meant to show the interactional history leading to this specific diagnosis and to trace how this particular diagnosis emerged from a dynamic interaction between the doctor and patient. In the following, the focus of my analysis will be on how both doctor and patient actively negotiate over \"the conditions\" in which desired changes in the patient's experience may take place.\n\nFor _qingzhi_ disorders, _tiao_ is particularly understood as involving more than the adjustment of physiological process. Adjustment of one's perceptions and of one's social relations is also part of the attuning process and, in fact, one important condition leading to efficacy. A passage from a _zhongyi_ textbook states:\n\nAs pointed out in _Linzheng Zhinan Yi'an: Yuzheng,_ \"healing of _yuzheng_ depends very much on a patient's ability to transform emotions and change perspectives.\" That's why doctors should show concern for patients' sufferings, counsel the patients, fully motivate the positive elements in the patients, so that they can help the patients reorient themselves and encourage them to let go of their worries and to develop confidence in overcoming illnesses.... Depending solely on material medicine, the stagnation cannot be dissolved and efficacy is hard to achieve.\n\nIn the case of the patient, the meaning of helping smooth _(shu)_ and reorder _(li)_ the flow of emotions and dissolve _(jie)_ and eliminate ( _chu_ ) the feeling of blockage in her social and emotional life is also embedded in the therapeutic strategy of \"dredging the liver and reordering the flow of _qi_ \" and \"dissolving stagnation and eliminating vexation.\" Looking closely at the actual clinical interaction in the contemporary _zhongyi_ practice, it is clear that doctors do engage in counseling patients. However, the way _zhongyi_ doctors work with patients is different from the psychological counseling normally found in typical Western psychiatric clinics. Unlike a psychotherapist who tries to bring the patient into contact with his or her \"true feelings or conflict\" that are supposedly suppressed or denied by the patient, a _zhongyi_ doctor has no interest in any unconscious \"true\" feelings. What is important to _zhongyi_ counseling, shown in the following analysis of the clinical interaction, is to help the patient develop an adaptive attitude and perspective in order to better adjust to her social environment.\n\nA _zhongyi_ doctor does not pose him- or herself as an expert in emotions, but as a wise person who has accumulated practical wisdom through life and professional experiences. The _zhongyi_ doctor cannot assume an \"objective\" point of view on the patient's \"emotional problem\" as a psychotherapist does in therapeutic interaction. A _zhongyi_ doctor very often forges a connection with the patient by transforming \"the patient's problem\" into shared human conditions and therefore makes it legitimate to offer moderate advice in forms of personal experience and reflections that one may hear from one's trusted friends or relatives. For example, when the patient in this case says that she does not want to teach PE and gives \"poor health\" as the reason, the doctor says in reply that \"frequent exercise is helpful,\" which is certainly a rejection of the reason that the patient offers. He then offers an anecdote about himself that one winter his bicycle was stolen, so he had to get up early and walk to the hospital every morning, and as a result, he never caught a cold that winter. In _zhongyi_ clinics, the so-called counseling is very much a negotiation between at least two different points of view and perspectives informed by different knowledge, experience, and interest. The success of negotiation depends largely on the type of connections forged between the doctor and patient through actively managed turn-by-turn interactions.\n\nAfter the differentiation of pattern and determination of therapeutic principle, the conversation moves on to talking about a medical prescription. In turn 79 (see transcript segment 7.5 for 75\u201389), the doctor asks if it is okay for the patient to take the herbal medicine that she needs to decoct by herself at home. The patient replies that it is fine with her because she is not working these days, meaning she has time to prepare herbal medicine. The doctor reads more into the patient's reply. In turn 81, the doctor says, \"Brew some herbal soup and just get well fast.\" He then follows the same message in turn 83 \"Get well fast, then you can go back to work soon (.) Have to make money, right?\" The turn refers to the patient's utterance in turn 80 that the patient is not working; at the same time \"have to make money\" is meant and heard to be a joke. The theme of \"not working\" ( _mei shangban_ ) in the patient's utterance 80 is only secondarily mentioned and is furthermore presented as a facilitating condition. However, the doctor picks up on this as a problem or a complaint. From turns 81 to 83, he manages to turn it into a major topic of discussion in the conversation that follows.\n\nResponding to the doctor's humorous remark that she needs to get well fast so that she can go to work and make money, the patient laughs and replies by saying that her situation has almost become a vicious cycle and that the longer she is not able to work, the more her heart-emotion feels vexed. The expression she uses to characterize her situation is \"unable to go to work\" _(shangbuliao ban_ ) rather than \"not go to work\" _(bu sbangban).\"_ The patient tries to say that her illness prevents her from going to work. The illness originates from her vexed heart-emotion, which results from her unhappy personal life and the unresolved problems in her social world. To complete this \"vicious cycle,\" inability to work can only worsen her already strained relationship at her workplace.\n\nAt this point, the doctor then says, \"Some amount of work will be helpful. It is not good not to work.\" Sequentially and logically, the doctor's utterance is a response to the patient's turn 87, saying that some amount of work will help the patient feel better. But if we look at the exchanges from 80 through 88, turn 88, especially the criticism \"It is not good not to work\" can also be read as a follow-up to 81 and 83, as a response to the patient's revelation that she is not working. Especially, the mention of money in 88 makes it relevant to turn 81. If the utterance \"It is not good not to work\"was said at turn 81 instead of at 88, it would be understood as a direct criticism of the patient and would pose a potential \"loss of face\" threat to the patient. When the critical comment in turn 88 \"It is not good not to work\" is uttered, it has been cushioned by a joke, and it is several turns removed from the original place where the topic is introduced. The patient's response is a repetition of the doctor's words \"some amount of work\" in a suspending tone that conveys confusion and serves as a request for further explanation. The disagreement is more subtle and fundamental than it seems. The patient presents her situation as \"not able to go to work,\" something that is beyond her personal choice. However, the doctor's way of talking about the matter, such as \"do some amount of work\" _(shidang gongzuo)_ and \"not work\" _(bu gongzuo)_ challenges the patient's self-characterization and makes it sound as if the patient is somehow responsible for not going to work, which, according to the doctor, is a mistake. We sense the tension between these two perspectives. The patient sees her situation as things happening to her beyond her own control, yet the doctor sees that the key factors in the patient's illness and effective healing lie within the patient herself. The tension between the two perspectives runs throughout the entire conversation and shapes the patterns of the interaction. For example, when the patient says that she does not want to teach PE because of her poor health, the doctor rejects the patient's explanation by reversing her argument and claiming that physical exercise is actually good for the health. The earlier doctor and patient exchanges about the symptom of \"fullness of the chest\" _(xiongmen_ ) suggest a similar pattern of interaction: while the patient insists on a feeling of suffocation, \"not able to breath in\" _(shangbulai qi_ ), the doctor focuses on the feeling of fullness and pressure within her chest.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.5\n\n75.| D: _ah:: w g i n k\u0101i: di\u0103: nr chongj\u00ec z\u00e0i: d\u00e0i: k\u0101i dianr t\u0101ngy\u00e0o(.) n\u00e9ng ch\u00e9ng m\u0101::_ | 75.| D: uh:: I'll prescribe you some ready-made preparation and also prescribe some herbal medicine to decoct (.) Is that ok with you::? \n---|---|---|--- \n76.| P: _\u00e1h:_ :| 76.| P: Ah::? \n77.| _D: ch\u014dngj\u00ec zhu\u0101nm\u00e9n zhi n zh\u00e8ge b\u00ecng de \u0101h::_ | 77.| D: The ready-made preparation is especially designed for treating the kind of illness you have. Okay?:: \n78.| P: \u00e0h:: x\u00ed::ng| 78.| P: Ah:: Fi::ne . \n79.| D: _z\u00e0i k\u0101i_ (..) _\u00e1o di\u0103nr y\u00e0o h\u0103obuh\u0103o::?_ | 79.| D: And also prescribe (..) boil some herbal medicine, is that oka::y? \n80.| P: _k :y_ :: _x\u00edng(.) f\u0103n:zh\u00e8ng_ : _xi\u00e0nz\u00e0i w y\u011b m\u00e9i sh\u00e0ngb\u0101n::_ | 80.| P: That's fine. No problem. I am staying at home these days anyway. \n81.| D: _\u00e1o di\u0103nr y\u00e0o: ba:: g\u0103nj n_ : _h\u0103o: d\u00e9le_ | 81.| D: Brew some he:rb soup and just get well fast. \n82.| P: _\u00e9:ng_ | 82.| P. u:hn: \n83.| D: _h\u0103o: le g\u0103nj_ n _g\u014dngzu\u00f2_ (.) h\u00e1id\u011bi: zh\u00e8ngqi\u00e1n ne| 83.| D: Get well fast, then you can go back to work soon (.) Have to make money, right? \n84.| P: _ha::ha::_ (( _laugh_ ))| 84.| P: Ha::ha:: ((laugh)) \n85.| P: _dou \u00e8xing x\u00fanhu\u00e1n le:: w p\u00e0 w d\u014du ch\u00e9ng le (.) xi\u00e0nz\u00e0i_ | 85.| P: Almost become a vicious cycle::now, I am afraid. \n86.| D: _n\u00e9ng h\u0103o m\u00e9i w\u00e8nt\u00ed_ | 86.| D: You'll be fine. No problem. \n87.| P: _**yu\u00e8**_ :: _sh\u00e0ng b\u00f9 li\u0103o b\u0101n: ba: x\u012bnq\u00edng yu\u00e8\/\/f\u00e1n:: (.) ju\u00e9de:_ e _::_ | 87.| P: The **lo** :: **nger** I am not able to wo:rk uh: the **mo** : **re** my heart-emotion feels ve: xed (.) \/\/I fee:1 uh:: \n88.| D: \/\/ _sh\u00ecd\u0101ng g\u014dngzu\u00f2_ :: _b\u00f9 g\u014dngzu\u00f3 b\u00f9h\u0103o:: b\u00f9d\u0101n qi\u00e1n de w\u00e8nt\u00ed_ | 88.| D::\/\/Some amount of work:: is necessary. It is not good not to work. It is not just a matter of money. \n89.| P: sh\u00ecd\u0101ng g\u014dngzu\u00f2 ah:| 89.| P: Some amount of work?\n\nThe doctor's emphasis on the patient's role in the course of illness development is consistent with _zhongyi's_ conceptualization of the _qingzhi_ disorder and its healing. The stagnation syndrome _(yuzbeng)_ is understood particularly as originating in human conditions: \"disappointment in getting what one seeks\" _(suoqiu busui_ ), \"failure to achieve one's goal\" _(zhiyi buda_ ), and so on. Its healing depends very much on the patient's ability to \"transform emotions and changes\" _(yiqing yizhi_ ). The famous Ming dynasty physician Zhang Jingyue, in his writings about _yuzheng,_ says \"a person who is ill because of emotions can only be healed by emotions: with a woman, her desire has to be fulfilled before her stagnation can be removed; with a man, he has to learn to be flexible and have broad heart-mind and superior wisdom, otherwise his illness can not be transformed.\"\n\nWe can see that the doctor is trying to transform the patient's emotions and change her focus. The implied meaning of being disabled by her illness in the patient's utterance of 87 is not acknowledged in the doctor's next turn. Instead, the utterance in the doctor's turn 88 presupposes just the opposite; that is, the patient is able to work. In the patient's turn 89, by repeating the doctor's words and asking for further elaboration without addressing the question of ability to work, it seems as if the patient tacitly accepts the doctor's presupposition of utterance 88 that her \"not working\" is the result of her own choice rather than caused by her disability. At least, from the doctor's response in turn 90 (see transcript segment 7.6 for 90\u201393), we know that the doctor hears the patient's turn 89 as asking why she should work rather than if she is able to work. In turn 90, the doctor starts to explain why it is important to work, thus opening his lengthy speech to persuade _(kaidao_ , literally \"open\" and \"guide,\" meaning to help a person see his\/her situation clearly and sensibly) the patient.\n\nThe doctor in turn 90 starts with a general claim: \"Human beings are like this (..) need to have a source of satisfaction (..).\" Generally, a _zhongyi_ doctor tries to avoid getting into the details of a patient's personal life, partly because a _zhongyi_ doctor does not have the professional claim that a psychotherapist has for an authoritative voice over interpreting the patient's behavior and emotional experience. What the _zhongyi_ doctor relies on is some form of relatedness between him and his patient that allows him to draw from his own experience to bear on the patient's experience, that is, the shared human condition. In addition, the practical purpose of this type of _kaidao_ is to help a patient tune into a different perspective so that she can become better adjusted to her environment.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.6\n\n90.| D: _r\u00e9n ji\u00f9 zh\u00e8iy\u00e0::ng (..) y\u00e0o y u ge j\u00ectu\u014d (..) w xi\u0103:ng sh\u00ec zh\u00e8yang (.) h ndu\u014d l\u0103oni\u00e1n r\u00e9n tuixiu:: (.) w\u00e8ish\u00e9nme t\u0101 l\u00edxi\u016b ji\u00f9 r\u00f3ngyi d\u00e9 bing ah: b\u00f9d\u0101n shi ge qi\u00e1n de w\u00e8nt\u00ed y\u012bngg\u0101i h\u00e1iy u ge g\u014dngzu\u00f2 j\u00ectu\u014d (.) sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 j\u00ectu\u014d w\u00e8nt\u00ed_ (2.0)\/\/ _r\u00e9nde_ | 90.| D: Human being is like this (..) needs to have a source of satisfaction (..) I thi: nk this is true (.) Many old people when reti::red (.) why is that he tends to fall ill after retirement ah:? It is not just money: There should also be something to do with having a source of satisfaction from work (.) and life. (2.0)\/\/A person's \n---|---|---|--- \n91.| P: _\/\/k w xi\u00e0nz\u00e0i sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 shang gongzu\u00f2 shang y\u00ec di\u0103nr j\u00ectu\u014d d\u014du m\u00e9iy u (..) x\u012bnl l\u0103o=_ | 91.| P: \/\/But now I do not have any source of satisfaction at all from both my work and my life (..) In my heart I always= \n92.| D: _=b\u00f9 (1.0) r\u00e9n y u y\u00ec zh ng (..) b\u00fash\u00ec m\u00e9iy u j\u00ectu\u014d (.) y y u j\u00ectu\u014d (..)ji\u00f9shi z\u00e0i n zh\u00e8r m\u00f9qi\u00e1n b\u00fa t\u00e0i_ \/ _xi\u0103ng (...) r\u00fagu r\u00e9n s\u012bxi\u0103ng shang sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 shang m\u00e9i:y u j\u00ectu\u014d y\u00ec ti\u0101n y hu\u00f3 b\u00fa xi\u00e0q\u00f9 (.) w r\u00e8nw\u00e9i ta y\u00ec ti\u0101n y hu\u00f3 b\u00fa xi\u00e0qu (...) b\u0101oku\u00f2 z\u00ecsh\u0101 de r\u00e9n (.) w ju\u00e9de z\u00ecsh\u0101 de r\u00e9n y_ :: _h n:: ye h n: y d\u00e0o y\u00edd\u00ecng de ch\u00e9ngd\u00f9 b\u00fashi: shu\u014d:: hei:: h::_ ((laugh)) _ju\u00e9x\u012bn h n d\u00e0 ha:: ha::_ ((laugh)) (...) _y\u00ecb\u0101n r\u00e9n b\u00f9 x\u00edng de (.5) ji\u00f9 sh::ji\u00f9:n xi\u00e0nz\u00e0i b\u00fashi m\u00e9i j\u00ectu\u014d(..)ji\u00f9: shr shu\u014d b\u00f9 \/ xi\u0103ng (_ .. _)ji\u00f9shr b\u00f9 h\u00e9 x\u012bn::si._ | 92.| D: = **No**! (1.) Human being has a ki:nd (..) It is not that you do not have a source of satisfaction (.) You too have a source of satisfaction (..) Just that your present situation is not that ideal (...) If a person cannot find any satisfaction in his mind or life, he cannot live on for a single day (.) I think he is not able to live on for one day (...) including those who seek suicide (.) I think a suicidal person also:: ve::ry also ve:ry must have come to a certain degree. It is not to say:: hei:: h:: ((laugh)) must be very determined ha::ha:: ((laugh)) (...) An ordinary person is not able to do it (.5) As for:: as: your present situation, it is not that you do not have a source of satisfaction (..), it's just that it is not ideal (...), not what your heart-mind wants it to be. \n93.| P: _**dui** m\u00e9icu\u00f2r_ | 93.| P: **Right**. Exa::ctly.\n\nAfter the doctor frames the subject as a shared human condition, he goes on to say, \"I think this is true.\" Phrases with \"I think\" or \"I feel\" are frequently used by the doctor in his talk with the patient. The use of such expressions makes the doctor's speech less inviting of the patient's rejection or resistance. At least, the doctor is entitled to have his own point of view. Also, the status of _lao zhongyi_ (senior, experienced _zhongyi_ doctor) lends credibility to his words and experience. The doctor uses the example of retired people to support his claim that work is necessary (see turn 90). After he finishes the sentence that working has something to do with finding satisfaction in life, there is a long pause, indicating that the doctor expects the patient to respond and to acknowledge the importance of work other than for economic reasons. After about two seconds, seeing that the patient has made no move to respond, the doctor is obliged to continue. The patient's delayed response overlaps with the doctor's effort to continue his _kaidao._ The patient's response comes as a surprise to the doctor.\n\nInstead of following the logic set forth by the doctor to acknowledge that continuing to work is helpful because it gives a person a sense of satisfaction in life, the patient claims, \"But now I do not have any source of satisfaction at all in both my work and my life\" (91). The patient's claim is quickly and forcefully rejected by the doctor, who cuts the patient's utterance short. It is noticeable throughout the transcript that the doctor is particularly sensitive to any potential assertion of negative feelings, especially feelings of hopelessness the patient may make, and does not hesitate to intervene whenever he sees one coming. For example, in turn 69, the patient claims that her \"heart-emotion\" is feeling low and heavy ( _yayi_ ), and when she says, \"sometimes (.5) ju::st ju::st want::,\" the doctor cuts in, and the patient's sentence is not finished. From the context, the doctor sensed the unfinished utterance might be negative. Again in turn 87, the patient claims that the longer she is not able to go to work, the more vexed she feels. When she is about to continue talking about her vexed feelings, her sentence \"I fee:1 uh::\" is interrupted by the doctor's speech. Similarly, in turn 91 the patient says that she does not have any satisfaction in work or life, and her sentence \"In my heart I always\" is interrupted by the doctor's forceful \"No.\" Unlike a Western psychotherapist who frequently encourages the client to talk about emotions and particularly her negative feelings, a _zhongyi_ doctor discourages the patient from talking about negative feelings and therefore refuses to make it a topic. In a _zhongyi_ context it is almost seen as therapeutically healthy not to focus on negative elements of a person's experience.\n\nIn turn 92, after a quick rejection and a relatively long pause, the doctor starts to do the same thing as he did in turn 90, that is, to formulate the problem as a shared human condition. Somehow, he feels compelled to address the patient's negative evaluation of her own situation and to offset the negative overtone of the utterance by stating his rejection again. He begins with \"It is not that you do not have a source of satisfaction,\" then there is a short pause, a would-be transitional point, but the patient does not take the turn. Then the doctor continues to contradict the patient's negative opinion and says, \"You too have a source of satisfaction.\" This utterance is followed by another short pause that is a little longer than the previous one. The doctor's invitation for the patient to respond fails again. He then adds a more compromising comment, \"Just that your present situation is not that ideal.\" After this utterance, there is an even longer pause. However, the doctor still fails to get the patient's response. Considering that the doctor is talking about the patient's experience and contradicting the patient's statement, the patient's lack of response implies that she insists on her own opinion and rejects the doctor's characterization of her situation. The doctor simply cannot keep talking about the patient's experience without the patient's acknowledgement in some form. He then resorts to his old strategy to make a more generalized reasoning that if a person does not have any satisfaction in life, she cannot live on for one day. As the realm has now been switched to general human behavior, the doctor gains legitimacy to give his opinions. He brings out the topic of suicide to support his case that one cannot live without any source of satisfaction in life, but he quickly discovered that this is a mistake. He is obviously uncomfortable discussing the topic in this situation.The argument about suicide is incoherent and marked by embarrassed laughs. However, after the doctor has made the point about \"satisfaction in life,\" he returns to the patient's specific argument and repeats his former denial to the patient's self characterization. He continues, \"As for:: as: your present situation, it is not that you do not have a source of satisfaction, it's just that it is not ideal (..), not what your heart-mind wants it to be.\" To this, the doctor finally gets a wholehearted acknowledgement from the patient (turn 93).\n\nThe doctor's concluding words in this long turn (turn 93) are almost an exact repetition of what he says at the beginning of the turn. But at the beginning of the turn, despite several tacit attempts from the doctor to get the patient's confirmation, the patient fails to respond. It is true that in certain conversational contexts, lack of response may imply confirmation. However, since the doctor's comment here contradicts the patient's previous self-evaluation (turn 91), the absence of confirmation suggests disagreement. Then we may ask why later the patient gives a completely different response to similar statements. In fact, we may notice that a similar interactive pattern starts to appear. For instance, when the doctor finishes his sentence, \"it's just that it is not ideal,\" he pauses a little, inviting the patient to respond. He fails, which is what happened at the beginning of the turn. Therefore, we may infer that the patient's positive response is not to this particular utterance, but to the utterance that follows, \"not what your heart-mind wants it to be.\"\n\nTherefore, when the patient says \"yes, exactly,\" she means yes, her life and work are not going according to her heart's desire. The doctor's last sentence is shaped to make his point and at the same time to elicit an agreement from the patient. With this agreement, both the doctor's long turn of _kaidao_ and the patient's experience are somewhat acknowledged. The feeling of things going against her heart's wishes echoes throughout the interaction. The typical characterization of this feeling has something to do with _xin_ (heart-mind) and manifests in somatic, emotional, and social terms. Her very first complaint is heart vexed _(xinfan)._ The patient reports \"unhappy things happening in her everyday life\"; she says that after some time her personal life still cannot be satisfactorily resolved, her heart-emotion \"persistently [does] not flow smoothly\" _(laoshi bu shuchang)._ Later, she again claims her heart-emotion does not flow smoothly and freely and says that both her life and work \"do not flow smoothly with her heart\" _(bu tai shunxin)._ Again, when the patient talks about her frustration at work, she says that she feels \"very uncomfortable in the heart\" _(xinli te bu shufu)_ and \"very frustrated\" _(te wonang)._ The patient, though coming to seek a _zhongyi_ medical treatment, understands that her illness originates socially, resulting from the conflicts between her mindful heart's desire and social reality. She honestly believes that if her problems in life and work can be resolved satisfactorily, her illness would be cured.\n\nHowever, the idea of \"being not ideal\" _(bu lixiang_ ) is more from the doctor's point of view. In a sense, the doctor believes that the patient focuses on something that is \"ideal\" rather than \"real.\" This perspective of the doctor becomes obvious from the conversation that follows. The doctor also sees that the patient's illness has a clear social origin, and he also assumes that if the patient's social circumstance changes, her emotional and bodily experience will probably change, too. This is not just common sense but has been meticulously theorized in the _zhongyi_ understanding of _shenti_ (body-person), emotion, and illness. However, as a therapist in modern Chinese society, the doctor does not have the means to directly intervene into the patient's social relations, given that a person's social world involves practically far more complicated factors than a doctor is able to deal with. What he is able to do is to help the patient to \"transform emotions and change perspectives\" _(yiqing yizhi)._ Sivin points out that the _zhongyi_ doctor still has to make decisions: \"When confronted with a withdrawn young woman, to encourage her to change her situation, or to deceive her so that she will accept it docilely.\" In modern _zhongyi_ practice, it is not as much to \"deceive\" a patient as to persuade her to step back from her narrow personal concerns to embrace a broader view of life. This tendency marked the doctor's discourse of _kaidao_ (persuasions), in which we see the doctor frequently uses such abstract phrases as \"human life\" and \"society.\" This difference in the negotiation between two different perspectives continues to the end of the conversation.\n\nIn turn 95 (see transcript segment 7.7 for 95-100), the patient once again insists that her unsolved social problem is the key to her illness. She argues eloquently with the doctor who throughout the interaction tries to persuade the patient to change her perspective. The patient insists that her problems remain unsolved, and even though she tries not to focus on them, they are her reality: \"Since they are unsolved, you cannot stop thinking about them, right?\" Clearly, the patient shares the _zhongyi_ assumption that \"excessive thinking\" ( _silu guodu_ ) results in medical problems. She insists that she cannot help from dwelling on these problems; they are part of her social reality. The doctor chooses not to directly address the patient's rhetorical question and replies, \"It is impossible to have everything go completely according to one's wishes\" (96). By not addressing the patient's question, the doctor avoids discussing her argument that her social problems need to be solved before she is able to change her focus in life. He then turns to challenge her basic complaint that things fail to go according to how she wants them to go. As mentioned above, the patient has expressed her frustration as \"not going smoothly according to her heart-emotion's desire\" ( _bu shunxin_ ) or \"not conforming to her liking\" ( _bu he xinsi_ ). The doctor's challenge is legitimate and to the point. He does not directly comment on the patient's behavior as it is but resorts again to a generalized statement about human life. He, on the one hand, tacitly criticizes the patient as self-centered, suggesting that the reason that the patient's problems remain unsolved is because she expects the impossible, but on the other hand, he avoids the patient's possible rejection.\n\nThe subsequent response from the patient shows that the patient does hear the doctor's comments as criticism, and she tries to defend herself in response. Since the criticism is only implied by a generalized statement, a straight forward rejection does not seem appropriate, particularly when the statement rings so true in Chinese common sense, which emphasizes relatedness and interdependence of the members within a society. The patient defends herself by saying that she only wishes that her problems could be solved perfectly _(yuanman de_ ). The hesitations and pauses at the beginning of her sentence indicate that the patient feels difficulty in challenging the doctor's criticism. Before she finishes her sentence, the doctor quickly grasps the word the patient used \"perfectly\" ( _yuanman de_ ) and cuts in: \"You can on::ly talk about re:latively satisfactory. Completely satisfied (.)? That's not possible.\" By this, the doctor finally gets the patient to admit: \"I have probably expected too:: much\" (99).\n\nAfter the patient finishes her turn, the doctor waits for about one second before he responds, showing little eagerness to comment on the patient's newly acquired insight. We may think that the doctor's perspective is finally accepted by the patient and that he probably would show his agreement with the patient in his response. Yet, when he starts to respond, he says \"no\" _(bushi)_ , which seemingly contradicts the patient's statement. Then, what can we make out of this particular denial, _\"bushi\"?_ We have to look at the interactional sequence that directly leads to the patient's utterance in 99. Turn 96 can be read as a criticism of the patient, accusing her of being unrealistic. Facing this criticism, the patient's choice is either to accept or deny it. We see that in turn 97 the patient makes an effort to deny the criticism by qualifying her position. However, the patient's choice of \"perfectly\" ( _yuanman de_ ) happens to serve the doctor's point, and the doctor quickly takes the opportunity to launch a further criticism that the patient is being unrealistic. Now, we see that the patient's utterance of 99 is a reluctant acceptance of a criticism. The doctor might at this point also notice that he has been a little too harsh in the past two turns. Then \" _bushi_ \" could be read as \"no, I am not saying this\" or \"no, this is not what I mean.\" Then, following this denial, the doctor is obliged to deal with what he really means to offset the image of being unsympathetic. We see that after the doctor's \" _bushi,_ \" there are many hesitations, repetitions, pauses, and false starts, indicating that the doctor is not comfortable with his seemingly irreconcilable positions. He is trying to formulate a coherent utterance that is both consistent with the idea that he has been making throughout the conversation that the patient is being unrealistic and unpractical and with the denial that he is not being unsympathetic or not understanding.\n\nThe doctor's \"no\" can also be read in a slightly different way. From the perspective of conversational structure, when a person makes a negative evaluation of herself, it projects a constraint on the next turn and makes it relevant to the evaluation. Normally, after a negative self-evaluation, a denial is preferred. The patient's turn 99 is clearly a negative self-evaluation, though it is in agreement with the doctor's evaluation. The doctor is obliged to contradict at least in form. We have seen throughout the conversation, that this doctor is sensitive to the patient's negative self-evaluations and tends to contradict them whenever they appear. This happens similarly in the exchange of turns 91 and 92, though the contradiction was really meant by the doctor in that exchange.\n\nAgain, in his turn 100, the doctor resorts to the generalized point of view and uses \"I think\" to make his argument a part of his personal observation and experience. He emphasizes, \"Wherever you go, there will be unhappy things.... As long as there are people, there are human relations to deal with.\" He then comes to a conclusion, which is the central theme of his _kaidao_ (persuasion) and the idea he has been hammering at throughout the course of the conversation with the patient. The doctor points out that humans are social beings living in connection with others, and therefore conflicts of personal desires and interest are inevitable; \"the question is how to deal with them. The key lies with the individual herself.\" The doctor encourages the patient to step out of her small world, to accept imperfectness as the way of the world, and to find a way to adjust to her environment and make the most out of it. The doctor's emphasis on the statement \"The key lies with the individual herself\" carries the double power of both criticism and encouragement by putting both the responsibility of being ill and the responsibility of getting well on the patient.\n\nIn addition to his role as a medical doctor, the doctor positions himself as a member of society who takes the point of view opposite to the patient's throughout the entire interaction. The opposite positions of the doctor and patient are evident in their self-presentations. The patient's voice is marked with personal pronouns \"I\" and \"my,\" while the doctor's constant references to \"human being\" and \"human society\" lends him the voice of society. He tries to persuade the patient to examine the appropriateness and practicality of her own claims on society. Such examination requires the patient to step out of her \"self\" and assume the perspective of a culturally defined \"wise and mature\" person, who is able to assess a \"situation\" from _within_ and _without_ and \"attune\" her body-person accordingly to the flow of her social and natural world.\n\nTranscript Segment 7.7\n\n95.| P: _y ush\u00ed xi\u00e0nsh\u00ed_ de _sh\u00ecr:: l\u0103o ji\u011bju\u00e9 b\u00f9 li:\u0103o ba: (.5) z\u00ecj xi\u0103ng xi\u0103ngk\u0101i le ye xi\u0103ng_ bu _k\u0101i: (..) mm:ji\u011bju\u00e9 b\u00f9 li:\u0103o ah: z :ng xi\u0103:ng zh\u00e8ige w\u00e8nt\u00ed ah::_ | 95.| P: Sometimes, the problems of real life remain unsolved: uh: (.5), even though you yourself want to stop dwelling on them, you just can't help (..) um: Since they are not solved uh: you just can not stop thinking about the problems, right? \n---|---|---|--- \n96.| D: _b\u00f9 k neng w\u00e1nqu\u00e1n dou h\u00e9hu z\u00ecj ah: (.5)_ _de_ _xi\u0103ngf\u0103 ah_ | 96.| D: It is simply impossible to have everything go completely according to your wish uh: (.5) \n97.| P: _k : e: w : xi::\u0103ng (..) y\u00e0oshi n\u00e9ng yu\u00e1nnm\u0103n ji ju\u00e9 zh\u00e8 li\u0103ng f\u012b\u0101ngmi\u00e0n_ _de_ _w\u00e8nt\u00ed:=_ | 97.| P: Bu: u: t I: thi::nk (..) if only I'll be able to perfectly solve these two problems of my life:= \n98.| D: = _zh n\u00e9ng shu\u014d b ji\u0103o: bji\u0103o m\u0103ny\u00ec.- n y\u00e0o w\u00e1n: qu\u00e1n m\u0103ny\u00ec (.) shi b\u00f9 k n\u00e9ng de_ | 98.| D: =You can on::ly talk about relatively: relatively satisfactory: Completely satisfactory? (.) That's not possible. \n99.| P: _w k n\u00e9ng y\u0101oqi\u00fa t\u00e0i:g\u0101o le ba:: (1.0)_ | 99.| P: Well:: I have probably expected too: much (1.0) \n100.| D: _b\u00fashi:: q\u00edsh: q\u00edsh\u00ed (.5) sh\u00e8hu\u00ec (..) sh\u00e8hui sh\u00edj\u00ec: sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 sh\u00edj\u00ec: w xi\u0103ng (.8) d\u014du zh\u00e8y\u00e0ng (.5) **d\u00e0o**_ _**nar**_ _d\u014du_ y _u b\u00f9:: y\u00faku\u00e0i de sh\u00ecqing (..) **d\u014duy\u014du** r\u00e9nj\u00ec gu\u0101nx\u00ec w\u00e8nt\u00ed (.) n_ _su\u00e0nsuan_ _ba:: **m\u00e9iy\u014du** m\u00e9iy u r\u00e9nj\u00ec gu\u0101nx\u00ec de w\u00e8nt\u00ed zh yao y u r\u00e9n sh\u0113nghu\u00f3 de d\u00ecfang_(.) _**dou** y_ u _r\u00e9nji gu\u0101nx\u00ec (.)ji\u00f9shi: z nme **ch\u00f9l\u012d** hao(..) gu\u0101nji\u00e0n z\u00e0i z\u00ecj\u012d_: ((Long silence while the doctor is finishing writing the prescription.))| 100.| D: No:: actual: actually (.5) society (..) social reality: life reality: I think (.8) is all like this (.5) **Wherever you go** , there will be un::happy things (..) **there are** problems of interpersonal relations (.) _You_ _just thi::nk_ about it:: **no place** where you do not have to deal with interpersonal relationship (..) As long as there are people (.) there are interpersonal relations (4.) The question is how to **handle** them (.) The key lies with the individual **oneself**. ((Long silence while the doctor is finishing writing the prescription.)) \n101.| D: b\u0103ozh\u00e8ng n n\u00e9ng h\u0103o \u0101h:| 101.| D: I guarantee you will get better, oka::y? \n102.| P: _n\u00e0 ji\u00f9 t\u00e0i h\u0103o le ha:: h::_ ((laugh))| 102.| P: That will be really good. ha::h:: ((laugh)) \n103.| D: _w men qi\u00e1ob\u00ecng ji\u00f9 y u zh\u00e8i ge b\u0103w\u00f2_ (1.) _y\u00e0o bu=_ | 103.| D: When we look at the illness, we have this assurance (1.) Otherwise= \n104.| _P: =t\u012bng n\u00edn zh\u00e8me shu\u014d::w de b\u00ecng ji\u00f9 h\u0103o y\u00ed b\u00e0nr le ha::h::_ ((laugh))| 104.| P: = Just listening to what you just said:: my illness is already half cured. Ha::h:: ((laugh))\n\nThe source of persuasion that a _zhongyi_ doctor relies on is eminently cultural. With Western psychotherapy, choices of conflict and confrontation may be viewed as the preferred mechanism in solving problems. \"The patient is encouraged to express the feeling, to gratify the desire, and to remove the suppression.\" However, with _zhongyi,_ the patient is encouraged to contain ( _baorong_ , dissolve ( _huajie_ , and then transform ( _zhuanhua_ the conflicts by emphasizing the connectedness of self and others, individual and society, human being and the myriad things of the world. What is emphasized is the sense of unity and harmony with nature and the world. From this enlightened point of view, the ups and downs of life are viewed as \"the waxing and waning of the moon,\" or in Joseph Needham's words, the \"orderly processes of changes.\" The doctor calls this \"the sense of ordinariness\" ( _pingchang xin_ , which is viewed as important for a healthy and mature person and is frequently emphasized in _zhongyi_ counseling. _Zhongyi_ practice is not just a way to heal, but also a process to transmit cultural values and social ideology.\n\nArthur and Joan Kleinman argue that efficacy is \"an altered body-self, but also an altered flow of relationships, an altered world.\" In this sense, the path to ultimate efficacy involves redefining reality, reorientating focus, and reordering the experience of local worlds. The patient in this case presents herself as a passive victim of her social environment from the beginning. From her perspective, her heart-emotion vexation and physical and emotional symptoms all result from her stagnant personal life and her stressful and unsympathetic working environment, and in turn, her emotional and bodily dysfunctions impede her social performance. She referred to this situation as a \"vicious cycle.\" Her seeking _zhongyi_ help is an effort to break the cycle by dealing with her emotional and bodily experience. However, she maintains that the unresolved social problems are the sources of her suffering, about which she cannot do anything. Although having recognized the social factors in the patient's suffering, the doctor insists that the patient herself must make a difference. From the doctor's perspective, his patient needs to rethink her own \"heart-mind's\" claim on society. Seeing that transformation of the patient's experience relies very much on her ability to reassess her situation and readjust her social relations, the doctor makes every effort to persuade the patient to change her attitude and see things from a different perspective. As shown at the end of the conversation, the doctor and the patient achieve some sort of alignment when the patient admits that she might have expected too much (see turn 99 in transcript segment 7.7) and claims jocosely that her illness is half cured just by listening to the doctor (turn 104). The patient and doctor part with a shared expectation that the prescribed herbs and an \"attuned\" attitude would help improve the patient's health. Both the doctor and patient understand that the process of \"attuning\" has just started, and the ultimate efficacy of restoring health demands diligent and continuous efforts from both the patient and the doctor.\n\nAs analyzed above, for a _qingzhi_ (emotion-related) disorder, defined as \"illness due to disordered emotions\" ( _yi qing bing zhe_ , _zhongyi_ doctors particularly emphasize the importance of the patients' ability to \"transform their emotions and change their perspectives\" ( _yiqing yizhi_ ) _._ They assume that changes in one's attitude and behavior have physiological outcomes and vice versa. Therefore, \"talking\" as persuasion or manipulation of emotions is also an integrated part of _zhongyi_ therapy, which is very often accepted as merely herbal therapy. However, _zhongyi_ \"talking\" is not meant to be a \"talk therapy\" of the Western psychological counseling, and it should not be judged as such. It has to be understood in the light of the whole clinical process of _tiao_ , aiming at adjusting multiple dimensions of the patient's experience, including prescribing medicinal herbs, and persuading the patient to \"transform emotions and change perspectives.\" This analysis of the interaction between the doctor and patient could be elaborated into a sociocultural critique, in which the doctor can be seen as embodying the hegemony of established social orders and thus instrumental to social control. Such an analysis demands a further distance from the nitty-gritty nature of everyday clinical work perceived primarily as clinical actions against illnesses by both doctor and patient and an interpretation at a higher level of structural abstractions. Such a project could be a next step. Additionally, the transcribed data of naturally occurring clinical interaction is readily accessible to other interested scholars who may attempt to carry out a different type of analysis.\n\nFinally, this chapter has empirically documented how the doctor and patient engage each other in determining the meaning of a particular illness and negotiating the path to efficacy. It is implied that a microanalytically oriented ethnography can provide unique empirical insights to complement the understandings derived from the more conventional approach of participant observation. In recent anthropological accounts of Chinese medicine, the detailed descriptions of observed cases and anecdotes and recorded experience reported to the researchers by informants help provide sophisticated pictures of _zhongyi_ practice in time and place. However, given that a clinical encounter is fundamentally a face-to-face interaction, without considering its interactional aspect, our understanding of this \"practice-oriented\" healing system is incomplete. Even with the detailed description and analysis of the clinical process of _kanbing_ (looking at illness) offered by Farquhar, we still would \"not know exactly how Chinese medical doctors get from patients' complaints to the prescription of specific drugs.\" Here, microanalysis that relies on the actions and interactions of the participants themselves for analytical resources may offer the promise to trace how a particular syndrome type is defined and a therapeutic action is determined in a real episode of clinical encounter.\nVIII\n\nConclusion\n\nThis book has offered an ethnographic account of how emotion-related disorders ( _qingzhi bing_ are construed, constructed, treated, and experienced in the context of Chinese medicine, or _zhongyi_ in contemporary China. I have structured my description in a way more or less matching the Chinese habit of defining a situation, that is, beginning with a broader context and gradually narrowing down to more specific observations. I start with a historical perspective of transformations of Chinese medicine, then move to the situated discussions of Chinese perceptions of body-person ( _shenti_ , emotion ( _qing_ emotion-related disorders ( _qingzhi bing_ ), and finally to an analysis of a specific _zhongyi_ clinical moment of attuning ( _tiao_ ).\n\nFirst of all, to make sense of the Chinese experience of being ill and being healed, we must \"consider the presence of bodies.\" Yet \"the bodies\" that the Chinese medicine works on and the Chinese patients experience are constructed differently from the Western commonsensical and bioscientific notion of body. They do not entail the distinction between mind and body or soma and psyche. The meaning and experience of a _qingzhi_ disorder and its _zhongyi_ treatment, then, must be interpreted within the Chinese conceptual and experiential world of lived body-person ( _shenti_ ) which is, at the same time, emotive, moral, and visceral, and in relation to the embodied cultural values of everyday life. The concept of somatization by virtue of its dualistic presupposition has serious limitations in understanding Chinese embodied experience.\n\nIn presenting _qingzhi_ disorders as Chinese experience, I explored in chapter 3 the Chinese conception and experience of _shenti_ (body-person): how the Chinese world of _shenti_ is patterned and shaped by cultural values and sensibilities that are deeply rooted in the bodily practice of everyday life. I particularly discussed the salient Chinese aesthetic values and sensibilities of flowing and connecting ( _tong_ , degree and position ( _du_ , and harmony ( _be_ ) in shaping and giving meanings to the Chinese experience of being ill and being healed. I showed that the ordinary Chinese in their daily practices are oriented to a deeply embodied aesthetic order, which helps define _qingzhi_ disorders as those characterized by stagnation, excessiveness, and disharmony in all the aspects of the local world. To make sense of Chinese _qingzhi_ disorders, then, we have to attend to the \"felt quality\" of this world.\n\nSecond, the knowledge and practice of _zhongyi_ is rooted in an epistemological tradition different from that of the paradigm of biomedicine that privileges a language of anatomic structures and reductive causality that characterizes a disease as a discrete entity. _Zhongyi,_ however, privileges a language of process and transformation that describes a \"syndrome pattern\" ( _zheng_ as a contingent state of dynamic relations in a pathological process. From functions of the visceral systems, to manifested bodily symptoms, to emotional-mental experience, and to natural and social environment, _zhongyi_ physiology reveals a ceaseless continuum of process and transformation. The effect of a therapeutic intervention at any particular point of this continuum can be eventually transferred to other aspects of the body-person according to this physiology. Then, _zhongyi_ healing entails a process of carefully studying and discerning the changes and relations of illness manifestations in time and space and using whatever technology is available\u2014medicinal, psychological, and social\u2014to manipulate the clinical dynamics and relations in order to enable a desirable development. This therapeutic process is best summarized as _tiao_ (attuning).\n\nThird, _zhongyi_ healing should also be understood and analyzed as interactional phenomena in actual clinical work. _Zhongyi_ is understood by doctors as \"the science of practice\" ( _shijian de kexue_ ). Zhongyi theories and the accumulated knowledge of healing ( _shijian jingyan_ ) cannot be separated from actual clinical judgments and choices and ultimately the effects of the clinical work. As Farquhar points out, _zhongyi_ knowledge is \"quintessentially embodied and transmitted in the moment of clinical practice.\" It follows from this that a close examination of what actually goes on and what is actually accomplished within the clinical process could be particularly informative to our understanding of _zhongyi_ clinical practice. In addition, the participation of the patient is intrinsic to effective therapeutic practice. This is particularly significant in the _zhongyi_ context. Yet, as I mentioned in chapter 7, Chinese medicine has not been studied empirically as actual social practice in its interactional context. Without considering the interactional aspect, our understanding of this practice-oriented healing system is incomplete.\n\nAs my analysis in chapter 7 demonstrates, a microanalitically oriented ethnography offers a vantage point from which to look at the _zhongyi_ clinical practice of looking at an illness ( _kanbing_ ). It provides empirical insights into many important theoretical issues of _zhongyi_ practice. _Zhongyi_ doctors and patients both emphasize the importance of accumulated experience through practice ( _jingyan_ ) for a doctor in clinical practice, whereas in biomedicine the latest scientific knowledge and techniques are more revered. The long years of a doctor's experience are frequently in thei clinics. A legitimate question is how _jingyan_ comes into play in an actual process of \"differentiating syndromes and determining therapies.\" A close look at actual clinical interaction shows that the doctor's _jingyan_ is deployed in his perception of the clinical situations in interactional forms, in his ability to make connections and assessment of symptoms, and very importantly, in his ways of engaging the patient. _Jingyan_ is not only the accumulated knowledge that relates the doctor to a particular syndrome pattern and an herbal formula, but also the accumulated life experience that relates the doctor to the person who is suffering.\n\nSince _Zhongyi_ clinical process is characterized as \"looking at illness\" by both doctor and patient, an examination of the actual interaction that takes place in clinical practice offers a way to study how doctor and patient engage each other and bring their own insights to bear on the illness. As my analysis in chapter 7 shows, it is through the interactions between the doctor and patient that a particular _zhongyi_ syndrome type emerges or is defined and a particular therapeutic method is determined. The microanalysis in chapter 7 empirically documents how the doctor and patient orient themselves to each other and negotiate the meanings of the illness and the path to efficacy.\n\n_Zhongyi_ practice is also recognized as having a holistic perspective ( _zhengti guan_ ) that sees an illness as a disorder of body-person in relation to the social and natural environment. Very often the _zhongyi_ holistic perspective is discussed in an abstract way as part of a theoretical discourse on the unity of human and nature. We rarely see how this holistic perspective is reflected in the clinical process. With a closer look at the actual clinical interaction, we can see that the connection of the patient's social environment, emotional experience, and physical suffering is assumed by both doctor and patient and is actively evoked in clinical actions and interactions. We can also see that the holistic principle is actually a practical guide in the _zhongyi_ clinical work of differentiating syndromes and determining therapies.\n\nThis raises some very important questions. Does _zhongyi_ address emotional complaints? How does _zhongyi_ handle the emotional aspects of the patient's suffering? The impression that we get from many discussions of _zhongyi_ and Chinese medical culture in general is that Chinese tend to emphasize physical discomfort rather than emotional complaints. _Zhongyi_ is said to conceptualize emotional disorders as physical illnesses and to treat them as such. Yet, as I showed in my microanalysis of a clinical interaction, it is obvious that, for treating _qingzhi_ disorders, _zhongyi_ does address the patient's emotional and social difficulties as well as her bodily dysfunctions. In fact, the microanalytically oriented study can be used as a tool of discovery. I myself was surprised, when I was transcribing the actual clinical interactions, at how much emphasis the patient put on her emotional disturbance and social difficulties and how much effort the doctor actually made to address the patient's social and emotional problems. Still, the question remains, why the fact that emotional aspects in _zhongyi_ clinical work, which seems so obvious, has escaped analytical and ethnographic attention.\n\nOne possible reason is that the forms, concerns, and techniques of _zhongyi_ counseling, as it is shown in chapter 7, are radically different from those of the standard Western psychological counseling. Comparing the framework of the Western \"talk therapy\" to _zhongyi_ clinical contexts, the _zhongyi_ doctor's approach resembles more of an informal persuasion by a close friend or family member than a professional exploration of the patient's inner emotional conflicts. This approach may seem less professional and effective, and therefore is not recognized as \"really\" dealing with the patient's emotional problems. However, as my analysis shows, the _zhongyi_ \"talking\" or \"counseling\" is not meant to be a \"talk therapy.\" It has to be understood in the light of the whole clinical process of \"attuning\" ( _tiao_ ), which aims at adjusting multiple dimensions of the patient's experience, including persuading the patient to \"transform emotions and change perspectives.\" Neither the doctor nor the patient assumes that a _qingzhi bing_ is an illness exclusively in emotion or in mind, and \"talking\" will be the only legitimate way to heal. On the contrary, both the doctor and the patient assume that a _qingzhi bing_ has social, emotional, and physical dimensions and various aspects of the intervention, such as an herbal prescription, an attuned attitude, change of behavior or the social environment, all have a stake in the transformation of experience in the body-person. Such a process of attuning has distinctive cultural meanings, and _zhongyi_ talking should not be analyzed and judged separately from the cultural context of the whole clinical process of attuning. I do believe that a comparative investigation between the attuning and Western psychotherapy may generate some very interesting insights in understanding how emotion-related disorders are constructed and managed in Chinese society and in the Western cultures, but that has to be left for a future study.\n\nWhen asked why _zhongyi_ still enjoys such popularity in today's China when biomedical technology, compared with _zhongyi_ practice, is equally available and affordable to the general population, one of the most frequently given answers is that _zhongyi_ fits China's \"national conditions\" ( _guoqing_ ) and is therefore liked by the majority of people. My interpretation of this is that _zhongyi_ as an indigenous health care system shares with its patients a system of cultural values and orientations that recognize the incessant circulation between the physiological, the psychological, and the social. As discussed previously, _zhongyi_ constructions such as _qingzhi_ disorders offer a culturally meaningful form of suffering for Chinese patients and practical methods to cope with a lived body that falls out of order. My study has clearly illustrated this aspect of _zhongyi._\n\nHowever, there is still more that I would like to elaborate about Chinese experience of emotion-related disorders and Chinese medicine. Some are important issues that I have touched upon here and there, but have not systematically explored, for example the issue of _zhongyi_ efficacy. We may say that _zhongyi_ efficacy partially derives from _zhongyi's_ cultural legitimacy. Yet, the question of medical efficacy: how it is evaluated and how it plays out in _zhongyi_ practice and the _zhongyi_ industry in today's China is far more complicated and certainly deserves \"multidimensional approaches\" to address it.\n\nEffectiveness of treatment ( _liaoxiao_ ) is claimed by _zhongyi_ professionals as the primary factor that _zhongyi_ relies on for its success in the modern era. However, there has been little effort to address the question of how efficacy is constructed in _zhongyi_ clinical contexts. What are _zhongyi's_ criteria for determining efficacy? Have these criteria changed over time? How do the dynamics of integrating _zhongyi_ with biomedicine influence the way _zhongyi_ evaluates efficacy? Particularly, in recent years, the country's commitment to modernizations and overall engagement in the market economy have transformed Chinese social life in a significant way. Have these sociohistorical developments changed the basic terms on which _zhongyi_ evaluates its efficacy or on which _zhongyi_ is itself evaluated for efficacy? These are some of the questions that deserve further research.\n\nTo modernize _zhongyi_ or to make _it_ scientific ( _zhongyi kexuehua_ ) has been a quest for generations of _zhongyi_ professionals since the 1920s, yet these professionals also realize that simply applying the bioscientific standards and procedures to _the_ practice and its efficacy is extremely difficult if not completely fruitless (Zhen et al. 1990:435\u2013438). For example, to determine scientific efficacy of a simple herbal formula in the context of _zhongyi_ would be a formidable task. There are too many variables that need to be controlled, considering how it is used in the actual clinical situation. A plant in itself does not mean much, and its particular effect needs to be understood as a result of interactions with other plants within the formula. A doctor almost always adds some additional ingredients to, and subtracts some from, the existing formula according to a particular case. Furthermore, the amount of each herbal element, the geographic origin of the plants, and the methods of processing and decocting the plants are all subject to manipulation. Therefore, even though each element can be tested separately for its pharmacological quality, the efficacy of a particular _zhongyi_ formula is far from determined. In addition to all of this complexity, _zhongyi_ holds that a particular patient's psycho-physiological disposition and his or her health condition at the particular time also influence the effectiveness of a therapy. In fact, efficacy is a much broader concept than just scientifically assessed effectiveness of a medicine.\n\n_Zhongyi,_ because it lies outside the paradigm of the modern biosciences, has been constantly questioned for its scientific value. At the same time, because of this, it is difficult for any scientific method to simply falsify or confirm the claims that _zhongyi_ makes, unless we completely alter the basic terms and clinical conditions under which _it_ works. Interestingly, _zhongyi_ is able to actively exploit its conceptual incompatibility with science and negotiate its very prosperous presence in the modern age of science and technology. In this, _zhongyi_ demonstrates its \"historical toughness.\" On the one hand, it engages science in producing and advertising a scientifically legitimate modern practice and industry, observable in _zhongyi_ education, hospitals equipped with newly developed bioscience technology, and a booming industry of _zhongyi_ patent medicine. On the other hand, _zhongyi_ continues to evoke a different cultural modality quintessentially embodied in the \"traditional\" technology of differentiating syndrome patterns and determining therapies ( _bianzheng lunzhi_ ) coupled with decocting herbs. When the paradigm shifts to _zhongyi_ clinical practice, what is emphasized is practice and context, within which \"science\" is not absolute but rather debatable, contestable, and appropriable.\nAPPENDIX\n\nTranscription Conventions Used in the Text\n\nI. The pinyin system is used in Chinese transcription. In CA done on English, punctuation marks are conventionally used to indicate intonation. Since Chinese is a tonal language, it is not necessary to use a separate system to indicate intonation. Punctuation is not used at all in the Chinese transcription. However, to make the translation easier to understand, punctuation marks are used for grammar in the English translation of the transcript.\n\nII. The symbols used in the transcription are of standard notations developed in conversation analysis and used in most conversation analytical literature.\n\n\/\/| indicates the onset of overlapping utterances. \n---|--- \n::| indicates that the sound followed by colons is lengthened. \n=| is used at the end of one line and the beginning of another, indicates that no time elapsed between two lines of utterances. \n(.)| (each dot in parentheses) indicates a pause of about one-tenth of a second. \n(o.o)| indicates duration of pauses or silence in seconds. \n(word)| indicates that the transcriber is not sure that the expression that appears in the parentheses is exactly what is said. \n((word))| indicates transcriber's remarks. \nword| indicates sound louder than normal speech. \n **word** | indicates sound much louder than normal speech. \n\u00b0word\u00b0| indicates sound uttered at low volume.\nNotes\n\n# CHAPTER I\n\n The same category of illness is sometimes referred to as _shenzhi bing_ or _shen bing_ (mind-related disorders). _Qingzhi_ commonly translated as \"emotions,\" specifically refers to the _zhongyi_ concept of' _qiqing'_ (seven emotive or mental activities): _xi_ (joy), _nu_ (anger), _you_ (worry\/anxiety), si (thinking\/longing), _bei_ (sadness\/grief), _kong_ (fear), _jing_ (fright). A detailed analysis of _qingzhi_ is provided in chapter 4.\n\n Zhang Jiebin in his book _Lei Jing_ (Comments on Internal Classics 1624) listed twenty-nine comments under the heading of _qingzhi bing._ See also Sivin 1995 for the discussion of a group of disorders collected under the heading qingzhi (emotions) in Wu Kun's _Yifang Kao_ ( _Research on Medical Formulas_ ) (1584).\n\n Jackson 1994:211.\n\n Yap 1974.\n\n See Tseng et al. 1995; Cheng 1995; Yang 1995.\n\n Kleinman 1986.\n\n See Lucas and Barret 1995 for a discussion of psychiatric primitivism.\n\n Scheid 2002:13.\n\n See Csordas 1994.\n\n See Desjailais 1992, for the critique of symbolic approach to culture in anthropology.\n\n Brownell 1995:15.\n\n Jenkins and Valient 1994.\n\n Ots 1990:12.\n\n Desjarlais 1992:71\n\n See Good and Good 1982.\n\n Frake 1961.\n\n Browner et al. 1988.\n\n Also talked about as referential meaning. See also White 1993.\n\n Good and Good 1982:143.\n\n Good 1977:27.\n\n See Lock and Scheper-Hughes 1990.\n\n See Taussig 1980; Young 1982.\n\n Scheper-Hughes1992.\n\n Kleinman and Kleinman 1991, 1995.\n\n See Frankel 1983, Mishler 1984; West 1984; Heath 1984.\n\n There are many different approaches to discourse analysis. My microanalytical approach draws mostly from conversation (talk-in-interaction) analysis (see Atkinson and Heritage 1984) and interactional sociolinguistics (see Goffman 1964, 1974, 1981; Gumperz 1982). More discussion is given in chapter 6.\n\n See David L. Hall and Roger Ames (1987) for detailed discussion of Chinese cosmological assumptions that are uncommon to the Western philosophic reflections.\n\n See Farquhar 1994.\n\n Good 1994.\n\n Wu (1982:285) discusses the use of psychotherapy in classical Chinese medicine and points out that the concepts of 'health' and 'health care' in classic texts emphasized the interrelations between a person's state of mind and that of his\/her health. For the past two decades, numerous publications on _zhongyi_ psychology ( _zhongyi xinlixue_ ) or heart-body medicine ( _xinshen yixue_ ) have appeared, for example, Wang 1986, Dong et al. 1987, Zhang 1995, Dong 2001, Dong and Li 2003.\n\n See Cheung et al. 1981; Kleinman 1980, 1986; Kleinman and Mechanic 1981; T. Y., Lin 1983; Tseng 1975.\n\n According to Zheng Yanping at al. (1986:237), the language many Chinese depressive patients use does not fit comfortably into the two patterns of psychologization and somatization suggested by some researchers in the West (e.g., Marsella 1980; Good and Kleinman 1985). Chinese patients may use language that evokes bodily images or experience, but it is certainly not somatic in opposition to psychological.\n\n Other forms of traditional treatment likely to be mentioned by patients are acupuncture, massage, and _qigong_ (meditative) exercise and therapy. One patient whom I interviewed told me that once her family took her to the countryside to be treated by a shaman doctor.\n\n See Sivin 1995.\n\n Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987:9.\n\n Ames 1993:105.\n\n Commonly translated as \"spirit\" or \"mental.\"\n\n See also Hall and Ames 1987:20.\n\n See Farquhar 1994:18.\n\n See Lin and Eisenberg 1985. From many psychiatrists working in Chinese society, _zhongyi_ is understood as having a somato-psychic approach to treatment of mental illness, that is, treating mentally ill through manipulation of physiological functions. Such an approach is often cited as an obstacle to the development of psychiatry in China.\n\n See Cheung 1982,1989; Kleinman 1977,1982, 1986; Lin 1985; Tseng 1983; Zhang 1989.\n\n See Kleinman 1977, 1980; Leff 1981; Tseng 1975.\n\n Jenkins and Valient 1994:173. According to Kleinman (1986:149), somatization is \"the substitution of somatic preoccupation for dysphoric affect in the form of complaints of physical symptoms and even illness.\" Later, he redefines the concept as \"the normative expression of personal and social distress in an idiom of bodily complaints and medical help-seeking\" (1986:2). Others define it as \"expression style or idiom of emotion\" (Zheng at al. 1989:240), \"illness pictures in which bodily symptoms are overly dominant,\" and \"embraces displaced psychosocial distress\" (Fabrega 1990:1). The concept presupposes an ontological distinction between the somatic and the psychological and involves \"a postulate about the correspondence and association between changes in the body as versus the mind and behavior\" (Fabrega 1990: 654).\n\n Jenkins and Valient 1994-I73\n\n Kleinman 1980:146.\n\n F. M., Cheung 1995:166.\n\n Cheng 1995.\n\n Tseng 1974.\n\n See Cheung 1995; Young 1989; Zheng et al. 1986.\n\n In recent years, China has made mental health a public health priority and developed many social and mental health programs (Cohen, Kleinman, Saraceno 2002:15). Yet, these psychiatric-oriented programs and services rarely bring in Chinese medical expertise in their design. Even the community-based Shanghai model aimed at both treatment and rehabilitation does not consider Chinese medicine as relevant. Yet many psychiatric patients, as I observed during my fieldwork, do seek _zhongyi_ help for treatment of their illnesses.\n\n In fact, therapeutic manipulation of emotions and thoughts by _zhongyi_ doctors was documented in early Chinese medical classics. See Sivin 1995; Wu 1982. More detailed information is provided in chapters 3 and 4.\n\n See Hsu 1999; Scheid 2002; Sivin 1987; Unschuld 1985.\n\n See also Scheid 2002.\n\n Hsu 1999.\n\n Scheid 2002:2.\n\n Ibid., 263.\n\n People's Medical Publishing House:139.\n\n Although the typical patients of Shenjing Ke include those with neurological disorders and those with what Western medicine calls \"psychological\" or \"psychiatric\" problems, the distinction of different _ke_ in a _zhongyi_ hospital is not as significant as in a biomedical hospital. Such a distinction is significant to the doctors mostly in terms of different points of view or positions in approaching the same pathological reality. It is common that a patient consults different _ke_ in one visit to the hospital, and the doctor and patient do not seem to have problems with different prescriptions since ideally these prescriptions aim at the same pathological conditions with a different emphasis.\n\n I was particularly close to two student doctors, Dr. Huang and Dr. Lee. Huang had been a _zhongyi_ doctor for five years in Hebei province before coming to Beijing for further training. She offered to accompany me on my visits to patients. Lee was a graduate student from South Korea. She let me borrow her notes whenever I needed them. She was also a patient. I observed a couple of times when patients were not present, she asked the doctor to \"look at her illness\" and was prescribed herbal medicine for sleeping problems and low energy.\n\n The opposite movement is less evident but definitely exists. Based on my observation, local doctors from provincial areas with special efficacy in treating certain difficult diseases are also invited to treat patients in larger hospitals in Beijing.\n\n My friend, an instructor in a _zhongyi_ college, insisted on paying the bills whenever we dined out, saying that she made more than I did. She explained that although her salary was nothing, by taking in patients privately she could make a couple of thousand Chinese yuan a month.\n\n These sources include Farquhar 1994; Liu 1988; Ou et al. 199; 1992; Scheid 2002; Sivin 1987; and Chinese Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy ( _Zhon_ - _gyiyaoxue Mingci_ ) 2004.\n\n# CHAPTER II\n\n An experienced senior _zhongyi_ doctor is frequently invited to attend group consultations, which usually include both _zhongyi_ and xiyi doctors on difficult medical cases. Generally, the _zhongyi_ doctors are the ones who are expected to move back and forth between two medical systems, while biomedical doctors are not expected to master _zhongyi_ concepts and language.\n\n According to my clinical observation in a _zhongyi_ hospital, a doctor does not routinely order laboratory tests or examinations using penetrative imaging devices except on suspicion of serious organic diseases. For _zhongyi_ intervention, the purpose of these tests and examinations is not strictly diagnostic in nature since the test result is not essential in determining the therapeutic principle or in choosing or designing the drug formula. Generally, the purpose is to determine whether or not there exists any serious organic problem that requires drastic intervention of biomedicine. Sometimes, patients ask for certain tests and examinations or biomedical drugs. Doctors usually go along with the requests in order to let the patients have peace of mind ( _fangxin_ ). However, in the hospital where I did my research there is a clear guideline regarding how much biomedicine a doctor can prescribe. Generally it should not exceed 15 percent of the total prescription. Occasionally, administrative personnel would come down to the clinics to check the records. Situations might be different in a clinic or hospital of integrated Chinese and Western medicine ( _zhongxiyi jiehe_ ), where biomedical examinations and drugs are used more liberally. See Scheid 2002:95.\n\n Since many hospitals of Chinese medicine also run a clinic of Western medicine, and biomedical hospitals normally have a Chinese medical section, patients sometimes choose to see both a biomedical doctor and a _zhongyi_ doctor in the same visit to the hospital. There is also a form of practice officially called \"integrative treatment of Chinese and Western medicine\" ( _zhongxiyi jiehe zhiliao_ ), which is recognized as a practice seperate from either Chinese or Western medicine.\n\n See Farquhar 1994.\n\n According to the earliest oracle bone inscriptions in the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BCE), the character of yi was etymologically composed of two parts, _yi_ (illness, cure) and _wu_ (divination). Later in the Zhou Dynasty (1122-772 BCE), the character was transformed into its contemporary form composed of cure and wine ( _jiu_ ) (see Tseng 1974). According to the earliest Chinese dictionary _Shuo Wen_ , _yi_ means a person who cures illness with wines. In the Spring and Autumn of the Zhou Dynasty (770\u2013476 BCE), _yi_ (physician; medicine) and _wu_ (shaman; divination) had became separate specializations listed in different official categories. Medical practice during this period \"witnessed the beginning of an organization\" (Hoisey and Hoisey 1993:55). According to _The Zhouli_ ( _THe Rite of Zhou_ ) _,_ at the top of the medical hierarchy were the _yishi_ (master physicians), under whom there were also _shiyi_ (physicians for nutrition), _jiyi_ (physicians for the cure of illness), _yangyi_ (physicians for treating wounds), and _shouyi_ (physicians for animals) (see Zhen et al. 1991).\n\n Porkert (1974) refers to this healing system as the medicine of \"systematic correspondence.\"\n\n According to Sivin, \"classic medicine does not refer to the theory and practice of a coherent group, but to the records left by the most literate and scholarly representatives of several traditions (1987:22\u201323).\n\n It may sound like an oversimplification, but from the point of view of many senior doctors who lived through the years struggling for survival in the 1920s and 30s, the contrast between the current state of full legitimacy and official support and the past insecurity is real. The feeling is fully illustrated in the poem by Zhang Zanchen, a renowned senior doctor: \" _Zhongyi_ at the present is absolutely different from the past, like an ancient tree revived thriving green in Spring\" (quoted in Li 1987:39).\n\n Faquhar 1994:12.\n\n According to Unschuld (1985), when Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary in China, and J. Livingston, a physician of the East India Company, opened a pharmacy and started to treat patients in Macao in 1820, Western medicine did not yet have much to offer. Their willingness to learn native healing techniques, in a certain sense, shows that \"therapeutic knowledge available to Western physicians at the time was still not yet sufficient to occasion an attitude of superiority\" (236). Unschuld also maintains that when Peter Parker, the first Protestant missionary with complete medical training, set up a clinic in Canton in 1835, \"it was primarily minor surgical procedures, such as the removal of external tumors and the treatment of superficial ailments, as well as spectacular cataract operations, that quickly made him famous.\" See also Cai 1988:523.\n\n See Hoizey and Hoizey 1993:150; Unschuld 1985:239. After the second Opium War, the Western powers'privileges in China were further confirmed and extended from the coastal treaty ports to the interior, where in forty years from 1860, 100 missionary hospitals were established (Zhen et al. 1991:411).\n\n Quite a few influential reform-minded intellectuals and politicians of the time had once in their careers chosen to study Western medicine, including Sun Yat-sen and Lu Xun.\n\n Quoted from Unschuld 1985:230.\n\n The discourse of _xin_ (new) versus _jiu_ (old) became a dominant rhetoric in the new culture movement (1914\u201319) with _xin_ associated with things modern, progressive, and Western, and _jiu_ with things outdated, backward, and traditional Chinese. The term _jiu yi_ (old medicine) referring to Chinese medicine was used profusely by those who argued for abolishing _zhongyi._ Yu Yunxiu in his _Revolution of Medicine_ (1914) invariably referred to Chinese medicine as _jiuyi_ that should be completely obliterated. He argued that \"medicine was not to be divided into Chinese and Western, and the only meaningful division was 'new' from 'old\/backward' ( _yi wu fen zhong-xi, dan you xin-jiu eryi._ , ).\" See Zhen et al. 1991:428\u2013433.\n\n Zhen et al. 1994:487.\n\n Cai 1988:524.\n\n Unschuld 1985:246\u2013247.\n\n _Different Schools of Chinese Medicine_ ( _Zhongyi Gejia Xueshuo_ edited by Ren et al. (1994) identifies seven major schools ( _xuepai_ of medical thoughts in history. These are Hejian, Yishui, Danxi, Gongxie, Wenbu, Shanghan, and Wenbing.\n\n Zhen et al. 1991:441.\n\n Ibid., 490\u2013492.\n\n The Central National Institute was established in 1930 (Zheng et al. 1991).\n\n See Zhen et al. 1991:499\u2013528.\n\n In fact, the argument to abandon or radically reform Chinese medicine was presented equally in patriotic terms if not more.\n\n Quoted in Zhen et al. 1994:426.\n\n See Scheid 2002:66\u2013106.\n\n The Chinese original is \"Zhongguo yiyao xue shi yi ge weida de baoku, ying-dang luli fajue, jiayi tigao ? .\"\n\n Until 1949, all kinds of infectious and parasitic diseases, such as plague, cholera, smallpox, tuberculosis, black water fever, malaria, and bilharzias had raged across the country. According to the statistics on twelve infectious diseases of 1947, about 1.3 million were infected and more than 100,000 people died. (Zhen, et al. 1991:540). In old China (before the founding of the PRC in 1949), there were only limited hospitals concentrated in main cities. Most Chinese did not have access to these rare medical resources. To improve health conditions for all the Chinese people became an urgent task for the new government. At the first National Conference on Public Health held in 1950, one year after the Communists took power, three objectives were set: health work should be aimed at the mass of workers, peasants, and soldiers; prevention should take priority; and Chinese and Western medicines should be united. See Hoizey and Hoizey 1993:176.\n\n See Zhen et al. 1991:555\u2013556; and Li 1987: 36\u201337. When the first hospital, the Red Hospital, was set up in 1927 in the Jingang Mountain Revolutionary Base, two of the three doctors were doctors of Chinese medicine. The division of practice was that _zhongyi_ treated ordinary diseases with herbal medicine and the xiyi handled the external injuries. The Red Army also set up medical schools to teach basic biomedical knowledge and Chinese medicine. The use of both Western and Chinese medicine has been in practice since the Jingang Mountains period.\n\n Bao Jingheng 1950 \"Why Chinese medical doctors need further training,\" in _Jian Kang_ Vol. 135, quoted in Zhen et al. (1991).\n\n Unschult 1985:251.\n\n See Zhen et al.1991:487\u2013528. The _Guideline for Academic Standardization of National Medicine (Zhengli Guoyiyao Xueshu Biaozhun Dagang_ ) was compiled and published by the Central Academy of National Medicine (Zhong-yang Guoyi Guan ) in 1933. Later based on this guideline, the academy issued a document suggesting unifying _zhongyi_ illness names with the Western illness names. In the 1930s, Western medicine was incorporated in the curriculum of many _zhongyi_ shools. For example, courses such as anatomy, physiology, public hygiene, bacteriology, and pathology were taught in the North China Institute of National Medicine, established by renowned _zhongyi_ physician, Shi Jinmo , in 1932.\n\n Scheid 2002:66.\n\n Often simply referred to as _Neijing_ (the Inner Classics).\n\n _Hanshu: Yiwenzhi_ ( _Records of Han Dynasty_ : _Bibliography of Art and Literature_ 206 BCE\u2013220 CA:) lists 868 volumes of medical treatises in 36 categories. Except for the _Huangdi Neijing,_ all the others are lost. Several volumes of ancient medical works were excavated in the third Han tomb (dated 168 BCE) in Mawangdui in the 1970s. These works were not even listed in _Hanshu_ and possibly antedated _Neijing. Neijing,_ composed of two books, Suwen ( _Basic Questions_ ) and _Lingshu_ (Divine Pivot), covers various topics ranging from the relationship of a human being to his or her natural environment and discussion of human psychology, physiology, pathology, illness diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Many important theoretical basics of today's _zhongyi_ can be traced to this book. It is believed to be the product of a group of different authors at different times. Its compilation may have lasted for centuries, starting during the Warring State period (around 500 BCE). It did not take on its final form until Qin (221\u2013207 BCE) and Han (206 BCE\u201323 CA). The book probably started as scattered texts, which were later added to, revised, and rearranged. The heterogenesis of the book is marked by repetitions and inconsistency in content and style. See Zhen et al. 1991; Hoizey and Hoizey 1993.\n\n See Jiqun, Xu & Qingzhi, Wang 1985:1. Zhang Zhongjing (150\u2013219 AD) is said\"to creatively integrate the medical theories (li), methods (fa), formulas (fang), and drugs (yao)\" in his book _Shanghai zabing Lun_ (Discussion of Cold Damage and various disorders), and was therefore referred to as \" _fangshu zhi zu_ \" (the ancestor of formulas).\n\n See Unschult 1985:250\u2013251; 1992:54.\n\n Scheid 2002:9.\n\n Zhen 1991:100\u2013110. See also Feng and Zhang 2004.\n\n See Tian 2005 for information on _Yijing_ and Chinese philosophic thought of _tongbian_ ).\n\n For example, _Neijing's_ statements about _mingmen_ (gate of life) and _sanjiao_ (three burners) contradict completely the statements given in _Nanjing_ (On Difficult Medical Issues), another canonical medical text published in Han period before Zhang Zhongjing's _Shanghan Lun._\n\n See also Scheid 2002:209\u2013211.\n\n Ames 1992.\n\n Farqhuar 1994: 28.\n\n Wang Qi (2003) examines the professional accomplishments of 112 renowned contemporary _zhongyi_ doctors and their ways to become _da yi_ (exemplary physicians). She noted that all of them emphasize the importance of memorizing _zhongyi_ classic texts.\n\n Sivin 1987:27.\n\n While it is true that contemporary _zhongyi_ education increasingly depends on the latest textbooks, the latest textbooks in Chinese medicine probably do not differ as much as in modern medicine from previous textbooks. The difference among various textbooks depends more on the purpose of the books, such that the textbooks written for students specializing in _zhongyi_ are different from the textbooks that are written for students of biomedicine, in style, depth, detail, and language. Classic medical sources actually feature prominently in recent textbooks, where at the end of each chapter, relevant selected readings of classics _(wenxian xuandu_ or _wenxian zhailu_ ) are provided in their original forms. Total translation of classic medical texts into modern Chinese has never been wholeheartedly carried out. The common practice is to publish the _yuanwen_ (the original text) along with historical and linguistic notes and modern paraphrases. See also Farquhar 1994:28.\n\n Farquhar 1994:29.\n\n Sivin 1987:25.\n\n Hall and Ames 1987:44.\n\n In reading biographies of renowned _zhongyi_ physicians, I notice that almost all of them have their favorite _zhongyi_ classics that they claim help shape their own clinical work and that they tend to go back to frequently.\n\n A discussion of this worldview can be found in chapter 3. For more information, see Hall and Ames 1987.\n\n See Unshult, 1992-58. He suggests the possible existence of a fundamental dividing line between Chinese cognitive dynamics marked by \"an expansion of knowledge, adding new to the old.\" And Western cognitive dynamics \"characterized by a replacing of the old with the new.\"\n\n See Farquhar's analysis of the relationship between past experience and present clinical actions in Chinese medicine. She argues, by evoking past experience, a doctor is drawing on the scholarly and clinical experience of his forbearers. He puts their insights into play when he decides they are appropriate to the specific case of the present; he modifies their formulae according to the present situation. \"In doing so he both reanimates the experience of his forebears and makes his own contribution to a continuing process of accumulation\" (1992:72\u201373).\n\n Unshult (1985; 1992), Farquhar (1994), and Scheid (2002) all mentioned the influence of \"dialectics\" in shaping _zhongyi_ knowledge in the 1950s and 1960s.\n\n See _Zhongguo Keji Daobao_ (Chinese Science and Technology) 1999;V7.\n\n See \"The speech given by senior _zhongyi_ physicians Jiao Shude & Deng Tiatao\" in _Xiandai Jiaoyubao_ (modern Education) August 10, 2001. As was also reported recently on CCTV news (September 9, 2004), many _zhongyi_ graduate students have a good knowledge of the English language and computer science but have little time for studying Chinese medicine. Some of them can hardly understand the introduction _of Bencao Gangmu_ (Outlines of Material Medica).\n\n See a series of articles by Mao Jialing published in _Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Bao_ (Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy Weekly) between January and May 2004.\n\n _Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Bao_ recently invited specialists from various fields to participate in \"Zhongyi and Science Forum 2004.\"\n\n See the recently published \"Outline for the development of _zhongyi_ clinical research\" ( _zhongyyi linchuang yanjiu fazhan gangyao_ 1999\u20132015) drafted by the Division of Education of the State Zhongyiyao Administrative Bureau.\n\n For example, the formula _of xiao chaihu tang_ (decoction of blupeuri) is originally recorded in _Shanghan Lun_ (Discussions of Cold Damage) and used for treating _shaoyang_ (lesser yang) disorder. This specific formula has been used for thousands of years by Chinese physicians for its effectiveness in removing the heat, activating _qi_ movement, and nourishing the stomach _yin._ In the 1970s, a Japanese pharmaceutical company started to manufacture the medicine based on this formula which was later clinically tested as having efficacy in treating chronic hepatitis. It was then used liberally to treat hepatitis in Japan. In the 1990s, reports came out that the manufactured Bupleuri could cause interstitial pneumonia that could result in death. See Feng et al. 2004: 32\u201334.\n\n See the newspaper article by Wang, \"Suping in _Jiankang Bao_ \" (Health Weekly) December 10, 2003.\n\n Translations are my own unless otherwise noted.\n\n Farquhar 1994:20. See also Fauquhar 2002:41\u201377 on medicinal meals in contemporary China.\n\n According to Wei, Yu, and Minghui Ren (1997:152), the major profit for hospitals comes from selling drugs. Hospitals are allowed to add 15 percent to the cost of purchased drugs. Hospitals tend to make more profit on self-produced drugs.\n\n# CHAPTER III\n\n See Csordas 1990, 1994.\n\n Roger Ames suggests that Chinese tradition is \"eventful\" rather than \"essential,\" so gerunds are better than nouns for translating Chinese concepts. Hence shenti might be better rendered \"bodying\" (Personal communication 1997).\n\n Desjarlais 1993.\n\n Lutz 1988:54.\n\n Lee 1996:437. See also Kleinman 1980, 1986; F. Cheung 1981; Ots 1990. Kleinman sees somatization as a basic feature of illness construction in Chinese culture. Susan Brownell 1994, following Kleinman's concept of somatization, claims \"somatization has characterized Chinese culture since ancient times\" (238).\n\n See Kleinman 1980,1986; Ots 1990, 1994.\n\n Ots 1990:23.\n\n See Zhang 1989. Many Western and Western-trained psychiatrists believe that Chinese medicine has never seen emotion or emotional disorders as \"the legitimate domain of medicine,\" and thus doctors of Chinese medicine do not take treating emotional disorders as their responsibility.\n\n It is very common that a patient presents a banner to the clinic or doctor who has successfully treated him or her. I saw banners presented to the doctors who were specialists on mental disorders, but in the fertility clinics, one seldom sees any such banners. Patients feel embarrassed to let even their family members and relatives know about fertility problems.\n\n According to a 1994 survey in Beijing done by Edward Malinovski (personal communication), half of the respondents indicated that _zhongyi_ should be consulted when a person suffers depression.\n\n See Xu 1994; Young 1989.\n\n My own observation in hospitals of Chinese medicine in Beijing does not support such a clear-cut distinction between patients from rural areas and cities. Patients from the rural areas and cities both present emotional symptoms. There may be some difference in verbal style. The well-educated patients may readily use more technical words such as _yayi_ (depressed) _or jiaolu_ (anxious), while the less educated patients may simply use everyday expressions such as _xinqing buhao_ (heart-emotion not feeling good), _xinli nanshou_ (uncomfortable inside the heart), _faji_ (worried and anxious), or _fahuo_ (getting angry).\n\n Lee 1996: 438.\n\n Yamamoto et al. 1985\n\n Zheng et al. 1986.\n\n See Fabrega 1990.\n\n Pollock 1996:321.\n\n Jackson 1994:212.\n\n Fabrega 1990:662.\n\n Lee and Wang 1995:104.\n\n The Chinese translation for CFS is _pilao zonghezheng_ . _Zhongyi_ doctors tend to relate the syndrome to such pathological conditions as \"weariness\" _(Juan),\"_ \"sluggishness,\" _(xieduo_ ), \"sleeplessness and lack of energy\" _(kunbo_ ), and \"tired four limbs\" _(sizhi buju_ ) described in _zhongyi_ classics. According to _zhongyi_ diagnosis, the conditions have something to do with an imbalance in functions of visceral systems caused by stagnant emotions _(qingzhi buchang_ ) over physical\/mental exertions _(laoyi guodu_ ) and external pathogenic attacks _(ganshou waixie_ ).\n\n See Hall and Ames (1987) for comparison of Western transcendental ontology and a Confucius immanental cosmos.\n\n See Leder 1995.\n\n Zito 1997:52.\n\n Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1986:10.\n\n See Hall and Ames 1987.\n\n Good 1977:39.\n\n Ames 1997:150.\n\n Tung 1994:487.\n\n Elvin 1993:219.\n\n Ots 1994:117.\n\n For lack of a better word to convey the sense of presence of the whole person including body, emotion, intellect, and spirit, I translate _'ti'_ as \"body personally\" though it sounds awkward.\n\n Brownell 1994:16.\n\n Ibid.,17.\n\n Brownell 1994 points out that \"with the introduction of Western science and physical education, the linguistic usages of _'ti'_ became much more detached, objective, and instrumental than was formerly the case\" (17). To some extent, this may be true, especially in professional sports. However, to claim that in today's China, \"the instrumental, gender-neutral body is unquestionably the focus of the culture of the body\" is an overgeneralization.\n\n The Chinese words for body-person _(shen_ ), spirit-vitality _(shen_ ), and the kidney _(shen_ ) are homonyms. When they appear not in combination with other Chinese words, I add tones to distinguish them. Thus, _shen_ as body-person will not be marked, but as spirit-vitality will be _sh\u00e9n_ with a second tone and as kidney will be _sh\u00e8n._ with a fourth tone.\n\n According to the dictionary of _Shouwen Jiezi_ , the original meaning of _jing_ was \"selected rice\" _(ze mi ye_ ), and later the meaning was extended to anything that is the best of its kind _(fan qu hao zhi cheng_ ).\n\n Porkert (1974) translates _jing_ as \"structive potential.\"\n\n _Sh\u00e9n_ is often translated as \"spirit\". Porkert 1974 translates it as configurative force.\n\n See Lin 198.\n\n _Neijing : Suwen_ (3:8). See Shangdong Yixueyuan 1982:124.\n\n Li and Liu 1989:204.\n\n Tung 1994:486.\n\n See Ots 1994.\n\n Zhong 1988:283.\n\n Shandong Zhongyi Xueyuan 1982:913.\n\n Farquhar 1994:26.\n\n Ibid.\n\n Li Y. 1995:20.\n\n Desjarlais 1994:65.\n\n Ibid., 68.\n\n Needham 1956.\n\n Sivin 1987:67.\n\n Ibid., 63.\n\n Shandong Zhongyi Xuyuan 1982:5.\n\n Martin Schoenhals (1993:165), in his ethnographic studies of a Chinese middle school, notices that Chinese place positive value on being _huoyue_ (active and energetic).\n\n See Yan 1996; Yang 1994.\n\n Li Y. 1995: 32.\n\n Yan 1996:103.\n\n _Yijing Suhui ji: Wuyu Lun_ (comments on medical classics: five types of yu) by Wang Andao (1332\u20131391) states: \"Most disorders of _qi_ come from _yu. Yu_ by meaning is obstruction of the passage.\" See chapters 4 and 5 for more detailed discussions of _yu_.\n\n In his _Danxi Xinfa: Liu Yu_ (methods of danxi: six types of yu), Zhu Danxi (1281\u20131358) claims, \"When the blood and _qi_ are circulating in harmony, one will not fall ill; once the circulation is stagnant, various illnesses may appear. Many illnesses result from stagnation.\"\n\n Shweder 1985:193.\n\n Kleinman 1986 maintains that \"in modern times the indigenous Chinese category, _yu_ , has not been widely used, in either traditional Chinese medicine or the popular culture (42).\" However, my observation shows the opposite. _Yu_ is a very common concept in modern _zhongyi_ practice. _Yuzheng_ (syndrome of stagnation), a type of _qingzhi_ (emotion-mind) disorder, is a common _zhongyi_ disorder.\n\n Farquhar 1994:32.\n\n See Lee and Wang 1995.\n\n See Fabrega 1990.\n\n See Lee 1996.\n\n See Kleinman 1980, 1986; Ots 1990, 1994.\n\n Ots 1994:119.\n\n Even Confucius allowed for \"excess\" of emotion and justified it within certain social relations and circumstances. An instance in _Lunyu_ _(The Analects_ 11:10) is an interesting illustration. When his favorite student, Yan Yuan, died, Confucius was overcome with grief and cried excessively. One of his followers reminded Confucius that he went too far in his grief and that he seemed to violate what he had been teaching, namely, \"moderation.\" Confucius replied: \"I grieve with abandon _[you tong hu_ ]?; if I don't grieve with abandon for him, then for whom?\" _(fei fu ren zhi wei tong er shei wei_ ).\n\n See Potter 1988.\n\n See Li Y 1995.\n\n See Zhuang Chu _\"Hongyang Zhonghua 'hehe wenhua' chuyi_ (Comments on Promoting Chinese Culture of Harmony) in _People's Daily_ April 25, 1998.\n\n Li Y 1995:19.\n\n See Li 1995:23.\n\n For detailed analysis on Chinese social exchanges, see Yan 1995; Yang 1993.\n\n Li Y 1995:24.\n\n The Chinese original is _\"yi ta ping ta wei zhi he, gu neng feng er wu gui zhi, ruo yi tong bi tong jin nai qi yi_ , , .\"\n\n Ames and Hall 1987:166.\n\n# CHAPTER IV\n\n See Abu-Lughod 1988; Lutz 1987, 1988; and White, 1993.\n\n See Cosdas 1990, 1993, 1994; Desjaleis 1992; Lock and Sheper-Hughes 1987; and Ots 1990, 1994.\n\n See Kleinman 1980, 1986.\n\n See Ots 1990, 1994.\n\n Potter and Potter 1990:180\u2013195.\n\n See Kipnis 1997.\n\n See Schoenhals 1993; Yan 1996.\n\n Schoenhals 1993:166\n\n Ibid.\n\n While involved in editing a Chinese-English dictionary, I noticed that the Chinese language does not linguistically mark the distinction between what is causal and what is caused. The exact relationship has to be determined in the context. The same word out of context can mean both causal and caused. It seems the agent, the action, and the event mutually entail each other.\n\n White 1993.\n\n Solomon 1993:265.\n\n Ames 1992:100.\n\n According to Lau and Ames (1996), one is understood \"in the sense that it is a continuous plenum, so that everything is related and dependent upon everything else.\"\n\n See Xunzi: Zhengming (ca. 240 BCE). The Chinese original is _\"xing zhi haowu, xi, nu, ai, le wei zhi qing_ , .\"\n\n Quoted in _Hanyu Dacidian_ 7:576.\n\n Chad Hansen 1995.\n\n Solomon 1995:264.\n\n See Hu 1944; Hwang 1994; King 1988; Schoenhals 1993; and Yan 1996.\n\n See Hu 1944; King 1988.\n\n Bond and Hwang 1986: 247.\n\n King 1988.\n\n Bond and Hwang 1986 classify the Chinese face behavior into six categories. These are enhancing one's own face, enhancing another's face, losing one's own face, hurting other's face, saving one's own face, and saving another's face.\n\n Schoenhals 1993:70.\n\n See Schoenhals 1993.\n\n Hwang 1987.\n\n Kleinman and Kleinman 1991:287.\n\n Yan 1996.\n\n Potters and Potter 1990:189.\n\n Yan 1996:139.\n\n Schoenhals 1993:151.\n\n Lutz 1985:72.\n\n _Lunyu_ ( _The Analects_ ) _._ The Chinese original is \" :\n\n _People's Daily,_ June 6, 1998.\n\n Yan 1996:122.\n\n _Zhongyi_ doctors usually do not make distinctions between _qing_ and _zhi_ when both refer to emotions. However, some _zhongyi_ scholars argue that though both _qing_ and _zhi_ share the same meanings, they are different in emphasis. _Qing_ is observable from outside, and _zhi_ is hidden inside. See Li and Liu 1989:213. In other words, _zhi_ are emotions in latency _(weifa_ ), and _qing_ are activated or demonstrated emotions. _Qiqing_ (seven _qing_ emotions) are regrouped in _wuzhi_ (five _zhi_ emotions) in order to correspond with the five visceral systems.\n\n Kleinman and Kleinman 1991.\n\n Sivin 1995:11\u20132.\n\n Ots 1990:27.\n\n In 1992, Deng Xiaopin on his trip in south China published his speech, which called for fundamental economic reform. Following the speech, the whole nation plunged wholeheartedly into the ocean of the market economy.\n\n Li and Liu 1989:213\u2013214.\n\n _Neijing: Suwen_ 2:5. The Chinese original is \" , .\"\n\n The term _sanjiao_ is sometimes translated as \"three burners,\" but the actual physiological functions of _sanjiao_ have nothing to do with burning. As Farhquar 1994 points out, the concept is almost impossible to translate since it is not an object and its characteristics have varied over the centuries. Based on my own observation, the concept was frequently used to refer to the three vaguely designated locations that separate internal organ systems into upper, middle, and lower fields.\n\n Farquhar 1994:91.\n\n Yin et al 1983:29.\n\n Farqhuar 1994:94.\n\n See Kuriyama 1999:25. A Chinese doctor, placing his fingers at three different positions of both wrists, reads at least 12 different pulses, which register information relating to different visceral systems.\n\n Zhongyi teaches that clear and fluent speech depends on healthy heart functions, because _xin_ the heart governs _shen_ (vitality, consciousness, spirit).\n\n For more systematic information on the five transformative phases and the traditional Chinese medicine, see Porkert 1974 and Sivin 1988.\n\n Sivin 1988:73.\n\n Farquhar 1994:96.\n\n The phase that produces the other phase is figuratively called \"mother,\" and the phase that is produced is called \"son.\" Therefore between the pair of the liver and the heart, the liver system is \"the mother\" and the heart is \"the son.\"\n\n The kidney is the water phase and is supposed to produce the wood phase of the liver.\n\n _Neijing: Suwen_ 2:5.\n\n These emotion terms do not find exact corresponding meanings in English. Si, for example, has the meanings of \"thinking,\" \"worry,\" and \"longing\". _You_ and _bei_ are interchangeable here, meaning both \"sorrow\" and \"concerns.\" _Kong_ (fear) here also incorporates the meaning of _jing_ (fright).\n\n Wang and Li 1988:44.\n\n See Yin et al. 1983:54\u201356.\n\n Ibid.\n\n# CHAPTER V\n\n Zhao et al. 1987. Today, _zhenghou_ classification and definition remain a much debated issue, and it looks like this situation will remain for a long time to come.\n\n Farquhar (1994) translates _zheng_ as \"syndrome\" for the sake of convenience. _Zheng_ is not an atemporal group of symptoms that collectively characterize an illness or disorder as 'syndrome' in English suggests, but a recurrent type or pattern of symptom configuration over a period of time. Any slight change in the symptom pattern may result in a reconfiguration and thus a different _zheng._ In this book, I use to translate _zheng_ as a \"pattern.\".\n\n Scheid 2002:200\u2013237.\n\n Zhao et al. 1987:7\u20139.\n\n Zhao et al. 1987:8.\n\n Farquhar 1994: 46.\n\n Farquhar 1994:55\u201359.\n\n Ibid., 58.\n\n Some _zhongyi_ scholars argue that _liujing bianzheng_ is essentially the same as _bagang bianzheng._ See Feng et al. 2004:10\u201316.\n\n The clear articulation of _bagang bianzheng_ is traced to the Ming scholar-physician Zhang Jiebin (1562\u20131639). His \"liang gang\" (two rubrics: yin and yang) and _\"liu bian\"_ (six variations): _biao-li_ (exterior and interior), _han-re_ (cold and hot), _xu-shi_ (deplete and replete)\" include all the content of today's eight rubrics. However, to elevate _banggang bianzheng_ to the position of the most important system of pattern differentiation was a more recent development in the 1950s and 60s. See Scheid 2002:200\u2013237.\n\n The illness location here should not be understood as the pathological site in an \"anatomo-clinical perspective,\" but rather refers to \"the location where _bingxie\"_ (pathogenic factors) manifest. See Feng et al. 2004:12.\n\n Liu 1988:231.\n\n Zhao et al. 1987:4.\n\n Ibid.\n\n The character yu itself also suggests _qi_ stagnation rather than blood stagnation, which is usually referred to by a different character, _yu_ _._\n\n Farquhar 1994.\n\n Ibid., 38.\n\n See Farquhar 1994: chapter 4, for a detailed analysis of _zhongyi_ classification.\n\n Zhao et al. 1987:7.\n\n In spring 1984, the first conference on _zhongyi zhenghou guifan_ (standardization of _zhongyi_ syndrome patterns) was held in Beijing. The specialists discussed the names, concepts, classification, and diagnostic standards of _zhenghou_ (syndrome patterns). Subsequently, several influential texts on _zhenghou_ standardization and diagnosis were published, such as _Zhongyi Zhenghou Zhenduan Xue_ (The Diagnostics of _zhongyi_ Syndrome Patterns) 1987 by Zhao Jinduo et al., _Zhongyi Zhenghou Bianzhi Guifan_ (Standards of Differentiation and Treatment of _Zhongyi_ Syndrome Patterns) 1989 by Leng Fangnan et al., and _Zhongyi Zhenghou Guifan_ (Standardization of _Zhongyi_ Syndrome Patterns) 1990 by Deng Tietao et al.\n\n See Farquhar 1994: introduction.\n\n I translate _bing_ as \"illness\" or \"disorder\" to mark a distinction from the biomedical concept of \"disease,\" which are understood as discrete biological and psychophysiological entities, resulting from lesions or abnormal functions of any structure, part, or system of an organism. The dichotomy between disease and illness has been a key concept in medical anthropology. Disease is a primary malfunction of psychobiological processes, while an illness is a secondary psychosocial experience and meaning of the primary disease. See Kleinman 1980:72. However, _bing_ does not conform to such a dichotomy. It is a disorder that recognizes both psychophysiological and psychosocial dimensions.\n\n Zhao et al. 1987:8.\n\n Zhang et al. 1985.\n\n See Feng, et al. 2004:14. Ren Yingqiu also points out that _taiyang_ (the great yang illness, one of the six cold damage illnesses) is not an independent illness but one _zhenghou_ (pattern) of the cold damage illnesses. See Chen, 2003.\n\n See Chen, 1997.\n\n Ibid.\n\n Ibid. Chen refers to this process as _\"bian benzhi lunzhi\"_ (differentiation of roots\/essence and determining therapies).\n\n See Zhao, et al. 1987:2\u20133.\n\n See Chen 1997. See also Liangchun Zhu, 2003. According to Zhu, except for very few cases, such as malaria _(nueji_ ) and jaundice _(huandan_ ), for most _zhongyi_ illnesses, differentiation of patterns is fundamental, while the illness names are only significant as secondary references.\n\n See Cheng, 2003. _Zhenghou Guifan Yanjiu de_ Si _Da Jiaodian Wenti_ (Four Fundamental Issues Regarding Zhenghou Standardization). The anecdote of Professor Lu Guangshen treating AIDS in Tanzania is also an interesting illustration. In 1987, Professor Lu went to Tanzania with a team of medical specialists to help in treating the AIDS endemic in the country. He caused a considerable stir by stating that although he had never encountered a case of AIDS in China, he was confident that the disease could be treated with _zhongyi._ Again, the idea is that as long as a pattern of manifestations could be differentiated, the disease is then treatable with Chinese medicine. See Jingjing Hu, 2004 _Zhongguo Yaoshi Zhoukan_ (Chinese Pharmacists Weekly), VL. 2204.\n\n The six principal patterns are _taiyang_ , _yangming_ , _shaoyang_ , taiyin , _shaoyin_ , and _jueyin_ .\n\n See Feng and Zhang 2004:3\u201324. See also Scheid 2004:203\u2013204.\n\n Ren Yinqiu et al., 1986:126\u2013131.\n\n Ibid., 159\u2013164. Although the concept and method of _bianzheng_ can be found as early as in _Neijing_ (The Inner Classics), the actual term \"bianzheng lunzhi\" or'bianzheng shizhi'did not appear in records until the Ming and Qing period. _\"Bianzheng shizhi\"_ first appeared in _Shenzhai_ Yi _Shu_ (Book by Shenzhai) by the Ming physician Zhou Shenzhai (1508\u20131586). ' _Bianzbeng lunzhi'_ first appeared in Yimen Banghe (1829) by the Qing physician Zhang Nan.\n\n See Zhen et al. (1991:423\u2013438). Yang Zemin (1893\u20131948), another scholar-physician of the time, argued that Chinese medicine emphasizes differentiation of patterns for the purpose of using drugs and Western medicine emphasizes knowing diseases for the purpose of discriminating the location of a disease. See Scheid 2002:216.\n\n Several scholars of Chinese medicine mentioned an obvious relationship between the _zhongyi_ diagnostics _\"bianzheng lunzhi\"_ and the modern Chinese term for \"dialectics\"\u2014 _bianzhengfa_ ( ). See Unschult 1992:52\u201361; Farquhar 1994; and Scheid 2002:209\u2013214. Tian (2005) argues that \"dialectics\" found in the West philosophic tradition is not the same as the Chinese version of _bianzhengfa,_ which draws heavily on the traditional Chinese style of thought _tongbian_ (continuity through changes). In this sense, the _zhongyi_ scholar-physicians' enthusiasm about _bianzhengfa_ in the 1950s and 60s should be understood much more than just following \"an ideologically correct\" line. Rather, _bianzhengfa_ offers a set of easily accessible vocabulary for scholars to articulate the _zhongyi_ way of doing medicine that shares the same intellectual roots in ancient Chinese philosophical thought.\n\n Scheid 2002:209\u2013214.\n\n Zhao, et al., 1987:8.\n\n See also Sheid 2002:220\u2013222.\n\n Written by the Han scholar-physician Zhang Zhongjing.\n\n In contemporary _zhongyi_ clinics, biomedical disease names are frequently used. In fact, patients are more familiar with many common biomedical disease names than with _zhongyi_ illness names. Adopting the more scientific biomedical disease classifications has been promoted by quite a few _zhongyi_ physicians, including Shi Jinmo and Zhang Cigong, and other influential scholar-physicians. See Scheid 2002:221. If a pathological condition is not identified as _bentun_ (running pig illness) but with a biomedical disease term, such as hysteria, the physician is directed to a different course of resources and the connection is made between the particular case and the biomedical sources. In any case, the biomedical disease name used in a _zhongyi_ context does not function the same way as it does in a biomedical clinic. It does not lead to systematic matching with therapies. See Zhu 2003.\n\n _Qingzhi bing_ (emotion-related disorders) is also referred to as _\"shenzhibing\"_ (mind-related disorders). Both are seen as attributable to internal injuries due to excess of the seven emotions and manifested with bodily, emotional-mental symptoms. They are interchangeable in use, though the latter is used less frequently. Li et al. (1993:59) refers to _baihe bing_ (an illness commonly listed as _qingzhi bing)_ as _\"shenzhi_ zhi _bing\"_ (mind-related disorders). In the same book, the authors also state explicitly that \"mind disorders are also called _qingzhi bing\"_ (260). Although the term _qingzhi_ appears as illness factors in the earliest medical classics and the various _qingzhi-_ related disorders are recorded and described as early as in _Neijing,_ the actual combination of _qingzhi_ and _bing_ (illness, disorder) might be a more recent development.\n\n Since symptoms of _dian_ and _kuang_ cannot be completely separate, and they often appear alternately, _dian_ and _kuang_ are often listed under the one disorder of _duankuang_ (apathy and madness). See Li et al. 1993:260. The authors write _\"shenzhi bing_ (mind-related disorders), also called _qingzhi bing_ (emotion-related disorders), include such illness as _diankuang, yuzbeng_ (stagnation illness), and _bentunqi_ (running pig syndrome).\"\n\n In Li and Liu 1989, _dian_ and _kuang_ are listed separately from the category of _qingzhi_ disorders, which include _yuzheng_ (stagnation illness), _zangzao_ (visceral vexation), _meiheqi_ (plume pit syndrome), _baihuobing_ (hundred confusions syndrome), and so on.\n\n Zhang et al. eds. 1985.\n\n# CHAPTER VI\n\n Li and Liu 1989:514.\n\n See _Jingyue Quanshu_ _(The complete works of zbangjingyue)._\n\n See note 6 in chapter 2 for information on _Huangdi Neijing_ _(The Yellow Emperor's Internal Medicine)._\n\n _Zhubing Yuanhou Lun_ _(On the Origins of Various Illnesses)_ was written in 610 CE by the Sui physician Chao Yuanfang and his associates.\n\n _Gujin Yitong Daquan_ _(Complete Collection of Principal Medical Works from Ancient Time to the Present)_ was written by Ming physician Xu Chunfu (1520\u20131596) and published in 1556.\n\n In contemporary usage, jie refers more to the congestion that has been formed into tangible lumps, whereas _yu_ is more about obstruction of flow of qi that is formless and intangible.\n\n See note 4.\n\n See _Danxi Xinfa: Liu Yu_ _(Danxi's Healing Methods : The Six Stagnations)._\n\n Ibid.\n\n See _Yijing Suhui Ji_ _(Collected Reflections on the Medical Classics)_ (1368).\n\n See _Tuiqiu Shi Yi: Yubing_ (Understanding the Master's Teachings: Stagnation Illness) by Dai Sigong. This could be the earliest appearance of the term combining _'yu'_ and _'bing'_ in _zhongyi_ texts. See Ren et al. 1984:96\u2013102. The combination of _'yu'_ and 'zheng' did not appear until the Ming dynasty when the scholar-physician Yu Tuan first used the term in his book, _Yixue Zhengzhuan_ _(The Orthodox History of Medicine)_ (1515). See Li and Liu 1989: 103.\n\n See Ren et al. 1984:118\u2013120.\n\n See _Jingyue Quanshu_ _(The Complete Works of Zhang Jingyue),_ chapter 19.\n\n Quoted in Ren at al. 1984:212\u2013218.\n\n See Ye Tianshi _Lin Zheng Zhinan Yi'an: Yuzheng_ (Guide to Clinical Practice with Medical Cases).\n\n See Li and Liu 1989; Zhang et al. 1985:121\u2013124..\n\n In biomedicine, a specialist is more defined by training; however, in Chinese medicine, a _zhuanjia_ (specialist) is defined mainly by his or her clinical experience and efficacy in treating certain problems.\n\n See Li and Liu 1989:517.\n\n Chao Yuanfang, a well-known doctor of the Yuan dynasty, uses the terms _jieqi bing_ or _qi bing_ (illness of congealed _qi)_ to refer to the same illness manifestation type as the plum pit _qi_ or _qi_ stagnation illness. In fact, _qi bing_ used here by the doctor has a double meaning; one is the disordered _qi_ circulation in the body, and the second is the disorder caused _by qi_ (anger). The patient immediately read it as the second meaning.\n\n See Zhang et al. 1985:125.\n\n See Li and Liu 1989.\n\n See chapter 3 of this book for a discussion of _du_ (degree).\n\n The patient's mother did not reveal any details regarding the nature of the trauma _(cij\u00ec),_ and the doctor did not ask about it.\n\n Zhen et al. 1991:104.\n\n See Li 1993:757.\n\n Cited in Li and Liu 1989:112.\n\n See _Jingyue Quanshu_ (The Complete Works of Zhang Jingyue).\n\n# CHAPTER VII\n\n Portions of this chapter appear in my article \"Negotiating a path to efficacy in a clinic of traditional Chinese medicine.\" Forthcoming in Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. Springer Netherlands.\n\n Conversation analysis (CA), developed within the paradigm of ethnomethodology, emerged in the 1960s as a result of the pioneering works by Harvey Sacks, Gail Jefferson, Emanual Schegloff, and others. CA provides analytical resources and methodological procedures for analyzing naturally occurring human interactions. See C. Goodwin and J. Heritage 1990. Refer to appendix 1for the transcription conventions.\n\n See Atkinson and Heath 1981; Fisher and Todd 1983; Labov and Fanshel 1977; Heath 1984; Mishler 1984; Pendleton and Hasler 1983; and Tanner 1976; West 1984.\n\n Labov and Fanshel 1977.\n\n Hutchby & Wooffitt 1998:14.\n\n Goodwin and Heritage 1990:288. See also Hutchby and Wooffitt 1998:13\u201317.\n\n See Frankel 1983; Heath 1986.\n\n See Frankel 1983; Heath 1986; Mishler 1984.\n\n West 1984:34.\n\n Mishler 1984:53.\n\n Goodwin and Heritage 1990:283.\n\n Bilmes 1992:571.\n\n Mishler 1984:35.\n\n For detailed analysis of _kanbing_ in _zhongyi_ clinics, see Judith Farquhar's book _Knowing Practice_ 1994.\n\n Sivin 1995:3.\n\n Beijing Medical School 1975:44.\n\n See Li and Liu 1989:203.\n\n See Farquhar 1994.\n\n In the transcript, D stands for doctor and P for patient.\n\n _Jiaolu_ is an introduced biomedical concept. When used in _zhongyi_ context, it refers more to a vague feeling of uneasiness or restlessness, than to a psychiatric concept of \"anxiety\". A _zhongyi_ term for the symptom might be _zuowo bu'an_ (restless) or _jizao_ (anxious), or _jingzhang_ (nervous).\n\n _\"Uhn\"_ in this case is uttered with a short first tone. If it is uttered with a long, strong fourth tone, it can be understood as a confirmation.\n\n Bian Que, a legendary physician from more than two thousands years ago, is well known for his examinations by looking at the patient and taking his or her pulse.\n\n Bilmes 1988:165.\n\n Normally, _bianzheng_ (differentiate syndromes) and _lunzhi_ (determine treatment) form a continuous process. There is no clear distinction between these two parts. However, it is always clear that _bianzheng_ comes before _lunzhi,_ and it is the basis for determining a therapy.\n\n Also known as liver _qi_ stagnation _(ganqi yujie_ ) caused by blocked flow of emotions ( _qingzhi bushu_ ).\n\n Sometimes it goes \"xiaojigengfang \" (if the effect has been achieved, change the formula).\n\n Etkin 1988:302. Etkin argues that healing should be understood as a process. Efficacy might mean either an \"ultimate outcome\" of full symptom remission or a \"proximate effect\" of partial remission or some physical signs that indicate the healing is under way.\n\n Kleinman 1995:33.\n\n Etkin 1988:299.\n\n _Guide to Clinical Practice with a Collection of the Cases_ by famous Qing doctor Ye Tianshi, which was compiled by his student Hua Youyun in 1746.\n\n Zhang at al. 1985:123.\n\n In his article \"The Angry Liver, the Anxious Heart, and the Melancholy Spleen,\" Ots (1990) shows that in Chinese medicine functions of the visceral systems are understood as isomorphic with the corresponding emotions.\n\n As Labov and Fanshel (1977) show in their analysis of therapeutic discourse, \"the therapist is an expert at interpreting the emotions of others.\" The therapist has the authority to judge not only the patient's interpretation of others' emotions but also her claim about her own feelings. A _zhongyi_ doctor does not have that kind of authority over the patient's emotional experience. On the contrary, _zhongyi_ tends to hold that one can never know exactly what another person actually experiences outside of what the other person tells you about how he or she feels. In _zhongyi_ context, patients remain the authoritative voice of their own experience. A doctor's claim about a patient's experience is subject to the patient's confirmation.\n\n Quoted in Zhang et al. 1985:123.\n\n See _Jingyue Quanshu: Yuzheng Mo_ \u00ab \u00bb _(The Complete Works of Zhang Jingyue:_ Stagnation illness) by Zhang Jiebin during the 1630s. The patronizing tone toward female patients is common in the medical classics. Women are presented as if they were children whose desires can be satisfied, but they are not capable of being enlightened. However, although not many contemporary _zhongyi_ physicians disagree with Zhang about healing emotions with emotions, they do not assume his outright gendered approach to stagnant emotions. Women, active in the public sphere in contemporary China, are also counseled to be broad-minded and flexible, as shown in this case.\n\n Sivin 1995:II:16.\n\n Tseng et al. 1995:292.\n\n See Needham 1956.\n\n Arthur and Joan Kleinman 1995:153\u2013154.\n\n Farquhar 1994.\n\n Hsu 1999:6.\n\n# CHAPTER VIII\n\n Desjarlais 1992:249.\n\n Farquhar 1992:72.\n\n Kleinman 1986:43.\n\n Etkin 1988:299.\n\n See Farquhar 1994.\nBibliography\n\nAbu-Lughod, Lila \n--- \n1988| Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society. 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Chicago: Chicago University Press.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}} +{"text":"\n\n\n\nProduced by Robert Rowe, Charles Franks and the Online\nDistributed Proofreading Team. HTML version by Al Haines.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFAMOUS AFFINITIES OF HISTORY\n\n\nTHE ROMANCE OF DEVOTION\n\n\nBY\n\nLYNDON ORR\n\n\n\nVOLUME III OF IV.\n\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\n THE WIVES OF GENERAL HOUSTON\n LOLA MONTEZ AND KING LUDWIG OF BAVARIA\n LEON GAMBETTA AND LEONIE LEON\n LADY BLESSINGTON AND COUNT D'ORSAY\n BYRON AND THE COUNTESS GUICCIOLI\n THE STORY OF MME. DE STAEL\n THE STORY OF KARL MARX\n FERDINAND LASSALLE AND HELENE VON DONNIGES\n THE STORY OF RACHEL\n\n\n\n\nTHE WIVES OF GENERAL HOUSTON\n\n\nSixty or seventy years ago it was considered a great joke to chalk up\non any man's house-door, or on his trunk at a coaching-station, the\nconspicuous letters \"G. T. T.\" The laugh went round, and every one who\nsaw the inscription chuckled and said: \"They've got it on you, old\nhoss!\" The three letters meant \"gone to Texas\"; and for any man to go\nto Texas in those days meant his moral, mental, and financial\ndilapidation. Either he had plunged into bankruptcy and wished to begin\nlife over again in a new world, or the sheriff had a warrant for his\narrest.\n\nThe very task of reaching Texas was a fearful one. Rivers that overran\ntheir banks, fever-stricken lowlands where gaunt faces peered out from\nmoldering cabins, bottomless swamps where the mud oozed greasily and\nwhere the alligator could be seen slowly moving his repulsive form--all\nthis stretched on for hundreds of miles to horrify and sicken the\nemigrants who came toiling on foot or struggling upon emaciated horses.\nOther daring pioneers came by boat, running all manner of risks upon\nthe swollen rivers. Still others descended from the mountains of\nTennessee and passed through a more open country and with a greater\ncertainty of self-protection, because they were trained from childhood\nto wield the rifle and the long sheath-knife.\n\nIt is odd enough to read, in the chronicles of those days, that amid\nall this suffering and squalor there was drawn a strict line between\n\"the quality\" and those who had no claim to be patricians. \"The\nquality\" was made up of such emigrants as came from the more civilized\nEast, or who had slaves, or who dragged with them some rickety vehicle\nwith carriage-horses--however gaunt the animals might be. All\nothers--those who had no slaves or horses, and no traditions of the\nolder states--were classed as \"poor whites\"; and they accepted their\nmediocrity without a murmur.\n\nBecause he was born in Lexington, Virginia, and moved thence with his\nfamily to Tennessee, young Sam Houston--a truly eponymous American\nhero--was numbered with \"the quality\" when, after long wandering, he\nreached his boyhood home. His further claim to distinction as a boy\ncame from the fact that he could read and write, and was even familiar\nwith some of the classics in translation.\n\nWhen less than eighteen years of age he had reached a height of more\nthan six feet. He was skilful with the rifle, a remarkable\nrough-and-tumble fighter, and as quick with his long knife as any\nIndian. This made him a notable figure--the more so as he never abused\nhis strength and courage. He was never known as anything but \"Sam.\" In\nhis own sphere he passed for a gentleman and a scholar, thanks to his\nVirginian birth and to the fact that he could repeat a great part of\nPope's translation of the \"Iliad.\"\n\nHis learning led him to teach school a few months in the year to the\nchildren of the white settlers. Indeed, Houston was so much taken with\nthe pursuit of scholarship that he made up his mind to learn Greek and\nLatin. Naturally, this seemed mere foolishness to his mother, his six\nstrapping brothers, and his three stalwart sisters, who cared little\nfor study. So sharp was the difference between Sam and the rest of the\nfamily that he gave up his yearning after the classics and went to the\nother extreme by leaving home and plunging into the heart of the forest\nbeyond sight of any white man or woman or any thought of Hellas and\nancient Rome.\n\nHere in the dimly lighted glades he was most happy. The Indians admired\nhim for his woodcraft and for the skill with which he chased the wild\ngame amid the forests. From his copy of the \"Iliad\" he would read to\nthem the thoughts of the world's greatest poet.\n\nIt is told that nearly forty years after, when Houston had long led a\ndifferent life and had made his home in Washington, a deputation of\nmore than forty untamed Indians from Texas arrived there under the\ncharge of several army officers. They chanced to meet Sam Houston.\n\nOne and all ran to him, clasped him in their brawny arms, hugged him\nlike bears to their naked breasts, and called him \"father.\" Beneath the\ncopper skin and thick paint the blood rushed, and their faces changed,\nand the lips of many a warrior trembled, although the Indian may not\nweep.\n\nIn the gigantic form of Houston, on whose ample brow the beneficent\nlove of a father was struggling with the sternness of the patriarch and\nwarrior, we saw civilization awing the savage at his feet. We needed no\ninterpreter to tell us that this impressive supremacy was gained in the\nforest.\n\nHis family had been at first alarmed by his stay among the Indians; but\nwhen after a time he returned for a new outfit they saw that he was\nentirely safe and left him to wander among the red men. Later he came\nforth and resumed the pursuits of civilization. He took up his studies;\nhe learned the rudiments of law and entered upon its active practice.\nWhen barely thirty-six he had won every office that was open to him,\nending with his election to the Governorship of Tennessee in 1827.\n\nThen came a strange episode which changed the whole course of his life.\nUntil then the love of woman had never stirred his veins. His physical\nactivities in the forests, his unique intimacy with Indian life, had\nkept him away from the social intercourse of towns and cities. In\nNashville Houston came to know for the first time the fascination of\nfeminine society. As a lawyer, a politician, and the holder of\nimportant offices he could not keep aloof from that gentler and more\nwinning influence which had hitherto been unknown to him.\n\nIn 1828 Governor Houston was obliged to visit different portions of the\nstate, stopping, as was the custom, to visit at the homes of \"the\nquality,\" and to be introduced to wives and daughters as well as to\ntheir sportsman sons. On one of his official journeys he met Miss Eliza\nAllen, a daughter of one of the \"influential families\" of Sumner\nCounty, on the northern border of Tennessee. He found her responsive,\ncharming, and greatly to be admired. She was a slender type of Southern\nbeauty, well calculated to gain the affection of a lover, and\nespecially of one whose associations had been chiefly with the women of\nfrontier communities.\n\nTo meet a girl who had refined tastes and wide reading, and who was at\nthe same time graceful and full of humor, must have come as a pleasant\nexperience to Houston. He and Miss Allen saw much of each other, and\nfew of their friends were surprised when the word went forth that they\nwere engaged to be married.\n\nThe marriage occurred in January, 1829. They were surrounded with\nfriends of all classes and ranks, for Houston was the associate of\nJackson and was immensely popular in his own state. He seemed to have\nbefore him a brilliant career. He had won a lovely bride to make a home\nfor him; so that no man seemed to have more attractive prospects. What\nwas there which at this time interposed in some malignant way to blight\nhis future?\n\nIt was a little more than a month after his marriage when he met a\nfriend, and, taking him out into a strip of quiet woodland, said to him:\n\n\"I have something to tell you, but you must not ask me anything about\nit. My wife and I will separate before long. She will return to her\nfather's, while I must make my way alone.\"\n\nHouston's friend seized him by the arm and gazed at him with horror.\n\n\"Governor,\" said he, \"you're going to ruin your whole life! What reason\nhave you for treating this young lady in such a way? What has she done\nthat you should leave her? Or what have you done that she should leave\nyou? Every one will fall away from you.\"\n\nHouston grimly replied:\n\n\"I have no explanation to give you. My wife has none to give you. She\nwill not complain of me, nor shall I complain of her. It is no one's\nbusiness in the world except our own. Any interference will be\nimpertinent, and I shall punish it with my own hand.\"\n\n\"But,\" said his friend, \"think of it. The people at large will not\nallow such action. They will believe that you, who have been their\nidol, have descended to insult a woman. Your political career is ended.\nIt will not be safe for you to walk the streets!\"\n\n\"What difference does it make to me?\" said Houston, gloomily. \"What\nmust be, must be. I tell you, as a friend, in advance, so that you may\nbe prepared; but the parting will take place very soon.\"\n\nLittle was heard for another month or two, and then came the\nannouncement that the Governor's wife had left him and had returned to\nher parents' home. The news flew like wildfire, and was the theme of\nevery tongue. Friends of Mrs. Houston begged her to tell them the\nmeaning of the whole affair. Adherents of Houston, on the other hand,\nset afloat stories of his wife's coldness and of her peevishness. The\nstate was divided into factions; and what really concerned a very few\nwas, as usual, made everybody's business.\n\nThere were times when, if Houston had appeared near the dwelling of his\nformer wife, he would have been lynched or riddled with bullets. Again,\nthere were enemies and slanderers of his who, had they shown themselves\nin Nashville, would have been torn to pieces by men who hailed Houston\nas a hero and who believed that he could not possibly have done wrong.\n\nHowever his friends might rage, and however her people might wonder and\nseek to pry into the secret, no satisfaction was given on either side.\nThe abandoned wife never uttered a word of explanation. Houston was\nequally reticent and self-controlled. In later years he sometimes drank\ndeeply and was loose-tongued; but never, even in his cups, could he be\npersuaded to say a single word about his wife.\n\nThe whole thing is a mystery and cannot be solved by any evidence that\nwe have. Almost every one who has written of it seems to have indulged\nin mere guesswork. One popular theory is that Miss Allen was in love\nwith some one else; that her parents forced her into a brilliant\nmarriage with Houston, which, however, she could not afterward endure;\nand that Houston, learning the facts, left her because he knew that her\nheart was not really his.\n\nBut the evidence is all against this. Had it been so she would surely\nhave secured a divorce and would then have married the man whom she\ntruly loved. As a matter of fact, although she did divorce Houston, it\nwas only after several years, and the man whom she subsequently married\nwas not acquainted with her at the time of the separation.\n\nAnother theory suggests that Houston was harsh in his treatment of his\nwife, and offended her by his untaught manners and extreme\nself-conceit. But it is not likely that she objected to his manners,\nsince she had become familiar with them before she gave him her hand;\nand as to his conceit, there is no evidence that it was as yet unduly\ndeveloped. After his Texan campaign he sometimes showed a rather lofty\nidea of his own achievements; but he does not seem to have done so in\nthese early days.\n\nSome have ascribed the separation to his passion for drink; but here\nagain we must discriminate. Later in life he became very fond of\nspirits and drank whisky with the Indians, but during his earlier years\nhe was most abstemious. It scarcely seems possible that his wife left\nhim because he was intemperate.\n\nIf one wishes to construct a reasonable hypothesis on a subject where\nthe facts are either wanting or conflicting, it is not impossible to\nsuggest a solution of this puzzle about Houston. Although his abandoned\nwife never spoke of him and shut her lips tightly when she was\nquestioned about him, Houston, on his part, was not so taciturn. He\nnever consciously gave any direct clue to his matrimonial mystery; but\nhe never forgot this girl who was his bride and whom he seems always to\nhave loved. In what he said he never ceased to let a vein of\nself-reproach run through his words.\n\nI should choose this one paragraph as the most significant. It was\nwritten immediately after they had parted:\n\nEliza stands acquitted by me. I have received her as a virtuous, chaste\nwife, and as such I pray God I may ever regard her, and I trust I ever\nshall. She was cold to me, and I thought she did not love me.\n\nAnd again he said to an old and valued friend at about the same time:\n\n\"I can make no explanation. I exonerate the lady fully and do not\njustify myself.\"\n\nMiss Allen seems to have been a woman of the sensitive American type\nwhich was so common in the early and the middle part of the last\ncentury. Mrs. Trollope has described it for us with very little\nexaggeration. Dickens has drawn it with a touch of malice, and yet not\nwithout truth. Miss Martineau described it during her visit to this\ncountry, and her account quite coincides with those of her two\ncontemporaries.\n\nIndeed, American women of that time unconsciously described themselves\nin a thousand different ways. They were, after all, only a less\nstriking type of the sentimental Englishwomen who read L. E. L. and the\nearlier novels of Bulwer-Lytton. On both sides of the Atlantic there\nwas a reign of sentiment and a prevalence of what was then called\n\"delicacy.\" It was a die-away, unwholesome attitude toward life and was\nmorbid to the last degree.\n\nIn circles where these ideas prevailed, to eat a hearty dinner was\nconsidered unwomanly. To talk of anything except some gilded \"annual,\"\nor \"book of beauty,\" or the gossip of the neighborhood was wholly to be\ncondemned. The typical girl of such a community was thin and slender\nand given to a mild starvation, though she might eat quantities of jam\nand pickles and saleratus biscuit. She had the strangest views of life\nand an almost unnatural shrinking from any usual converse with men.\n\nHouston, on his side, was a thoroughly natural and healthful man,\nhaving lived an outdoor life, hunting and camping in the forest and\ndisplaying the unaffected manner of the pioneer. Having lived the\nsolitary life of the woods, it was a strange thing for him to meet a\ngirl who had been bred in an entirely different way, who had learned a\nthousand little reservations and dainty graces, and whose very breath\nwas coyness and reserve. Their mating was the mating of the man of the\nforest with the woman of the sheltered life.\n\nHouston assumed everything; his bride shrank from everything. There was\na mutual shock amounting almost to repulsion. She, on her side,\nprobably thought she had found in him only the brute which lurks in\nman. He, on the other, repelled and checked, at once grasped the belief\nthat his wife cared nothing for him because she would not meet his\nardors with like ardors of her own. It is the mistake that has been\nmade by thousands of men and women at the beginning of their married\nlives--the mistake on one side of too great sensitiveness, and on the\nother side of too great warmth of passion.\n\nThis episode may seem trivial, and yet it is one that explains many\nthings in human life. So far as concerns Houston it has a direct\nbearing on the history of our country. A proud man, he could not endure\nthe slights and gossip of his associates. He resigned the governorship\nof Tennessee, and left by night, in such a way as to surround his\ndeparture with mystery.\n\nThere had come over him the old longing for Indian life; and when he\nwas next visible he was in the land of the Cherokees, who had long\nbefore adopted him as a son. He was clad in buckskin and armed with\nknife and rifle, and served under the old chief Oolooteka. He was a\ngallant defender of the Indians.\n\nWhen he found how some of the Indian agents had abused his adopted\nbrothers he went to Washington to protest, still wearing his frontier\ngarb. One William Stansberry, a Congressman from Ohio, insulted\nHouston, who leaped upon him like a panther, dragged him about the Hall\nof Representatives, and beat him within an inch of his life. He was\narrested, imprisoned, and fined; but his old friend, President Jackson,\nremitted his imprisonment and gruffly advised him not to pay the fine.\n\nReturning to his Indians, he made his way to a new field which promised\nmuch adventure. This was Texas, of whose condition in those early days\nsomething has already been said. Houston found a rough American\nsettlement, composed of scattered villages extending along the disputed\nfrontier of Mexico. Already, in the true Anglo-Saxon spirit, the\nsettlers had formed a rudimentary state, and as they increased and\nmultiplied they framed a simple code of laws.\n\nThen, quite naturally, there came a clash between them and the\nMexicans. The Texans, headed by Moses Austin, had set up a republic and\nasked for admission to the United States. Mexico regarded them as\nrebels and despised them because they made no military display and had\nno very accurate military drill. They were dressed in buckskin and\nragged clothing; but their knives were very bright and their rifles\ncarried surely. Furthermore, they laughed at odds, and if only a dozen\nof them were gathered together they would \"take on\" almost any number\nof Mexican regulars.\n\nIn February, 1836, the acute and able Mexican, Santa Anna, led across\nthe Rio Grande a force of several thousand Mexicans showily uniformed\nand completely armed. Every one remembers how they fell upon the little\ngarrison at the Alamo, now within the city limits of San Antonio, but\nthen an isolated mission building surrounded by a thick adobe wall. The\nAmericans numbered less than three hundred men.\n\nA sharp attack was made with these overwhelming odds. The Americans\ndrove the assailants back with their rifle fire, but they had nothing\nto oppose to the Mexican artillery. The contest continued for several\ndays, and finally the Mexicans breached the wall and fell upon the\ngarrison, who were now reduced by more than half. There was an hour of\nblood, and every one of the Alamo's defenders, including the wounded,\nwas put to death. The only survivors of the slaughter were two \nslaves, a woman, and a baby girl.\n\nWhen the news of this bloody affair reached Houston he leaped forth to\nthe combat like a lion. He was made commander-in-chief of the scanty\nTexan forces. He managed to rally about seven hundred men, and set out\nagainst Santa Anna with little in the way of equipment, and with\nnothing but the flame of frenzy to stimulate his followers. By march\nand countermarch the hostile forces came face to face near the shore of\nSan Jacinto Bay, not far from the present city of Houston. Slowly they\nmoved upon each other, when Houston halted, and his sharpshooters raked\nthe Mexican battle-line with terrible effect. Then Houston uttered the\ncry:\n\n\"Remember the Alamo!\"\n\nWith deadly swiftness he led his men in a charge upon Santa Anna's\nlines. The Mexicans were scattered as by a mighty wind, their commander\nwas taken prisoner, and Mexico was forced to give its recognition to\nTexas as a free republic, of which General Houston became the first\npresident.\n\nThis was the climax of Houston's life, but the end of it leaves us with\nsomething still to say. Long after his marriage with Miss Allen he took\nan Indian girl to wife and lived with her quite happily. She was a very\nbeautiful woman, a half-breed, with the English name of Tyania Rodgers.\nVery little, however, is known of her life with Houston. Later\nstill--in 1840--he married a lady from Marion, Alabama, named Margaret\nMoffette Lea. He was then in his forty-seventh year, while she was only\ntwenty-one; but again, as with his Indian wife, he knew nothing but\ndomestic tranquillity. These later experiences go far to prove the\ntruth of what has already been given as the probable cause of his first\nmysterious failure to make a woman happy.\n\nAfter Texas entered the Union, in 1845, Houston was elected to the\nUnited States Senate, in which he served for thirteen years. In 1852,\n1856, and 1860, as a Southerner who opposed any movement looking toward\nsecession, he was regarded as a possible presidential candidate; but\nhis career was now almost over, and in 1863, while the Civil War--which\nhe had striven to prevent--was at its height, he died.\n\n\n\n\nLOLA MONTEZ AND KING LUDWIG OF BAVARIA\n\n\nLola Montez! The name suggests dark eyes and abundant hair, lithe limbs\nand a sinuous body, with twining hands and great eyes that gleam with a\nsort of ebon splendor. One thinks of Spanish beauty as one hears the\nname; and in truth Lola Montez justified the mental picture.\n\nShe was not altogether Spanish, yet the other elements that entered\ninto her mercurial nature heightened and vivified her Castilian traits.\nHer mother was a Spaniard--partly Moorish, however. Her father was an\nIrishman. There you have it--the dreamy romance of Spain, the exotic\ntouch of the Orient, and the daring, unreasoning vivacity of the Celt.\n\nThis woman during the forty-three years of her life had adventures\ninnumerable, was widely known in Europe and America, and actually lost\none king his throne. Her maiden name was Marie Dolores Eliza Rosanna\nGilbert. Her father was a British officer, the son of an Irish knight,\nSir Edward Gilbert. Her mother had been a danseuse named Lola Oliver.\n\"Lola\" is a diminutive of Dolores, and as \"Lola\" she became known to\nthe world.\n\nShe lived at one time or another in nearly all the countries of Europe,\nand likewise in India, America, and Australia. It would be impossible\nto set down here all the sensations that she achieved. Let us select\nthe climax of her career and show how she overturned a kingdom, passing\nbut lightly over her early and her later years.\n\nShe was born in Limerick in 1818, but her father's parents cast off\ntheir son and his young wife, the Spanish dancer. They went to India,\nand in 1825 the father died, leaving his young widow without a rupee;\nbut she was quickly married again, this time to an officer of\nimportance.\n\nThe former danseuse became a very conventional person, a fit match for\nher highly conventional husband; but the small daughter did not take\nkindly to the proprieties of life. The Hindu servants taught her more\nthings than she should have known; and at one time her stepfather found\nher performing the danse du ventre. It was the Moorish strain inherited\nfrom her mother.\n\nShe was sent back to Europe, however, and had a sort of education in\nScotland and England, and finally in Paris, where she was detected in\nan incipient flirtation with her music-master. There were other persons\nhanging about her from her fifteenth year, at which time her\nstepfather, in India, had arranged a marriage between her and a rich\nbut uninteresting old judge. One of her numerous admirers told her this.\n\n\"What on earth am I to do?\" asked little Lola, most naively.\n\n\"Why, marry me,\" said the artful adviser, who was Captain Thomas James;\nand so the very next day they fled to Dublin and were speedily married\nat Meath.\n\nLola's husband was violently in love with her, but, unfortunately,\nothers were no less susceptible to her charms. She was presented at the\nvice-regal court, and everybody there became her victim. Even the\nviceroy, Lord Normanby, was greatly taken with her. This nobleman's\nposition was such that Captain James could not object to his\nattentions, though they made the husband angry to a degree. The viceroy\nwould draw her into alcoves and engage her in flattering conversation,\nwhile poor James could only gnaw his nails and let green-eyed jealousy\nprey upon his heart. His only recourse was to take her into the\ncountry, where she speedily became bored; and boredom is the death of\nlove.\n\nLater she went with Captain James to India. She endured a campaign in\nAfghanistan, in which she thoroughly enjoyed herself because of the\nattentions of the officers. On her return to London in 1842, one\nCaptain Lennox was a fellow passenger; and their association resulted\nin an action for divorce, by which she was freed from her husband, and\nyet by a technicality was not able to marry Lennox, whose family in any\ncase would probably have prevented the wedding.\n\nMrs. Mayne says, in writing on this point:\n\nEven Lola never quite succeeded in being allowed to commit bigamy\nunmolested, though in later years she did commit it and took refuge in\nSpain to escape punishment.\n\nThe same writer has given a vivid picture of what happened soon after\nthe divorce. Lola tried to forget her past and to create a new and\nbrighter future. Here is the narrative:\n\nHer Majesty's Theater was crowded on the night of June 10,1843. A new\nSpanish dancer was announced--\"Dona Lola Montez.\" It was her debut, and\nLumley, the manager, had been puffing her beforehand, as he alone knew\nhow. To Lord Ranelagh, the leader of the dilettante group of\nfashionable young men, he had whispered, mysteriously:\n\n\"I have a surprise in store. You shall see.\"\n\nSo Ranelagh and a party of his friends filled the omnibus boxes, those\ntribunes at the side of the stage whence success or failure was\npronounced. Things had been done with Lumley's consummate art; the\npacked house was murmurous with excitement. She was a raving beauty,\nsaid report--and then, those intoxicating Spanish dances! Taglioni,\nCerito, Fanny Elssler, all were to be eclipsed.\n\nRanelagh's glasses were steadily leveled on the stage from the moment\nher entrance was imminent. She came on. There was a murmur of\nadmiration--but Ranelagh made no sign. And then she began to dance. A\nsense of disappointment, perhaps? But she was very lovely, very\ngraceful, \"like a flower swept by the wind, she floated round the\nstage\"--not a dancer, but, by George, a beauty! And still Ranelagh made\nno sign.\n\nYet, no. What low, sibilant sound is that? And then what confused,\nangry words from the tribunal? He turns to his friends, his eyes ablaze\nwith anger, opera-glass in hand. And now again the terrible \"Hiss-s-s!\"\ntaken up by the other box, and the words repeated loudly and more\nangrily even than before--the historic words which sealed Lola's doom\nat Her Majesty's Theater: \"WHY, IT'S BETTY JAMES!\"\n\nShe was, indeed, Betty James, and London would not accept her as Lola\nMontez. She left England and appeared upon the Continent as a beautiful\nvirago, making a sensation--as the French would say, a succes de\nscandale--by boxing the ears of people who offended her, and even on\none occasion horsewhipping a policeman who was in attendance on the\nKing of Prussia. In Paris she tried once more to be a dancer, but Paris\nwould not have her. She betook herself to Dresden and Warsaw, where she\nsought to attract attention by her eccentricities, making mouths at the\nspectators, flinging her garters in their faces, and one time removing\nher skirts and still more necessary garments, whereupon her manager\nbroke off his engagement with her.\n\nAn English writer who heard a great deal of her and who saw her often\nabout this time writes that there was nothing wonderful about her\nexcept \"her beauty and her impudence.\" She had no talent nor any of the\ngraces which make women attractive; yet many men of talent raved about\nher. The clever young journalist, Dujarrier, who assisted Emile\nGirardin, was her lover in Paris. He was killed in a duel and left Lola\ntwenty thousand francs and some securities, so that she no longer had\nto sing in the streets as she did in Warsaw.\n\nShe now betook herself to Munich, the capital of Bavaria. That country\nwas then governed by Ludwig I., a king as eccentric as Lola herself. He\nwas a curious compound of kindliness, ideality, and peculiar ways. For\ninstance, he would never use a carriage even on state occasions. He\nprowled around the streets, knocking off the hats of those whom he\nchanced to meet. Like his unfortunate descendant, Ludwig II., he wrote\npoetry, and he had a picture-gallery devoted to portraits of the\nbeautiful women whom he had met.\n\nHe dressed like an English fox-hunter, with a most extraordinary hat,\nand what was odd and peculiar in others pleased him because he was odd\nand peculiar himself. Therefore when Lola made her first appearance at\nthe Court Theater he was enchanted with her. He summoned her at once to\nthe palace, and within five days he presented her to the court, saying\nas he did so:\n\n\"Meine Herren, I present you to my best friend.\"\n\nIn less than a month this curious monarch had given Lola the title of\nCountess of Landsfeld. A handsome house was built for her, and a\npension of twenty thousand florins was granted her. This was in 1847.\nWith the people of Munich she was unpopular. They did not mind the\neccentricities of the king, since these amused them and did the country\nno perceptible harm; but they were enraged by this beautiful woman, who\nhad no softness such as a woman ought to have. Her swearing, her\nreadiness to box the ears of every one whom she disliked, the huge\nbulldog which accompanied her everywhere--all these things were beyond\nendurance.\n\nShe was discourteous to the queen, besides meddling with the politics\nof the kingdom. Either of these things would have been sufficient to\nmake her hated. Together, they were more than the city of Munich could\nendure. Finally the countess tried to establish a new corps in the\nuniversity. This was the last touch of all. A student who ventured to\nwear her colors was beaten and arrested. Lola came to his aid with all\nher wonted boldness; but the city was in commotion.\n\nDaggers were drawn; Lola was hustled and insulted. The foolish king\nrushed out to protect her; and on his arm she was led in safety to the\npalace. As she entered the gates she turned and fired a pistol into the\nmob. No one was hurt, but a great rage took possession of the people.\nThe king issued a decree closing the university for a year. By this\ntime, however, Munich was in possession of a mob, and the Bavarians\ndemanded that she should leave the country.\n\nLudwig faced the chamber of peers, where the demand of the populace was\nplaced before him.\n\n\"I would rather lose my crown!\" he replied.\n\nThe lords of Bavaria regarded him with grim silence; and in their eyes\nhe read the determination of his people. On the following day a royal\ndecree revoked Lola's rights as a subject of Bavaria, and still another\ndecree ordered her to be expelled. The mob yelled with joy and burned\nher house. Poor Ludwig watched the tumult by the light of the leaping\nflames.\n\nHe was still in love with her and tried to keep her in the kingdom; but\nthe result was that Ludwig himself was forced to abdicate. He had given\nhis throne for the light love of this beautiful but half-crazy woman.\nShe would have no more to do with him; and as for him, he had to give\nplace to his son Maximilian. Ludwig had lost a kingdom merely because\nthis strange, outrageous creature had piqued him and made him think\nthat she was unique among women.\n\nThe rest of her career was adventurous. In England she contracted a\nbigamous marriage with a youthful officer, and within two weeks they\nfled to Spain for safety from the law. Her husband was drowned, and she\nmade still another marriage. She visited Australia, and at Melbourne\nshe had a fight with a strapping woman, who clawed her face until Lola\nfell fainting to the ground. It is a squalid record of horse-whippings,\nface-scratchings--in short, a rowdy life.\n\nHer end was like that of Becky Sharp. In America she delivered lectures\nwhich were written for her by a clergyman and which dealt with the art\nof beauty. She had a temporary success; but soon she became quite poor,\nand took to piety, professing to be a sort of piteous, penitent\nMagdalen. In this role she made effective use of her beautiful dark\nhair, her pallor, and her wonderful eyes. But the violence of her\ndisposition had wrecked her physically; and she died of paralysis in\nAstoria, on Long Island, in 1861. Upon her grave in Greenwood Cemetery,\nBrooklyn, there is a tablet to her memory, bearing the inscription:\n\"Mrs. Eliza Gilbert, born 1818, died 1861.\"\n\nWhat can one say of a woman such as this? She had no morals, and her\nmanners were outrageous. The love she felt was the love of a she-wolf.\nFourteen biographies of her have been written, besides her own\nautobiography, which was called The Story of a Penitent, and which\ntells less about her than any of the other books. Her beauty was\nundeniable. Her courage was the blended courage of the Celt, the\nSpaniard, and the Moor. Yet all that one can say of her was said by the\nelder Dumas when he declared that she was born to be the evil genius of\nevery one who cared for her. Her greatest fame comes from the fact that\nin less than three years she overturned a kingdom and lost a king his\nthrone.\n\n\n\n\nLEON GAMBETTA AND LEONIE LEON\n\n\nThe present French Republic has endured for over forty years. Within\nthat time it has produced just one man of extraordinary power and\nparts. This was Leon Gambetta. Other men as remarkable as he were\nconspicuous in French political life during the first few years of the\nrepublic; but they belonged to an earlier generation, while Gambetta\nleaped into prominence only when the empire fell, crashing down in ruin\nand disaster.\n\nIt is still too early to form an accurate estimate of him as a\nstatesman. His friends praise him extravagantly. His enemies still\nrevile him bitterly. The period of his political career lasted for\nlittle more than a decade, yet in that time it may be said that he\nlived almost a life of fifty years. Only a short time ago did the\nFrench government cause his body to be placed within the great\nPantheon, which contains memorials of the heroes and heroines of\nFrance. But, though we may not fairly judge of his political motives,\nwe can readily reconstruct a picture of him as a man, and in doing so\nrecall his one romance, which many will remember after they have\nforgotten his oratorical triumphs and his statecraft.\n\nLeon Gambetta was the true type of the southern Frenchman--what his\ncountrymen call a meridional. The Frenchman of the south is different\nfrom the Frenchman of the north, for the latter has in his veins a\ntouch of the viking blood, so that he is very apt to be fair-haired and\nblue-eyed, temperate in speech, and self-controlled. He is different,\nagain, from the Frenchman of central France, who is almost purely\nCeltic. The meridional has a marked vein of the Italian in him, derived\nfrom the conquerors of ancient Gaul. He is impulsive, ardent, fiery in\nspeech, hot-tempered, and vivacious to an extraordinary degree.\n\nGambetta, who was born at Cahors, was French only on his mother's side,\nsince his father was of Italian birth. It is said also that somewhere\nin his ancestry there was a touch of the Oriental. At any rate, he was\none of the most southern of the sons of southern France, and he showed\nthe precocious maturity which belongs to a certain type of Italian. At\ntwenty-one he had already been admitted to the French bar, and had\ndrifted to Paris, where his audacity, his pushing nature, and his\nred-hot un-restraint of speech gave him a certain notoriety from the\nvery first.\n\nIt was toward the end of the reign of Napoleon III. that Gambetta saw\nhis opportunity. The emperor, weakened by disease and yielding to a\nsort of feeble idealism, gave to France a greater freedom of speech\nthan it had enjoyed while he was more virile. This relaxation of\ncontrol merely gave to his opponents more courage to attack him and his\nempire. Demagogues harangued the crowds in words which would once have\nled to their imprisonment. In the National Assembly the opposition did\nall within its power to hamper and defeat the policy of the government.\n\nIn short, republicanism began to rise in an ominous and threatening\nway; and at the head of republicanism in Paris stood forth Gambetta,\nwith his impassioned eloquence, his stinging phrases, and his youthful\nboldness. He became the idol of that part of Paris known as Belleville,\nwhere artisans and laborers united with the rabble of the streets in\nhating the empire and in crying out for a republic.\n\nGambetta was precisely the man to voice the feelings of these people.\nWhatever polish he acquired in after years was then quite lacking; and\nthe crudity of his manners actually helped him with the men whom he\nharangued. A recent book by M. Francis Laur, an ardent admirer of\nGambetta, gives a picture of the man which may be nearly true of him in\nhis later life, but which is certainly too flattering when applied to\nGambetta in 1868, at the age of thirty.\n\nHow do we see Gambetta as he was at thirty? A man of powerful frame and\nof intense vitality, with thick, clustering hair, which he shook as a\nlion shakes its mane; olive-skinned, with eyes that darted fire, a\nresonant, sonorous voice, and a personal magnetism which was instantly\nfelt by all who met him or who heard him speak. His manners were not\nrefined. He was fond of oil and garlic. His gestures were often more\nfrantic than impressive, so that his enemies called him \"the furious\nfool.\" He had a trick of spitting while he spoke. He was by no means\nthe sort of man whose habits had been formed in drawing-rooms or among\npeople of good breeding. Yet his oratory was, of its kind, superb.\n\nIn 1869 Gambetta was elected by the Red Republicans to the Corps\nLegislatif. From the very first his vehemence and fire gained him a\nready hearing. The chamber itself was arranged like a great theater,\nthe members occupying the floor and the public the galleries. Each\norator in addressing the house mounted a sort of rostrum and from it\nfaced the whole assemblage, not noticing, as with us, the presiding\nofficer at all. The very nature of this arrangement stimulated\nparliamentary speaking into eloquence and flamboyant oratory.\n\nAfter Gambetta had spoken a few times he noticed in the gallery a tall,\ngraceful woman, dressed in some neutral color and wearing long black\ngloves, which accentuated the beauty of her hands and arms. No one in\nthe whole assembly paid such close attention to the orator as did this\nwoman, whom he had never seen before and who appeared to be entirely\nalone.\n\nWhen it came to him to speak on another day he saw sitting in the same\nplace the same stately and yet lithe and sinuous figure. This was\nrepeated again and again, until at last whenever he came to a\npeculiarly fervid burst of oratory he turned to this woman's face and\nsaw it lighted up by the same enthusiasm which was stirring him.\n\nFinally, in the early part of 1870, there came a day when Gambetta\nsurpassed himself in eloquence. His theme was the grandeur of\nrepublican government. Never in his life had he spoken so boldly as\nthen, or with such fervor. The ministers of the emperor shrank back in\ndismay as this big-voiced, strong-limbed man hurled forth sentence\nafter sentence like successive peals of irresistible artillery.\n\nAs Gambetta rolled forth his sentences, superb in their rhetoric and\nall ablaze with that sort of intense feeling which masters an orator in\nthe moment of his triumph, the face of the lady in the gallery\nresponded to him with wonderful appreciation. She was no longer calm,\nunmoved, and almost severe. She flushed, and her eyes as they met his\nseemed to sparkle with living fire. When he finished and descended from\nthe rostrum he looked at her, and their eyes cried out as significantly\nas if the two had spoken to each other.\n\nThen Gambetta did what a person of finer breeding would not have done.\nHe hastily scribbled a note, sealed it, and called to his side one of\nthe official pages. In the presence of the great assemblage, where he\nwas for the moment the center of attention, he pointed to the lady in\nthe gallery and ordered the page to take the note to her.\n\nOne may excuse this only on the ground that he was completely carried\naway by his emotion, so that to him there was no one present save this\nenigmatically fascinating woman and himself. But the lady on her side\nwas wiser; or perhaps a slight delay gave her time to recover her\ndiscretion. When Gambetta's note was brought to her she took it quietly\nand tore it into little pieces without reading it; and then, rising,\nshe glided through the crowd and disappeared.\n\nGambetta in his excitement had acted as if she were a mere adventuress.\nWith perfect dignity she had shown him that she was a woman who\nretained her self-respect.\n\nImmediately upon the heels of this curious incident came the outbreak\nof the war with Germany. In the war the empire was shattered at Sedan.\nThe republic was proclaimed in Paris. The French capital was besieged\nby a vast German army. Gambetta was made minister of the interior, and\nremained for a while in Paris even after it had been blockaded. But his\nfiery spirit chafed under such conditions. He longed to go forth into\nthe south of France and arouse his countrymen with a cry to arms\nagainst the invaders.\n\nEscaping in a balloon, he safely reached the city of Tours; and there\nhe established what was practically a dictatorship. He flung himself\nwith tremendous energy into the task of organizing armies, of equipping\nthem, and of directing their movements for the relief of Paris. He did,\nin fact, accomplish wonders. He kept the spirit of the nation still\nalive. Three new armies were launched against the Germans. Gambetta was\neverywhere and took part in everything that was done. His inexperience\nin military affairs, coupled with his impatience of advice, led him to\nmake serious mistakes. Nevertheless, one of his armies practically\ndefeated the Germans at Orleans; and could he have had his own way,\neven the fall of Paris would not have ended the war.\n\n\"Never,\" said Gambetta, \"shall I consent to peace so long as France\nstill has two hundred thousand men under arms and more than a thousand\ncannon to direct against the enemy!\"\n\nBut he was overruled by other and less fiery statesmen. Peace was made,\nand Gambetta retired for a moment into private life. If he had not\nsucceeded in expelling the German hosts he had, at any rate, made\nBismarck hate him, and he had saved the honor of France.\n\nIt was while the National Assembly at Versailles was debating the terms\nof peace with Germany that Gambetta once more delivered a noble and\npatriotic speech. As he concluded he felt a strange magnetic\nattraction; and, sweeping the audience with a glance, he saw before\nhim, not very far away, the same woman with the long black gloves,\nhaving about her still an air of mystery, but again meeting his eyes\nwith her own, suffused with feeling.\n\nGambetta hurried to an anteroom and hastily scribbled the following\nnote:\n\nAt last I see you once more. Is it really you?\n\nThe scrawl was taken to her by a discreet official, and this time she\nreceived the letter, pressed it to her heart, and then slipped it into\nthe bodice of her gown. But this time, as before, she left without\nmaking a reply.\n\nIt was an encouragement, yet it gave no opening to Gambetta--for she\nreturned to the National Assembly no more. But now his heart was full\nof hope, for he was convinced with a very deep conviction that\nsomewhere, soon, and in some way he would meet this woman, who had\nbecome to him one of the intense realities of his life. He did not know\nher name. They had never exchanged a word. Yet he was sure that time\nwould bring them close together.\n\nHis intuition was unerring. What we call chance often seems to know\nwhat it is doing. Within a year after the occurrence that has just been\nnarrated an old friend of Gambetta's met with an accident which\nconfined him to his house. The statesman strolled to his friend's\nresidence. The accident was a trifling one, and the mistress of the\nhouse was holding a sort of informal reception, answering questions\nthat were asked her by the numerous acquaintances who called.\n\nAs Gambetta was speaking, of a sudden he saw before him, at the\nextremity of the room, the lady of his dreams, the sphinx of his waking\nhours, the woman who four years earlier had torn up the note which he\naddressed to her, but who more recently had kept his written words.\nBoth of them were deeply agitated, yet both of them carried off the\nsituation without betraying themselves to others, Gambetta approached,\nand they exchanged a few casual commonplaces. But now, close together,\neye and voice spoke of what was in their hearts.\n\nPresently the lady took her leave. Gambetta followed closely. In the\nstreet he turned to her and said in pleading tones:\n\n\"Why did you destroy my letter? You knew I loved you, and yet all these\nyears you have kept away from me in silence.\"\n\nThen the girl--for she was little more than a girl--hesitated for a\nmoment. As he looked upon her face he saw that her eyes were full of\ntears. At last she spoke with emotion:\n\n\"You cannot love me, for I am unworthy of you. Do not urge me. Do not\nmake promises. Let us say good-by. At least I must first tell you of my\nstory, for I am one of those women whom no one ever marries.\"\n\nGambetta brushed aside her pleadings. He begged that he might see her\nsoon. Little by little she consented; but she would not see him at her\nhouse. She knew that his enemies were many and that everything he did\nwould be used against him. In the end she agreed to meet him in the\npark at Versailles, near the Petit Trianon, at eight o'clock in the\nmorning.\n\nWhen she had made this promise he left her. Already a new inspiration\nhad come to him, and he felt that with this woman by his side he could\naccomplish anything.\n\nAt the appointed hour, in the silence of the park and amid the sunshine\nof the beautiful morning, the two met once again. Gambetta seized her\nhands with eagerness and cried out in an exultant tone:\n\n\"At last! At last! At last!\"\n\nBut the woman's eyes were heavy with sorrow, and upon her face there\nwas a settled melancholy. She trembled at his touch and almost shrank\nfrom him. Here was seen the impetuosity of the meridional. He had first\nspoken to this woman only two days before. He knew nothing of her\nstation, of her surroundings, of her character. He did not even know\nher name. Yet one thing he knew absolutely--that she was made for him\nand that he must have her for his own. He spoke at once of marriage;\nbut at this she drew away from him still farther.\n\n\"No,\" she said. \"I told you that you must not speak to me until you\nhave heard my story.\"\n\nHe led her to a great stone bench near by; and, passing his arm about\nher waist, he drew her head down to his shoulder as he said:\n\n\"Well, tell me. I will listen.\"\n\nThen this girl of twenty-four, with perfect frankness, because she was\nabsolutely loyal, told him why she felt that they must never see each\nother any more-much less marry and be happy. She was the daughter of a\ncolonel in the French army. The sudden death of her father had left her\npenniless and alone. Coming to Paris at the age of eighteen, she had\ngiven lessons in the household of a high officer of the empire. This\nman had been attracted by her beauty, and had seduced her.\n\nLater she had secured the means of living modestly, realizing more\ndeeply each month how dreadful had been her fate and how she had been\ncut off from the lot of other girls. She felt that her life must be a\nperpetual penance for what had befallen her through her ignorance and\ninexperience. She told Gambetta that her name was Leonie Leon. As is\nthe custom of Frenchwomen who live alone, she styled herself madame. It\nis doubtful whether the name by which she passed was that which had\nbeen given to her at baptism; but, if so, her true name has never been\ndisclosed.\n\nWhen she had told the whole of her sad story to Gambetta he made\nnothing of it. She said to him again:\n\n\"You cannot love me. I should only dim your fame. You can have nothing\nin common with a dishonored, ruined girl. That is what I came here to\nexplain to you. Let us part, and let us for all time forget each other.\"\n\nBut Gambetta took no heed of what she said. Now that he had found her,\nhe would not consent to lose her. He seized her slender hands and\ncovered them with kisses. Again he urged that she should marry him.\n\nHer answer was a curious one. She was a devoted Catholic and would not\nregard any marriage as valid save a religious marriage. On the other\nhand, Gambetta, though not absolutely irreligious, was leading the\nopposition to the Catholic party in France. The Church to him was not\nso much a religious body as a political one, and to it he was\nunalterably opposed. Personally, he would have no objections to being\nmarried by a priest; but as a leader of the anti-clerical party he felt\nthat he must not recognize the Church's claim in any way. A religious\nmarriage would destroy his influence with his followers and might even\nimperil the future of the republic.\n\nThey pleaded long and earnestly both then and afterward. He urged a\ncivil marriage, but she declared that only a marriage according to the\nrites of the Church could ever purify her past and give her back her\nself-respect. In this she was absolutely stubborn, yet she did not urge\nupon Gambetta that he should destroy his influence by marrying her in\nchurch.\n\nThrough all this interplay of argument and pleading and emotion the two\ngrew every moment more hopelessly in love. Then the woman, with a\nwoman's curious subtlety and indirectness, reached a somewhat singular\nconclusion. She would hear nothing of a civil marriage, because a civil\nmarriage was no marriage in the eyes of Pope and prelate. On the other\nhand, she did not wish Gambetta to mar his political career by going\nthrough a religious ceremony. She had heard from a priest that the\nChurch recognized two forms of betrothal. The usual one looked to a\nmarriage in the future and gave no marriage privileges until after the\nformal ceremony. But there was another kind of betrothal known to the\ntheologians as sponsalia de praesente. According to this, if there were\nan actual betrothal, the pair might have the privileges and rights of\nmarriage immediately, if only they sincerely meant to be married in the\nfuture.\n\nThe eager mind of Leonie Leon caught at this bit of ecclesiastical law\nand used it with great ingenuity.\n\n\"Let us,\" she said, \"be formally betrothed by the interchange of a\nring, and let us promise each other to marry in the future. After such\na betrothal as this we shall be the same as married; for we shall be\nacting according to the laws of the Church.\"\n\nGambetta gladly gave his promise. A betrothal ring was purchased; and\nthen, her conscience being appeased, she gave herself completely to her\nlover. Gambetta was sincere. He said to her:\n\n\"If the time should ever come when I shall lose my political station,\nwhen I am beaten in the struggle, when I am deserted and alone, will\nyou not then marry me when I ask you?\"\n\nAnd Leonie, with her arms about his neck, promised that she would. Yet\nneither of them specified what sort of marriage this should be, nor did\nit seem at the moment as if the question could arise.\n\nFor Gambetta was very powerful. He led his party to success in the\nelection of 1877. Again and again his triumphant oratory mastered the\nNational Assembly of France. In 1879 he was chosen to be president of\nthe Chamber of Deputies. He towered far above the president of the\nrepublic--Jules Grevy, that hard-headed, close-fisted old peasant--and\nhis star had reached its zenith.\n\nAll this time he and Leonie Leon maintained their intimacy, though it\nwas carefully concealed save from a very few. She lived in a plain but\npretty house on the Avenue Perrichont in the quiet quarter of Auteuil;\nbut Gambetta never came there. Where and when they met was a secret\nguarded very carefully by the few who were his close associates. But\nmeet they did continually, and their affection grew stronger every\nyear. Leonie thrilled at the victories of the man she loved; and he\nfound joy in the hours that he spent with her.\n\nGambetta's need of rest was very great, for he worked at the highest\ntension, like an engine which is using every pound of steam. Bismarck,\nwhose spies kept him well informed of everything that was happening in\nParis, and who had no liking for Gambetta, since the latter always\nspoke of him as \"the Ogre,\" once said to a Frenchman named Cheberry:\n\n\"He is the only one among you who thinks of revenge, and who is any\nsort of a menace to Germany. But, fortunately, he won't last much\nlonger. I am not speaking thoughtlessly. I know from secret reports\nwhat sort of a life your great man leads, and I know his habits. Why,\nhis life is a life of continual overwork. He rests neither night nor\nday. All politicians who have led the same life have died young. To be\nable to serve one's country for a long time a statesman must marry an\nugly woman, have children like the rest of the world, and a country\nplace or a house to one's self like any common peasant, where he can go\nand rest.\"\n\nThe Iron Chancellor chuckled as he said this, and he was right. And yet\nGambetta's end came not so much through overwork as by an accident.\n\nIt may be that the ambition of Mme. Leon stimulated him beyond his\npowers. However this may be, early in 1882, when he was defeated in\nParliament on a question which he considered vital, he immediately\nresigned and turned his back on public life. His fickle friends soon\ndeserted him. His enemies jeered and hooted the mention of his name.\n\nHe had reached the time which with a sort of prophetic instinct he had\nforeseen nearly ten years before. So he turned to the woman who had\nbeen faithful and loving to him; and he turned to her with a feeling of\ninfinite peace.\n\n\"You promised me,\" he said, \"that if ever I was defeated and alone you\nwould marry me. The time is now.\"\n\nThen this man, who had exercised the powers of a dictator, who had\nlevied armies and shaken governments, and through whose hands there had\npassed thousands of millions of francs, sought for a country home. He\nfound for sale a small estate which had once belonged to Balzac, and\nwhich is known as Les Jardies. It was in wretched repair; yet the small\nsum which it cost Gambetta--twelve thousand francs--was practically all\nthat he possessed. Worn and weary as he was, it seemed to him a haven\nof delightful peace; for here he might live in the quiet country with\nthe still beautiful woman who was soon to become his wife.\n\nIt is not known what form of marriage they at last agreed upon. She may\nhave consented to a civil ceremony; or he, being now out of public\nlife, may have felt that he could be married by the Church. The day for\ntheir wedding had been set, and Gambetta was already at Les Jardies.\nBut there came a rumor that he had been shot. Still further tidings\nbore the news that he was dying. Paris, fond as it was of scandals,\nimmediately spread the tale that he had been shot by a jealous woman.\n\nThe truth is quite the contrary. Gambetta, in arranging his effects in\nhis new home, took it upon himself to clean a pair of dueling-pistols;\nfor every French politician of importance must fight duels, and\nGambetta had already done so. Unfortunately, one cartridge remained\nunnoticed in the pistol which Gambetta cleaned. As he held the\npistol-barrel against the soft part of his hand the cartridge exploded,\nand the ball passed through the base of the thumb with a rending,\nspluttering noise.\n\nThe wound was not in itself serious, but now the prophecy of Bismarck\nwas fulfilled. Gambetta had exhausted his vitality; a fever set in, and\nbefore long he died of internal ulceration.\n\nThis was the end of a great career and of a great romance of love.\nLeonie Leon was half distraught at the death of the lover who was so\nsoon to be her husband. She wandered for hours in the forest until she\nreached a convent, where she was received. Afterward she came to Paris\nand hid herself away in a garret of the slums. All the light of her\nlife had gone out. She wished that she had died with him whose glory\nhad been her life. Friends of Gambetta, however, discovered her and\ncared for her until her death, long afterward, in 1906.\n\nShe lived upon the memories of the past, of the swift love that had\ncome at first sight, but which had lasted unbrokenly; which had given\nher the pride of conquest, and which had brought her lover both\nhappiness and inspiration and a refining touch which had smoothed away\nhis roughness and made him fit to stand in palaces with dignity and\ndistinction.\n\nAs for him, he left a few lines which have been carefully preserved,\nand which sum up his thought of her. They read:\n\nTo the light of my soul; to the star, of my life--Leonie Leon. For\never! For ever!\n\n\n\n\nLADY BLESSINGTON AND COUNT D'ORSAY\n\n\nOften there has arisen some man who, either by his natural gifts or by\nhis impudence or by the combination of both, has made himself a\nrecognized leader in the English fashionable world. One of the first of\nthese men was Richard Nash, usually known as \"Beau Nash,\" who\nflourished in the eighteenth century. Nash was a man of doubtful\norigin; nor was he attractive in his looks, for he was a huge, clumsy\ncreature with features that were both irregular and harsh.\nNevertheless, for nearly fifty years Beau Nash was an arbiter of\nfashion. Goldsmith, who wrote his life, declared that his supremacy was\ndue to his pleasing manners, \"his assiduity, flattery, fine clothes,\nand as much wit as the ladies had whom he addressed.\" He converted the\ntown of Bath from a rude little hamlet into an English Newport, of\nwhich he was the social autocrat. He actually drew up a set of written\nrules which some of the best-born and best-bred people follow slavishly.\n\nEven better known to us is George Bryan Brummel, commonly called \"Beau\nBrummel,\" who by his friendship with George IV.--then Prince\nRegent--was an oracle at court on everything that related to dress and\netiquette and the proper mode of living. His memory has been kept alive\nmost of all by Richard Mansfield's famous impersonation of him. The\nplay is based upon the actual facts; for after Brummel had lost the\nroyal favor he died an insane pauper in the French town of Caen. He,\ntoo, had a distinguished biographer, since Bulwer-Lytton's novel Pelham\nis really the narrative of Brummel's curious career.\n\nLong after Brummel, Lord Banelagh led the gilded youth of London, and\nit was at this time that the notorious Lola Montez made her first\nappearance in the British capital.\n\nThese three men--Nash, Brummel, and Ranelagh--had the advantage of\nbeing Englishmen, and, therefore, of not incurring the old-time English\nsuspicion of foreigners. A much higher type of social arbiter was a\nFrenchman who for twenty years during the early part of Queen\nVictoria's reign gave law to the great world of fashion, besides\nexercising a definite influence upon English art and literature.\n\nThis was Count Albert Guillaume d'Orsay, the son of one of Napoleon's\ngenerals, and descended by a morganatic marriage from the King of\nWurttemburg. The old general, his father, was a man of high courage,\nimpressive appearance, and keen intellect, all of which qualities he\ntransmitted to his son. The young Count d'Orsay, when he came of age,\nfound the Napoleonic era ended and France governed by Louis XVIII. The\nking gave Count d'Orsay a commission in the army in a regiment\nstationed at Valence in the southeastern part of France. He had already\nvisited England and learned the English language, and he had made some\ndistinguished friends there, among whom were Lord Byron and Thomas\nMoore.\n\nOn his return to France he began his garrison life at Valence, where he\nshowed some of the finer qualities of his character. It is not merely\nthat he was handsome and accomplished and that he had the gift of\nwinning the affections of those about him. Unlike Nash and Brummel, he\nwas a gentleman in every sense, and his courtesy was of the highest\nkind. At the balls given by his regiment, although he was more courted\nthan any other officer, he always sought out the plainest girls and\nshowed them the most flattering attentions. No \"wallflowers\" were left\nneglected when D'Orsay was present.\n\nIt is strange how completely human beings are in the hands of fate.\nHere was a young French officer quartered in a provincial town in the\nvalley of the Rhone. Who would have supposed that he was destined to\nbecome not only a Londoner, but a favorite at the British court, a\nmodel of fashion, a dictator of etiquette, widely known for his\naccomplishments, the patron of literary men and of distinguished\nartists? But all these things were to come to pass by a mere accident\nof fortune.\n\nDuring his firsts visit to London, which has already been mentioned,\nCount d'Orsay was invited once or twice to receptions given by the Earl\nand Countess of Blessington, where he was well received, though this\nwas only an incident of his English sojourn. Before the story proceeds\nany further it is necessary to give an account of the Earl and of Lady\nBlessington, since both of their careers had been, to say the least,\nunusual.\n\nLord Blessington was an Irish peer for whom an ancient title had been\nrevived. He was remotely descended from the Stuarts of Scotland, and\ntherefore had royal blood to boast of. He had been well educated, and\nin many ways was a man of pleasing manner. On the other hand, he had\nearly inherited a very large property which yielded him an income of\nabout thirty thousand pounds a year. He had estates in Ireland, and he\nowned nearly the whole of a fashionable street in London, with the\nbuildings erected on it.\n\nThis fortune and the absence of any one who could control him had made\nhim wilful and extravagant and had wrought in him a curious love of\npersonal display. Even as a child he would clamor to be dressed in the\nmost gorgeous uniforms; and when he got possession of his property his\nlove of display became almost a monomania. He built a theater as an\nadjunct to his country house in Ireland and imported players from\nLondon and elsewhere to act in it. He loved to mingle with the mummers,\nto try on their various costumes, and to parade up and down, now as an\noriental prince and now as a Roman emperor.\n\nIn London he hung about the green-rooms, and was a well-known figure\nwherever actors or actresses were collected. Such was his love of the\nstage that he sought to marry into the profession and set his heart on\na girl named Mary Campbell Browne, who was very beautiful to look at,\nbut who was not conspicuous either for her mind or for her morals. When\nLord Blessington proposed marriage to her she was obliged to tell him\nthat she already had one husband still alive, but she was perfectly\nwilling to live with him and dispense with the marriage ceremony. So\nfor several years she did live with him and bore him two children.\n\nIt speaks well for the earl that when the inconvenient husband died a\nmarriage at once took place and Mrs. Browne became a countess. Then,\nafter other children had been born, the lady died, leaving the earl a\nwidower at about the age of forty. The only legitimate son born of this\nmarriage followed his mother to the grave; and so for the third time\nthe earldom of Blessington seemed likely to become extinct. The death\nof his wife, however, gave the earl a special opportunity to display\nhis extravagant tastes. He spent more than four thousand pounds on the\nfuneral ceremonies, importing from France a huge black velvet\ncatafalque which had shortly before been used at the public funeral of\nNapoleon's marshal, Duroc, while the house blazed with enormous wax\ntapers and glittered with cloth of gold.\n\nLord Blessington soon plunged again into the busy life of London.\nHaving now no heir, there was no restraint on his expenditures, and he\nborrowed large sums of money in order to buy additional estates and\nhouses and to experience the exquisite joy of spending lavishly. At\nthis time he had his lands in Ireland, a town house in St. James's\nSquare, another in Seymour Place, and still another which was afterward\nto become famous as Gore House, in Kensington.\n\nSome years before he had met in Ireland a lady called Mrs. Maurice\nFarmer; and it happened that she now came to London. The earlier story\nof her still young life must here be told, because her name afterward\nbecame famous, and because the tale illustrates wonderfully well the\nraw, crude, lawless period of the Regency, when England was fighting\nher long war with Napoleon, when the Prince Regent was imitating all\nthe vices of the old French kings, when prize-fighting, deep drinking,\ndueling, and dicing were practised without restraint in all the large\ncities and towns of the United Kingdom. It was, as Sir Arthur Conan\nDoyle has said, \"an age of folly and of heroism\"; for, while it\nproduced some of the greatest black-guards known to history, it\nproduced also such men as Wellington and Nelson, the two Pitts,\nSheridan, Byron, Shelley, and Sir Walter Scott.\n\nMrs. Maurice Farmer was the daughter of a small Irish landowner named\nRobert Power--himself the incarnation of all the vices of the time.\nThere was little law in Ireland, not even that which comes from public\nopinion; and Robert Power rode hard to hounds, gambled recklessly, and\nassembled in his house all sorts of reprobates, with whom he held\nfrightful orgies that lasted from sunset until dawn. His wife and his\nyoung daughters viewed him with terror, and the life they led was a\nperpetual nightmare because of the bestial carousings in which their\nfather engaged, wasting his money and mortgaging his estates until the\nend of his wild career was in plain sight.\n\nThere happened to be stationed at Clonmel a regiment of infantry in\nwhich there served a captain named Maurice St. Leger Farmer. He was a\nman of some means, but eccentric to a degree. His temper was so utterly\nuncontrolled that even his fellow officers could scarcely live with\nhim, and he was given to strange caprices. It happened that at a ball\nin Clonmel he met the young daughter of Robert Power, then a mere child\nof fourteen years. Captain Farmer was seized with an infatuation for\nthe girl, and he went almost at once to her father, asking for her hand\nin marriage and proposing to settle a sum of money upon her if she\nmarried him.\n\nThe hard-riding squireen jumped at the offer. His own estate was being\nstripped bare. Here was a chance to provide for one of his daughters,\nor, rather, to get rid of her, and he agreed that she should be married\nout of hand. Going home, he roughly informed the girl that she was to\nbe the wife of Captain Farmer. He so bullied his wife that she was\ncompelled to join him in this command.\n\nWhat was poor little Margaret Power to do? She was only a child. She\nknew nothing of the world. She was accustomed to obey her father as she\nwould have obeyed some evil genius who had her in his power. There were\ntears and lamentations. She was frightened half to death; yet for her\nthere was no help. Therefore, while not yet fifteen her marriage took\nplace, and she was the unhappy slave of a half-crazy tyrant. She had\nthen no beauty whatsoever. She was wholly undeveloped--thin and pale,\nand with rough hair that fell over her frightened eyes; yet Farmer\nwanted her, and he settled his money on her, just as he would have\nspent the same amount to gratify any other sudden whim.\n\nThe life she led with him for a few months showed him to be more of a\ndevil than a man. He took a peculiar delight in terrifying her, in\nsubjecting her to every sort of outrage; nor did he refrain even from\nbeating her with his fists. The girl could stand a great deal, but this\nwas too much. She returned to her father's house, where she was\nreceived with the bitterest reproaches, but where, at least, she was\nsafe from harm, since her possession of a dowry made her a person of\nsome small importance.\n\nNot long afterward Captain Farmer fell into a dispute with his colonel,\nLord Caledon, and in the course of it he drew his sword on his\ncommanding officer. The court-martial which was convened to try him\nwould probably have had him shot were it not for the very general\nbelief that he was insane. So he was simply cashiered and obliged to\nleave the service and betake himself elsewhere. Thus the girl whom, he\nhad married was quite free--free to leave her wretched home and even to\nleave Ireland.\n\nShe did leave Ireland and establish herself in London, where she had\nsome acquaintances, among them the Earl of Blessington. As already\nsaid, he had met her in Ireland while she was living with her husband;\nand now from time to time he saw her in a friendly way. After the death\nof his wife he became infatuated with Margaret Farmer. She was a good\ndeal alone, and his attentions gave her entertainment. Her past\nexperience led her to have no real belief in love. She had become,\nhowever, in a small way interested in literature and art, with an eager\nambition to be known as a writer. As it happened, Captain Farmer, whose\nname she bore, had died some months before Lord Blessington had decided\nto make a new marriage. The earl proposed to Margaret Farmer, and the\ntwo were married by special license.\n\nThe Countess of Blessington--to give the lady her new title--was now\ntwenty-eight years of age and had developed into a woman of great\nbeauty. She was noted for the peculiarly vivacious and radiant\nexpression which was always on her face. She had a kind of vivid\nloveliness accompanied by grace, simplicity, and a form of exquisite\nproportions. The ugly duckling had become a swan, for now there was no\ntrace of her former plainness to be seen.\n\nNot yet in her life had love come to her. Her first husband had been\nthrust upon her and had treated her outrageously. Her second husband\nwas much older than she; and, though she was not without a certain\nkindly feeling for one who had been kind to her, she married him, first\nof all, for his title and position.\n\nHaving been reared in poverty, she had no conception of the value of\nmoney; and, though the earl was remarkably extravagant, the new\ncountess was even more so. One after another their London houses were\nopened and decorated with the utmost lavishness. They gave innumerable\nentertainments, not only to the nobility and to men of rank,\nbut--because this was Lady Blessington's peculiar fad--to artists and\nactors and writers of all degrees. The American, N. P. Willis, in his\nPencilings by the Way, has given an interesting sketch of the countess\nand her surroundings, while the younger Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield)\nhas depicted D'Orsay as Count Mirabel in Henrietta Temple. Willis says:\n\nIn a long library, lined alternately with splendidly bound books and\nmirrors, and with a deep window of the breadth of the room opening upon\nHyde Park, I found Lady Blessington alone. The picture, to my eye, as\nthe door opened, was a very lovely one--a woman of remarkable beauty,\nhalf buried in a fauteuil of yellow satin, reading by a magnificent\nlamp suspended from the center of the arched ceiling. Sofas, couches,\nottomans, and busts, arranged in rather a crowded sumptuousness through\nthe room; enameled tables, covered with expensive and elegant trifles\nin every corner, and a delicate white hand in relief on the back of a\nbook, to which the eye was attracted by the blaze of diamond rings.\n\nAll this \"crowded sumptuousness\" was due to the taste of Lady\nBlessington. Amid it she received royal dukes, statesmen such as\nPalmerston, Canning, Castlereagh, Russell, and Brougham, actors such as\nKemble and Matthews, artists such as Lawrence and Wilkie, and men of\nletters such as Moore, Bulwer-Lytton, and the two Disraelis. To\nmaintain this sort of life Lord Blessington raised large amounts of\nmoney, totaling about half a million pounds sterling, by mortgaging his\ndifferent estates and giving his promissory notes to money-lenders. Of\ncourse, he did not spend this vast sum immediately. He might have lived\nin comparative luxury upon his income; but he was a restless, eager,\nimprovident nobleman, and his extravagances were prompted by the\nurgings of his wife.\n\nIn all this display, which Lady Blessington both stimulated and shared,\nthere is to be found a psychological basis. She was now verging upon\nthe thirties--a time which is a very critical period in a woman's\nemotional life, if she has not already given herself over to love and\nbeen loved in return. During Lady Blessington's earlier years she had\nsuffered in many ways, and it is probable that no thought of love had\nentered her mind. She was only too glad if she could escape from the\nharshness of her father and the cruelty of her first husband. Then came\nher development into a beautiful woman, content for the time to be\nlanguorously stagnant and to enjoy the rest and peace which had come to\nher.\n\nWhen she married Lord Blessington her love life had not yet commenced;\nand, in fact, there could be no love life in such a marriage--a\nmarriage with a man much older than herself, scatter-brained, showy,\nand having no intellectual gifts. So for a time she sought satisfaction\nin social triumphs, in capturing political and literary lions in order\nto exhibit them in her salon, and in spending money right and left with\na lavish hand. But, after all, in a woman of her temperament none of\nthese things could satisfy her inner longings. Beautiful, full of\nCeltic vivacity, imaginative and eager, such a nature as hers would in\nthe end be starved unless her heart should be deeply touched and unless\nall her pent-up emotion could give itself up entirely in the great\nsurrender.\n\nAfter a few years of London she grew restless and dissatisfied. Her\nsurroundings wearied her. There was a call within her for something\nmore than she had yet experienced. The earl, her husband, was by nature\nno less restless; and so, without knowing the reason--which, indeed,\nshe herself did not understand--he readily assented to a journey on the\nContinent.\n\nAs they traveled southward they reached at length the town of Valence,\nwhere Count d'Orsay was still quartered with his regiment. A vague,\nindefinable feeling of attraction swept over this woman, who was now a\nwoman of the world and yet quite inexperienced in affairs relating to\nthe heart. The mere sound of the French officer's voice, the mere sight\nof his face, the mere knowledge of his presence, stirred her as nothing\nhad ever stirred her until that time. Yet neither he nor she appears to\nhave been conscious at once of the secret of their liking. It was\nenough that they were soothed and satisfied with each other's company.\n\nOddly enough, the Earl of Blessington became as devoted to D'Orsay as\ndid his wife. The two urged the count to secure a leave of absence and\nto accompany them to Italy. This he was easily persuaded to do; and the\nthree passed weeks and months of a languorous and alluring intercourse\namong the lakes and the seductive influence of romantic Italy. Just\nwhat passed between Count d'Orsay and Margaret Blessington at this time\ncannot be known, for the secret of it has perished with them; but it is\ncertain that before very long they came to know that each was\nindispensable to the other.\n\nThe situation was complicated by the Earl of Blessington, who, entirely\nunsuspicious, proposed that the Count should marry Lady Harriet\nGardiner, his eldest legitimate daughter by his first wife. He pressed\nthe match upon the embarrassed D'Orsay, and offered to settle the sum\nof forty thousand pounds upon the bride. The girl was less than fifteen\nyears of age. She had no gifts either of beauty or of intelligence;\nand, in addition, D'Orsay was now deeply in love with her stepmother.\n\nOn the other hand, his position with the Blessingtons was daily growing\nmore difficult. People had begun to talk of the almost open relations\nbetween Count d'Orsay and Lady Blessington. Lord Byron, in a letter\nwritten to the countess, spoke to her openly and in a playful way of\n\"YOUR D'Orsay.\" The manners and morals of the time were decidedly\nirregular; yet sooner or later the earl was sure to gain some hint of\nwhat every one was saying. Therefore, much against his real desire, yet\nin order to shelter his relations with Lady Blessington, D'Orsay agreed\nto the marriage with Lady Harriet, who was only fifteen years of age.\n\nThis made the intimacy between D'Orsay and the Blessingtons appear to\nbe not unusual; but, as a matter of fact, the marriage was no marriage.\nThe unattractive girl who had become a bride merely to hide the\nindiscretions of her stepmother was left entirely to herself; while the\nwhole family, returning to London, made their home together in Seymour\nPlace.\n\nCould D'Orsay have foreseen the future he would never have done what\nmust always seem an act so utterly unworthy of him. For within two\nyears Lord Blessington fell ill and died. Had not D'Orsay been married\nhe would now have been free to marry Lady Blessington. As it was, he\nwas bound fast to her stepdaughter; and since at that time there was no\ndivorce court in England, and since he had no reason for seeking a\ndivorce, he was obliged to live on through many years in a most\nambiguous situation. He did, however, separate himself from his\nchildish bride; and, having done so, he openly took up his residence\nwith Lady Blessington at Gore House. By this time, however, the\ncompanionship of the two had received a sort of general sanction, and\nin that easy-going age most people took it as a matter of course.\n\nThe two were now quite free to live precisely as they would. Lady\nBlessington became extravagantly happy, and Count d'Orsay was accepted\nin London as an oracle of fashion. Every one was eager to visit Gore\nHouse, and there they received all the notable men of the time. The\nimprovidence of Lady Blessington, however, was in no respect\ndiminished. She lived upon her jointure, recklessly spending capital as\nwell as interest, and gathering under her roof a rare museum of\nartistic works, from jewels and curios up to magnificent pictures and\nbeautiful statuary.\n\nD'Orsay had sufficient self-respect not to live upon the money that had\ncome to Lady Blessington from her husband. He was a skilful painter,\nand he practised his art in a professional way. His portrait of the\nDuke of Wellington was preferred by that famous soldier to any other\nthat had been made of him. The Iron Duke was, in fact, a frequent\nvisitor at Gore House, and he had a very high opinion of Count d'Orsay.\nLady Blessington herself engaged in writing novels of \"high life,\" some\nof which were very popular in their day. But of all that she wrote\nthere remains only one book which is of permanent value--her\nConversations with Lord Byron, a very valuable contribution to our\nknowledge of the brilliant poet.\n\nBut a nemesis was destined to overtake the pair. Money flowed through\nLady Blessington's hands like water, and she could never be brought to\nunderstand that what she had might not last for ever. Finally, it was\nall gone, yet her extravagance continued. Debts were heaped up\nmountain-high. She signed notes of hand without even reading them. She\nincurred obligations of every sort without a moment's hesitation.\n\nFor a long time her creditors held aloof, not believing that her\nresources were in reality exhausted; but in the end there came a crash\nas sudden as it was ruinous. As if moved by a single impulse, those to\nwhom she owed money took out judgments against her and descended upon\nGore House in a swarm. This was in the spring of 1849, when Lady\nBlessington was in her sixtieth year and D'Orsay fifty-one.\n\nIt is a curious coincidence that her earliest novel had portrayed the\nwreck of a great establishment such as her own. Of the scene in Gore\nHouse Mr. Madden, Lady Blessington's literary biographer, has written:\n\nNumerous creditors, bill-discounters, money-lenders, jewelers,\nlace-venders, tax-collectors, gas-company agents, all persons having\nclaims to urge pressed them at this period simultaneously. An execution\nfor a debt of four thousand pounds was at length put in by a house\nlargely engaged in the silk, lace, India-shawl, and fancy-jewelry\nbusiness.\n\nThis sum of four thousand pounds was only a nominal claim, but it\nopened the flood-gates for all of Lady Blessington's creditors. Mr.\nMadden writes still further:\n\nOn the 10th of May, 1849, I visited Gore House for the last time. The\nauction was going on. There was a large assemblage of people of\nfashion. Every room was thronged; the well-known library-salon, in\nwhich the conversaziones took place, was crowded, but not with guests.\nThe arm-chair in which the lady of the mansion was wont to sit was\noccupied by a stout, coarse gentleman of the Jewish persuasion, busily\nengaged in examining a marble hand extended on a book, the fingers of\nwhich were modeled from a cast of those of the absent mistress of the\nestablishment. People, as they passed through the room, poked the\nfurniture, pulled about the precious objects of art and ornaments of\nvarious kinds that lay on the table; and some made jests and ribald\njokes on the scene they witnessed.\n\nAt this compulsory sale things went for less than half their value.\nPictures by Lawrence and Landseer, a library consisting of thousands of\nvolumes, vases of exquisite workmanship, chandeliers of ormolu, and\nprecious porcelains--all were knocked down relentlessly at farcical\nprices. Lady Blessington reserved nothing for herself. She knew that\nthe hour had struck, and very soon she was on her way to Paris, whither\nCount d'Orsay had already gone, having been threatened with arrest by a\nboot-maker to whom he owed five hundred pounds.\n\nD'Orsay very naturally went to Paris, for, like his father, he had\nalways been an ardent Bonapartist, and now Prince Louis Bonaparte had\nbeen chosen president of the Second French Republic. During the\nprince's long period of exile he had been the guest of Count d'Orsay,\nwho had helped him both with money and with influence. D'Orsay now\nexpected some return for his former generosity. It came, but it came\ntoo late. In 1852, shortly after Prince Louis assumed the title of\nemperor, the count was appointed director of fine arts; but when the\nnews was brought to him he was already dying. Lady Blessington died\nsoon after coming to Paris, before the end of the year 1849.\n\nComment upon this tangled story is scarcely needed. Yet one may quote\nsome sayings from a sort of diary which Lady Blessington called her\n\"Night Book.\" They seem to show that her supreme happiness lasted only\nfor a little while, and that deep down in her heart she had condemned\nherself.\n\nA woman's head is always influenced by her heart; but a man's heart is\nalways influenced by his head.\n\nThe separation of friends by death is less terrible than the divorce of\ntwo hearts that have loved, but have ceased to sympathize, while memory\nstill recalls what they once were to each other.\n\nPeople are seldom tired of the world until the world is tired of them.\n\nA woman should not paint sentiment until she has ceased to inspire it.\n\nIt is less difficult for a woman to obtain celebrity by her genius than\nto be pardoned for it.\n\nMemory seldom fails when its office is to show us the tombs of our\nburied hopes.\n\n\n\n\nBYRON AND THE COUNTESS GUICCIOLI\n\n\nIn 1812, when he was in his twenty-fourth year, Lord Byron was more\ntalked of than any other man in London. He was in the first flush of\nhis brilliant career, having published the early cantos of \"Childe\nHarold.\" Moreover, he was a peer of the realm, handsome, ardent, and\npossessing a personal fascination which few men and still fewer women\ncould resist.\n\nByron's childhood had been one to excite in him strong feelings of\nrevolt, and he had inherited a profligate and passionate nature. His\nfather was a gambler and a spendthrift. His mother was eccentric to a\ndegree. Byron himself, throughout his boyish years, had been morbidly\nsensitive because of a physical deformity--a lame, misshapen foot. This\nand the strange treatment which his mother accorded him left him\nheadstrong, wilful, almost from the first an enemy to whatever was\nestablished and conventional.\n\nAs a boy, he was remarkable for the sentimental attachments which he\nformed. At eight years of age he was violently in love with a young\ngirl named Mary Duff. At ten his cousin, Margaret Parker, excited in\nhim a strange, un-childish passion. At fifteen came one of the greatest\ncrises of his life, when he became enamored of Mary Chaworth, whose\ngrand-father had been killed in a duel by Byron's great-uncle. Young as\nhe was, he would have married her immediately; but Miss Chaworth was\ntwo years older than he, and absolutely refused to take seriously the\ndevotion of a school-boy.\n\nByron felt the disappointment keenly; and after a short stay at\nCambridge, he left England, visited Portugal and Spain, and traveled\neastward as far as Greece and Turkey. At Athens he wrote the pretty\nlittle poem to the \"maid of Athens\"--Miss Theresa Macri, daughter of\nthe British vice-consul. He returned to London to become at one leap\nthe most admired poet of the day and the greatest social favorite. He\nwas possessed of striking personal beauty. Sir Walter Scott said of\nhim: \"His countenance was a thing to dream of.\" His glorious eyes, his\nmobile, eloquent face, fascinated all; and he was, besides, a genius of\nthe first rank.\n\nWith these endowments, he plunged into the social whirlpool, denying\nhimself nothing, and receiving everything-adulation, friendship, and\nunstinted love. Darkly mysterious stories of his adventures in the East\nmade many think that he was the hero of some of his own poems, such as\n\"The Giaour\" and \"The Corsair.\" A German wrote of him that \"he was\npositively besieged by women.\" From the humblest maid-servants up to\nladies of high rank, he had only to throw his handkerchief to make a\nconquest. Some women did not even wait for the handkerchief to be\nthrown. No wonder that he was sated with so much adoration and that he\nwrote of women:\n\nI regard them as very pretty but inferior creatures. I look on them as\ngrown-up children; but, like a foolish mother, I am constantly the\nslave of one of them. Give a woman a looking-glass and burnt almonds,\nand she will be content.\n\nThe liaison which attracted the most attention at this time was that\nbetween Byron and Lady Caroline Lamb. Byron has been greatly blamed for\nhis share in it; but there is much to be said on the other side. Lady\nCaroline was happily married to the Right Hon. William Lamb, afterward\nLord Melbourne, and destined to be the first prime minister of Queen\nVictoria. He was an easy-going, genial man of the world who placed too\nmuch confidence in the honor of his wife. She, on the other hand, was a\nsentimental fool, always restless, always in search of some new\nexcitement. She thought herself a poet, and scribbled verses, which her\nfriends politely admired, and from which they escaped as soon as\npossible. When she first met Byron, she cried out: \"That pale face is\nmy fate!\" And she afterward added: \"Mad, bad, and dangerous to know!\"\n\nIt was not long before the intimacy of the two came very near the point\nof open scandal; but Byron was the wooed and not the wooer. This woman,\nolder than he, flung herself directly at his head. Naturally enough, it\nwas not very long before she bored him thoroughly. Her romantic\nimpetuosity became tiresome, and very soon she fell to talking always\nof herself, thrusting her poems upon him, and growing vexed and peevish\nwhen he would not praise them. As was well said, \"he grew moody and she\nfretful when their mutual egotisms jarred.\"\n\nIn a burst of resentment she left him, but when she returned, she was\nworse than ever. She insisted on seeing him. On one occasion she made\nher way into his rooms disguised as a boy. At another time, when she\nthought he had slighted her, she tried to stab herself with a pair of\nscissors. Still later, she offered her favors to any one who would kill\nhim. Byron himself wrote of her:\n\nYou can have no idea of the horrible and absurd things that she has\nsaid and done.\n\nHer story has been utilized by Mrs. Humphry Ward in her novel, \"The\nMarriage of William Ashe.\"\n\nPerhaps this trying experience led Byron to end his life of\ndissipation. At any rate, in 1813, he proposed marriage to Miss Anne\nMillbanke, who at first refused him; but he persisted, and in 1815 the\ntwo were married. Byron seems to have had a premonition that he was\nmaking a terrible mistake. During the wedding ceremony he trembled like\na leaf, and made the wrong responses to the clergyman. After the\nwedding was over, in handing his bride into the carriage which awaited\nthem, he said to her:\n\n\"Miss Millbanke, are you ready?\"\n\nIt was a strange blunder for a bridegroom, and one which many regarded\nat the time as ominous for the future. In truth, no two persons could\nhave been more thoroughly mismated--Byron, the human volcano, and his\nwife, a prim, narrow-minded, and peevish woman. Their incompatibility\nwas evident enough from the very first, so that when they returned from\ntheir wedding-journey, and some one asked Byron about his honeymoon, he\nanswered:\n\n\"Call it rather a treacle moon!\"\n\nIt is hardly necessary here to tell over the story of their domestic\ntroubles. Only five weeks after their daughter's birth, they parted.\nLady Byron declared that her husband was insane; while after trying\nmany times to win from her something more than a tepid affection, he\ngave up the task in a sort of despairing anger. It should be mentioned\nhere, for the benefit of those who recall the hideous charges made many\ndecades afterward by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe on the authority of\nLady Byron, that the latter remained on terms of friendly intimacy with\nAugusta Leigh, Lord Byron's sister, and that even on her death-bed she\nsent an amicable message to Mrs. Leigh.\n\nByron, however, stung by the bitter attacks that were made upon him,\nleft England, and after traveling down the Rhine through Switzerland,\nhe took up his abode in Venice. His joy at leaving England and ridding\nhimself of the annoyances which had clustered thick about him, he\nexpressed in these lines:\n\n Once more upon the waters! yet once more!\n And the waves bound beneath me as a steed\n That knows his rider. Welcome to the roar!\n\nMeanwhile he enjoyed himself in reckless fashion. Money poured in upon\nhim from his English publisher. For two cantos of \"Childe Harold\" and\n\"Manfred,\" Murray paid him twenty thousand dollars. For the fourth\ncanto, Byron demanded and received more than twelve thousand dollars.\nIn Italy he lived on friendly terms with Shelley and Thomas Moore; but\neventually he parted from them both, for he was about to enter upon a\nnew phase of his curious career.\n\nHe was no longer the Byron of 1815. Four years of high living and much\nbrandy-and-water had robbed his features of their refinement. His look\nwas no longer spiritual. He was beginning to grow stout. Yet the change\nhad not been altogether unfortunate. He had lost something of his wild\nimpetuosity, and his sense of humor had developed. In his thirtieth\nyear, in fact, he had at last become a man.\n\nIt was soon after this that he met a woman who was to be to him for the\nrest of his life what a well-known writer has called \"a star on the\nstormy horizon of the poet.\" This woman was Teresa, Countess Guiccioli,\nwhom he first came to know in Venice. She was then only nineteen years\nof age, and she was married to a man who was more than forty years her\nsenior. Unlike the typical Italian woman, she was blonde, with dreamy\neyes and an abundance of golden hair, and her manner was at once modest\nand graceful. She had known Byron but a very short time when she found\nherself thrilling with a passion of which until then she had never\ndreamed. It was written of her:\n\nShe had thought of love but as an amusement; yet she now became its\nslave.\n\nTo this love Byron gave an immediate response, and from that time until\nhis death he cared for no other woman. The two were absolutely mated.\nNevertheless, there were difficulties which might have been expected.\nCount Guiccioli, while he seemed to admire Byron, watched him with\nItalian subtlety. The English poet and the Italian countess met\nfrequently. When Byron was prostrated by an attack of fever, the\ncountess remained beside him, and he was just recovering when Count\nGuiccioli appeared upon the scene and carried off his wife. Byron was\nin despair. He exchanged the most ardent letters with the countess, yet\nhe dreaded assassins whom he believed to have been hired by her\nhusband. Whenever he rode out, he went armed with sword and pistols.\n\nAmid all this storm and stress, Byron's literary activity was\nremarkable. He wrote some of his most famous poems at this time, and he\nhoped for the day when he and the woman whom he loved might be united\nonce for all. This came about in the end through the persistence of the\npair. The Countess Guiccioli openly took up her abode with him, not to\nbe separated until the poet sailed for Greece to aid the Greeks in\ntheir struggle for independence. This was in 1822, when Byron was in\nhis thirty-fifth year. He never returned to Italy, but died in the\nhistoric land for which he gave his life as truly as if he had fallen\nupon the field of battle.\n\nTeresa Guiccioli had been, in all but name, his wife for just three\nyears. Much, has been said in condemnation of this love-affair; but in\nmany ways it is less censurable than almost anything in his career. It\nwas an instance of genuine love, a love which purified and exalted this\nman of dark and moody moments. It saved him from those fitful passions\nand orgies of self-indulgence which had exhausted him. It proved to be\nan inspiration which at last led him to die for a cause approved by all\nthe world.\n\nAs for the woman, what shall we say of her? She came to him unspotted\nby the world. A demand for divorce which her husband made was rejected.\nA pontifical brief pronounced a formal separation between the two. The\ncountess gladly left behind \"her palaces, her equipages, society, and\nriches, for the love of the poet who had won her heart.\"\n\nUnlike the other women who had cared for him, she was unselfish in her\ndevotion. She thought more of his fame than did he himself. Emilio\nCastelar has written:\n\nShe restored him and elevated him. She drew him from the mire and set\nthe crown of purity upon his brow. Then, when she had recovered this\ngreat heart, instead of keeping it as her own possession, she gave it\nto humanity.\n\nFor twenty-seven years after Byron's death, she remained, as it were,\nwidowed and alone. Then, in her old age, she married the Marquis de\nBoissy; but the marriage was purely one of convenience. Her heart was\nalways Byron's, whom she defended with vivacity. In 1868, she published\nher memoirs of the poet, filled with interesting and affecting\nrecollections. She died as late as 1873.\n\nSome time between the year 1866 and that of her death, she is said to\nhave visited Newstead Abbey, which had once been Byron's home. She was\nvery old, a widow, and alone; but her affection for the poet-lover of\nher youth was still as strong as ever.\n\nByron's life was short, if measured by years only. Measured by\nachievement, it was filled to the very full. His genius blazes like a\nmeteor in the records of English poetry; and some of that splendor\ngleams about the lovely woman who turned him away from vice and folly\nand made him worthy of his historic ancestry, of his country, and of\nhimself.\n\n\n\n\nTHE STORY OF MME. DE STAEL\n\n\nEach century, or sometimes each generation, is distinguished by some\nespecial interest among those who are given to fancies--not to call\nthem fads. Thus, at the present time, the cultivated few are taken up\nwith what they choose to term the \"new thought,\" or the \"new\ncriticism,\" or, on the other hand, with socialistic theories and\nprojects. Thirty years ago, when Oscar Wilde was regarded seriously by\nsome people, there were many who made a cult of estheticism. It was\njust as interesting when their leader--\n\n Walked down Piccadilly with a poppy or a lily\n In his medieval hand,\n\nor when Sir William Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan guyed him as\nBunthorne in \"Patience.\"\n\nWhen Charles Kingsley was a great expounder of British common sense,\n\"muscular Christianity\" was a phrase which was taken up by many\nfollowers. A little earlier, Puseyism and a primitive form of socialism\nwere in vogue with the intellectuals. There are just as many different\nfashions in thought as in garments, and they come and go without any\nparticular reason. To-day, they are discussed and practised everywhere.\nTo-morrow, they are almost forgotten in the rapid pursuit of something\nnew.\n\nForty years before the French Revolution burst forth with all its\nthunderings, France and Germany were affected by what was generally\nstyled \"sensibility.\" Sensibility was the sister of sentimentality and\nthe half-sister of sentiment. Sentiment is a fine thing in itself. It\nis consistent with strength and humor and manliness; but sentimentality\nand sensibility are poor cheeping creatures that run scuttering along\nthe ground, quivering and whimpering and asking for perpetual sympathy,\nwhich they do not at all deserve.\n\nNo one need be ashamed of sentiment. It simply gives temper to the\nblade, and mellowness to the intellect. Sensibility, on the other hand,\nis full of shivers and shakes and falsetto notes and squeaks. It is, in\nfact, all humbug, just as sentiment is often all truth.\n\nTherefore, to find an interesting phase of human folly, we may look\nback to the years which lie between 1756 and 1793 as the era of\nsensibility. The great prophets of this false god, or goddess, were\nRousseau in France and Goethe with Schiller in Germany, together with a\nhost of s who shook and shivered in imitation of their masters.\nIt is not for us to catalogue these persons. Some of them were great\nfigures in literature and philosophy, and strong enough to shake aside\nthe silliness of sensibility; but others, while they professed to be\ngreat as writers or philosophers, are now remembered only because their\ndevotion to sensibility made them conspicuous in their own time. They\ndabbled in one thing and another; they \"cribbed\" from every popular\nwriter of the day. The only thing that actually belonged to them was a\nhigh degree of sensibility.\n\nAnd what, one may ask, was this precious thing--this sensibility?\n\nIt was really a sort of St. Vitus's dance of the mind, and almost of\nthe body. When two persons, in any way interested in each other, were\nbrought into the same room, one of them appeared to be seized with a\nrotary movement. The voice rose to a higher pitch than usual, and\nassumed a tremolo. Then, if the other person was also endowed with\nsensibility, he or she would rotate and quake in somewhat the same\nmanner. Their cups of tea would be considerably agitated. They would\nmove about in as unnatural a manner as possible; and when they left the\nroom, they would do so with gaspings and much waste of breath.\n\nThis was not an exhibition of love--or, at least, not necessarily so.\nYou might exhibit sensibility before a famous poet, or a gallant\nsoldier, or a celebrated traveler--or, for that matter, before a\nremarkable buffoon, like Cagliostro, or a freak, like Kaspar Hauser.\n\nIt is plain enough that sensibility was entirely an abnormal thing, and\ndenoted an abnormal state of mind. Only among people like the Germans\nand French of that period, who were forbidden to take part in public\naffairs, could it have flourished so long, and have put forth such rank\nand fetid outgrowths. From it sprang the \"elective affinities\" of\nGoethe, and the loose morality of the French royalists, which rushed on\ninto the roaring sea of infidelity, blasphemy, and anarchy of the\nRevolution.\n\nOf all the historic figures of that time, there is just one which\nto-day stands forth as representing sensibility. In her own time she\nwas thought to be something of a philosopher, and something more of a\nnovelist. She consorted with all the clever men and women of her age.\nBut now she holds a minute niche in history because of the fact that\nNapoleon stooped to hate her, and because she personifies sensibility.\n\nCriticism has stripped from her the rags and tatters of the philosophy\nwhich was not her own. It is seen that she was indebted to the brains\nof others for such imaginative bits of fiction as she put forth in\nDelphine and Corinne; but as the exponent of sensibility she remains\nunique. This woman was Anne Louise Germaine Necker, usually known as\nMme. de Stael.\n\nThere was much about Mile. Necker's parentage that made her\ninteresting. Her father was the Genevese banker and minister of Louis\nXVI, who failed wretchedly in his attempts to save the finances of\nFrance. Her mother, Suzanne Curchod, as a young girl, had won the love\nof the famous English historian, Edward Gibbon. She had first refused\nhim, and then almost frantically tried to get him back; but by this\ntime Gibbon was more comfortable in single life and less infatuated\nwith Mlle. Curchod, who presently married Jacques Necker.\n\nM. Necker's money made his daughter a very celebrated \"catch.\" Her\nmother brought her to Paris when the French capital was brilliant\nbeyond description, and yet was tottering to its fall. The rumblings of\nthe Revolution could be heard by almost every ear; and yet society and\nthe court, refusing to listen, plunged into the wildest revelry under\nthe leadership of the giddy Marie Antoinette.\n\nIt was here that the young girl was initiated into the most elegant\nforms of luxury, and met the cleverest men of that time--Voltaire,\nRousseau, Lamartine, Chateaubriand, Volney. She set herself to be the\nmost accomplished woman of her day, not merely in belles lettres, but\nin the natural and political sciences. Thus, when her father was\ndrawing up his monograph on the French finances, Germaine labored hard\nover a supplementary report, studying documents, records, and the most\ncomplicated statistics, so that she might obtain a mastery of the\nsubject.\n\n\"I mean to know everything that anybody knows,\" she said, with an\narrogance which was rather admired in so young a woman.\n\nBut, unfortunately, her mind was not great enough to fulfil her\naspiration. The most she ever achieved was a fair knowledge of many\nthings--a knowledge which seemed surprising to the average man, but\nwhich was superficial enough to the accomplished specialist.\n\nIn her twentieth year (1786) it was thought best that she should marry.\nHer revels, as well as her hard studies, had told upon her health, and\nher mother believed that she could not be at once a blue-stocking and a\nwoman of the world.\n\nThere was something very odd about the relation that existed between\nthe young girl and this mother of hers. In the Swiss province where\nthey had both been born, the mother had been considered rather bold and\nforward. Her penchant for Gibbon was only one of a number of adventures\nthat have been told about her. She was by no means coy with the\ngallants of Geneva. Yet, after her marriage, and when she came to\nParis, she seemed to be transformed into a sort of Swiss Puritan.\n\nAs such, she undertook her daughter's bringing up, and was extremely\ncareful about everything that Germaine did and about the company she\nkept. On the other hand, the daughter, who in the city of Calvin had\nbeen rather dull and quiet in her ways, launched out into a gaiety such\nas she had never known in Switzerland. Mother and daughter, in fact,\nchanged parts. The country beauty of Geneva became the prude of Paris,\nwhile the quiet, unemotional young Genevese became the light of all the\nParisian salons, whether social or intellectual.\n\nThe mother was a very beautiful woman. The daughter, who was to become\nso famous, is best described by those two very uncomplimentary English\nwords, \"dumpy\" and \"frumpy.\" She had bulging eyes--which are not\nemphasized in the flattering portrait by Gerard--and her hair was\nunbecomingly dressed. There are reasons for thinking that Germaine\nbitterly hated her mother, and was intensely jealous of her charm of\nperson. It may be also that Mme. Necker envied the daughter's\ncleverness, even though that cleverness was little more, in the end,\nthan the borrowing of brilliant things from other persons. At any rate,\nthe two never cared for each other, and Germaine gave to her father the\naffection which her mother neither received nor sought.\n\nIt was perhaps to tame the daughter's exuberance that a marriage was\narranged for Mlle. Necker with the Baron de Stael-Holstein, who then\nrepresented the court of Sweden at Paris. Many eyebrows were lifted\nwhen this match was announced. Baron de Stael had no personal charm,\nnor any reputation for wit. His standing in the diplomatic corps was\nnot very high. His favorite occupations were playing cards and drinking\nenormous quantities of punch. Could he be considered a match for the\nextremely clever Mlle. Necker, whose father had an enormous fortune,\nand who was herself considered a gem of wit and mental power, ready to\ndiscuss political economy, or the romantic movement of socialism, or\nplatonic love?\n\nMany differed about this. Mlle. Necker was, to be sure, rich and\nclever; but the Baron de Stael was of an old family, and had a title.\nMoreover, his easy-going ways--even his punch-drinking and his\ncard-playing--made him a desirable husband at that time of French\nsocial history, when the aristocracy wished to act exactly as it\npleased, with wanton license, and when an embassy was a very convenient\nplace into which an indiscreet ambassadress might retire when the mob\ngrew dangerous. For Paris was now approaching the time of revolution,\nand all \"aristocrats\" were more or less in danger.\n\nAt first Mme. de Stael rather sympathized with the outbreak of the\npeople; but later their excesses drove her back into sympathy with the\nroyalists. It was then that she became indiscreet and abused the\nprivilege of the embassy in giving shelter to her friends. She was\nobliged to make a sudden flight across the frontier, whence she did not\nreturn until Napoleon loomed up, a political giant on the\nhorizon--victorious general, consul, and emperor.\n\nMme. de Stael's relations with Napoleon have, as I remarked above, been\namong her few titles to serious remembrance. The Corsican eagle and the\ndumpy little Genevese make, indeed, a peculiar pair; and for this\nreason writers have enhanced the oddities of the picture.\n\n\"Napoleon,\" says one, \"did not wish any one to be near him who was as\nclever as himself.\"\n\n\"No,\" adds another, \"Mme. de Stael made a dead set at Napoleon, because\nshe wished to conquer and achieve the admiration of everybody, even of\nthe greatest man who ever lived.\"\n\n\"Napoleon found her to be a good deal of a nuisance,\" observes a third.\n\"She knew too much, and was always trying to force her knowledge upon\nothers.\"\n\nThe legend has sprung up that Mme. de Stael was too wise and witty to\nbe acceptable to Napoleon; and many women repeated with unction that\nthe conqueror of Europe was no match for this frowsy little woman. It\nis, perhaps, worth while to look into the facts, and to decide whether\nNapoleon was really of so petty a nature as to feel himself inferior to\nthis rather comic creature, even though at the time many people thought\nher a remarkable genius.\n\nIn the first place, knowing Napoleon, as we have come to know him\nthrough the pages of Mme. de Remusat, Frederic Masson, and others, we\ncan readily imagine the impatience with which the great soldier would\nsit at dinner, hastening to finish his meal, crowding the whole\nceremony into twenty minutes, gulping a glass or two of wine and a cup\nof coffee, and then being interrupted by a fussy little female who\nwanted to talk about the ethics of history, or the possibility of a new\nform of government. Napoleon, himself, was making history, and writing\nit in fire and flame; and as for governments, he invented governments\nall over Europe as suited his imperial will. What patience could he\nhave with one whom an English writer has rather unkindly described as\n\"an ugly coquette, an old woman who made a ridiculous marriage, a\nblue-stocking, who spent much of her time in pestering men of genius,\nand drawing from them sarcastic comment behind their backs?\"\n\nNapoleon was not the sort of a man to be routed in discussion, but he\nwas most decidedly the sort of man to be bored and irritated by\npedantry. Consequently, he found Mme. de Stael a good deal of a\nnuisance in the salons of Paris and its vicinity. He cared not the\nleast for her epigrams. She might go somewhere else and write all the\nepigrams she pleased. When he banished her, in 1803, she merely crossed\nthe Rhine into Germany, and established herself at Weimar.\n\nThe emperor received her son, Auguste de Stael-Holstein, with much good\nhumor, though he refused the boy's appeal on behalf of his mother.\n\n\"My dear baron,\" said Napoleon, \"if your mother were to be in Paris for\ntwo months, I should really be obliged to lock her up in one of the\ncastles, which would be most unpleasant treatment for me to show a\nlady. No, let her go anywhere else and we can get along perfectly. All\nEurope is open to her--Rome, Vienna, St. Petersburg; and if she wishes\nto write libels on me, England is a convenient and inexpensive place.\nOnly Paris is just a little too near!\"\n\nThus the emperor gibed the boy--he was only fifteen or sixteen--and\nmade fun of the exiled blue-stocking; but there was not a sign of\nmalice in what he said, nor, indeed, of any serious feeling at all. The\nlegend about Napoleon and Mme. de Stael must, therefore, go into the\nwaste-basket, except in so far as it is true that she succeeded in\nboring him.\n\nFor the rest, she was an earlier George Sand--unattractive in person,\nyet able to attract; loving love for love's sake, though seldom\nreceiving it in return; throwing herself at the head of every\ndistinguished man, and generally finding that he regarded her overtures\nwith mockery. To enumerate the men for whom she professed to care would\nbe tedious, since the record of her passions has no reality about it,\nsave, perhaps, with two exceptions.\n\nShe did care deeply and sincerely for Henri Benjamin Constant, the\nbrilliant politician and novelist. He was one of her coterie in Paris,\nand their common political sentiments formed a bond of friendship\nbetween them. Constant was banished by Napoleon in 1802, and when Mme.\nde Stael followed him into exile a year later he joined her in Germany.\n\nThe story of their relations was told by Constant in Adolphe, while\nMme. de Stael based Delphine on her experiences with him. It seems that\nhe was puzzled by her ardor; she was infatuated by his genius. Together\nthey went through all the phases of the tender passion; and yet, at\nintervals, they would tire of each other and separate for a while, and\nshe would amuse herself with other men. At last she really believed\nthat her love for him was entirely worn out.\n\n\"I always loved my lovers more than they loved me,\" she said once, and\nit was true.\n\nYet, on the other hand, she was frankly false to all of them, and hence\narose these intervals. In one of them she fell in with a young Italian\nnamed Rocca, and by way of a change she not only amused herself with\nhim, but even married him. At this time--1811--she was forty-five,\nwhile Rocca was only twenty-three--a young soldier who had fought in\nSpain, and who made eager love to the she-philosopher when he was\ninvalided at Geneva.\n\nThe marriage was made on terms imposed by the middle-aged woman who\nbecame his bride. In the first place, it was to be kept secret; and\nsecond, she would not take her husband's name, but he must pass himself\noff as her lover, even though she bore him children. The reason she\ngave for this extraordinary exhibition of her vanity was that a change\nof name on her part would put everybody out.\n\n\"In fact,\" she said, \"if Mme. de Stael were to change her name, it\nwould unsettle the heads of all Europe!\"\n\nAnd so she married Rocca, who was faithful to her to the end, though\nshe grew extremely plain and querulous, while he became deaf and soon\nlost his former charm. Her life was the life of a woman who had, in her\nown phrase, \"attempted everything\"; and yet she had accomplished\nnothing that would last. She was loved by a man of genius, but he did\nnot love her to the end. She was loved by a man of action, and she\ntired of him very soon. She had a wonderful reputation for her\nknowledge of history and philosophy, and yet what she knew of those\nsubjects is now seen to be merely the scraps and borrowings of others.\n\nSomething she did when she introduced the romantic literature into\nFrance; and there are passages from her writings which seem worthy of\npreservation. For instance, we may quote her outburst with regard to\nunhappy marriages. \"It was the subject,\" says Mr. Gribble, \"on which\nshe had begun to think before she was married, and which continued to\nhaunt her long after she was left a widow; though one suspects that the\nword 'marriage' became a form of speech employed to describe her\nrelations, not with her husband, but with her lovers.\" The passage to\nwhich I refer is as follows:\n\nIn an unhappy marriage, there is a violence of distress surpassing all\nother sufferings in the world. A woman's whole soul depends upon the\nconjugal tie. To struggle against fate alone, to journey to the grave\nwithout a friend to support you or to regret you, is an isolation of\nwhich the deserts of Arabia give but a faint and feeble idea. When all\nthe treasure of your youth has been given in vain, when you can no\nlonger hope that the reflection of these first rays will shine upon the\nend of your life, when there is nothing in the dusk to remind you of\nthe dawn, and when the twilight is pale and colorless as a livid\nspecter that precedes the night, your heart revolts, and you feel that\nyou have been robbed of the gifts of God upon earth.\n\nEqually striking is another prose passage of hers, which seems less the\ncareful thought of a philosopher than the screeching of a termagant. It\nis odd that the first two sentences recall two famous lines of Byron:\n\n Man's love is of man's life a thing apart;\n 'Tis woman's whole existence.\n\nThe passage by Mme. de Stael is longer and less piquant:\n\nLove is woman's whole existence. It is only an episode in the lives of\nmen. Reputation, honor, esteem, everything depends upon how a woman\nconducts herself in this regard; whereas, according to the rules of an\nunjust world, the laws of morality itself are suspended in men's\nrelations with women. They may pass as good men, though they have\ncaused women the most terrible suffering which it is in the power of\none human being to inflict upon another. They may be regarded as loyal,\nthough they have betrayed them. They may have received from a woman\nmarks of a devotion which would so link two friends, two fellow\nsoldiers, that either would feel dishonored if he forgot them, and they\nmay consider themselves free of all obligations by attributing the\nservices to love--as if this additional gift of love detracted from the\nvalue of the rest!\n\nOne cannot help noticing how lacking in neatness of expression is this\nwoman who wrote so much. It is because she wrote so much that she wrote\nin such a muffled manner. It is because she thought so much that her\nreflections were either not her own, or were never clear. It is because\nshe loved so much, and had so many lovers--Benjamin Constant; Vincenzo\nMonti, the Italian poet; M. de Narbonne, and others, as well as young\nRocca--that she found both love and lovers tedious.\n\nShe talked so much that her conversation was almost always mere\npersonal opinion. Thus she told Goethe that he never was really\nbrilliant until after he had got through a bottle of champagne.\nSchiller said that to talk with her was to have a \"rough time,\" and\nthat after she left him, he always felt like a man who was just getting\nover a serious illness. She never had time to do anything very well.\n\nThere is an interesting glimpse of her in the recollections of Dr.\nBollmann, at the period when Mme. de Stael was in her prime. The worthy\ndoctor set her down as a genius--an extraordinary, eccentric woman in\nall that she did. She slept but a few hours out of the twenty-four, and\nwas uninterruptedly and fearfully busy all the rest of the time. While\nher hair was being dressed, and even while she breakfasted, she used to\nkeep on writing, nor did she ever rest sufficiently to examine what she\nhad written.\n\nSuch then was Mme. de Stael, a type of the time in which she lived, so\nfar as concerns her worship of sensibility--of sensibility, and not of\nlove; for love is too great to be so scattered and made a thing to\nprattle of, to cheapen, and thus destroy. So we find at the last that\nGermaine de Stael, though she was much read and much feted and much\nfollowed, came finally to that last halting-place where confessedly she\nwas merely an old woman, eccentric, and unattractive. She sued her\nformer lovers for the money she had lent them, she scolded and found\nfault--as perhaps befits her age.\n\nBut such is the natural end of sensibility, and of the woman who\ntypifies it for succeeding generations.\n\n\n\n\nTHE STORY OF KARL MARX\n\n\nSome time ago I entered a fairly large library--one of more than two\nhundred thousand volumes--to seek the little brochure on Karl Marx\nwritten by his old friend and genial comrade Wilhelm Liebknecht. It was\nin the card catalogue. As I made a note of its number, my friend the\nlibrarian came up to me, and I asked him whether it was not strange\nthat a man like Marx should have so many books devoted to him, for I\nhad roughly reckoned the number at several hundred.\n\n\"Not at all,\" said he; \"and we have here only a feeble nucleus of the\nMarx literature--just enough, in fact, to give you a glimpse of what\nthat literature really is. These are merely the books written by Marx\nhimself, and the translations of them, with a few expository\nmonographs. Anything like a real Marx collection would take up a\nspecial room in this library, and would have to have its own separate\ncatalogue. You see that even these two or three hundred books contain\nlarge volumes of small pamphlets in many languages--German, English,\nFrench, Italian, Russian, Polish, Yiddish, Swedish, Hungarian, Spanish;\nand here,\" he concluded, pointing to a recently numbered card, \"is one\nin Japanese.\"\n\nMy curiosity was sufficiently excited to look into the matter somewhat\nfurther. I visited another library, which was appreciably larger, and\nwhose managers were evidently less guided by their prejudices. Here\nwere several thousand books on Marx, and I spent the best part of the\nday in looking them over.\n\nWhat struck me as most singular was the fact that there was scarcely a\nvolume about Marx himself. Practically all the books dealt with his\ntheory of capital and his other socialistic views. The man himself, his\npersonality, and the facts of his life were dismissed in the most\nmeager fashion, while his economic theories were discussed with\nsomething that verged upon fury. Even such standard works as those of\nMehring and Spargo, which profess to be partly biographical, sum up the\npersonal side of Marx in a few pages. In fact, in the latter's preface\nhe seems conscious of this defect, and says:\n\nWhether socialism proves, in the long span of centuries, to be good or\nevil, a blessing to men or a curse, Karl Marx must always be an object\nof interest as one of the great world-figures of immortal memory. As\nthe years go by, thoughtful men and women will find the same interest\nin studying the life and work of Marx that they do in studying the life\nand work of Cromwell, of Wesley, or of Darwin, to name three immortal\nworld-figures of vastly divergent types.\n\nSingularly little is known of Karl Marx, even by his most ardent\nfollowers. They know his work, having studied his Das Kapital with the\ndevotion and earnestness with which an older generation of Christians\nstudied the Bible, but they are very generally unacquainted with the\nman himself. Although more than twenty-six years have elapsed since the\ndeath of Marx, there is no adequate biography of him in any language.\n\nDoubtless some better-equipped German writer, such as Franz Mehring or\nEduard Bernstein, will some day give us the adequate and full biography\nfor which the world now waits.\n\nHere is an admission that there exists no adequate biography of Karl\nMarx, and here is also an intimation that simply as a man, and not\nmerely as a great firebrand of socialism, Marx is well worth studying.\nAnd so it has occurred to me to give in these pages one episode of his\ncareer that seems to me quite curious, together with some significant\ntouches concerning the man as apart from the socialist. Let the\nthousands of volumes already in existence suffice for the latter. The\nmotto of this paper is not the Vergilian \"Arms and the man I sing,\" but\nsimply \"The man I sing\"--and the woman. Karl Marx was born nearly\nninety-four years ago--May 5, 1818--in the city which the French call\nTreves and the Germans Trier, among the vine-clad hills of the Moselle.\nToday, the town is commonplace enough when you pass through it, but\nwhen you look into its history, and seek out that history's evidences,\nyou will find that it was not always a rather sleepy little place. It\nwas one of the chosen abodes of the Emperors of the West, after Rome\nbegan to be governed by Gauls and Spaniards, rather than by Romans and\nItalians. The traveler often pauses there to see the Porta Nigra, that\nimmense gate once strongly fortified, and he will doubtless visit also\nwhat is left of the fine baths and amphitheater.\n\nTreves, therefore, has a right to be termed imperial, and it was the\nbirthplace of one whose sway over the minds of men has been both\nimperial and imperious.\n\nKarl Marx was one of those whose intellectual achievements were so\ngreat as to dwarf his individuality and his private life. What he\ntaught with almost terrific vigor made his very presence in the\nContinental monarchies a source of eminent danger. He was driven from\ncountry to country. Kings and emperors were leagued together against\nhim. Soldiers were called forth, and blood was shed because of him.\nBut, little by little, his teaching seems to have leavened the thought\nof the whole civilized world, so that to-day thousands who barely know\nhis name are deeply affected by his ideas, and believe that the state\nshould control and manage everything for the good of all.\n\nMarx seems to have inherited little from either of his parents. His\nfather, Heinrich Marx, was a provincial Jewish lawyer who had adopted\nChristianity, probably because it was expedient, and because it enabled\nhim to hold local offices and gain some social consequence. He had\nchanged his name from Mordecai to Marx.\n\nThe elder Marx was very shrewd and tactful, and achieved a fair\nposition among the professional men and small officials in the city of\nTreves. He had seen the horrors of the French Revolution, and was\nphilosopher enough to understand the meaning of that mighty upheaval,\nand of the Napoleonic era which followed.\n\nNapoleon, indeed, had done much to relieve his race from petty\noppression. France made the Jews in every respect the equals of the\nGentiles. One of its ablest marshals--Massena--was a Jew, and\ntherefore, when the imperial eagle was at the zenith of its flight, the\nJews in every city and town of Europe were enthusiastic admirers of\nNapoleon, some even calling him the Messiah.\n\nKarl Marx's mother, it is certain, endowed him with none of his gifts.\nShe was a Netherlandish Jewess of the strictly domestic and\nconservative type, fond of her children and her home, and detesting any\ntalk that looked to revolutionary ideas or to a change in the social\norder. She became a Christian with her husband, but the word meant\nlittle to her. It was sufficient that she believed in God; and for this\nshe was teased by some of her skeptical friends. Replying to them, she\nuttered the only epigram that has ever been ascribed to her.\n\n\"Yes,\" she said, \"I believe in God, not for God's sake, but for my own.\"\n\nShe was so little affected by change of scene that to the day of her\ndeath she never mastered German, but spoke almost wholly in her native\nDutch. Had we time, we might dwell upon the unhappy paradox of her\nlife. In her son Karl she found an especial joy, as did her husband.\nHad the father lived beyond Karl's early youth, he would doubtless have\nbeen greatly pained by the radicalism of his gifted son, as well as by\nhis personal privations. But the mother lived until 1863, while Karl\nwas everywhere stirring the fires of revolution, driven from land to\nland, both feared and persecuted, and often half famished. As Mr.\nSpargo says:\n\nIt was the irony of life that the son, who kindled a mighty hope in the\nhearts of unnumbered thousands of his fellow human beings, a hope that\nis today inspiring millions of those who speak his name with reverence\nand love, should be able to do that only by destroying his mother's\nhope and happiness in her son, and that every step he took should fill\nher heart with a great agony.\n\nWhen young Marx grew out of boyhood into youth, he was attractive to\nall those who met him. Tall, lithe, and graceful, he was so extremely\ndark that his intimates called him \"der neger\"--\"the .\" His\nloosely tossing hair gave to him a still more exotic appearance; but\nhis eyes were true and frank, his nose denoted strength and character,\nand his mouth was full of kindliness in its expression. His lineaments\nwere not those of the Jewish type.\n\nVery late in life--he died in 1883--his hair and beard turned white,\nbut to the last his great mustache was drawn like a bar across his\nface, remaining still as black as ink, and making his appearance very\nstriking. He was full of fun and gaiety. As was only natural, there\nsoon came into his life some one who learned to love him, and to whom,\nin his turn, he gave a deep and unbroken affection.\n\nThere had come to Treves--which passed from France to Prussia with the\ndownfall of Napoleon--a Prussian nobleman, the Baron Ludwig von\nWestphalen, holding the official title of \"national adviser.\" The baron\nwas of Scottish extraction on his mother's side, being connected with\nthe ducal family of Argyll. He was a man of genuine rank, and might\nhave shown all the arrogance and superciliousness of the average\nPrussian official; but when he became associated with Heinrich Marx he\nevinced none of that condescending manner. The two men became firm\nfriends, and the baron treated the provincial lawyer as an equal.\n\nThe two families were on friendly terms. Von Westphalen's infant\ndaughter, who had the formidable name of Johanna Bertha Julie Jenny von\nWestphalen, but who was usually spoken of as Jenny, became, in time, an\nintimate of Sophie Marx. She was four years older than Karl, but the\ntwo grew up together--he a high-spirited, manly boy, and she a lovely\nand romantic girl.\n\nThe baron treated Karl as if the lad were a child of his own. He\ninfluenced him to love romantic literature and poetry by interpreting\nto him the great masterpieces, from Homer and Shakespeare to Goethe and\nLessing. He made a special study of Dante, whose mysticism appealed to\nhis somewhat dreamy nature, and to the religious instinct that always\nlived in him, in spite of his dislike for creeds and churches.\n\nThe lore that he imbibed in early childhood stood Karl in good stead\nwhen he began his school life, and his preparation for the university.\nHe had an absolute genius for study, and was no less fond of the sports\nand games of his companions, so that he seemed to be marked out for\nsuccess. At sixteen years of age he showed a precocious ability for\nplanning and carrying out his work with thoroughness. His mind was\nevidently a creative mind, one that was able to think out difficult\nproblems without fatigue. His taste was shown in his fondness for the\nclassics, in studying which he noted subtle distinctions of meaning\nthat usually escape even the mature scholar. Penetration, thoroughness,\ncreativeness, and a capacity for labor were the boy's chief\ncharacteristics.\n\nWith such gifts, and such a nature, he left home for the university of\nBonn. Here he disappointed all his friends. His studies were neglected;\nhe was morose, restless, and dissatisfied. He fell into a number of\nscrapes, and ran into debt through sundry small extravagances. All the\nreports that reached his home were most unsatisfactory. What had come\nover the boy who had worked so hard in the gymnasium at Treves?\n\nThe simple fact was that he had became love-sick. His separation from\nJenny von Westphalen had made him conscious of a feeling which he had\nlong entertained without knowing it. They had been close companions. He\nhad looked into her beautiful face and seen the luminous response of\nher lovely eyes, but its meaning had not flashed upon his mind. He was\nnot old enough to have a great consuming passion, he was merely\nconscious of her charm. As he could see her every day, he did not\nrealize how much he wanted her, and how much a separation from her\nwould mean.\n\nAs \"absence makes the heart grow fonder,\" so it may suddenly draw aside\nthe veil behind which the truth is hidden. At Bonn young Marx felt as\nif a blaze of light had flashed before him; and from that moment his\nstudies, his companions, and the ambitions that he had hitherto\ncherished all seemed flat and stale. At night and in the daytime there\nwas just one thing which filled his mind and heart--the beautiful\nvision of Jenny von Westphalen.\n\nMeanwhile his family, and especially his father, had become anxious at\nthe reports which reached them. Karl was sent for, and his stay at Bonn\nwas ended.\n\nNow that he was once more in the presence of the girl who charmed him\nso, he recovered all his old-time spirits. He wooed her ardently, and\nthough she was more coy, now that she saw his passion, she did not\ndiscourage him, but merely prolonged the ecstasy of this wonderful\nlove-making. As he pressed her more and more, and no one guessed the\nstory, there came a time when she was urged to let herself become\nengaged to him.\n\nHere was seen the difference in their ages--a difference that had an\neffect upon their future. It means much that a girl should be four\nyears older than the man who seeks her hand. She is four years wiser;\nand a girl of twenty is, in fact, a match for a youth of twenty-five.\nBrought up as she had been, in an aristocratic home, with the blood of\ntwo noble families in her veins, and being wont to hear the easy and\nsomewhat cynical talk of worldly people, she knew better than poor Karl\nthe un-wisdom of what she was about to do.\n\nShe was noble, the daughter of one high official and the sister of\nanother. Those whom she knew were persons of rank and station. On the\nother hand, young Marx, though he had accepted Christianity, was the\nson of a provincial Jewish lawyer, with no fortune, and with a bad\nrecord at the university. When she thought of all these things, she may\nwell have hesitated; but the earnest pleading and intense ardor of Karl\nMarx broke down all barriers between them, and they became engaged,\nwithout informing Jenny's father of their compact. Then they parted for\na while, and Karl returned to his home, filled with romantic thoughts.\n\nHe was also full of ambition and of desire for achievement. He had won\nthe loveliest girl in Treves, and now he must go forth into the world\nand conquer it for her sake. He begged his father to send him to\nBerlin, and showed how much more advantageous was that new and splendid\nuniversity, where Hegel's fame was still in the ascendent.\n\nIn answer to his father's questions, the younger Marx replied:\n\n\"I have something to tell you that will explain all; but first you must\ngive me your word that you will tell no one.\"\n\n\"I trust you wholly,\" said the father. \"I will not reveal what you may\nsay to me.\"\n\n\"Well,\" returned the son, \"I am engaged to marry Jenny von Westphalen.\nShe wishes it kept a secret from her father, but I am at liberty to\ntell you of it.\"\n\nThe elder Marx was at once shocked and seriously disturbed. Baron von\nWestphalen was his old and intimate friend. No thought of romance\nbetween their children had ever come into his mind. It seemed disloyal\nto keep the verlobung of Karl and Jenny a secret; for should it be\nrevealed, what would the baron think of Marx? Their disparity of rank\nand fortune would make the whole affair stand out as something wrong\nand underhand.\n\nThe father endeavored to make his son see all this. He begged him to go\nand tell the baron, but young Marx was not to be persuaded.\n\n\"Send me to Berlin,\" he said, \"and we shall again be separated; but I\nshall work and make a name for myself, so that when I return neither\nJenny nor her father will have occasion to be disturbed by our\nengagement.\"\n\nWith these words he half satisfied his father, and before long he was\nsent to Berlin, where he fell manfully upon his studies. His father had\ninsisted that he should study law; but his own tastes were for\nphilosophy and history. He attended lectures in jurisprudence \"as a\nnecessary evil,\" but he read omnivorously in subjects that were nearer\nto his heart. The result was that his official record was not much\nbetter than it had been at Bonn.\n\nThe same sort of restlessness, too, took possession of him when he\nfound that Jenny would not answer his letters. No matter how eagerly\nand tenderly he wrote to her, there came no reply. Even the most\npassionate pleadings left her silent and unresponsive. Karl could not\ncomplain, for she had warned him that she would not write to him. She\nfelt that their engagement, being secret, was anomalous, and that until\nher family knew of it she was not free to act as she might wish.\n\nHere again was seen the wisdom of her maturer years; but Karl could not\nbe equally reasonable. He showered her with letters, which still she\nwould not answer. He wrote to his father in words of fire. At last,\ndriven to despair, he said that he was going to write to the Baron von\nWestphalen, reveal the secret, and ask for the baron's fatherly consent.\n\nIt seemed a reckless thing to do, and yet it turned out to be the\nwisest. The baron knew that such an engagement meant a social\nsacrifice, and that, apart from the matter of rank, young Marx was\nwithout any fortune to give the girl the luxuries to which she had been\naccustomed. Other and more eligible suitors were always within view.\nBut here Jenny herself spoke out more strongly than she had ever done\nto Karl. She was willing to accept him with what he was able to give\nher. She cared nothing for any other man, and she begged her father to\nmake both of them completely happy.\n\nThus it seemed that all was well, yet for some reason or other Jenny\nwould not write to Karl, and once more he was almost driven to\ndistraction. He wrote bitter letters to his father, who tried to\ncomfort him. The baron himself sent messages of friendly advice, but\nwhat young man in his teens was ever reasonable? So violent was Karl\nthat at last his father wrote to him:\n\nI am disgusted with your letters. Their unreasonable tone is loathsome\nto me. I should never had expected it of you. Haven't you been lucky\nfrom your cradle up?\n\nFinally Karl received one letter from his betrothed--a letter that\ntransfused him with ecstatic joy for about a day, and then sent him\nback to his old unrest. This, however, may be taken as a part of Marx's\ncurious nature, which was never satisfied, but was always reaching\nafter something which could not be had.\n\nHe fell to writing poetry, of which he sent three volumes to\nJenny--which must have been rather trying to her, since the verse was\nvery poor. He studied the higher mathematics, English and Italian, some\nLatin, and a miscellaneous collection of works on history and\nliterature. But poetry almost turned his mind. In later years he wrote:\n\nEverything was centered on poetry, as if I were bewitched by some\nuncanny power.\n\nLuckily, he was wise enough, after a time, to recognize how halting\nwere his poems when compared with those of the great masters; and so he\nresumed his restless, desultory work. He still sent his father letters\nthat were like wild cries. They evoked, in reply, a very natural burst\nof anger:\n\nComplete disorder, silly wandering through all branches of science,\nsilly brooding at the burning oil-lamp! In your wildness you see with\nfour eyes--a horrible setback and disregard for everything decent. And\nin the pursuit of this senseless and purposeless learning you think to\nraise the fruits which are to unite you with your beloved one! What\nharvest do you expect to gather from them which will enable you to\nfulfil your duty toward her?\n\nWriting to him again, his father speaks of something that Karl had\nwritten as \"a mad composition, which denotes clearly how you waste your\nability and spend nights in order to create such monstrosities.\" The\nyoung man was even forbidden to return home for the Easter holidays.\nThis meant giving up the sight of Jenny, whom he had not seen for a\nwhole year. But fortune arranged it otherwise; for not many weeks later\ndeath removed the parent who had loved him and whom he had loved,\nthough neither of them could understand the other. The father\nrepresented the old order of things; the son was born to discontent and\nto look forward to a new heaven and a new earth.\n\nReturning to Berlin, Karl resumed his studies; but as before, they were\nvery desultory in their character, and began to run upon social\nquestions, which were indeed setting Germany into a ferment. He took\nhis degree, and thought of becoming an instructor at the university of\nJena; but his radicalism prevented this, and he became the editor of a\nliberal newspaper, which soon, however, became so very radical as to\nlead to his withdrawal.\n\nIt now seemed best that Marx should seek other fields of activity. To\nremain in Germany was dangerous to himself and discreditable to Jenny's\nrelatives, with their status as Prussian officials. In the summer of\n1843, he went forth into the world--at last an \"international.\" Jenny,\nwho had grown to believe in him as against her own family, asked for\nnothing better than to wander with him, if only they might be married.\nAnd they were married in this same summer, and spent a short honeymoon\nat Bingen on the Rhine--made famous by Mrs. Norton's poem. It was the\nbrief glimpse of sunshine that was to precede year after year of\nanxiety and want.\n\nLeaving Germany, Marx and Jenny went to Paris, where he became known to\nsome of the intellectual lights of the French capital, such as Bakunin,\nthe great Russian anarchist, Proudhon, Cabet, and Saint-Simon. Most\nimportant of all was his intimacy with the poet Heine, that marvelous\ncreature whose fascination took on a thousand forms, and whom no one\ncould approach without feeling his strange allurement.\n\nSince Goethe's death, down to the present time, there has been no\nfigure in German literature comparable to Heine. His prose was\nexquisite. His poetry ran through the whole gamut of humanity and of\nthe sensations that come to us from the outer world. In his poems are\nsweet melodies and passionate cries of revolt, stirring ballads of the\nsea and tender love-songs--strange as these last seem when coming from\nthis cynic.\n\nFor cynic he was, deep down in his heart, though his face, when in\nrepose, was like the conventional pictures of Christ. His fascinations\ndestroyed the peace of many a woman; and it was only after many years\nof self-indulgence that he married the faithful Mathilde Mirat in what\nhe termed a \"conscience marriage.\" Soon after he went to his\n\"mattress-grave,\" as he called it, a hopeless paralytic.\n\nTo Heine came Marx and his beautiful bride. One may speculate as to\nJenny's estimate of her husband. Since his boyhood, she had not seen\nhim very much. At that time he was a merry, light-hearted youth, a\njovial comrade, and one of whom any girl would be proud. But since his\nlong stay in Berlin, and his absorption in the theories of men like\nEngels and Bauer, he had become a very different sort of man, at least\nto her.\n\nGroping, lost in brown studies, dreamy, at times morose, he was by no\nmeans a sympathetic and congenial husband for a high-bred, spirited\ngirl, such as Jenny von Westphalen. His natural drift was toward a\nbeer-garden, a group of frowsy followers, the reek of vile tobacco, and\nthe smell of sour beer. One cannot but think that his beautiful wife\nmust have been repelled by this, though with her constant nature she\nstill loved him.\n\nIn Heinrich Heine she found a spirit that seemed akin to hers. Mr.\nSpargo says--and in what he says one must read a great deal between the\nlines:\n\nThe admiration of Jenny Marx for the poet was even more ardent than\nthat of her husband. He fascinated her because, as she said, he was \"so\nmodern,\" while Heine was drawn to her because she was \"so sympathetic.\"\n\nIt must be that Heine held the heart of this beautiful woman in his\nhand. He knew so well the art of fascination; he knew just how to\nsupply the void which Marx had left. The two were indeed affinities in\nheart and soul; yet for once the cynical poet stayed his hand, and said\nno word that would have been disloyal to his friend. Jenny loved him\nwith a love that might have blazed into a lasting flame; but\nfortunately there appeared a special providence to save her from\nherself. The French government, at the request of the King of Prussia,\nbanished Marx from its dominions; and from that day until he had become\nan old man he was a wanderer and an exile, with few friends and little\nmoney, sustained by nothing but Jenny's fidelity and by his infinite\nfaith in a cause that crushed him to the earth.\n\nThere is a curious parallel between the life of Marx and that of\nRichard Wagner down to the time when the latter discovered a royal\npatron. Both of them were hounded from country to country; both of them\nworked laboriously for so scanty a living as to verge, at times, upon\nstarvation. Both of them were victims to a cause in which they\nearnestly believed--an economic cause in the one case, an artistic\ncause in the other. Wagner's triumph came before his death, and the\nworld has accepted his theory of the music-drama. The cause of Marx is\nfar greater and more tremendous, because it strikes at the base of\nhuman life and social well-being.\n\nThe clash between Wagner and his critics was a matter of poetry and\ndramatic music. It was not vital to the human race. The cause of Marx\nis one that is only now beginning to be understood and recognized by\nmillions of men and women in all the countries of the earth. In his\nlifetime he issued a manifesto that has become a classic among\neconomists. He organized the great International Association of\nWorkmen, which set all Europe in a blaze and extended even to America.\nHis great book, \"Capital\"--Das Kapital--which was not completed until\nthe last years of his life, is read to-day by thousands as an almost\nsacred work.\n\nLike Wagner and his Minna, the wife of Marx's youth clung to him\nthrough his utmost vicissitudes, denying herself the necessities of\nlife so that he might not starve. In London, where he spent his latest\ndays, he was secure from danger, yet still a sort of persecution seemed\nto follow him. For some time, nothing that he wrote could find a\nprinter. Wherever he went, people looked at him askance. He and his six\nchildren lived upon the sum of five dollars a week, which was paid him\nby the New York Tribune, through the influence of the late Charles A.\nDana. When his last child was born, and the mother's life was in\nserious danger, Marx complained that there was no cradle for the baby,\nand a little later that there was no coffin for its burial.\n\nMarx had ceased to believe in marriage, despised the church, and cared\nnothing for government. Yet, unlike Wagner, he was true to the woman\nwho had given up so much for him. He never sank to an artistic\ndegeneracy. Though he rejected creeds, he was nevertheless a man of\ngenuine religious feeling. Though he believed all present government to\nbe an evil, he hoped to make it better, or rather he hoped to\nsubstitute for it a system by which all men might get an equal share of\nwhat it is right and just for them to have.\n\nSuch was Marx, and thus he lived and died. His wife, who had long been\ncut off from her relatives, died about a year before him. When she was\nburied, he stumbled and fell into her grave, and from that time until\nhis own death he had no further interest in life.\n\nHe had been faithful to a woman and to a cause. That cause was so\ntremendous as to overwhelm him. In sixty years only the first great\nstirrings of it could be felt. Its teachings may end in nothing, but\nonly a century or more of effort and of earnest striving can make it\nplain whether Karl Marx was a world-mover or a martyr to a cause that\nwas destined to be lost.\n\n\n\n\nFERDINAND LASSALLE AND HELENE VON DONNIGES\n\n\nThe middle part of the nineteenth century is a period which has become\nmore or less obscure to most Americans and Englishmen. At one end the\nthunderous campaigns of Napoleon are dying away. In the latter part of\nthe century we remember the gorgeousness of the Tuileries, the four\nyears' strife of our own Civil War, and then the golden drift of peace\nwith which the century ended. Between these two extremes there is a\nstretch of history which seems to lack interest for the average student\nof to-day.\n\nIn America, that was a period when we took little interest in the\nmovement of affairs on the continent of Europe. It would not be easy,\nfor instance, to imagine an American of 1840 cogitating on problems of\nsocialism, or trying to invent some new form of arbeiterverein. General\nChoke was still swindling English emigrants. The Young Columbian was\nstill darting out from behind a table to declare how thoroughly he\ndefied the British lion. But neither of these patriots, any more than\ntheir English compeers, was seriously disturbed about the interests of\nthe rest of the world. The Englishman was contentedly singing \"God Save\nthe Queen!\" The American, was apostrophizing the bird of freedom with\nthe floridity of rhetoric that reached its climax in the \"Pogram\nDefiance.\" What the Dutchies and Frenchies were doing was little more\nto an Englishman than to an American.\n\nContinental Europe was a mystery to English-speaking people. Those who\ntraveled abroad took their own servants with them, spoke only English,\nand went through the whole European maze with absolute indifference. To\nthem the socialist, who had scarcely received a name, was an imaginary\nbeing. If he existed, he was only a sort of offspring of the Napoleonic\nwars--a creature who had not yet fitted into the ordinary course of\nthings. He was an anomaly, a person who howled in beer-houses, and who\nwould presently be regulated, either by the statesmen or by the police.\n\nWhen our old friend, Mark Tapley, was making with his master a homeward\nvoyage to Britain, what did he know or even care about the politics of\nFrance, or Germany, or Austria, or Russia? Not the slightest, you may\nbe sure. Mark and his master represented the complete indifference of\nthe Englishman or American--not necessarily a well-bred indifference,\nbut an indifference that was insular on the one hand and republican on\nthe other. If either of them had heard of a gentleman who pillaged an\nunmarried lady's luggage in order to secure a valuable paper for\nanother lady, who was married, they would both have looked severely at\nthis abnormal person, and the American would doubtless have added a\nremark which had something to do with the matchless purity of\nColumbia's daughters.\n\nIf, again, they had been told that Ferdinand Lassalle had joined in the\ngreat movement initiated by Karl Marx, it is absolutely certain that\nneither the Englishman nor the American could have given you the\nslightest notion as to who these individuals were. Thrones might be\ntottering all over Europe; the red flag might wave in a score of\ncities--what would all this signify, so long as Britannia ruled the\nwaves, while Columbia's feathered emblem shrieked defiance three\nthousand miles away?\n\nAnd yet few more momentous events have happened in a century than the\nunion which led one man to give his eloquence to the social cause, and\nthe other to suffer for that cause until his death. Marx had the higher\nthought, but his disciple Lassalle had the more attractive way of\npresenting it. It is odd that Marx, today, should lie in a squalid\ncemetery, while the whole western world echoes with his praises, and\nthat Lassalle--brilliant, clear-sighted, and remarkable for his\npenetrating genius--should have lived in luxury, but should now know\nnothing but oblivion, even among those who shouted at his eloquence and\nran beside him in the glory of his triumph.\n\nFerdinand Lassalle was a native of Breslau, the son of a wealthy Jewish\nsilk-merchant. Heymann Lassal--for thus the father spelled his\nname--stroked his hands at young Ferdinand's cleverness, but he meant\nit to be a commercial cleverness. He gave the boy a thorough education\nat the University of Breslau, and later at Berlin. He was an\naffectionate parent, and at the same time tyrannical to a degree.\n\nIt was the old story where the father wishes to direct every step that\nhis son takes, and where the son, bursting out into youthful manhood,\nfeels that he has the right to freedom. The father thinks how he has\ntoiled for the son; the son thinks that if this toil were given for\nlove, it should not be turned into a fetter and restraint. Young\nLassalle, instead of becoming a clever silk-merchant, insisted on a\nuniversity career, where he studied earnestly, and was admitted to the\nmost cultured circles.\n\nThough his birth was Jewish, he encountered little prejudice against\nhis race. Napoleon had changed the old anti-Semitic feeling of fifty\nyears before to a liberalism that was just beginning to be strongly\nfelt in Germany, as it had already been in France. This was true in\ngeneral, but especially true of Lassalle, whose features were not of a\nSemitic type, who made friends with every one, and who was a favorite\nin many salons. His portraits make him seem a high-bred and\nhigh-spirited Prussian, with an intellectual and clean-cut forehead; a\nface that has a sense of humor, and yet one capable of swift and cogent\nthought.\n\nNo man of ordinary talents could have won the admiration of so many\ncompeers. It is not likely that such a keen and cynical observer as\nHeinrich Heine would have written as he did concerning Lassalle, had\nnot the latter been a brilliant and magnetic youth. Heine wrote to\nVarnhagen von Ense, the German historian:\n\nMy friend, Herr Lassalle, who brings you this letter, is a young man of\nremarkable intellectual gifts. With the most thorough erudition, with\nthe widest learning, with the greatest penetration that I have ever\nknown, and with the richest gift of exposition, he combines an energy\nof will and a capacity for action which astonish me. In no one have I\nfound united so much enthusiasm and practical intelligence.\n\nNo better proof of Lassalle's enthusiasm can be found than a few lines\nfrom his own writings:\n\nI love Heine. He is my second self. What audacity! What overpowering\neloquence! He knows how to whisper like a zephyr when it kisses\nrose-blooms, how to breathe like fire when it rages and destroys; he\ncalls forth all that is tenderest and softest, and then all that is\nfiercest and most daring. He has the sweep of the whole lyre!\n\nLassalle's sympathy with Heine was like his sympathy with every one\nwhom he knew. This was often misunderstood. It was misunderstood in his\nrelations with women, and especially in the celebrated affair of the\nCountess von Hatzfeldt, which began in the year 1846--that is to say,\nin the twenty-first year of Lassalle's age.\n\nIn truth, there was no real scandal in the matter, for the countess was\ntwice the age of Lassalle. It was precisely because he was so young\nthat he let his eagerness to defend a woman in distress make him forget\nthe ordinary usage of society, and expose himself to mean and unworthy\ncriticism which lasted all his life. It began by his introduction to\nthe Countess von Hatzfeldt, a lady who was grossly ill-treated by her\nhusband. She had suffered insult and imprisonment in the family\ncastles; the count had deprived her of medicine when she was ill, and\nhad forcibly taken away her children. Besides this, he was infatuated\nwith another woman, a baroness, and wasted his substance upon her even\ncontrary to the law which protected his children's rights.\n\nThe countess had a son named Paul, of whom Lassalle was extremely fond.\nThere came to the boy a letter from the Count von Hatzfeldt ordering\nhim to leave his mother. The countess at once sent for Lassalle, who\nbrought with him two wealthy and influential friends--one of them a\njudge of a high Prussian court--and together they read the letter which\nPaul had just received. They were deeply moved by the despair of the\ncountess, and by the cruelty of her dissolute husband in seeking to\nseparate the mother from her son.\n\nIn his chivalrous ardor Lassalle swore to help the countess, and\npromised that he would carry on the struggle with her husband to the\nbitter end. He took his two friends with him to Berlin, and then to\nDusseldorf, for they discovered that the Count von Hatzfeldt was not\nfar away. He was, in fact, at Aix-la-Chapelle with the baroness.\n\nLassalle, who had the scent of a greyhound, pried about until he\ndiscovered that the count had given his mistress a legal document,\nassigning to her a valuable piece of property which, in the ordinary\ncourse of law, should be entailed on the boy, Paul. The countess at\nonce hastened to the place, broke into her husband's room, and secured\na promise that the deed would be destroyed.\n\nNo sooner, however, had she left him than he returned to the baroness,\nand presently it was learned that the woman had set out for Cologne.\n\nLassalle and his two friends followed, to ascertain whether the\ndocument had really been destroyed. The three reached a hotel at\nCologne, where the baroness had just arrived. Her luggage, in fact, was\nbeing carried upstairs. One of Lassalle's friends opened a trunk, and,\nfinding a casket there, slipped it out to his companion, the judge.\n\nUnfortunately, the latter had no means of hiding it, and when the\nbaroness's servant shouted for help, the casket was found in the\npossession of the judge, who could give no plausible account of it. He\nwas, therefore, arrested, as were the other two. There was no evidence\nagainst Lassalle; but his friends fared badly at the trial, one of them\nbeing imprisoned for a year and the other for five years.\n\nFrom this time Lassalle, with an almost quixotic devotion, gave himself\nup to fighting the Countess von Hatzfeldt's battle against her husband\nin the law-courts. The ablest advocates were pitted against him. The\nmost eloquent legal orators thundered at him and at his client, but he\nmet them all with a skill, an audacity, and a brilliant wit that won\nfor him verdict after verdict. The case went from the lower to the\nhigher tribunals, until, after nine years, it reached the last court of\nappeal, where Lassalle wrested from his opponents a magnificently\nconclusive victory--one that made the children of the countess\nabsolutely safe. It was a battle fought with the determination of a\nsoldier, with the gallantry of a knight errant, and the intellectual\nacumen of a learned lawyer.\n\nIt is not surprising that many refuse to believe that Lassalle's\nfeeling toward the Countess von Hatzfeldt was a disinterested one. A\nscandalous pamphlet, which was published in French, German, and\nRussian, and written by one who styled herself \"Sophie Solutzeff,\" did\nmuch to spread the evil report concerning Lassalle. But the very\nopenness and frankness of the service which he did for the countess\nought to make it clear that his was the devotion of a youth drawn by an\nimpulse into a strife where there was nothing for him to gain, but\neverything to lose. He denounced the brutality of her husband, but her\nletters to him always addressed him as \"my dear child.\" In writing to\nher he confides small love-secrets and ephemeral flirtations--which he\nwould scarcely have done, had the countess viewed him with the eye of\npassion.\n\nLassalle was undoubtedly a man of impressionable heart, and had many\naffairs such as Heine had; but they were not deep or lasting. That he\nshould have made a favorable impression on the women whom he met is not\nsurprising, because of his social standing, his chivalry, his fine\nmanners, and his handsome face. Mr. Clement Shorter has quoted an\nofficial document which describes him as he was in his earlier years:\n\nFerdinand Lassalle, aged twenty-three, a civilian born at Breslau and\ndwelling recently at Berlin. He stands five feet six inches in height,\nhas brown, curly hair, open forehead, brown eyebrows, dark blue eyes,\nwell proportioned nose and mouth, and rounded chin.\n\nWe ought not to be surprised, then, if he was a favorite in\ndrawing-rooms; if both men and women admired him; if Alexander von\nHumboldt cried out with enthusiasm that he was a wunderkind, and if\nthere were more than Sophie Solutzeff to be jealous. But the rather\nungrateful remark of the Countess von Hatzfeldt certainly does not\nrepresent him as he really was.\n\n\"You are without reason and judgment where women are concerned,\" she\nsnarled at him; but the sneer only shows that the woman who uttered it\nwas neither in love with him nor grateful to him.\n\nIn this paper we are not discussing Lassalle as a public agitator or as\na Socialist, but simply in his relations with the two women who most\nseriously affected his life. The first was the Countess von Hatzfeldt,\nwho, as we have seen, occupied--or rather wasted--nine of the best\nyears of his life. Then came that profound and thrilling passion which\nended the career of a man who at thirty-nine had only just begun to be\nfamous.\n\nLassalle had joined his intellectual forces with those of Heine and\nMarx. He had obtained so great an influence over the masses of the\npeople as to alarm many a monarch, and at the same time to attract many\na statesman. Prince Bismarck, for example, cared nothing for Lassalle's\nchampionship of popular rights, but sought his aid on finding that he\nwas an earnest advocate of German unity.\n\nFurthermore, he was very far from resembling what in those early days\nwas regarded as the typical picture of a Socialist. There was nothing\nfrowzy about him; in his appearance he was elegance itself; his manners\nwere those of a prince, and his clothing was of the best. Seeing him in\na drawing-room, no one would mistake him for anything but a gentleman\nand a man of parts. Hence it is not surprising that his second love was\none of the nobility, although her own people hated Lassalle as a bearer\nof the red flag.\n\nThis girl was Helene von Donniges, the daughter of a Bavarian diplomat.\nAs a child she had traveled much, especially in Italy and in\nSwitzerland. She was very precocious, and lived her own life without\nasking the direction of any one. At twelve years of age she had been\nbetrothed to an Italian of forty; but this dark and pedantic person\nalways displeased her, and soon afterward, when she met a young\nWallachian nobleman, one Yanko Racowitza, she was ready at once to\ndismiss her Italian lover. Racowitza--young, a student, far from home,\nand lacking friends--appealed at once to the girl's sympathy.\n\nAt that very time, in Berlin, where Helene was visiting her\ngrandmother, she was asked by a Prussian baron:\n\n\"Do you know Ferdinand Lassalle?\"\n\nThe question came to her with a peculiar shock. She had never heard the\nname, and yet the sound of it gave her a strange emotion. Baron Korff,\nwho perhaps took liberties because she was so young, went on to say:\n\n\"My dear lady, have you really never seen Lassalle? Why, you and he\nwere meant for each other!\"\n\nShe felt ashamed to ask about him, but shortly after a gentleman who\nknew her said:\n\n\"It is evident that you have a surprising degree of intellectual\nkinship with Ferdinand Lassalle.\"\n\nThis so excited her curiosity that she asked her grandmother:\n\n\"Who is this person of whom they talk so much--this Ferdinand Lassalle?\"\n\n\"Do not speak of him,\" replied her grandmother. \"He is a shameless\ndemagogue!\"\n\nA little questioning brought to Helene all sorts of stories about\nLassalle--the Countess von Hatzfeldt, the stolen casket, the mysterious\npamphlet, the long battle in the courts--all of which excited her still\nmore. A friend offered to introduce her to the \"shameless demagogue.\"\nThis introduction happened at a party, and it must have been an\nextraordinary meeting. Seldom, it seemed, was there a better instance\nof love at first sight, or of the true affinity of which Baron Korff\nhad spoken. In the midst of the public gathering they almost rushed\ninto each other's arms; they talked the free talk of acknowledged\nlovers; and when she left, he called her love-names as he offered her\nhis arm.\n\n\"Somehow it did not appear at all remarkable,\" she afterward declared.\n\"We seemed to be perfectly fitted to each other.\"\n\nNevertheless, nine months passed before they met again at a soiree. At\nthis time Lassaller gazing upon her, said:\n\n\"What would you do if I were sentenced to death?\"\n\n\"I should wait until your head was severed,\" was her answer, \"in order\nthat you might look upon your beloved to the last, and then--I should\ntake poison!\"\n\nHer answer delighted him, but he said that there was no danger. He was\ngreeted on every hand with great consideration; and it seemed not\nunlikely that, in recognition of his influence with the people, he\nmight rise to some high position. The King of Prussia sympathized with\nhim. Heine called him the Messiah of the nineteenth century. When he\npassed from city to city, the whole population turned out to do him\nhonor. Houses were wreathed; flowers were thrown in masses upon him,\nwhile the streets were spanned with triumphal arches.\n\nWorn out with the work and excitement attending the birth of the\nDeutscher Arbeiterverein, or workmen's union, which he founded in 1863,\nLassalle fled for a time to Switzerland for rest. Helene heard of his\nwhereabouts, and hurried to him, with several friends. They met again\non July 25,1864, and discussed long and intensely the possibilities of\ntheir marriage and the opposition of her parents, who would never\npermit her to marry a man who was at once a Socialist and a Jew.\n\nThen comes a pitiful story of the strife between Lassalle and the\nDonniges family. Helene's father and mother indulged in vulgar words;\nthey spoke of Lassalle with contempt; they recalled all the scandals\nthat had been current ten years before, and forbade Helene ever to\nmention the man's name again.\n\nThe next scene in the drama took place in Geneva, where the family of\nHerr von Donniges had arrived, and where Helene's sister had been\nbetrothed to Count von Keyserling--a match which filled her mother with\nintense joy. Her momentary friendliness tempted Helene to speak of her\nunalterable love for Lassalle. Scarcely had the words been spoken when\nher father and mother burst into abuse and denounced Lassalle as well\nas herself.\n\nShe sent word of this to Lassalle, who was in a hotel near by. Scarcely\nhad he received her letter, when Helene herself appeared upon the\nscene, and with all the intensity of which she was possessed, she\nbegged him to take her wherever he chose. She would go with him to\nFrance, to Italy--to the ends of the earth!\n\nWhat a situation, and yet how simple a one for a man of spirit! It is\nstrange to have to record that to Lassalle it seemed most difficult. He\nfelt that he or she, or both of them, had been compromised. Had she a\nlady with her? Did she know any one in the neighborhood?\n\nWhat an extraordinary answer! If she were compromised, all the more\nought he to have taken her in his arms and married her at once, instead\nof quibbling and showing himself a prig.\n\nPresently, her maid came in to tell them that a carriage was ready to\ntake them to the station, whence a train would start for Paris in a\nquarter of an hour. Helene begged him, with a feeling that was\nbeginning to be one of shame. Lassalle repelled her in words that were\nto stamp him with a peculiar kind of cowardice.\n\nWhy should he have stopped to think of anything except the beautiful\nwoman who was at his feet, and to whom he had pledged his love? What\ndid he care for the petty diplomat who was her father, or the\nvulgar-tongued woman who was her mother? He should have hurried her and\nthe maid into the train for Paris, and have forgotten everything in the\nworld but his Helene, glorious among women, who had left everything for\nhim.\n\nWhat was the sudden failure, the curious weakness, the paltriness of\nspirit that came at the supreme moment into the heart of this hitherto\nstrong man? Here was the girl whom he loved, driven from her parents,\nputting aside all question of appearances, and clinging to him with a\nwild and glorious desire to give herself to him and to be all his own!\nThat was a thing worthy of a true woman. And he? He shrinks from her\nand cowers and acts like a simpleton. His courage seems to have\ndribbled through his finger-tips; he is no longer a man--he is a thing.\n\nOut of all the multitude of Lassalle's former admirers, there is\nscarcely one who has ventured to defend him, much less to laud him; and\nwhen they have done so, their voices have had a sound of mockery that\ndies away in their own throats.\n\nHelene, on her side, had compromised herself, and even from the\nview-point of her parents it was obvious that she ought to be married\nimmediately. Her father, however, confined her to her room until it was\nunderstood that Lassalle had left Geneva. Then her family's\nsupplications, the statement that her sister's marriage and even her\nfather's position were in danger, led her to say that she would give up\nLassalle.\n\nIt mattered very little, in one way, for whatever he might have done,\nLassalle had killed, or at least had chilled, her love. His failure at\nthe moment of her great self-sacrifice had shown him to her as he\nreally was--no bold and gallant spirit, but a cringing, spiritless\nself-seeker. She wrote him a formal letter to the effect that she had\nbecome reconciled to her \"betrothed bridegroom\"; and they never met\nagain.\n\nToo late, Lassalle gave himself up to a great regret. He went about\ntrying to explain his action to his friends, but he could say nothing\nthat would ease his feeling and reinstate him in the eyes of the\nromantic girl. In a frenzy, he sought out the Wallachian student, Yanko\nvon Racowitza, and challenged him to a mortal duel. He also challenged\nHelene's father. Years before, he had on principle declined to fight a\nduel; but now he went raving about as if he sought the death of every\none who knew him.\n\nThe duel was fought on August 28, 1864. There was some trouble about\npistols, and also about seconds; but finally the combatants left a\nsmall hotel in a village near Geneva, and reached the dueling-grounds.\nLassalle was almost joyous in his manner. His old confidence had come\nback to him; he meant to kill his man.\n\nThey took their stations high up among the hills. A few spectators saw\ntheir figures outlined against the sky. The command to fire rang out,\nand from both pistols gushed the flame and smoke.\n\nA moment later, Lassalle was seen to sway and fall. A chance shot,\nglancing from a wall, had struck him to the ground. He suffered\nterribly, and nothing but opium in great doses could relieve his pain.\nHis wound was mortal, and three days later he died.\n\nLong after, Helene admitted that she still loved Lassalle, and believed\nthat he would win the duel; but after the tragedy, the tenderness and\npatience of Racowitza won her heart. She married him, but within a year\nhe died of consumption. Helene, being disowned by her relations,\nprepared herself for the stage. She married a third husband named\nShevitch, who was then living in the United States, but who has since\nmade his home in Russia.\n\nLet us say nothing of Lassalle's political career. Except for his work\nas one of the early leaders of the liberal movement in Germany, it has\nperished, and his name has been almost forgotten. As a lover, his story\nstands out forever as a warning to the timid and the recreant. Let men\ndo what they will; but there is just one thing which no man is\npermitted to do with safety in the sight of woman--and that is to play\nthe craven.\n\n\n\n\nTHE STORY OF RACHEL\n\n\nOutside of the English-speaking peoples the nineteenth century\nwitnessed the rise and triumphant progress of three great tragic\nactresses. The first two of these--Rachel Felix and Sarah\nBernhardt--were of Jewish extraction; the third, Eleanor Duse, is\nItalian. All of them made their way from pauperism to fame; but perhaps\nthe rise of Rachel was the most striking.\n\nIn the winter of 1821 a wretched peddler named Abraham--or Jacob--Felix\nsought shelter at a dilapidated inn at Mumpf, a village in Switzerland,\nnot far from Basel. It was at the close of a stormy day, and his small\nfamily had been toiling through the snow and sleet. The inn was the\nlowest sort of hovel, and yet its proprietor felt that it was too good\nfor these vagabonds. He consented to receive them only when he learned\nthat the peddler's wife was to be delivered of a child. That very night\nshe became the mother of a girl, who was at first called Elise. So\nunimportant was the advent of this little waif into the world that the\nburgomaster of Mumpf thought it necessary to make an entry only of the\nfact that a peddler's wife had given birth to a female child. There was\nno mention of family or religion, nor was the record anything more than\na memorandum.\n\nUnder such circumstances was born a child who was destined to excite\nthe wonder of European courts--to startle and thrill and utterly amaze\ngreat audiences by her dramatic genius. But for ten years the\nfamily--which grew until it consisted of one son and five\ndaughters--kept on its wanderings through Switzerland and Germany.\nFinally, they settled down in Lyons, where the mother opened a little\nshop for the sale of second-hand clothing. The husband gave lessons in\nGerman whenever he could find a pupil. The eldest daughter went about\nthe cafes in the evening, singing the songs that were then popular,\nwhile her small sister, Rachel, collected coppers from those who had\ncoppers to spare.\n\nAlthough the family was barely able to sustain existence, the father\nand mother were by no means as ignorant as their squalor would imply.\nThe peddler Felix had studied Hebrew theology in the hope of becoming a\nrabbi. Failing this, he was always much interested in declamation,\npublic reading, and the recitation of poetry. He was, in his way, no\nmean critic of actors and actresses. Long before she was ten years of\nage little Rachel--who had changed her name from Elise--could render\nwith much feeling and neatness of eloquence bits from the best-known\nFrench plays of the classic stage.\n\nThe children's mother, on her side, was sharp and practical to a high\ndegree. She saved and scrimped all through her period of adversity.\nLater she was the banker of her family, and would never lend any of her\nchildren a sou except on excellent security. However, this was all to\nhappen in after years.\n\nWhen the child who was destined to be famous had reached her tenth year\nshe and her sisters made their way to Paris. For four years the\nsecond-hand clothing-shop was continued; the father still taught\nGerman; and the elder sister, Sarah, who had a golden voice, made the\nrounds of the cafes in the lowest quarters of the capital, while Rachel\npassed the wooden plate for coppers.\n\nOne evening in the year 1834 a gentleman named Morin, having been taken\nout of his usual course by a matter of business, entered a BRASSERIE\nfor a cup of coffee. There he noted two girls, one of them singing with\nremarkable sweetness, and the other silently following with the wooden\nplate. M. Morin called to him the girl who sang and asked her why she\ndid not make her voice more profitable than by haunting the cafes at\nnight, where she was sure to meet with insults of the grossest kind.\n\n\"Why,\" said Sarah, \"I haven't anybody to advise me what to do.\"\n\nM. Morin gave her his address and said that he would arrange to have\nher meet a friend who would be of great service to her. On the\nfollowing day he sent the two girls to a M. Choron, who was the head of\nthe Conservatory of Sacred Music. Choron had Sarah sing, and instantly\nadmitted her as a pupil, which meant that she would soon be enrolled\namong the regular choristers. The beauty of her voice made a deep\nimpression on him.\n\nThen he happened to notice the puny, meager child who was standing near\nher sister. Turning to her, he said:\n\n\"And what can you do, little one?\"\n\n\"I can recite poetry,\" was the reply.\n\n\"Oh, can you?\" said he. \"Please let me hear you.\"\n\nRachel readily consented. She had a peculiarly harsh, grating voice, so\nthat any but a very competent judge would have turned her away. But M.\nChoron, whose experience was great, noted the correctness of her accent\nand the feeling which made itself felt in every line. He accepted her\nas well as her sister, but urged her to study elocution rather than\nmusic.\n\nShe must, indeed, have had an extraordinary power even at the age of\nfourteen, since not merely her voice but her whole appearance was\nagainst her. She was dressed in a short calico frock of a pattern in\nwhich red was spotted with white. Her shoes were of coarse black\nleather. Her hair was parted at the back of her head and hung down her\nshoulders in two braids, framing the long, childish, and yet gnome-like\nface, which was unusual in its gravity.\n\nAt first she was little thought of; but there came a time when she\nastonished both her teachers and her companions by a recital which she\ngave in public. The part was the narrative of Salema in the \"Abufar\" of\nDucis. It describes the agony of a mother who gives birth to a child\nwhile dying of thirst amid the desert sands. Mme. de Barviera has left\na description of this recital, which it is worth while to quote:\n\nWhile uttering the thrilling tale the thin face seemed to lengthen with\nhorror, the small, deep-set black eyes dilated with a fixed stare as\nthough she witnessed the harrowing scene; and the deep, guttural tones,\ndespite a slight Jewish accent, awoke a nameless terror in every one\nwho listened, carrying him through the imaginary woe with a strange\nfeeling of reality, not to be shaken, off as long as the sounds lasted.\n\nEven yet, however, the time had not come for any conspicuous success.\nThe girl was still so puny in form, so monkey-like in face, and so\ngratingly unpleasant in her tones that it needed time for her to attain\nher full growth and to smooth away some of the discords in her peculiar\nvoice.\n\nThree years later she appeared at the Gymnase in a regular debut; yet\neven then only the experienced few appreciated her greatness. Among\nthese, however, were the well-known critic Jules Janin, the poet and\nnovelist Gauthier, and the actress Mlle. Mars. They saw that this lean,\nraucous gutter-girl had within her gifts which would increase until she\nwould be first of all actresses on the French stage. Janin wrote some\nlines which explain the secret of her greatness:\n\nAll the talent in the world, especially when continually applied to the\nsame dramatic works, will not satisfy continually the hearer. What\npleases in a great actor, as in all arts that appeal to the\nimagination, is the unforeseen. When I am utterly ignorant of what is\nto happen, when I do not know, when you yourself do not know what will\nbe your next gesture, your next look, what passion will possess your\nheart, what outcry will burst from your terror-stricken soul, then,\nindeed, I am willing to see you daily, for each day you will be new to\nme. To-day I may blame, to-morrow praise. Yesterday you were\nall-powerful; to-morrow, perhaps, you may hardly win from me a word of\nadmiration. So much the better, then, if you draw from me unexpected\ntears, if in my heart you strike an unknown fiber; but tell me not of\nhearing night after night great artists who every time present the\nexact counterpart of what they were on the preceding one.\n\nIt was at the Theatre Francais that she won her final acceptance as the\ngreatest of all tragedians of her time. This was in her appearance in\nCorneille's famous play of \"Horace.\" She had now, in 1838, blazed forth\nwith a power that shook her no, less than it stirred the emotions and\nthe passions of her hearers. The princes of the royal blood came in\nsuccession to see her. King Louis Philippe himself was at last tempted\nby curiosity to be present. Gifts of money and jewels were showered on\nher, and through sheer natural genius rather than through artifice she\nwas able to master a great audience and bend it to her will.\n\nShe had no easy life, this girl of eighteen years, for other actresses\ncarped at her, and she had had but little training. The sordid ways of\nher old father excited a bitterness which was vented on the daughter.\nShe was still under age, and therefore was treated as a gold-mine by\nher exacting parents. At the most she could play but twice a week. Her\nform was frail and reed-like. She was threatened with a complaint of\nthe lungs; yet all this served to excite rather than to diminish public\ninterest in her. The newspapers published daily bulletins of her\nhealth, and her door was besieged by anxious callers who wished to know\nher condition. As for the greed of her parents, every one said she was\nnot to blame for that. And so she passed from poverty to riches, from\nsqualor to something like splendor, and from obscurity to fame.\n\nMuch has been written about her that is quite incorrect. She has been\ncredited with virtues which she never possessed; and, indeed, it may be\nsaid with only too much truth that she possessed no virtues whatsoever.\nOn the stage while the inspiration lasted she was magnificent. Off the\nstage she was sly, treacherous, capricious, greedy, ungrateful,\nignorant, and unchaste. With such an ancestry as she had, with such an\nearly childhood as had been hers, what else could one expect from her?\n\nShe and her old mother wrangled over money like two pickpockets. Some\nof her best friends she treated shamefully. Her avarice was without\nbounds. Some one said that it was not really avarice, but only a\nreaction from generosity; but this seems an exceedingly subtle theory.\nIt is possible to give illustrations of it, however. She did, indeed,\nmake many presents with a lavish hand; yet, having made a present, she\ncould not rest until she got it back. The fact was so well known that\nher associates took it for granted. The younger Dumas once received a\nring from her. Immediately he bowed low and returned it to her finger,\nsaying:\n\n\"Permit me, mademoiselle, to present it to you in my turn so as to save\nyou the embarrassment of asking for it.\"\n\nMr. Vandam relates among other anecdotes about her that one evening she\ndined at the house of Comte Duchatel. The table was loaded with the\nmost magnificent flowers; but Rachel's keen eyes presently spied out\nthe great silver centerpiece. Immediately she began to admire the\nlatter; and the count, fascinated by her manners, said that he would be\nglad to present it to her. She accepted it at once, but was rather\nfearful lest he should change his mind. She had come to dinner in a\ncab, and mentioned the fact. The count offered to send her home in his\ncarriage.\n\n\"Yes, that will do admirably,\" said she. \"There will be no danger of my\nbeing robbed of your present, which I had better take with me.\"\n\n\"With pleasure, mademoiselle,\" replied the count. \"But you will send me\nback my carriage, won't you?\"\n\nRachel had a curious way of asking every one she met for presents and\nknickknacks, whether they were valuable or not. She knew how to make\nthem valuable.\n\nOnce in a studio she noticed a guitar hanging on the wall. She begged\nfor it very earnestly. As it was an old and almost worthless\ninstrument, it was given her. A little later it was reported that the\ndilapidated guitar had been purchased by a well-known gentleman for a\nthousand francs. The explanation soon followed. Rachel had declared\nthat it was the very guitar with which she used to earn her living as a\nchild in the streets of Paris. As a memento its value sprang from\ntwenty francs to a thousand.\n\nIt has always been a mystery what Rachel did with the great sums of\nmoney which she made in various ways. She never was well dressed; and\nas for her costumes on the stage, they were furnished by the theater.\nWhen her effects were sold at public auction after her death her\nfurniture was worse than commonplace, and her pictures and ornaments\nwere worthless, except such as had been given her. She must have made\nmillions of francs, and yet she had very little to leave behind her.\n\nSome say that her brother Raphael, who acted as her personal manager,\nwas a spendthrift; but if so, there are many reasons for thinking that\nit was not his sister's money that he spent. Others say that Rachel\ngambled in stocks, but there is no evidence of it. The only thing that\nis certain is the fact that she was almost always in want of money. Her\nmother, in all probability, managed to get hold of most of her earnings.\n\nMuch may have been lost through her caprices. One instance may be\ncited. She had received an offer of three hundred thousand francs to\nact at St. Petersburg, and was on her way there when she passed through\nPotsdam, near Berlin. The King of Prussia was entertaining the Russian\nCzar. An invitation was sent to her in the shape of a royal command to\nappear before these monarchs and their guests. For some reason or other\nRachel absolutely refused. She would listen to no arguments. She would\ngo on to St. Petersburg without delay.\n\n\"But,\" it was said to her, \"if you refuse to appear before the Czar at\nPotsdam all the theaters in St. Petersburg will be closed against you,\nbecause you will have insulted the emperor. In this way you will be out\nthe expenses of your journey and also the three hundred thousand\nfrancs.\"\n\nRachel remained stubborn as before; but in about half an hour she\nsuddenly declared that she would recite before the two monarchs, which\nshe subsequently did, to the satisfaction of everybody. Some one said\nto her not long after:\n\n\"I knew that you would do it. You weren't going to give up the three\nhundred thousand francs and all your travelling expenses.\"\n\n\"You are quite wrong,\" returned Rachel, \"though of course you will not\nbelieve me. I did not care at all about the money and was going back to\nFrance. It was something that I heard which made me change my mind. Do\nyou want to know what it was? Well, after all the arguments were over\nsome one informed me that the Czar Nicholas was the handsomest man in\nEurope; and so I made up my mind that I would stay in Potsdam long\nenough to see him.\"\n\nThis brings us to one phase of Rachel's nature which is rather\nsinister. She was absolutely hard. She seemed to have no emotions\nexcept those which she exhibited on the stage or the impish perversity\nwhich irritated so many of those about her. She was in reality a\nproduct of the gutter, able to assume a demure and modest air, but\nwithin coarse, vulgar, and careless of decency. Yet the words of Jules\nJanin, which have been quoted above, explain how she could be\npersonally very fascinating.\n\nIn all Rachel's career one can detect just a single strand of real\nromance. It is one that makes us sorry for her, because it tells us\nthat her love was given where it never could be openly requited.\n\nDuring the reign of Louis Philippe the Comte Alexandre Walewski held\nmany posts in the government. He was a son of the great Napoleon. His\nmother was that Polish countess who had accepted Napoleon's love\nbecause she hoped that he might set Poland free at her desire. But\nNapoleon was never swerved from his well-calculated plans by the wish\nof any woman, and after a time the Countess Walewska came to love him\nfor himself. It was she to whom he confided secrets which he would not\nreveal to his own brothers. It was she who followed him to Elba in\ndisguise. It was her son who was Napoleon's son, and who afterward,\nunder the Second Empire, was made minister of fine arts, minister of\nforeign affairs, and, finally, an imperial duke. Unlike the third\nNapoleon's natural half-brother, the Duc de Moray, Walewski was a\ngentleman of honor and fine feeling. He never used his relationship to\nsecure advantages for himself. He tried to live in a manner worthy of\nthe great warrior who was his father.\n\nAs minister of fine arts he had much to do with the subsidized\ntheaters; and in time he came to know Rachel. He was the son of one of\nthe greatest men who ever lived. She was the child of roving peddlers\nwhose early training had been in the slums of cities and amid the smoke\nof bar-rooms and cafes. She was tainted in a thousand ways, while he\nwas a man of breeding and right principle. She was a wandering actress;\nhe was a great minister of state. What could there be between these two?\n\nGeorge Sand gave the explanation in an epigram which, like most\nepigrams, is only partly true. She said:\n\n\"The count's company must prove very restful to Rachel.\"\n\nWhat she meant was, of course, that Walewski's breeding, his dignity\nand uprightness, might be regarded only as a temporary repose for the\nimpish, harsh-voiced, infinitely clever actress. Of course, it was all\nthis, but we should not take it in a mocking sense. Rachel looked up\nout of her depths and gave her heart to this high-minded nobleman. He\nlooked down and lifted her, as it were, so that she could forget for\nthe time all the baseness and the brutality that she had known, that\nshe might put aside her forced vivacity and the self that was not in\nreality her own.\n\nIt is pitiful to think of these two, separated by a great abyss which\ncould not be passed except at times and hours when each was free. But\ntheirs was, none the less, a meeting of two souls, strangely different\nin many ways, and yet appealing to each other with a sincerity and\ntruth which neither could show elsewhere.\n\nThe end of poor Rachel was one of disappointment. Tempted by the fact\nthat Jenny Lind had made nearly two million francs by her visit to the\nUnited States, Rachel followed her, but with slight success, as was to\nbe expected. Music is enjoyed by human beings everywhere, while French\nclassical plays, even though acted by a genius like Rachel, could be\nrightly understood only by a French-speaking people. Thus it came about\nthat her visit to America was only moderately successful.\n\nShe returned to France, where the rising fame of Adelaide Ristori was\nvery bitter to Rachel, who had passed the zenith of her power. She went\nto Egypt, but received no benefit, and in 1858 she died near Cannes.\nThe man who loved her, and whom she had loved in turn, heard of her\ndeath with great emotion. He himself lived ten years longer, and died a\nlittle while before the fall of the Second Empire.\n\n\n\n\nTHE END\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Famous Affinities of History V3, by Lyndon Orr\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}} +{"text":" \nTable of Contents\n\nFrom the Pages of The Pilgrim's Progress\n\nTitle Page\n\nCopyright Page\n\nJohn Bunyan\n\nThe World of John Bunyan and The Pilgrim's Progress\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe Author's Apology for his Book.\n\nThe Pilgrims Progress - In the Similitude of a Dream.\n\nThe Conclusion\n\nThe Author's Way of sending forth his Second Part of the Pilgrim\n\n1. Objection.\n\n2. Object.\n\n3. Object.\n\n4. Object.\n\nThe Pilgrims Progress - In the Similitude of a Dream. THE SECOND PART.\n\nEndnotes\n\nInspired by The Pilgrim's Progress\n\nComments & Questions\n\nFor Further Reading\n\nTIMELESS WORKS. NEW SCHOLARSHIP. EXTRAORDINARY VALUE.\n**From the Pages of The Pilgrim's Progress**\n\nAs I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place, where was a Den, and I laid me down in that place to sleep: And as I slept, I dreamed a Dream.\n\nWhat are the things you seek, since you leave all the World to find them?\n\nIt is a hard matter for a man to go down into the Valley of _Humiliation,_ as thou art now, and to catch no slip by the way.\n\nI will talk of things Heavenly, or things Earthly; things Moral, or \nthings Evangelical; things Sacred, or things Prophane; things past, or \nthings to come; things foreign, or things at home; things more essential \n, or things circumstantial; provided that all be done to our \nProfit.\n\nAlmost five thousand years agone, there were Pilgrims walking to \nthe Coelestial City, as these two honest persons are; and Beelzebub, \n_Apollyon,_ and Legion, with their companions, perceiving by the path \nthat the Pilgrims made, that their Way to the City lay through this \ntown of _Vanity,_ they contrived here to set up a Fair; a Fair, wherein \nshould be sold _all_ Sorts of _Vanity,_ and that it should last all the year \nlong; therefore, at this Fair, are all such merchandizes sold, as \nhouses, lands, trades, places, honours, preferments, titles, countries, \nkingdoms, lusts, pleasures; and delights of all sorts, as whores, \nbawds, wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, \nbodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not?\n\nHanging is too good for him, said Mr. Cruelty.\n\nJOHN BUNYAN \nAFTER A DRAWING FROM THE LIFE BY R WHITE PRESERVED IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM\n\nBARNES & NOBLE CLASSICS\n\nNEW YORK\n\nPublished by Barnes & Noble Books \n122 Fifth Avenue \nNew York, NY 10011\n\nwww.barnesandnoble.com\/classics\n\nThe first part of The Pilgrim's Progress From This World, to That Which is to Come: \nDelivered Under the Similitude _of a_ Dream Wherein is Discovered, the Manner of His \nSetting Out, His Dangerous Journey; _and_ Safe _Arrival_ at the Desired Countrey was \npublished in 1678, and the second part followed in 1684. The present text converts \nthe long \"S\" of Bunyan's English to a modern, short \"S\" throughout but retains most \nother antiquated conventions. The illustrations in this edition appeared in various \neditions of The Pilgrim's Progress published during John Bunyan's lifetime.\n\nPublished in 2005 by Barnes & Noble Classics with new Introduction, Notes, \nBiography, Chronology, Inspired By, Comments & Questions, and For Further Reading.\n\nIntroduction, Notes, and For Further Reading\n\nCopyright @ 2005 by David Hawkes.\n\nNote on John Bunyan, The World of John Bunyan and \nThe Pilgrim's Progress, Inspired by The Pilgrim's Progress, and Comments & Questions \nCopyright \u00a9 2005 by Barnes & Noble, Inc.\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted \nin any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, \nrecording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the \nprior written permission of the publisher.\n\nBarnes & Noble Classics and the Barnes & Noble Classics colophon are \ntrademarks of Barnes & Noble, Inc.\n\nThe Pilgrim's Progress\n\nISBN 1-59308-254-1\n\neISBN : 97-8-141-14329-2\n\nLC Control Number 2004115315\n\nProduced and published in conjunction with: \nFine Creative Media, Inc. \n322 Eighth Avenue \nNew York, NY 10001\n\nMichael J. Fine, President and Publisher\n\nPrinted in the United States of America\n\nQM\n\n3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2\n**John Bunyan**\n\nJohn Bunyan, who described himself as \"a tinker, and a poor man,\" lived in England during a period of great upheaval that included civil war, an epidemic of the plague, the Great Fire of London, and intense religious persecution of dissenters who did not conform with the teachings and liturgy of the Church of England. Bunyan was born near Bedford, in the village of Elstow, in 1628. His father was a tinker who repaired metal household objects such as pans and kettles. Tinkers were generally itinerants, or even gypsies, but the Bunyan family owned a cottage. John was sent to the village school to learn to read and write, although beyond that he was largely self taught. In his spiritual memoir, _Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners_ (1666), he claims to have had a happy childhood, but one that was intermittently tormented by dreams of \"devils and hellish fiends.\" These powerful nightmares were precursors to the visions that motivated his religious conversion years later. Until that time, Bunyan claimed to have been involved in \"all manner of vice and ungodliness.\"\n\nWhen Bunyan was sixteen, his mother and his sister died a month apart, and the young man was conscripted to serve in the Civil War on the side of the Parliamentary Army. Although he did not see combat, he was exposed during that time to the radical Puritan preaching of the period, which encouraged him to break from the Church of England. When his garrison was dissolved, Bunyan moved back to Elstow, married, and took up work as a tinker.\n\nWhen his eldest daughter, Mary, was born blind, Bunyan experienced a spiritual crisis. He became an active member of the nonconformist church St. John's of Bedford, where he began preaching. His simple,straightforward manner of spreading the gospel earned him a devoted following among his peers. His first printed work, Some Gospel Truths Opened, appeared in 1656.\n\nWhen the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell ended and the monar chy was restored in 1660, nonconformist religious sects were perse cuted, and in 1661 Bunyan was arrested for leading a secret religious meeting. He was jailed on a three-month sentence that turned into one that lasted twelve years because he refused to say he would give up preaching. During his imprisonment Bunyan wrote prolifically, producing among other works _Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners_ , The Holy City (1665), and his allegorical masterpiece, The Pilgrim's Progress. Published in 1678, shortly after he was released from a second prison term, this time of six months, The Pilgrim's Progress was an instant success; it remains one of the most translated and reprinted works of all time.\n\nBunyan preached widely in the years that followed. He published more than forty works in his lifetime, including a novel-like story, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman ( 1680); another allegory, The Holy War (1682); and The Second Part of the Pilgrim's Progress (1684). In 1688 John Bunyan contracted pneumonia and died. He was buried alongside other religious dissenters in Bunhill Fields, London.\n**The World of John Bunyan and The Pilgrim's Progress**\n\n**1628**| John Bunyan is born in November in the village of Elstow, England, near the town of Bedford. He is the oldest of the four children of Thomas and Margaret Bunyan, who are tinkers, mending metal ware such as kettles and pans. Although tinkers are generally transients who travel the countryside in search of work, the Bunyans own a cottage and send their son to the village schools. Bunyan has a happy childhood, including games with friends on the town green, yet is plagued by dreams of \"devils and hellish fiends.\" \n---|--- \n **1629-1640** | Charles I dissolves the Parliament of 1628 and will rule without a parliament for the next eleven years. \n **1640**| Charles I convenes what will be known as the Short Parliament but dissolves it in less than a month. Late in the year he convenes the Long Parliament, which will last until 1653. \n **1642**| Civil war breaks out in England; the conflict between Charles I and Parliament will continue until 1645. \n **1644**| Bunyan's mother dies. A month later his sister also dies, and his father remarries a month after that. In November Bunyan joins the Army of the Parliament in the war against Charles I and is stationed in the garrison at Newport Pagnell. John Milton's _Aeropagitica_ is published. \n **1645** | Bunyan does not see combat, but he is exposed to many new ideas, including Puritan tracts. \n **1646**| Parliamentary forces are victorious over those of Charles I. \n **1647**| Bunyan returns to Elstow and works as a tinker. Parliamentary forces kidnap the King. \n **1648**| Bunyan marries his first wife, whose name is unknown; they will have four children. \n **1649** | Charles I is tried and executed. Parliament abolishes the monarchy, and the Commonwealth is declared. \n **1650**| After Bunyan's first child, Mary, is born blind, he reevaluates his life, which he comes to consider sinful and ungodly. \n **1651** | Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan, a work of political philosophy that examines the role of sovereign power. \n **1653** | Joining those who desire a more direct and pared-down form of worship than the Church of England offers, Bunyan affiliates with the Baptist St. John's Church of Bedford and befriends the pastor, John Gifford. After a near-fatal fall from a boat into the Bedford River, Bunyan feels he was saved by God's mercy. Religious suppression of nonconformist groups, such as the Ranters and Levellers, is rampant. The Protectorate is established, with Oliver Cromwell as protector. \n **1655**| Bunyan moves to St. Cuthbert's Street in Bedford and takes a position as deacon of St. John's, where he begins preaching. John Gifford dies. \n **1656**| Bunyan begins to preach beyond St. John's. His first printed work, an attack on Quakers called Some Gospel Truths Opened, appears. \n **1657**| In response to Quaker outrage, he writes a defense entitled A Vindication of Some Gospel Truths Opened. \n **1658**| Bunyan's first wife dies. A Few Sighs from Hell is published. In February Cromwell dissolves Parliament; in August he dies and is succeeded by his son Richard. \n **1659**| Bunyan marries a woman named Elizabeth. His reputation as a powerful preacher grows. The Doctrine of the Law _and_ Grace Unfolded is published. \n **1660** | This momentous year witnesses the end of the Cromwell Protectorate and the restoration of the monarchy of Charles II; the latter is accompanied by a move to unify the country under the Church of England. Independent congregations, such as the ones Bunyan leads, are shut down. When authorities catch him holding a nonconformist meeting in Samsell, he is arrested. \n **1661**| A three-month sentence in the county jail will extend to twelve years, since Bunyan will not agree to abandon nonconformist preaching. Elizabeth pleads with England's Chief Justice to release her husband, but her petition is denied. While in jail, Bunyan makes bootlaces to sell to support his family; he receives visitors and is allowed the occasional day of leave \n| to return to his nearby home. He will write constantly during this time; early in his imprisonment he authors The Holy City and his spiritual memoir, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. John Whiteman and Samuel Fenn are appointed pastors of the Bedford Church. \n **1665**| The Holy City is published. The citizens of London battle an epidemic of plague, which had broken out in late 1664 and will ravage the city until early 1666. \n **1666**| Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners is published. The Great Fire devastates London. \n **1667**| John Milton's _Paradise_ Lost is published. \n **1668**| Bunyan works during the second half of his imprisonment on his best-known book, the allegorical The Pilgrim's Progress. \n **1672** | John Whiteman dies, and Bunyan is appointed pastor while still in prison. King Charles II issues the Declaration of Indulgence to the Nonconformists, and Bunyan is released from prison. Gaining a wider following and the appellation \"Bishop Bunyan,\" he preaches throughout the countryside. \n **1673** | Charles II withdraws the Declaration of Indulgence. \n **1676**| The Strait Gate is published. \n **1677**| Bunyan is returned to prison for six months. \n **1678**| Bunyan's masterpiece, The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come, is published to instant success; ten editions appear in as many years. Translated into more than 200 languages, it remains one of history's most widely read texts. Bunyan will publish close to forty additional works during his lifetime. \n **1680** | The Life and Death of Mr. Badman, considered a sequel to The Pilgrim's Progress, is published. \n **1682**| Another allegorical work, The Holy War, is published. \n **1684**| In an attempt to refute a proliferation of imitations and counterfeit sequels to The Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan publishes The Pilgrim's Progress: The Second Part, the tale of Christian's wife, Christiana. \n **1685** | Worried about religious persecution, Bunyan deeds all he owns to his wife to avoid confiscation of his property. Charles II dies and is succeeded by James II. \n **1686** | A Book for Boys _and_ Girls, in which poems comment on emblematic pictures, is published. \n **1687**| Isaac Newton's _Principia Mathematica_ is published. \n **1688** | After riding from London to Reading in the rain after reconciling a quarreling father and son, Bunyan contracts pneumonia ; he dies on August 31. He is buried in Bunhill Fields, London, alongside other Dissenters of the era. William of Orange lands in England. \n **1689**| James II is deposed, and William and Mary are crowned. Bunyan's unpublished works will continue to be printed in the years that follow.\n**Introduction**\n\nTo understand fully The Pilgrim's Progress, we must remember that it was written in prison. Imprisonment is its major theme, and escape from prison is its primary purpose. Although Bunyan was without a doubt incarcerated in the literal, physical sense while he composed his work, he did not believe that he was truly in jail. He was convinced that, as Richard Lovelace had written in \"To Althea, from Prison\" (1642), \"Stone walls do not a prison make, \/ Nor iron bars a cage,\" and Bunyan echoed the sentiment in his own \"Prison Meditations\" (1665; quoted from The Works of John Bunyan, edited by George Offor, vol. 1, p. 64; see \"For Further Reading\"):\n\nI am, indeed, in prison now \nIn body, but my mind \nIs free to study Christ, and how \nUnto me he is kind.\n\nFor though men keep my outward man \nWithin their locks and bars, \nYet by the faith of Christ I can \nMount higher than the stars.\n\nAs far as Bunyan was concerned, the real prisoners were outside the walls, in the world. The Pilgrim's Progress aims to establish two deeply counterintuitive propositions: that its author is not in jail, and that its readers are. But while Bunyan argues that the world is the prison of the soul, he also offers us a way to escape from the world. The book's subtitle, _From_ This World to That Which Is to Come, indicates our ultimate destination, but the world \"to come\" is to be reached by a way not measurable in space or time. The pilgrim's progress is not a literal journey along a physical road, but an exercise in semiotics: a reinterpretation of the world. As Stanley Fish puts it, Bunyan's work teaches us that \"the truth about the world is not to be found within its own confines or configurations, but from the vantage point of a perspective that transforms it\" _(Self-consuming_ Artifacts, p. 237).\n\nIn the course of his journey the hero, named Christian, learns to understand the world as an allegory. He comes to perceive his experience as a series of signs that point toward nonmaterial, spiritual referents, and this constitutes his liberation. But before he can escape from prison, he must become aware that he is in one. The progress toward an allegorical interpretation of reality is simultaneously a process of alienation from the mundane world of experience. The Pilgrim's Progress shows us a man who becomes a stranger to the world, to the extent of rejecting empirical sense perception, as well as the laws, morality, and behavioral standards of society. The first lesson Christian learns after his conversion is that \"Mr. Worldly Wiseman is an alien.\"\n\nAllegory has often been described as a suitable mode to represent the alienated, objectified character of worldly experience. This line of reasoning originates with Walter Benjamin's seminal analysis of the genre in The Origin of German Tragic _Drama_ (1928). Benjamin argues that allegory's purpose is to teach us that the experiential world\u2014the \"carnal\" or \"fleshly\" dimension, in Bunyan's terms\u2014is fallen into a disharmonious relation with its Creator: \"Allegory itself was sown by Christianity. For it was absolutely decisive for this mode of thought that not only transitoriness, but also guilt should seem evidently to have its home in the province of idols and of the flesh\" (p. 224). Plato had argued that, because the material world is transitory, it is also illusory, and to take empirical appearances for reality thus constitutes a philosophical error. But Christianity introduced an ethical dimension to this argument. From the Christian perspective, taking appearances for reality is not only erroneous, but also sinful, and in The Pilgrim's Progress, understanding this fact is the first step on the way to redemption. This is a paradoxical operation, however, for the process of understanding that creation is alienated from the Creator simultaneously involves the recognition of another, spiritual, realm to which the carnal world points the way. As Benjamin puts it:\n\nIt will be immediately apparent, especially to anyone who is familiar with allegorical textual exegesis, that all of the things which are used to signify derive, from the very fact of their pointing to something else, a power which makes them appear no longer commensurable with profane things, which raises them onto a higher plane, and which can, indeed, sanctify them. Considered in allegorical terms, then, the profane world is both elevated and devalued (p. 175).\n\nThe idea that human beings are strangers in a fallen world is a fundamental tenet of Christianity. But there were also local, historical reasons why Bunyan should have been attracted to the theme of alienation. His contemporary John Milton also found the alienation of the world from its Creator a timely topic for literature, and many critics have remarked upon the thematic and chronological proximity of what Christopher Hill calls \"the two great epics of Biblical Puritanism in defeat\" (The English Bible _and the Seventeenth-century_ Revolution, p. 372): The Pilgrim's Progress (1678) and Paradise Lost (1667). Milton and Bunyan had both fought for the English revolution, the former with the pen, the latter with the sword. Both were imprisoned after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, although Milton's incarceration was brief. Both devoted the succeeding years to the composition of complex theological allegories that explained the defeat of their cause by suggesting that God had temporarily abandoned the world to the machinations of Satan, and both of the resulting narratives claimed to show how it was nevertheless possible to break free of Satanic, alienated perception and achieve what Milton calls \"a Paradise within thee, happier far\" (book 12). Paradise Lost and The Pilgrim's Progress are both works of liberation theology.\n\nThe similarities between them do not extend to form, however. Milton's learned, allusive poetry occupies a quite different aesthetic, and social, stratum from Bunyan's earthy, vernacular prose. Bunyan was not the first poor man to write English literature, but he was the first to write in the language of the poor. If _Paradise_ Lost anatomizes the grandiose despair of the intellectual, The Pilgrim's Progress studies the psychological effects of alienation as they were experienced by ordinary English people. It has often been described as the first English novel, on the grounds that it is an extended, fictional prose narrative featuring a narrator and characters who speak and act independently, but the description is also apt on thematic grounds. The Hungarian philosopher Georg Luk\u00e1cs's famous definition of the novel genre, in The Theory of the Novel, as \"the epic of a world that has been abandoned by God\" fits The Pilgrim's Progress precisely. Unlike the epics of Homer, Virgil, and Milton, Bunyan's story does not concern itself with the actions of divine beings. It is firmly, resolutely earth-bound, and the fantastic, supernatural figures and events it describes are understood to be re-readings of literal, earthly experience. The walking allegorical abstractions who people The _Pilgrim's_ Progress are not visitors from another dimension, such as Homer's Olympus or Milton's heaven. Rather, they reflect Christian's interpretation of reality as a set of signs pointing to referents in the \"world that is to come,\" and the epic \"progress\" he undergoes consists in the recognition of spiritual significance in the alienated, objectified, \"carnal\" world of experience.\n\n# **II**\n\nFor two hundred years, The Pilgrim's Progress was, after the Bible, the most widely read book in the English-speaking world. Its phenomenal popularity indicates that it speaks to the experience of the common people, and historians such as E. P. Thompson have acknowledged it as one of the \"foundation texts of the English working-class movement\" (The Making of the English Working-class, p. 34). This rare ability to speak to the masses is doubtless the product of the author's background. Bunyan has often been charged with exaggerating both the poverty of his childhood and the depravity of his youth in his spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666), but there is little evidence to support these accusations. He was born in 1628, in the village of Elstow near the town of Bedford, and his father was a tinker. According to Bunyan, this constituted \"a low and inconsiderable generation; my father's house being of that rank that is meanest, and most despised of all the families of the land\" (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and A Relation of the Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan, 1987, p. 7). Critics have disputed this characterization, noting that the Bunyan family had been resident in Bedfordshire for generations, and thus do not seem to have belonged to the quasi-pariah, hereditary caste of itinerant tinkers who were often equated with gypsies in early modern England. John Bunyan did follow his father into the trade, however, and it would be surprising if some of the opprobrium attached to traveling tinkers did not rub off on the sedentary practitioners of the craft. The word \"tinker\" remains an epithet in parts of Britain to this day, often used interchangeably with \"pikey,\" a derogatory term for gypsies. When Bunyan's wife appealed on his behalf to the Lord Chief Justice of England, she claimed that \"because he is a tinker, and a poor man; therefore he is despised, and cannot have justice\" (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and A Relation of the Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan, p. 107).\n\nAlthough Bunyan's parents were illiterate, he attended school and learned to read and write, as he puts it, \"according to the rate of other poor men's children\" _(Grace Abounding,_ p. 7). This little learning he \"soon forgot\" on leaving school; literacy was neither required nor expected of a tinker, and the young Bunyan preferred to spend his leisure hours in pursuit of more physical pleasures. Grace Abounding tells us that he spent his days \"in sin,\" risking \"disgrace and open shame,\" and dedicating himself to \"all unrighteousness\" (p. 8). Exactly which vices Bunyan refers to here has been the matter of some dispute. He mentions \"cursing, swearing, lying, and blaspheming,\" but he also castigates himself for such innocuous pleasures as bell ringing and playing the ball game tip-cat on the village green. Such wholesome diversions are at odds with his insistence that \"I did still let loose the reins to my lusts, and delighted in all transgressions against the law of God: so that until I came to the state of marriage I was the very ring-leader of all the youth that kept me company, into all manner of vice and ungodliness\" (p. 8).\n\nThis inconsistency has led some to conclude that Bunyan is sparing his readers' blushes, refusing to titillate, and resting content with hints as to the nature of his more lurid transgressions. He certainly had reason to guard his reputation jealously; Grace Abounding mentions that even after his conversion he was accused of keeping \"my misses, my whores, my bastards, yea, two wives at once\" (p. 76) and that it was \"rumored up and down among the people that I was a witch, a Jesuit, a highwayman, and the like\" (p. 75). Critics generally accept Bunyan's denial of these charges with regard to his life after conversion, but they are divided as to whether there was anything in his youthful experience that might have given them plausibility. Christopher Hill claims that Bunyan led \"a group of wide boys in his village ... there is no escaping the libertine ideas which he records in Grace Abounding, and with which he continued to struggle for the rest of his life\" (The English Bible and the Seventeenth-century Revolution, p. 386). But most earlier commentators, especially the committed Christians who form the majority, wish to limit the young Bunyan's vices to those he explicitly mentions. The problem with this argument is that he can then come to appear as a paranoid spiritual masochist, obsessively fearful of damnation for absurdly trivial sins. This is, in fact, how he has often been portrayed by enlightened liberals in the tradition of Thomas Babington Macaulay.\n\nIt seems most likely that, after his conversion, Bunyan simply did not differentiate between degrees of sinfulness. His entire unregenerate life would have appeared, from his redeemed perspective, utterly depraved, and this would apply to games of tip-cat just as much as to the explicitly sexual \"uncleanness\" that he mentions observing in his companions. The entire phenomenal world was alien to the converted Bunyan, not just those elements within it that moralists identify as sinful. As he puts it in The Strait Gate (1676; quoted from The Works of John Bunyan, edited by Offor, vol. 1, p. 370):\n\nThe world hateth thee if thou be a Christian; the men of the world hate thee; the things of the world are snares for thee, even thy bed and table, thy wife and husband, yea, thy most lawful enjoyments have in them that will certainly sink thy soul to hell, if thou dost not strive against the snares that are in them.\n\nThe point Bunyan wants to establish in his autobiography is that he remained \"shy of women from my first conversion\" (Grace Abounding, p. 77). He is content to allow the individual reader to speculate on what may have happened prior to that event. His formal conversion did not take place until 1653, but he would have been exposed to radical religious ideas long before that. In 1642, when Bunyan was fourteen, civil war broke out between King Charles I and forces under the banner of the Parliament. The reasons for the conflict were complex, and different social groups fought for different causes. Much of the aristocracy and landed gentry resented Charles's refusal to call Parliament for eleven years, his imposition of arbitrary taxes, and his attempt to set up a system of absolute monarchy. Merchants objected to his bestowal of trading monopolies on favorites, and to the costly extravagance of court life. Among the common people there were demands for an extension of the franchise and a redistribution of land. And \"Puritans\" of all classes took issue with the official state Church of England, which they considered repressively hierarchical and overly enamored of quasi-Papist ritual and ornamentation. Such political, economic, and religious ferment must have made some impression on even the heedlessly hedonistic young Bunyan. Bedfordshire was a center of Puritan influence, which may have contributed to the guilt-induced \"fearful dreams,\" \"fearful visions,\" and \"apprehensions of devils and wicked spirits\" (p. 8) that, in Grace Abounding, Bunyan reports experiencing in the midst of his sinful pleasures.\n\nBunyan's mother died in 1644; she was followed a month later by his sister, and his father remarried a month after that. The disruption this presumably caused in his family may have contributed to Bunyan's decision to join the Parliamentary Army in arms against the King. He enlisted in 1644 and remained on active service for three years. It is uncertain whether he fought in any battles\u2014al\u2014though much of his work, especially The Holy War (1682), shows a keen interest in and knowledge of military operations\u2014but we know that he was stationed in the garrison at Newport Pagnell, which was a hotbed of radical opinion throughout the war. During Bunyan's time as a soldier the Parliamentary Army became the primary venue in which the ideas of groups like the Levellers and the Ranters took hold. His teenage years would have been filled with the clamor of voices advocating such startling notions as democracy, free love, and communism, and the impression they made on the sensitive boy was deep and lasting, though by no means unequivocally benign.\n\nThe Civil War ended in 1647 with the defeat of the Royalists and the capture of the King. Bunyan was demobbed the same year and returned to Bedford to follow his former trade and patterns of behavior. The late 1640s and early 1650s were years of convulsive upheaval in the state, and also within the minds of individuals. The execution of King Charles in 1649 permanently divided the main body of revolutionaries into moderate Presbyterians, who advocated retaining a state church and a monarchy, and radical Independents, who favored greater religious toleration and a republic. Power soon passed from the former to the latter, creating a climate favorable to root-and-branch reformation of church, state, and individual morality. The repercussions of these developments reverberated loudly in Bunyan's soul, and between 1647 and 1653 he vacillated wildly in his religious opinions and personal behavior.\n\nThe life of a soldier doubtless provided ample opportunity for vice, and by the time he left the army Bunyan regarded himself as a thoroughly hardened man. His regeneration was inaugurated by his marriage in 1648 to \"a wife whose father was counted godly\" (Grace Abounding, p. 9). The couple quickly had four children, including a girl who was born blind. Like Bunyan himself, his wife was \"as poor as poor might be,\" and her dowry consisted of two religious books, Arthur Dent's The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven ( 1601 ) and Lewis Bayly's The Practice of Piety ( 1612). The first of these, with its pilgrimage motif, clearly influenced The Pilgrim's Progress, but Bunyan tells us only that he \"sometimes\" read the books, finding in them \"some things that were somewhat pleasing to me\" but taking \"no conviction\" from their arguments (p. 9).\n\nThis germinal spiritual education brought Bunyan no relief from the torturing remorse for sin that continued to afflict him, and he began to seek succor in public religious observance. He went through a stage of scrupulous attendance at church and underwent an \"outward reformation\" that astonished his neighbors, \"for this my conversion was as great, as for Tom of Bethlehem to become a sober man\" (Grace Abounding, p. 13). This external change found no correspondence in his soul, however, and Bunyan tells us that he remained \"a poor painted hypocrite\" in spite of his ostensible holiness. In theological terms, he was passing through a phase of \"works righteousness,\" in which he believed that salvation was attainable by obedience to the moral law and participation in religious ceremony. In this condition he fetishized the visible trappings of religion:\n\nI was so overrun with the spirit of superstition, that I adored, and that with great devotion, even all things (both the high place, priest, clerk, vestments, service and what else) belonging to the church; counting all things holy that were therein contained (p. 10).\n\nLacking any subjective correlative, such idolatrous observance inevitably lapsed, and Bunyan periodically returned to his \"wicked life.\" At such times he was tempted by the doctrines of the Ranters, a sect who seemed to occupy the opposite end of the religious spectrum from the respectable churchgoers of his previous acquaintance. The Ranters were antinomian\u2014that is to say, they extrapolated the Calvinist doctrine that God's \"elect\" were predestined for salvation into a belief that such \"saints\" were entirely free of any earthly law, and thus at liberty to practice any vice or hold any opinion that they deemed fit:\n\nI happened to light into several people's company; who though strict in religion formerly, yet were also swept away by these Ranters. These would also talk with me of their ways, and condemn me as legal and dark, pretending that they only had attained to perfection that could do what they would and not sin. 0 these temptations were suitable to my flesh, I being but a young man and my nature in its prime (Grace Abounding, p. 16).\n\nSo Bunyan's initial interest in religion provoked him to ricochet between a strict adherence to the external ceremonies and morality of the church, and an antinomian disavowal of any ethical constraint whatsoever. He was torn, in the language of the day, between \"legalism\" and \"licence.\" His final conversion followed an epiphany by which he came to understand that the terms of this opposition were mutually definitive, so that the apparent contradiction between legalism and licence masked their interdependence, and the two tendencies were revealed as different sides of the same coin. License, in fact, takes for granted the power of the law, and merely claims an exemption from it. The point, however, was to disregard the law entirely in matters of faith. Bunyan achieved this revelation after careful study of Martin Luther's Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians (1535), and it is no exaggeration to say that his entire subsequent life, and especially the doctrines and aesthetic mode of The Pilgrim's Progress, were determined by his interpretation of this book.\n\n# **III**\n\nGrace Abounding depicts Bunyan's discovery of Luther's work as an act of divine Providence. In the midst of his tribulation, \"the God in whose hands are all our days and ways, did cast into my hand, one day, a book of Martin Luther, his comment on the Galatians\" (pp. 34-35). Despite the text's antiquity, Bunyan was amazed to find \"my condition in his experience, so largely and profoundly handled, as if his book had been written out of my heart\" (p. 35). What delighted him was Luther's assertion that it was impossible for human beings to obey the moral law. In fact, Luther argued that the law's purpose was to bring us to a conviction of our own irremediably sinful nature and our inability to please God through our own works. If we can resist the consequent temptation to despair, we are then driven to seek salvation through faith in the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice. This doctrine of \"justification by faith alone\" stimulated in Bunyan a psychological revolution against the vicious circle of sin and remorse that had almost ruined his life:\n\nBesides, [Luther] doth most gravely also in that book debate of the rise of these temptations, namely, blasphemy, desperation, and the like, showing that the law of Moses, as well as the devil, death, and hell, hath a very great hand therein; the which at first was very strange to me, but considering and watching, I found it so indeed. But of all particulars here I intend nothing, only this methinks I must let fall before all men, I do prefer this book of Martin Luther upon the Galatians, (excepting the Holy Bible) before all the books that ever I had seen, as most fit for a wounded conscience (p. 35).\n\nPaul's epistle to the Galatians takes issue with the apostle Peter's opinion that Christians ought to follow the Mosaic law. As Paul points out, this would obviate the need for a new religion, relegating Christianity to the status of a sect within Judaism: \"If righteousness come by the law, then Christ is dead in vain\" (2:21; King James Version). In chapter four, he illustrates the proper relationship between the law of Moses and faith in Christ by means of an \"allegory\":\n\n22: For it is written, that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bond-maid, the other by a freewoman.\n\n23: But he who was of the bondwoman was born after the flesh; but he of the freewoman was by promise.\n\n24: Which things are an allegory: for these are the two covenants; the one from the mount Sinai, which gendereth to bondage, which is Agar.\n\n25: For this Agar is mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth to Jerusalem which now is, and is in bondage with her children.\n\n26: But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all.\n\nThe law is necessary insofar as we are not free, it is the \"schoolmaster\" that brings us to faith by instructing us as to the nature of our sinful condition. But the law is incapable of effecting our salvation; hence the necessity of Christ's sacrifice. This act redeems all humanity from sin, and all that is necessary to be saved is to have faith in this fact. In order to understand Bunyan's allegorical mode in The Pilgrim's Progress we must note here that Paul illustrates this argument by reference to the method of biblical interpretation known as \"typology.\" He reads the Old Testament story of Abraham's two wives, the bondwoman Hagar and the free woman Sarah, as an allegory depicting the New Testament doctrine of justification by faith. To insist on a literalistic reading of the story would be, in Paul's view, to remain ignorant of the difference between the law and the gospel. Paul's epistle thus establishes the connection between literalism and legalism that dominates Bunyan's aesthetic practice. The Pilgrim's Progress insists that we must view the world of the flesh as an extended allegory, and this constant referral of material signs to spiritual meanings is the journey that its hero undertakes.\n\nLike Paul and Bunyan, Luther spent many years in the vain attempt to achieve righteousness through obedience to the law in its civil, moral, and ceremonial guises. The Reformation began with his realization that this was impossible, and that justification before God could be attained only through faith in Christ. This entailed a radical, absolute separation between the fleshly righteousness of the law and the spiritual righteousness of grace: \"But we imagine as it were two worlds, the one heavenly and the other earthly. In these we place these two kinds of righteousness, being separate the one far from the other\" (Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians, reprinted in Selections from His Writings, p. 104). Luther's dichotomy involves the division of every aspect of experience along these lines, and the Commentary constructs a lengthy series of binary oppositions on this basis. These oppositions are so prominent throughout The Pilgrim's Progress that a visual aid may be useful as a mnemonic:\n\nJustice \/ Mercy \nLaw \/ Grace \nWorks \/ Faith \nFlesh \/ Spirit \nType \/ Antitype \nLiteral \/ Allegorical \nOld Man \/ New Man \nMoses \/ Christ \nFirst Adam \/ Second Adam \nOld Testament \/ New Testament \nBody \/ Soul \nActive Righteousness \/ Passive Righteousness \nEarth \/ Heaven \nAlienation \/ Reconciliation \nDeath \/ Life \nDamnation \/ Salvation \nImprisonment \/ Liberty\n\nFor Luther, as for Bunyan, the first terms of these oppositions are all connected to each other, as are the second terms. He emphasizes this unity throughout the Commentary: \"For the flesh or the old man must be coupled with the law and works: the spirit or new man must be joined with the promise of God and his mercy\" (p. 103), and \"such a respect there is between the justified conscience and the law, as is between Christ raised up from the grave, and the grave; and as is between Peter delivered from the prison, and the prison\" (p. 120). Such connections inform the logic of Bunyan's practice in The Pilgrim's Progress, and the subtitle he gave to his A Book for Boys and Girls; or, Temporal Things Spritualized (1686; later titled Divine Emblems; or, Temporal Things Spiritualized) applies equally to his allegorical epic. The figural is coupled with the spiritual and the literal with the fleshly, and the act of interpretation is a journey from one to the other. As well as remembering these analogies, however, we must simultaneously bear in mind the irreducible nature of the contradiction between the first and second terms of these oppositions. Luther insists that a Christian must always be \"putting a difference\" (p. 144) between them. As a result, he or she will perceive a set of meanings in experience that are \"hidden in a mystery, which the world does not know\" (p. 101). It is easy to see why Bunyan would have found ease for his troubled conscience in Luther's words:\n\nWherefore, when you see a man terrified and cast down with the sense and feeling of his sin, say unto him: Brother, thou dost not rightly distinguish; thou placest the law in thy conscience, which should be placed in the flesh. Awake, arise up, and remember that thou must believe in Christ the conqueror of the law and sin. With this faith thou shalt mount up above and beyond the law, into that heaven of grace where is no law or sin (p. 119).\n\nThis is the journey traveled by Christian in The Pilgrim's Progress. He leaves behind the first terms of Luther's oppositions, and \"mounts\" (or walks, in Bunyan's metaphor) to the second. But Luther's uncompromising differentiation between the law and grace was potentially a dangerous doctrine. Such declarations as \"a Christian man, if ye define him rightly, is free from all laws\" (Commentary, p. 112) were seized on by antinomian sects like the Anabaptists and used to justify social revolution and the abandonment of ethical constraints on behavior. Luther regarded this as an egregious misreading of his doctrine, as the Commentary makes clear:\n\nThis we see at this day in the fantastical spirits and authors of sects, which teach nothing, neither can teach anything aright, concerning this righteousness of grace. The words indeed they have taken out of our mouth and writings, and these only do they speak and write. But the thing itself they are not able to deliver and straitly to urge, because they neither do nor can understand it, since they cleave only to the righteousness of the law. Therefore they are and remain exactors of the law, having no power to ascend higher than that active righteousness (p. 106).\n\nLuther argues that the antinomians are just as subject to the law as overt legalists. Their puerile rebellion against the law is its mirror-image ; their behavior is determined by the law just as surely as that of the advocates of works righteousness. Both groups believe that their salvation consists in their actions. For Luther, in contrast, the law occupied a different dimension from salvation, and neither obedience nor disobedience was relevant to justification before God. Bunyan found in Luther's argument the solution to his twin temptations toward legalism and license. Much of his work, especially The Pilgrim's Progress, features fierce attacks on both legalists and antinomians, and Bunyan always contends that the opposition between them is false. Both groups, he tirelessly reminds us, remain under the law, but for Bunyan the only way to salvation is to transcend the sphere of the law altogether.\n\n# **IV**\n\nBunyan's study of Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians was well-timed. Shortly before he encountered Luther, Bunyan had become acquainted with the man who became the single greatest influence on his life, pastor John Gifford, the leader of the Baptist congregation at Bedford. Before his conversion Gifford had lived a notoriously disreputable life, famed for wild drinking and gambling. He had served as a soldier in the Royalist army, and been captured and sentenced to death, but he had escaped from prison. This detail of his mentor's biography evidently impressed itself deeply on Bunyan's mind, as did Gifford's miraculous transformation from despised degenerate to respected congregational elder. Bunyan soon attached himself to Gifford's congregation, and in 1653 he was formally baptized in the River Ouse.\n\nMale members of the congregation who felt moved by the Spirit were encouraged to preach, and Bunyan soon discovered his vocation. He first addressed private assemblies \"though with much weakness and infirmity,\" as he modestly claims in Grace Abounding (p. 68). He learned quickly however, and in 1656 he was appointed to an official and regular preaching post. By all accounts he was an astonishing preacher, even by the standards of an age full of astonishing preachers. His written works, with their pungent emphases, energetic imagery, and rapid-fire repetition give some idea of the impression he must have made, and his fame soon spread throughout southeastern England.\n\nHe therefore inevitably became embroiled in the fierce sectarian disputes that roiled the land during the last years of the interregnum, and the first opponents he encountered were the Quakers. The Quakers Bunyan knew were very different from those of today. George Offor, the great Victorian editor of his Collected Works, goes so far as to note that \"The word 'quakers' must not be misunderstood as referring to the society of friends, but to some deluded individuals calling themselves quakers; the friends were not formed into a society for some years after this was written\" (vol. 2, p. 133). In fact, however, Bunyan fashions the \"Quakers\" into precisely the kind of enemy he required to inaugurate his polemical career. Bunyan viewed, and evidently needed to view, the Quakers as legalistic antinomians. They function in his work as allegorical personifications of the complicity between the law and license, the discovery of which had precipitated Bunyan's conversion.\n\nHis charges were not altogether groundless: Like the Ranters, who were in decline by the mid-1650s, the Quakers believed in the essential goodness of the human soul; they rejected the Calvinist idea of \"total depravity\" that was so important to Bunyan; they believed that their own soul, or \"inner light,\" was a higher authority than the Bible; and they treated the term \"Christ\" as referring to interior qualities within the believer rather than to the historical Jesus of Nazareth. But Bunyan thought that the Quakers were even worse than the Ranters. At least the latter group had openly revealed their depravity by public indulgence in vice; the Quakers had the fiendish cunning to conceal their wickedness behind a screen of outwardly holy, unimpeachably sinless conduct. As Bunyan explains in A Vindication of Gospel Truths (1656):\n\nAnd really I tell thee (reader) plainly, that for the generality, the very opinions that are held at this day by the Quakers, are the same that long ago were held by the Ranters. Only the Ranters had made them threadbare at an alehouse, and the Quakers have set a new gloss upon them again, by an outward legal holiness (Works, vol. 2, p. 183).\n\nBunyan saw the Quakers as combining two kinds of self-righteousness: the happy antinomian faith in their own intrinsic goodness, and the Pharisaical smugness of external legalism. In Some Gospel Truths Opened (1656) he accounts for the attraction they evidently held for many of his neighbors by noting their ability to attract both libertines and legalists. He scorns those \"who at this day are so carried away with the quakers delusions: namely, a company of loose ranters, and light notionists, with here and there a legalist\" (Works, vol. 1, p. 133). Surprising as it may seem to us, this controversy was of enormous public interest and popular influence in revolutionary Bedfordshire. Bunyan entered into a \"pamphlet war\" with a Quaker firebrand named Edward Burroughs, and the passionate debate between these two young men (Bunyan was twenty-eight, Burroughs twenty-three) won widespread attention. The struggle against Quakerism made Bunyan's reputation, and he would return to the terms of this argument throughout his career.\n\nHe was still not free of the terrifying guilt that had tortured him all his life; he would be liberated from that only when physically imprisoned. But the nature of his remorse now changed. He no longer blasphemed or swore, nor did he even indulge in bell-ringing or tip-cat, but he did experience, and submit to, what he calls \"a more grievous and dreadful temptation than before.\" He describes it in Grace Abounding.\n\nAnd that was to sell and part with this most blessed Christ, to exchange him for the things of this life; for any thing: the temptation lay upon me for the space of a year, and did follow me so continually, that I was not rid of it one day in a month, no, not sometimes one hour in many days together, unless I was asleep.... It did always in almost whatever I thought, intermix itself therewith, in such sort that I could neither eat my food, stoop for a pin, chop a stick, or cast mine eye to look on this or that, but still the temptation would come, Sell Christ for this, or sell Christ for that; sell him, sell him. Sometimes it would run in my thoughts not so little as a hundred times together, sell him, sell him, sell him (pp. 35-36).\n\nIt sounds as though every aspect of Bunyan's experience of the world was clouded by an insistent temptation to commodity Christ. He eventually succumbed to this pressure, allowing the thought \"Let him go if he will\" pass through his mind. Meditation on the precedents of Esau, who exchanged his \"birthright\" (a typological figure for redemption) for a \"mess of pottage,\" and Judas, who betrayed Jesus for thirty pieces of silver, firmly convinced him that \"I had sold my Saviour.\" Worse still, he was sure that this \"selling\" of Christ constituted the \"sin against the Holy Ghost\" that Jesus describes as unforgivable, and so he plunged into the deepest depression of his life.\n\nWhat did Bunyan mean by \"selling\" Christ, and why did he fear it more than any other sin? Throughout his life, he was interested in affairs that we would call \"economic,\" although the modern idea that there exists some identifiable object or realm called \"the economy\" that can be segregated from other fields of experience was unknown to him. One of his earliest works, A Few Sighs from Hell (1658), is a lengthy commentary on the parable of the rich man and Lazarus the beggar, in which money becomes a trope for legalism and worldliness in general. One of his latest, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), depicts a trader in unspecified \"commodities,\" whose reprobation is signaled by his blithe ignorance of his own allegorical status. Mr. Badman does not understand that he is predestined to badness, that it is his essence and nature, but rather regards himself as a free subjective agent. As he boasts: \"Now I enjoy my self, and am master of my own ways, and not they of me\" (The Life and Death of Mr. Badman, p. 84). The Pilgrim's Progress features many worldly characters who express a similarly misplaced confidence in their liberty from allegorical constraints. For example, \"By-Ends\" (that is, \"Self-interest\") proclaims, \"This is not my name, but indeed it is a nickname that is given me by some that cannot abide me:\" Christian soon corrects him on this point, observing that \"this name belongs to you more properly than you are willing we should think it doth,\" and he is proved right when By-Ends falls to his death into the silver mine at Lucre Hill.\n\nLike most of his contemporaries, Bunyan connected market behavior with \"covetousness.\" In Christian Behaviour he claims:\n\nIt is covetousness in the seller, that puts him to say of his traffic, it is better than it is, that he may heighten the price of it; and covetousness in the buyer, that prompts him to say worse of a thing than he thinks in his conscience it is (Works, vol. 2, p. 566).\n\nWhat Bunyan considers sinful \"covetousness\" is, today, the very foundation of theoretical and practical economics. We have largely forgotten the ethical objections to the market that were so familiar to Bunyan. He often points, for example, to the biblical texts in which Paul identifies \"covetousness\" with \"idolatry\" (Colossians 3:5, Ephesians 5:5), thus linking market exchange with the adoration of images. Bunyan believed that financial value constituted an artificial, man-made, and thus illusory set of meanings imposed upon the natural, Godly, and thus true significance of the world. As Luther had put it: \"Money is the word of the devil, through which he creates everything in the world, just as God creates through the true word\" (quoted in Shell, Money, Language and Thought, p. 84, note 1).\n\nTo \"sell\" Christ, then, would be to replace this true significance with the false, and it appeared to Bunyan that many of his contemporaries were doing just that. Over the preceding two centuries, the massive influx of American gold into Europe had helped give rise to a money-based, market economy. Any act of market exchange assumes an illusory equivalence between the objects being exchanged, and in a developed market economy this equivalence is expressed through the medium of money. The burgeoning of the market, which rapidly gathered pace after the Restoration, seems to have produced in many people a deeply rooted, almost ineradicable temptation to \"sell\" Christ: \"to exchange him for the things of this life, for any thing.\" This was certainly Bunyan's most terrible and tenacious temptation, and he had to be physically separated from the world before he could be free of it. The Pilgrim's Progress presents Vanity Fair, where Christian is imprisoned and his companion Faithful executed, as the most dangerous territory of all. As Thomas Luxon explains:\n\nChristian basically defines the things of the world and those who credit them as real, as things for sale, indeed things always already sold.... This includes even the very selves who value such things; such people, asserts Christian, sell \"themselves out right\" without even knowing it. The once-born are doomed to the status of commodities-things of this world (Literal Figures, p. 197).\n\nThis connection, lost to us but vital for Bunyan, between financial value and idolatry, explains why the temptation to \"sell\" Christ was so horrifyingly persistent in his mind. His world was visibly being taken over by the false image of money, and its people were turning into living commodities, who sold their labor\u2014that is, themselvesfor money on a daily basis. The animate abstractions who populate The Pilgrim's Progress illustrate Bunyan's reflections on the spiritual consequences of these developments.\n\n# **V**\n\nBunyan's first wife, whose name we do not know, died in 1658, and he remarried a woman named Elizabeth the following year. Elizabeth Bunyan was evidently much younger than her husband; one of the judges to whom she appealed in 1661 remarked that she seemed too young to have four children, and she had to explain that she was their stepmother (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners _and_ A Relation of the Imprisonment _of Mr._ John _Bunyan,_ p. 107). This second marriage eventually produced two children, but not before it was interrupted by Bunyan's arrest and imprisonment. His preaching and pamphleteering had brought him fame throughout southeastern England, but it also attracted the wrong kind of attention. After King Charles II took the throne in 1660, Anglicanism was reestablished as the sole legal religion, dissenters were persecuted under the repressive laws known as the Clarendon Code, and popular, unofficial preachers like Bunyan became obvious targets for the authorities. He was warned of his impending arrest, but he hungered for the martyr's crown. He refused to escape or hide, and when brought to trial he boasted of his intention to repeat his offense at the earliest opportunity. He had been psychologically prepared for this moment by years of meditation on the superiority of faith to the moral law, and he did not shrink from extending this to the civil law of the land. His refusal to cease preaching left the judges no choice. Bunyan was sent to jail where, with brief, irregular intervals of liberty, he remained for the next twelve years.\n\nThis external oppression seems actually to have come as a relief from the more ferocious interior persecution to which Bunyan had previously subjected himself. As he admits in \"Prison Meditations\": \"Here, though in bonds, I have release \/ From guilt, which else would bite\" (quoted in Works, vol. 1, p. 64). The conditions under which he was held varied with the temper of the local authorities and the fluctuations in state policy. Seventeenth-century jails were never pleasant\u2014dirt, disease, and overcrowding caused the death of thousands of incarcerated nonconformists, including Bunyan's Quaker antagonist Edward Burroughs. But Bunyan was generally allowed to have food brought to him from home, to preach to his fellow prisoners, to support his family by making bootlaces, and even to leave the jail periodically, in order to attend church or visit his family. Most important, he was allowed to write. Bunyan consolidated his reputation in jail, partly because his heroic defiance of the law inspired admiration and emulation throughout the nonconformist congregations, but also because of the steady stream of poems, pamphlets, and memoirs that issued from his pen. The most famous of his works to be published while he was in jail was his spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666), which became a model for the religious experience of dissenters throughout England. By the time of his release in 1672, Bunyan was a famous man.\n\nConsiderable public attention therefore focused on the controversy that occupied him during the final months of his incarceration, in which Bunyan came into conflict with another branch of the legalist\/libertine alliance. Edward Fowler, later bishop of Gloucester, was then rector of the parish of Norhill, near Bedford. He had been a Puritan during the interregnum but had turned his coat at the Restoration, conforming to the Anglican Church, and his current position was the reward for his treachery. Such men often rationalized their behavior through the doctrine of Latitudinarianism, which suggested that believers should be allowed \"latitude\" in their faith, and that many doctrinal points were \"things indifferent,\" over which it was permissible to differ. Bunyan, who had spent more than a decade in prison for his refusal to compromise on doctrinal points, was understandably unsympathetic to this position. He was driven into a fury when Fowler published The Design of Christianity in 1671. This book's emphasis on the inherent goodness of man, and its stress on the importance of civility and personal morality in religious practice, seemed to Bunyan to represent the same unholy alliance of legalism and antinomianism he had encountered in the Quakers. Fowler presented Christ as a clubbable English gentleman:\n\nHe was a Person of the Greatest Freedom, Affability, and Courtesie, there was nothing in his Conversation that was at all Austere, Crabbed or Unpleasant. Though he was always serious, yet he was never sour, sullenly Grave, Morose or Cynical; but of a marvelously conversable, sociable and benign temper (quoted in Roger Pooley, \"Plain and Simple: Bunyan's Style,\" in John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, edited by N. H. Keeble).\n\nSuch sentiments have led many critics to find a personification of Fowler in Mr. Worldly Wiseman, who directs Christian out of the way, to the house of Mr. Legality and his \"simpering\" son Civility. In A Defence of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith ( 1672), Bunyan wonders what madness can have provoked \"you, Sir, a pretended minister of the word, so vilely to expose to public view the rottenness of your heart\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 281). He deftly identifies Fowler's assertion of the basic morality of human nature as \"the self same which our late ungodly heretics the Quakers have made such a stir to promote and exalt\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 286), and he includes an appendix juxtaposing quotations from Fowler with corresponding passages from the work of the Quaker William Penn. Fowler gave as good as he got in his reply, Dirt Wip'd Off ( 1672). Uncharitable as it may have been, the vehement tone of the debate attracted public attention, and must have increased the anticipation with which Bunyan's followers anticipated his release.\n\nKing Charles II was no friend to the dissenters, but he saw that he could use them to further his ultimate design of reintroducing Roman Catholicism into England. His Declaration of Indulgence (1672) made it possible to follow religions other than Anglicanism, and thus served the interests of Catholics and dissenters alike. Bunyan was released under its terms and immediately became pastor of his congregation. He resumed preaching with a vigor accumulated during his years in jail, and his sermons rapidly became phenomenally popular. Although he traveled widely, often visited London, and was offered many more prominent positions, he refused to move away from his flock in Bedford, and remained resident there, apparently even continuing to work as a tinker. Royal policy toward dissenters was erratic in the 1670s and '80s; Bunyan continued to be subjected to periodic persecution, and he was imprisoned for a further six months in 1677. It was during this period in jail that, most critics agree, he finished writing the first part of The Pilgrim's Progress, which he had probably begun in 1668. Bunyan eventually decided to publish it, following lengthy consultation with religious friends and elders, in 1678.\n\nAlthough the naturalism of The Pilgrim's Progress is unprecedented, in many ways it represents the culmination of a lengthy, though largely subterranean, tradition of popular English literature. The anonymous The _Pylgremage_ of the Sowle (1483) describes \"a full marueylous dreme\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 33) and features a pilgrim who carries a \"scrip\" and a \"burden,\" and who is put on trial and examined by the figures of \"Justice\" and \"Mercy.\" William Langland's The Vision of Piers Plowman (c.1370) uses the dream motif and allegorical style, and also employs the voice of the dispossessed to protest against economic oppression. One of the few books we know Bunyan read, Arthur Dent's The Plaine Man's Pathway to Heaven ( 1601 ), uses the pilgrimage metaphor and contains strident attacks on the market economy. Works like Robert Bruen's The Pilgrim's Practice (1621) and Thomas Taylor's The Pilgrim's _Profession_ (1624) show how deeply engrained in the English consciousness were the basic techniques and assumptions of Bunyan's masterpiece. Richard Barnard's The Isle of Man (1627) depicts a lengthy trial featuring a judge called \"Sir Worldly Wise;\" and such figures as \"Mistress Heart,\" \"Sir Luke Warm,\" and \"Sir Silly.\" The real achievement of The Pilgrim's Progress is not originality but comprehensiveness; it is the summation and apex of a centuries-old set of ideas and beliefs.\n\nAs such, it could not help but strike a chord in the popular mind. A second edition was published in the same year as the first, and a third, with considerable additions, the following year. The book went through eleven editions in Bunyan's lifetime and was translated into every major language of western Europe. It was especially popular in New England, where the inhabitants already thought of themselves as \"pilgrims;\" and after Bunyan's death it was carried to the ends of the earth by the missionaries who followed in the wake of the British empire. It has never been out of print, and in all probability it is the most widely influential book ever written in English.\n\nFor the last decade of his life, Bunyan was in great demand as both preacher and author. He composed a companion volume to The Pilgrim's Progress, which traces the path of the reprobate to hell, entitled The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680). The title character is a personification of Vanity Fair; he represents the market economy, as well as the general nature of sin, and in fact Bunyan comes close to equating the two. A more closely focused psychomachia, The Holy War (1682), recasts the English Civil War as a battle for the town of Mansoul, fought between the forces of Emmanuel and the Diabolonians. By this time, numerous imitations and even counterfeit sequels to The Pilgrim's Progress were circulating, and Bunyan responded by publishing his own Second Part in 1684. This work deals with the adventures of the original pilgrim's wife, Christiana, and her retinue of children, friends, and guides. It is sometimes considered as a feminization of the masculine first part. Bunyan had opposed a suggestion that women should be allowed to preach in his church, and the second part includes regular reference to the weakness of women. It would be a mistake, however, to read Christiana too literally, as simply designating the female gender. For Bunyan, a wife symbolized the church, and whereas part one examines the development of the individual soul, part two deals with the salvation of the collective believer, or congregation. The Song of Solomon was believed to depict the church through the metaphor of a \"bride,\" and the vision of a woman fleeing in the wilderness in Revelation 12:14 was also taken as a type of the congregation. Bunyan's own Christian Behaviour (1663) describes a wife as \"the figure of a church\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 560), and it is as such that Christiana is best regarded. The characters in part two do not generally personify abstract qualities, as they do in part one, but seem rather to represent character types drawn from Bunyan's pastoral experience. Furthermore, Bunyan skillfully manipulates the allegory, so that his figures become progressively more free from their allegorical confines as they approach the celestial city. Feeble-mind, for example, asks for his feeble mind to be buried in a dunghill.\n\nThis shift of emphasis from internal, personal struggle to the practical issues faced by a spiritual guide reflects the fact that part two was written while Bunyan was at liberty to practice his pastoral duties. He continued to do so until the end of his life, and they included interventions in disputes among the faithful as well as regular preaching. In 1688, one such mission took him on a journey from London to Reading, where he successfully reconciled a disinherited son with his estranged father. During the ride back to the capital he was caught in a heavy storm, as a result of which he contracted pneumonia, and he died three weeks later at a friend's house in Holborn. A statue marks the spot today. It is invisible to pedestrians, being set into an alcove two stories above street level, but Bunyan stares directly into the eyes of the passengers on the top deck of the number sixty-eight bus, as they make their painful, halting progress down Kingsway toward the Strand.\n\nDavid Hawkes is Associate Professor of English at Lehigh University. He is the author of Idols of the Marketplace (Palgrave, 2001 ) and Ideology (Routledge, second edition, 2003). His work has appeared in Milton Studies, The Nation, Times Literary Supplement, Journal of the History of Ideas, Huntingdon Library Quarterly, and Studies in English Literature. Professor Hawkes recently received a long-term fellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities to work on a book-length history and analysis of the Faust myth.\n\n**The Author's Apology for his Book.**\n\n**_W_** hen at the first I took my Pen in hand, \nThus for to write;1 did not understand \nThat I at all should make a tittle Book \nIn such a mode: Nay, I had undertook \nTo make _another;_ which, when _almost_ done, \nBefore I was _aware, I_ this begun.\n\nAnd thus it was: I writing of the _Way_ 1 \nAnd Race of Saints in this our Gospel-day, \nFell suddenly into _an Allegory_ 3 \nAbout their Journey, _and_ the Way to Glory, \nIn more than twenty things, which I set down; \nThis done, I twenty more had in my crown, \nAnd they _again_ began to multiply, \nLike sparks that from the coals of fire do fly. \nNay then, thought I, if that you breed so fast, \n_I'll put you_ by yourselves, lest you _at_ last \nShould prove ad infinitum, _and_ eat out \nThe Book that I _already am about._\n\nWell, so I did; but yet I did not think \nTo show to _all_ the World my Peri _and_ Ink \nIn such _a_ mode; I only thought to make \nI knew not what: nor did I undertake \nThereby to please my Neighbour; no not I, \nI did it mine ownself to gratifie.\n\nNeither did I but vacant seasons spend \nIn this my scribble; nor did I intend \nBut to divert my self in doing this, \n_From_ worser _thoughts,_ 4 which make me do _amiss._\n\nThus I set _Pen_ to Paper with delight, \nAnd quickly had my thoughts in black _and_ white. \nFor having now my Method by the end, \n_Still as I pull'd, it came \u00b0; and so I penn'd_ \n_It down; until it came at last to be_ \n_For length and breadth, the bigness which you see._\n\n_Well, when I had thus put mine ends \u00b0 together,_ \n_I shew'd them others, that I might see whether_ \n_They would condemn them, or them justify:_ \n_And some said, let them live; some, let them die;_ \n_Some said, John, print it; others said, Not so._ \n_Some said, It might do good, others said, No._\n\n_Now was I in a straight, and did not see_ \n_Which was the best thing to be done by me:_ \n_At last I thought, Since ye are thus divided,_ \n_I print it will; and so the case decided._\n\n_For, thought I, Some, I see, would have it done,_ \n_Though others in that Channel do not run:_ \n_To prove then who advised for the best,_ \n_Thus I thought fit to put it to the test._\n\n_I further thought, if now I did deny_ \n_Those that would have it thus, to gratifie;_ \n_I did not know but hinder them I might_ \n_Of that which would to them be great delight._ \n_For those that were not for its coming forth,_ \n_I said to them, Offend you, I am loth;_ \n_Yet since your Brethren pleased with it be,_ \n_Forbear to judge, till you do further see._\n\n_If that thou wilt not read, let it alone;_ \n_Some love the meat, some love to pick the bone:_ \n_Yea, that I might them better palliate,_ _\u00b0_ \n_I did too with them thus Expostulate:_\n\n_May I not write in such a stile as this?_ \n_In such a method too, and yet not miss_ \n_Mine end, thy good? why may it not be done?_\n\n_**Still as I pull'd, it came** Keeble notes that \"the image is of a spinner pulling thread_ _from the distaff\" (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 264; see \"For Further Reading\")._ _Bunyan is \"spinning a yarn\";_ _**mine ends** The \"ends\" of the yarn or thread produced_ _by the spinner, as well as \"purposes\" and \"products of my labor\"; **palliate** The_ _ninth (1684) and subsequent editions have \"moderate.\"_\n\n_Dark Clouds bring Waters,_ _5_ _when the bright bring none._ \n_Yea, dark or bright, if they their Silver drops_ \n_Cause to descend; the Earth, by yielding Crops,_ \n_Gives praise to both, and carpeth_ _\u00b0_ _not at either,_ \n_But treasures up the Fruit they yield together;_ \n_Yea, so commixes both, that in her Fruit_ \n_None can distinuish this from that; they suit_ \n_Her well, when hungry: but if she be full,_ \n_She spues out both, and makes their blessings null._\n\n_You see the ways the Fisher-man doth take_ \n_To catch the Fish; what Engines doth he make?_ \n_Behold how he engageth all his Wits;_ \n_Also his Snares, Lines, Angles, Hooks, and Nets:_ \n_Yet Fish there be, that neither Hook, nor Line,_ \n_Nor Snare, nor Net, nor Engine can make thine;_ \n_They must be grop't for, and be tickled too,_ \n_Or they will not be catch't, what e're you do._\n\n_How doth the Fowler seek to catch his Game_ \n_By divers means, all which one cannot name?_ \n_His Gun, his Nets, his Lime-twigs, \u00b0 light and bell:_ \n_He creeps, he goes, he stands; yea, who can tell_ \n_Of all his postures, Yet there's none of these_ \n_Will make him master of what Fowls he please._ \n_Yea, he must Pipe and Whistle, to catch this,_ \n_Yet if he does so, that Bird he will miss._ \n_If that a Pearl may in a Toad's head dwell,_ _6_ \n_And may be found too in an Oyster-shell;_ \n_If things that promise nothing, do contain_ \n_What better is than Gold; who will disdain,_ \n_(That have an Inkling of it,) there to look,_ \n_That they may find it? Now my little Book,_ \n_(Though void of all those paintings that may make_ \n_It with this or the other Man to take)_ \n_Is not without those things that do excel_ \n_What' do in brave,_ _\u00b0_ _but empty, notions dwell._\n\n_**carpeth** Complains; spues Spews; **Lime-twigs** Traps to catch birds; **What** Which;_ \n_**brave** Ostentatious._\n\nWell, yet I am not fully satisfied, \nThat this your Book will stand when soundly try'd.\n\nWhy, what's the matter! it is dark, what tho'?\u00b0 \nBut it is feigned: \u00b0 What of that I tro?' \nSome men by feigning words, as dark as mine, \nMake truth to spangle, and its rayes to shine. \nBut they want solidness: Speak man thy mind: \nThey drown the weak; Metaphors make us blind.\n\nSolidity, indeed, becomes the Pen \nOf him that writeth things Divine to men: \nBut must I needs want solidness, because \nBy Metaphors I speak; Was not God's Laws, \nHis Gospel-Laws, in older time held forth \nBy Types, Shadows and Metaphors? Yet loth \nWill any sober man be to find fault \nWith them, lest he be found for to assault \nThe highest Wisdom: No, he rather stoops, \nAnd seeks to find out what by pins and loops, \nBy Calves; and Sheep; by Heifers, and by Rams, \nBy Birds, and Herbs, and by the blood of Lambs, \u00b0 \nGod speaketh to him: And happy is he \nThat finds the light, and grace that in them be.\n\nBe not too forward therefore to conclude \nThat I want solidness; that I am rude: \nAll things solid in shew, not solid be; \u00b0 \nAll things in parables despise not we, \nLest things most hurtful lightly we receive; \nAnd things that good are, of our souls bereave.\n\nMy dark and cloudy words they do but hold \nThe Truth, as Cabinets inclose the Gold.\n\n**what tho'?** So what?; feigned Fictional; **What of that I tro?** What do I care about \nthat?; **pins and loops ... Lambs** The first in a series of Old Testament types (see \nendnote 9 to part one); **All things ... not solid be** Not everything that appears substantial \nis truly so.\n\nThe Prophets used much by Metaphors \nTo set forth Truth; Yea, whoso considers \nChrist, his Apostles too, shall plainly see, \n_That Truths to this day in such Mangles be._\n\n_Am I afraid to say that holy Writ_ \n_Which for its Style and Phrase puts down \u00b0 all Wit,_ \n_Is every where so full of all these things,_ \n_(Dark Figures, Allegories) yet there springs_ \n_From that same Book, that lustre, and those rays_ \n_Of light, that turn our darkest nights to days._\n\n_Come, let my Carper \u00b0 to his Life now look,_ \n_And find There darker lines than in my Book_ \n_He findeth any: Yea, and let him know,_ \n_That in his best things there are worse lines togo. 10_\n\n_May we but stand before impartial men, \u00b0_ \n_To his poor One, r durst_ _\u00b0_ _adventure Ten,_ \n_That they will take my meaning in these lines_ \n_Far better than his Lies in Silver Shrines. \u00b0_ \n_Come, Truth, altho' in Swaddling-clouts, I find_ \n_Informs the Judgment, rectifies the mind;_ \n_Pleases the Understanding, makes the Will_ \n_Submit; the Memory too it doth fill_ \n_With what doth our Imagination \u00b0 please;_ \n_Likewise it tends our troubles to appease._\n\n_Sound words I know,_ Timothy _is to use, 11_ \n_And old Wives Fables he is to refuse;_ \n_But yet grave Paul, him no where doth forbid_ \n_The use of Parables; in which lay hid_ \n_That Gold, those Pearls, and precious stones that were_ \n_Worth digging for; and that with greatest care._\n\n_Let me add one word more. 0 man of Godr\u00b0 \u00b0_ \n_Art thou offended? dost thou wish I had_ \n_Put forth my matter in another dress,_ \n_Or that I had in things been more express?_ \nThree things let me propound, then I submit \nTo those that are my betters, as is fit.\n\n**Mantles** Cloaks; **puts down** Surpasses; **Carper** Complainer; **impartial men** An ironic reference to legal trial by jury; durst Dare; **Silver Shrines** Reference to the altars to Diana of Ephesus, mentioned in the Bible, Acts 19:24; **Imagination** The mental faculty of creating images; **man of God!** A religious person, not necessarily an ordained minister.\n\n_1. I find not that I am denied the use_ \n_Of this my method, so I no abuse_ _12_ \n_Put on the Words, Things, Readers, or be rude_ _\u00b0_ \n_In handling Figure, or Similitude,_ \n_In application; but, all that I may,_ \n_Seek the advance of Truth, this or that way:_ \n_Deny'd, did I say? Nay, I have leave,_ \n_Example too, and that from them that have_ \n_God better pleased by their words or ways,_ \n_Than any man that breatheth now a-days_ \n_Thus to express my mind, thus to declare_ \n_Things unto thee, that excellentest are._\n\n_2. I find that men (as high_ _\u00b0_ _as Trees) will write_ \n_Dialogue-wise;_ _13_ _yet no man doth them slight,_ \n_For writing so: Indeed if they abuse_ \n_Truth, cursed be they, and the craft they use_ \n_To that intent; But yet let Truth be free_ \n_To make her salleys upon Thee, and Me._ \n_Which way it pleases God: For who knows how,_ \n_Better than he that taught us first to Plough,_ _\u00b0_ \n_To guide our Mind and Pens for his Design?_ \n_And he makes base things usher in Divine._\n\n_3. I find that holy Writ in many places_ \n_Hath semblance with this method, where the cases_ \n_Do call for one thing, to set forth another;_ _\u00b0_ \n_Use it I may then, and yet nothing smother_ \n_Truth's golden Beams; Nay, by this method may_ \n_Make it cast forth its rays as light as day._\n\n_And now, before I do put up \u00b0 my Pen,_ \n_I'll shew the profit of my Book, and then_ \n_Commit both thee and it unto that hand_ \n_That pulls the strong down, and makes weak ones stand. \u00b0_\n\n**rude** Crude; high Eminent; **Plough** That is, to prepare the figurative soil of the mind to receive the seed of the gospel; **the cases ... set forth another** In other words, the Bible also uses imagery; put up Put away; **that hand ... weak ones stand** The hand of God reverses earthly hierarchies; Bunyan was always interested in the idea of mundus inversus, the\" world turned upside down\"\n\n_This Book it chalketh out before thine eyes_ \n_The man that seeks the everlasting Prize;_ \n_It shews you whence he comes, whither he goes,_ \n_What he leaves undone; also what he does:_ \n_It also shews you how he runs, and runs_ \n_Till he unto the Gate of Glory comes._\n\n_It shows too, who set out for life amain, \u00b0_ \n_As if the lasting Crown they would attain:_ \n_Here also you may see the reason why_ \n_They lose their labour, \u00b0 and like Fools do die._\n\n_This book will make a Traveller of thee, \u00b0_ \n_If by its Counsel thou wilt ruled be;_ \n_It will direct thee to the Holy Land, \u00b0_ \n_If thou wilt its Directions understand:_ \n_Yea, it will make the slothful, active be;_ \n_The Blind also delightful things to see._\n\n_Art thou for something rare, and profitable?_ \n_Wouldest thou see a Truth within a Fable?_ \n_Art thou forgetful? wouldest thou remember_ \n_From New-year's-day to the last of December?_ \n_Then read my fancies, they will stick like Burs,_ \n_And may be to the Helpless, Comforters._\n\n_This Book is writ in such a Dialect,_ \n_As may the minds of listless men affect:_ \n_It seems a Novelty, and yet contains_ \n_Nothing but sound and honest Gospel-strains._\n\n_Would'st thou divert thyself from Melancholy?_ \n_Would'st thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly?_ \n_Would'st thou read Riddles, and their Explanation?_ \n_Or else be drownded in thy Contemplation?_ \nDost thou love picking meat?\u00b0 Or wouldst thou see \nA man i' th' Clouds, and hear him speak to thee?\n\n **amain** Strongly; **lose their labour** Waste their effort; **This book ... of thee** As Stanley \nFish, in Self-consu ming Artifacts, and others have noted, the real action of The Pilgrim's \nProgress takes place within the mind of the reader; **the Holy Land** A good \nexample of a biblical \"type\": The land of Canaan, promised to the Israelites in the \nOld Testament, is a prefiguration of the kingdom of Heaven; **picking meat** Dainty \nfood.\n\n_ \nWould'st thou be in a Dream, and yet not sleep? \nOr, wouldest thou in a moment laugh, and weep? \nWouldest thou lose thyself, and catch no harm? \nAnd find thyself\u00b0 again without a charm?\u00b0 \nWould'st read thyself, \u00b0 and read thou know'st not what, \nAnd yet know, whether thou art blest or not, \u00b0 \nBy reading the same lines? 0 then come hither, \nAnd lay my Book, thy Head, and Heart together._\n\nJOHN BUNYAN.\n\n**lose thyself ... find thyself** The reader will lose his \"old man\" and find his \"new man\"; **charm** Magic spell; **read thyself** Bunyan stresses again that the landscape of the book is internal; **blest or not?** Readers' responses to the work will determine whether they are members of the elect or reprobate.\n**_The Pilgrims Progress_**\n\n**In the Similitude of a Dream**.\n\n**A** s I walked through the wilderness of this world,\u00b0 I lighted on a certain place, where was a Den,\u00b0 and I laird me down in that place to sleep: And as I slept, I dreamed a Dream.\u00b0 I dreamed, and behold I saw a Man' cloathed with rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from' his own house, a Book in his hand, and a great Burden\u00b0 upon his back. I looked, and saw him open the Book, and read therein; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying, What shall I do?\n\nThe Jail.\n\nIsa. 64. 6.\n\nLuke 14.33.\n\nPsalm 38. 4.\n\nHab. 2. 2.\n\nActs 16. 29, 30.\n\nHis Outcry.\n\nActs 2. 37.\n\nIn this plight therefore he went home, and refrained himself as long as he could, that his wife and children should not perceive his distress; but he could not be silent long, because that his trouble increased: Wherefore at length he brake\u00b0 his mind to his wife and children; and thus he began to talk to them: 0 my dear Wife, said he, and you the Children of my bowels, I your dear friend am in myself undone, \u00b0 by reason of a Burden that lieth hard upon me: moreover, I am for certain informed, that this our City will be burned with fire from Heaven; in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee my wife, and you my sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin, except (the which yet I see not) some Way of escape may be found, whereby we may be delivered. At this his relations were sore amazed; not for that they believed that what he had said to them was true, but because they thought that some frenzy distemper\u00b0 had got into his head; therefore it drawing towards night, and they hoping that sleep might settle his brains, with all haste they got him to bed: But the night was as troublesome to him as the day; wherefore, instead of sleeping, he spent it in sighs and tears. So when the morning was come, they would know how he did; he told them worse and worse; he also set to talking to them again, but they began to be hardened; they also thought to drive away his distemper by harsh and surly carriages to him: Sometimes they would deride, sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would quite neglect him: Wherefore he began to retire himself to his Chamber, to pray for and pity them; and also to condole his own misery: He would also walk solitarily in the fields, sometimes reading and sometimes praying; and thus for some days he spent his time.\n\n**the wilderness of this world** The alien nature of the earthly environment is established at the outset; **Den** Cave, but representing the prison in which Bunyan had his \"dream\"; **Dream** Bunyan will emulate such biblical interpreters of dreams as Joseph (Genesis 41) and Daniel (Daniel 2); **a Man** At this stage he has given no name; after his conversion we learn that his previous name had been \"Graceless\"; **from** Turned away from; **Burden** According to Keeble (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 265), \"The rags signify the inadequacy of man's own moral effort ... and the burden the guilt of sin which that effort cannot remove\"; **brake** Opened; **in myself undone** The man's \"self\" has undergone a split; he has become alien to his \"self.\"\n\nThis World.\n\nHe knew no Way of Escape as yet.\n\nCarnal Physick for a sick Seoul.\n\nNow I saw, upon a time, when he was walking in the fields, that he was (as he was wont) reading in his Book, and greatly distressed in his mind: and as he read, he burst out, as he had done before, crying, What shall 1 do to be saved?\n\nActs 16.30, 31.\n\nI saw also that he looked this way, and that way, as if he would run; yet he stood still, because (as I perceived) he could not tell which way to go. I looked then, and saw a Man named Evangelist coming to him, and asked, Wherefore dost thou cry?\n\nHe answered, Sir, I perceive by the Book in my hand, that I am condemned to die, and after that to come to Judgment; and I find that I am not willing to do the first, nor able to do the second.\n\nHeb. 9. 27.\n\nJob 16. 21, 22.\n\nEzek. 22.14.\n\n**frenzy distemper** Feverish illness.\n\nThen said Evangelist, Why not willing to die, since this life is attended with so many evils? The man answered, Because I fear that this Burden that is upon my back, will sink me lower than the grave; and I shall fall into Tophet.\u00b0 And, Sir, if I be not fit to go to Prison, I am not fit to go to Judgment, and from thence to Execution; and the thoughts of these things make me cry.\n\nIsa. 30. 33.\n\nThen said Evangelist, If this be thy condition, Why standest thou still? He answered, Because I know not whither to go. Then he gave him a _Parchment Roll_ ,\u00b0 and there was written within, Fly from the Wrath to come.\n\nConviction of the Necessity offlying. Mat. 3. 7.\n\nThe Man therefore read it, and looking upon Evangelist very carefully, said, Whither must I fly? Then said Evangelist, pointing with his finger over a very wide field, Do you see yonder Wicket Gate? The man said, No: Then said the other, Do you see yonder Shining Light? He said, I think I do. Then said Evangelist, Keep that Light in your eye, and go up directly thereto, so shalt thou see the Gate; at which, when thou knockest, it shall be told thee what thou shalt do. So I saw in my dream that the Man began to run: Now he had not run far from his own door, but his Wife and Children perceiving it, began to cry after him to return; but the Man put his fingers in his ears, and ran on crying, Life! Life! Eternal Life! So he looked not behind him, but fled towards the middle of the Plain.\n\nMat. 7.13,14.\n\nPsal. 119. 105.\n\n2 Pet. 1. 19.\n\nChrist and the Way to him, cannot be found without the Word.\n\nLuke 14. 26.\n\nGen. 19. 17.\n\nThe Neighbours also came out to see him run, and as he ran some mocked, others threatened, and some cried after him to return; Now among those that did so, there were two that were resolv'd to fetch him back by force. The name of the one was Obstinate, and the name of the other Pliable.\u00b0 Now by this time the Man was got a good distance from them; but however, they were resolved to pursue him, which they did, and in a little time they overtook him. Then said the Man, Neighbours, Wherefore are you come? They said, To persuade you to go back with us; but he said, That can by no means be: You dwell (said he) in the City of Destruction, (the place also where I was born) I see it to be so:\u00b0 And dying there, sooner or later, you will sink lower than the grave, into a place that burns with Fire and Brimstone: Be content, good neighbours, and go along with me.\n\nJer. 20. 10.\n\nThey that fly from the Wrath to - come are a r gazing stock to the world. Obstinate , and Pliable follow him.\n\n**Tophet** Hell. Compare Milton's Paradise Lost (book 1, line 404); **Parchment Roll** This convinces the man that he needs to escape from the world; it thus represents his assurance of elect status; **Shining Light** The Word, which will show the way to Christ. Compare, on page 345, the endnote to \"very well\"; **Obstinate** ... **Pliable** The first appearance of allegorical figures; Christian perceives the world as an allegory only after he has been convinced of the need to escape from it.\n\nCHRISTIAN NO SOONER LEAVES THE WORLD BUT MEETS \n _EVANGELIST,_ WHO LOVINGLY HIM GREETS \nWITH TIDINGS OF ANOTHER: AND DOTH SHEW \nHIM HOW TO MOUNT TO THAT FROM THIS BELOW.\n\nWhat, said Obstinate, and leave our Friends and our Comforts behind us!\n\nYes, said Christian, (for that was his name)\u00b0 because that all which you shall forsake, is not worthy to be compared with a little of that, that I am seeking to enjoy; and if you will go along with me, and hold it, you shall fare as I myself; for there where I go, is enough and to spare; come away and prove\" my words.\n\n2 Cor. 4. 18. Rom. 8.18.\n\nLuke 9. 62.\n\nObst. What are the things you seek, since you leave all the World to find them?\n\nChr. I seek an Inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away: And it is laid up in Heaven, and safe there, to be bestowed, at the time appointed, on them that diligently seek it. Read it so, if you will, in my Book.\n\n1 Pet. 1. 4. Heb. 11. 16.\n\nObst. Tush, said Obstinate, away with your Book; will you go back with us, or no?\n\nChr. No, not I, said the other; because I have laid my hand to the Plough.\n\nLuke 15. 7.\n\nObst. Come then, neighbour Pliable, let us turn again, and go home without him; There is a Company of these craz'd-headed coxcombs,\u00b0 that when they take a fancy by the end, are wiser in their own eyes than seven men that can render a Reason\n\nPli. Then said Pliable, Don't revile; if what the good Christian says, is true, the things he looks after\u00b0 are better than ours; my heart inclines to go with my Neighbour.\n\nObst. What! more Fools still? Be ruled by me, and go back; who knows whither such a brain-sick fellow will lead you? Go back, go back and be wise.\n\n**I see it to be so He** now regards his home town as an image; **for that was his name** Christian is so called only after he has recognized the allegorical nature of his surroundings; **prove** Test; **coxcombs** Fools; **looks after** Looks for, searches after.\n\n_Chr_. Nay, but do thou come with me, neighbour Pliable; there are such things to be had which I spoke of, and many more Glories besides; if you believe not me, read here in this Book, and for the truth of what is express'd therein, behold all is confirmed by the Blood of him that made it.\n\nChristian and Obstinate pull for Pliable's Soul.\n\nHeb. 9.17, i8, 19, 20, 21.\n\nPli. Well, neighbour Obstinate, (said Pliable) I begin to come to a point, I intend to go along with this good man, and to cast in my Lot with him; but, my good companion, do you know the way to this desired place?\n\nPliable contented to go with Christian.\n\nChr. I am directed by a man whose name is Evangelist, to speed me to a little Gate that is before us, where we shall receive instructions about the Way.\n\n_Pli_. Come then, good neighbour, let us be going. Then they went both together.\n\n_Obst_. And I will go back to my place, said Obstinate: I will be no companion of such misled fantastical fellows.\n\nObstinate goes railing back.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that when Obstinate was gone back, Christian and Pliable went talking over the plain; and thus they began their discourse.\n\nTalk between Christian and Pliable.\n\nChr. Come, neighbour Pliable, how do you do? I am glad you are persuaded to go along with me; and had even Obstinate himself but felt what I have felt of the Powers and Terrors of what is yet unseen,o he would not thus lightly have given us the back.\n\nPH. Come, neighbour Christian, since there are none but us two here, tell me now further, what the things are? and how to be enjoyed, whither we are going?\n\nChr. I can better conceive of them with my Mind, than speak of them with my Tongue: But yet since you are desirous to know, I will read of them in my Book.\n\nGod's things unspeakable.\n\nPli. And do you think that the words of your Book are certainly true?\n\nChr. Yes verily, for it was made by him that cannot lye.\n\nTit. i. a.\n\n**the Powers ... unseen** As the subtitle puts it, Christian has already begun his journey \"from this world to that which is to come.\"\n\nPli. Well said, what things are they?\n\nChr. There is an endless Kingdom to be inhabited, and everlasting Life to be given us, that we may inhabit that Kingdom for ever.\n\nIsa. 45. 17. John 10. 27, 28,29.\n\nPli. Well said; and what else?\n\nChr. There are Crowns of Glory to be given us; and Garments that will make us shine like the Sun in the firmament of Heaven.\n\n2 Tim. 4. 8. Rev. 22. 5. Mat. 13. 43.\n\nPli. This is very pleasant; and what else?\n\nChr. There shall be no more crying, nor sorrow; for he that is Owner of the place will wipe all tears from our eyes.\n\nPli. And what company shall we have there?\n\nIsa.15.8. Rev. 7. 16, 17. ch. 21. 4.\n\nChr. There we shall be with Seraphims, and Cherubims,\u00b0 Creatures that will dazzle your eyes to look on them: There also you shall meet with thousands, and ten thousands that have gone before us to that place; none of them are hurtful, but loving and holy, every one walking in the sight of God, and standing in his presence with acceptance for ever: In a word, there we shall see the Elders with their golden Crowns: There we shall see the Holy Virgins with their golden Harps: There we shall see men,\u00b0 that by the World were cut in pieces, burnt in flames, eaten of beasts, drowned in the Seas, for the Love that they bare to the Lord of the place; all well, and cloathed with Immortality, as with a garment.\n\nIsa. 6. z. 1 Thes. 4. 16,\n\n17. Rev. 5. m.\n\nRev. 4. 4. Rev. 14. 1, 2, 3, 4,5 5 John 12. 25.\n\n2Cor.5.2,3,5.\n\nPli. The Hearing of this is enough to ravish one's heart; but are these things to be enjoyed? How shall we get to be Sharers thereof?\n\nChr. The Lord the Governor of the country, hath recorded that in this Book, the substance of which is, if we be truly willing to have it, he will bestow it upon us freely.\n\nIsa. 55. 12. John 7. 37. John 6. 37. Rev.21.6. Rev. 22. 7.\n\nPli. Well, my good companion, glad am I to hear of these things; come on, let us mend\u00b0 our pace.\n\n**Seraphims, and Cherubims** Orders of angels; **we shall see men** The martyrs. Like most religious English people, Bunyan knew John Foxe's Actes and Monuments ( 1563), with its vivid depictions of martyrdoms, extremely well; **mend** Improve.\n\nChr. I cannot go so fast as I would, by reason of this Burden that is on my back.\u00b0\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that just as they had ended this talk, they drew nigh to a very miry _Slough\u00b0_ that was in the midst of the plain, and they being heedless, did both fall suddenly into the bog. The name of the Slough was Despond. Here therefore they wallowed for a time, being grievously bedaubed with the dirt; and Christian, because of the Burden that was on his back, began to sink in the mire.\n\nThe Slough of Despond.\n\nPli. Then said Pliable, Ah! neighbour Christian, where are you now?\n\nChr. Truly, said Christian, I do not know.\n\nPli. At that Pliable began to be offended, and angrily said to his fellow, Is this the happiness you have told me all this while of? If we have such ill speed\u00b0 at our first setting out, what may we expect 'twixt this and our Journey's end? May I get out again with my Life, you shall possess the brave Country alone for me.\u00b0 And with that he gave a desperate Struggle or two, and got out of the mire on that side of the Slough which was next to his own house; so away he went, and Christian saw him no more.\n\nIt is not enough to be Pliable.\n\nWherefore Christian was left to tumble in the Slough of Despond alone; but still he endeavoured to struggle to that side of the Slough that was still further from his own house, and next to the Wicket Gate; the which he did, but could not get out because of the Burden that was upon his back: But I beheld in my dream, that a man came to him, whose name was Help, and asked him, What he did there?\n\nChristian in Trouble seeks still to get further from his own house.\n\nChr. Sir, said Christian, I was directed this way, by a man called Evangelist, who directed me also to yonder Gate, that I might escape the Wrath to come. And as I was going thither, I fell in here.\n\nHelp. But why did you not look for the Steps?\n\nThe Promises.\n\n**Burden that is on my back** Note that Pliable is not conscious of any such burden; he lacks Christian's awareness of his own sin; **Slough** Swamp; **speed** Success; **for me** Both \"instead of me\" and \"for all that **I** care.\"\n\nChr. Fear followed me so hard, that I fled the next way, and fell in.\n\nHelp. Then, said he, Give me thy hand; so he gave him his hand, and he drew him out, and set him upon sound Ground, and bid him go on his way.\n\nHelp lifts him out.\n\nPsa. 40. 2.\n\nThen I stepped to him\u00b0 that plucked him out, and said, Sir, wherefore, (since over this place is the way from the City of Destruction to yonder Gate,) is it, that this platO is not mended, that poor Travellers might go thither with more security ? And he said unto me, This miry Slough is such a place as cannot be mended: It is the descent whither the scum and filth that attends Conviction for' Sin doth continually run, and therefore it is called the Slough of Despond; for still as the Sinner is awakened about his lost condition, there ariseth in his Soul many fears and doubts, and discouraging apprehensions, which all of them get together, and settle in this place: And this is the reason of the badness of this ground.\n\nWhat makes the Slough of Despond.\n\nIt is not the pleasure of the King that this place should remain so bad; his labourers\u00b0 also have, by the directions of his Majesties Surveyors, been for above this sixteen hundred years' employ'd about this patch of ground, if perhaps it might have been mended: Yea, and to my knowledge, said he, here hath been swallowed up at least twenty thousand cart loads; yea, Millions of wholsome Instructions\" that have at all seasons been brought from all places of the King's dominions (and they that can tell, say, They are the best materials to make good ground of the place) if so be it might have been mended; but it is the Slough of Despond still; and so will be when they have done what they can.\n\nIsa. 35. 3, 4.\n\nTrue, there are, by the direction of the Lawgiver,\u00b0 certain good and substantial Steps, placed even through the very Midst of this Slough; but at such time as this place doth much spue out its filth, as it doth against change of weather, these steps are hardly seen, or if they be, men, through the dizziness of their heads, step besides; and then they are bemired to purpose, \u00b0 notwithstanding the steps be there; but the ground is good when they are once got in at the Gate.\n\nThe Promises of Forgivenes. and Acceptance tc Life by Faith in Christ.\n\n1 Sam. 12. 23.\n\n**Fear** No such character has appeared; rather, Christian has learned to externalize his own fear; **I stepped to him** The narrator makes a rare appearance in the narrative; **plat** Patch of ground; **for** Both \"for\" and \"of\"; the pilgrim must convict himself of sin, since this is the first stage on the path to salvation ; **his labourers** Anyone doing God's work, not necessarily ordained clergymen ; **sixteen hundred years** That is, since the birth of Christ; **wholsome Instructions** The law, which is incapable of saving man from despair; **the Lawgiver** Not Moses, but God, since the \"Steps\" are glossed in the margin as the biblical promises of salvation.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that by this time Pliable was got home to his house again. So his Neighbours came to visit him; and some of them called him wise man for coming back; and some called him Fool for hazarding himself with Christian; others again did mock at his Cowardliness; saying, 'Surely since you began to venture, I would not have been so base to have given out for a few Difficulties.' So Pliable sat sneaking\" among them. But at last he got more Confidence, and then they all turned their tales,\" and began to deride poor Christian behind his back. And thus much concerning Pliable.\n\nPliable is got home, and is visited by his Neighbours. His Entertainmen by them at hi: return.\n\nNow as Christian was walking solitary by himself, he espied one afar off, come crossing over the field to meet him, and their hap\u00b0 was to meet just as they were crossing the way of each other. The gentleman's name that met him, was Mr. Worldly Wiseman, he dwelt in the town of Carnal Policy,\u00b0 a very great town, and also hard by\u00b0 from whence Christian came. This Man then, meeting with Christian, and having some inckling of him (for Christian's setting forth from the City of Destruction, was much noised abroad, not only in the town where he dwelt, but also it began to be the Town-talk in some other places) Master Worldly Wiseman therefore having some guess of him,\u00b0 by beholding his laborious going, by observing his sighs and groans, and the like; began thus to enter into some Talk with Christian.\n\nMr. Worldly Wiseman meets with Christian.\n\nTalk between Mr. Worldly Wiseman and Christian.\n\nWorld. How now, good fellow,\u00b0 whither away after this burdened manner?\n\n**bemired to purpose** Really stuck in the mire; **sneaking** Ashamed; **turned their tales** Both \"told their stories\" and \"turned their backs\"; **hap** Chance; **Carnal Policy** Worldly calculation; **hard by** Close by; **having some guess of him** Having some idea of who he was; **good fellow** A patronizing mode of address; Wiseman signals that he regards Christian as a social inferior.\n\nChr. A burdened manner indeed, as ever, I think, poor creature had! And whereas you ask me, Whither away? I tell you, Sir,\u00b0 I am going to yonder Wicket Gate before me; for there, as I am informed, I shall be put into a Way\u00b0 to be rid of my heavy Burden.\n\nWorld. Hast thou a Wife and Children?\n\nChr. Yes; but I am so laden with this Burden, that I cannot take that Pleasure in them as formerly: methinks, I am as if I had none.\n\n1 Cor. 7. 29.\n\nWorld. Wilt thou hearken to me if I give thee counsel?\n\nChr. If it be good, I will; for I stand in need of good counsel.\n\nWorld. I would advise thee then, that thou with all speed get thyself rid of thy Burden; for thou wilt never be settled in thy mind till then: Nor canst thou enjoy the Benefits of the Blessings which God hath bestowed upon thee, till then.\n\nMr. Worldly Wiseman's Counsel to Christian.\n\nChr. That is that which I seek for, even to be rid of this heavy Burden; but get it off myself, I cannot: Nor is there a Man in our country, that can take it off my shoulders; therefore am I going this Way, as I told you, that I may be rid of my Burden.\n\nWorld. Who bid thee go this Way to be rid of the Burden?\n\nChr. A Man that appeared to me to be a very great and honourable person; his name, as I remember, is Evangelist.\n\nWorld. Beshrew him for his counsel,\u00b0 there is not a more dangerous and troublesome way in the world, than is that unto which he hath directed thee; and that thou shalt find, if thou wilt be ruled by his counsel. Thou hast met with something (as I perceive) already; for I see the dirt of the Slough of Despond is upon thee; but that Slough is the Beginning of the sorrows that do attend those that go on in that Way: Hear me, I am older than thou;\u00b0 thou art like to meet with, in the way which thou goest, Wearisomeness, Painfulness, Hunger, Per- ils, Nakedness, Sword, Lions, Dragons, Darkness, and in a word, Death, and what not?\u00b0 These things are certainly true, having been confirmed by many Testimonies. And why should a man so carelessly cast away himself, by giving heed to a Stranger?\u00b0\n\nMr. Worldly Wiseman condemns Evangelist's Counsel.\n\n**Sir** Christian acknowledges Wiseman's superior social status; **Way** Both \"path\" and \"condition\"; **Beshrew him for his counsel** Curse him for his advice ; **I am older than thou** Worldliness predates Christianity, both in world history and in individual development.\n\nChr. Why, Sir, this Burden upon my back is more terrible to me, than are all these things which you have mentioned: Nay, methinks I care not what I meet with in the way, if so be I can also meet with Deliverance from my Burden.\n\nThe Frame of the Heart of a young Christian.\n\nWorld. How camest thou by thy burden at first?\n\nChr. By reading this Book in my hand.\n\nWorld. I thought so; and it is happened unto thee as to other weak men, who, meddling with things too high for them,\u00b0 do suddenly fall into thy distractions; which distractions do not only unman men (as thine I perceive have done thee) but they run them upon desperate\" ventures, to obtain they know not what.\n\nMr. Worldly Wiseman does not like that Men should be serious in reading the Bible.\n\nChr. I know what I would obtain; it is Ease for my heavy Burden.\n\nWorld. But why wilt thou seek for ease this way, seeing so many Dangers attend it? especially, since (hadst thou but patience to hear me) I could direct thee to the obtaining of what thou desirest, without the dangers that thou in this way wilt run thyself into: Yea, and the Remedy is at hand. Besides, I will add, that instead of these dangers, thou shalt meet with much Safety, Friendship, and Content.\n\nChr. Pray, Sir, open this secret to me.\n\nWorld. Why in yonder Village (the village is named Morality) there dwells a gentleman, whose name is Legality,\u00b0 a very judicious\u00b0 man (and a man of a very good name) that has skill to help men off with such Burdens as thine is, from their shoulders; yea, to my knowledge, he hath done a great deal of good this way: Ay, and besides, he hath skill to cure those that are somewhat crazed in their wits with their Burdens. To him, as I said, thou may'st go, and be help'd presently. His house is not quite a mile from this place; and if he should not be at home himself, he hath a pretty young man to his Son, whose name is Civility,\u00b0 that can do it (to speak on) as well as the old Gentleman himself: There, I say, thou may'st be eased of thy Burden, and if thou art not minded to go back to thy former habitation, as indeed I would not wish thee; thou may'st send for thy Wife and Children to thee to this Village, where there are houses now stand empty, one of which thou mayest have at reasonable rates: Provision is there also cheap and good, and that which will make thy Life the more happy is, to be sure there thou shalt live by honest neighbours, in Credit\u00b0 and good Fashion.\n\nMr. Worldly prefers Morality before the Strait Gate.\n\n**Wearisomeness** ... **what not** Note Wiseman's conflation of abstract concepts and physical creatures; **a Stranger** Evangelist is a stranger to the world; **things too high for them** Wiseman is uncomfortable about the lower orders reading the Bible; **desperate** \"Hopeless\"; perhaps also \"criminal\"; Legality Offor cites the gloss from W. Mason's edition (1778): \" **Legality** is as great an enemy to the cross of Christ as licentiousness\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 96); **judicious** \"Wise,\" but also implying \"legalistic\" and \"judgmental.\"\n\nNow was Christian somewhat at a stand;\u00b0 but presently he concluded, If this be true which this gentleman hath said, my wisest course is to take his advice; and with that he thus further spoke.\n\nChristian snared by Mr. Worldly Wiseman's Words.\n\nChr. Sir, which is my way to this honest man's house?\n\nWorld. Do you see yonder high Hill?\u00b0\n\nMount Sinai.\n\nChr. Yes, very well.\n\nWorld. By that Hill you must go, and the first house you come at is his.\n\nSo Christian turned out of his way, to go to Mr. Legality's house for help: But behold, when he was got now hard by the Hill, it seemed so high, and also that side of it that was next the Wayside, did hang so much over, that Christian was afraid to venture further, lest the Hill should fall on his head ; wherefore there he stood still, and he wot\u00b0 not what to do. Also his Burden now seemed heaviero to him than while he was in his Way. There came also flashes of fire out of the Hill, that made Christian afraid that he should be burned:\u00b0 Here therefore he sweat and did quake for Fear. And now he began to be sorry that he had taken Mr. Worldly Wiseman's counsel; and with that he saw Evangelist coming to meet him; at the sight also of whom he began to blush for Shame. So Evangelist drew nearer and nearer; and coming up to him, he looked upon him with a severe and dreadful countenance, and thus began to reason with Christian.\n\nChristian afraid that\n\nMount Sinai \u00b7 would fall on his Head.\n\nExod. 19. i8. Ver. 16. Heb. 12. 21.\n\nEvangelist findeth Christian under Mount Sinai, and looketh severely upon him.\n\n**Civility** Courtesy; **Credit** Credibility, reputation. The word was not yet confined to its financial sense; **at a stand** At a loss; **yonder high hill** Mount Sinai (Exodus 19:1-3), where Moses received the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20), here representing the law; **wot** Knew; **heavier** The purpose of the law is to increase our sense of sin.\n\nEvan. What doest thou here, Christian? said he: At which words, Christian knew not what to answer; wherefore at present he stood speechless before him. Then said Evangelist farther, Art not thou the Man that I found crying without\u00b0 the walls of the City of Destruction?\n\nEvangelist reasons afresh with Christian.\n\nChr. Yes, dear Sir, I am the Man.\n\nEvan. Did not I direct thee the Way to the little Wicket Gate?\n\nChr. Yes, dear Sir, said Christian.\n\nEvan. How is it then that thou art so quickly turned aside? for thou art now out of the way.\n\nChr. I met with a gentleman so soon as I had got over the Slough of Despond, who persuaded me, that I might, in the village before me, find a man that could take off my Burden.\n\nEvan. What was he?\n\nCh. He looked like a gentleman,\u00b0 and talked much to me, and got me at last to yield; so I came hither: But when I beheld this Hill, and how it hangs over the way, I suddenly made a stand, lest it should fall on my head.\n\nEvan. What said that gentleman to you?\n\nCh. Why, he asked me whither I was going? And I told him.\n\nEvan. And what said he then?\n\nCh. He asked me if I had a family? And I told him: But, said I, I am so loaden with the Burden that is on my back, that I cannot take pleasure in them as formerly.\n\nburned That is, in Hell; without Outside; He looked like a gentleman Note that Evangelist's question about Wiseman's essence-\"What was he?\"\u2014is answered by reference to his appearance.\n\nEvan. And what said he then?\n\nCh. He bid me with speed get rid of my burden; and I told him 't was Ease that I sought: And, said I, I am therefore going to yonder Gate, to receive farther direction how I may get to the place of deliverance. So he said that he would shew me a better way, and short, not so attended with Difficulties, as the Way, Sir, that you set me in; which way, said he, will direct you to a gentleman's house that hath skill to take off these Burdens : So I believed him, and turned out of that Way into this, if haply\u00b0 I might be soon eased of my Burden. But when I came to this place, and beheld things as they are, I stopped for fear (as I said) of danger: But I now know not what to do.\n\nEvan. Then (said Evangelist) stand still a little, that I may shew thee the words of God. So he stood trembling. Then said Evangelist, See that ye refuse not him that speaketh; for if they escaped not, who refused him that spake on Earth, much more shall not we escape, if we turn away from him that speaketh from Heaven. He said, moreover, Now the just shall live by faith; but if any man draws back, my soul shall have no pleasure in him. He also did thus apply them,\u00b0 Thou art the man that art running into this misery: Thou hast begun to reject the counsel of the Most High, and to draw back thy foot from the Way of Peace, even almost to the hazarding of thy Perdition.\u00b0\n\nHeb. 12. 25. Evangelist convinces Christian of his Error. Heb.10.38.\n\nThen Christian fell down at his foot as dead, crying, Wo is me, for I am undone! At the sight of which, Evangelist caught him by the right hand, saying, All manner of Sin and Blasphemies shall be forgiven unto men; be not faithless, but believing: Then did Christian again a little revive, and stood up trembling, as at first, before Evangelist.\n\nMast. 12. Mark 3.\n\nThen Evangelist proceeded, saying, Give more earnest Heed to the things that I shall tell thee of. I will now shew thee who it was that deluded thee, and who it was also to whom he sent thee. The man that met thee, is one Worldly Wiseman, and rightly is he so called; partly, because he savoureth only the doctrine of this world; (therefore he always goes to the town of Morality to church) and partly, because he loveth that doctrine best; for it saveth him from the Cross;\u00b0 and because he is of this carnal temper,\u00b0 therefore he seeketh to pervert my ways, though right. Now there are three things in this man's counsel that thou must utterly abhor.\n\nMr. Worldly Wiseman described by Evangelist. 1 John 4. 5.\n\nGal. 6. i2.\n\nEvangelist discovers the deceit of Mr. Worldly Wiseman.\n\n**haply** By any chance; **apply them** That is, apply the texts to Christian's case; **hazarding of thy Perdition** Risk of your damnation.\n\nWHEN CHRISTIANS UNTO CARNAL MEN GIVE EAR, \nOUT OF THEIR WAY THEY GO, AND PAY FOR'T DEAR. \nFOR MASTER WORLDLY WISEMAN CAN BUT SHEW \nA SAINT THE WAY TO BONDAGE AND TO Wo.\n\n1. His turning thee out of the Way.\n\n2. His labouring to render the Cross odious to thee.\n\n3. And his setting thy feet in that way that leadeth unto the administration of Death.\n\nFirst, Thou must abhor his turning thee out of the Way; yea, and thine own Consenting thereto; because this is to reject the counsel of God for the sake of the counsel of a Worldly Wiseman. The Lord says, Strive to enter in at the Strait Gate, the gate to which I sent thee; for strait is the Gate that leadeth unto Life, and few there be that find it. From this little Wicket Gate, and from the Way thereto, hath this wicked man turned thee, to the bringing of thee almost to destruction : hate, therefore, his turning thee out of the Way, and abhor thyself for hearkening to him.\n\nLuke 13. 24. Mat. 7. 13, 14.\n\nSecondly, Thou must abhor his labouring to render the Cross odious unto thee; for thou art to prefer it before the treasures in Egypt: Besides, the King of Glory hath told thee, That he that will save his life shall lose it: And, he that comes after him, and hates not his Father, and Mother, and Wife, and Children, and Brethren, and Sisters, yea and his own Life also, he cannot be my Disciple. I say therefore, for a man to labour to persuade thee that That shall be thy Death, without which, the Truth hath said, thou canst not have Eternal Life: This doctrine thou must abhor.\n\nHeb. n. 25, 26.\n\nMark 8. 35. John 12. 25. Mat. 10. 39. Luke 14. 26.\n\n**rightly is he so called** The various interpretative guides usually emphasize the correspondence between characters' names and their essences; **the Cross** Both \"salvation by means of the cross\" and \"persecution in this world\"; **carnal temper** Fleshly character.\n\nThirdly, Thou must hate his setting of thy feet in the way that leadeth to the ministration of Death. And for this thou must consider to whom he sent thee, and also how unable that Person was to deliver thee from thy Burden.\n\nHe to whom thou wast sent for Ease, being by name Legality, is the son of the Bondwoman\u00b0 which now is, and is in bondage with her children, and is in a mystery* this Mount Sinai, which thou hast feared will fall on thy head. Now if she with her children are in Bondage, how canst thou expect by them to be made free? This Legality, therefore, is not able to set thee free from thy Burden. No man was as yet ever rid of his Burden by him; no, nor ever is like to be: Ye cannot be justified by the Works of the Law; for by the deeds of the law no man living can be rid of his burden: Therefore Mr. Worldly Wiseman is an alien,\u00b0 and Mr. Legality a cheat: And for his son Civility, notwithstanding his simpering looks, he is but a hypocrite,\" and cannot help thee. Believe me, there is nothing in all this noise that thou hast heard of this sottish\u00b0 man, but a design to beguile thee of thy Salvation, by turning thee from the Way in which I had set thee. After this, Evangelist called aloud to the Heavens for confirmation of what he had said; and with that there came Words and Fire\u00b0 out of the Mountain under which poor Christian stood, that made the hair of his flesh stand up: The words were thus pronounced, As many as are of the Works of the Law, are under the Curse; for it is written, Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things which are written in the Book of the Law, to do them.\u00b0\n\nGal. 4. 21, 22, 23 24 25, z6, 27. The Bondwoman.\n\nGal.3.10.\n\nNow Christian looked for\u00b0 nothing but Death, and began to cry out lamentably; even cursing the time in which he met with Mr. Worldly Wiseman; still calling himself a thousand fools for hearkening to his counsel: He also was greatly ashamed to think that this gentleman's arguments, flowing only from the Flesh, should have that prevalency with him as to cause him to forsake the right Way. This done, he applied himself again to Evangelist in words and sense as follows:\n\nthe Bondwoman Hagar, wife of Abraham and mother of Ishmael. In Galatians 4, Paul uses her to represent the condition of mankind under the law; mystery Allegory; an alien That is, an alien to Christian; Wiseman is of course very much at home in the world, to which Christian is an alien; hypocrite Greek for \"actor\"; used in the New Testament to denote those who formally observe religion but lack inner faith; sottish Foolish; Words and Fire Bunyan describes biblical texts as physical forces; As many ... to do them It is impossible for fallen man to obey the law, therefore salvation by works is impossible; looked for Expected.\n\nChr. Sir, what think you? Is there Hopes? may I now go back, and go up to the Wicket Gate? Shall I not be abandoned for this, and sent back from thence ashamed? I am sorry I have hearkened to this man's counsel; but may my Sin be forgiven ?\n\nChristian enquires if he may yet be happy.\n\nEvan. Then said Evangelist to him, Thy Sin is very great, for by it thou hast committed two evils; thou hast forsaken the Way that is good, to tread in forbidden paths; yet will the man at the Gate receive thee, for he has good will\u00b0 for men; only, said he, take heed that thou turn not aside again, lest thou perish from the Way, when his wrath is kindled but a little. Then did Christian address himself to go back; and Evangelist, after he had kissed him, gave him one smile, and bid him God speed; So he went on with haste, neither spake he to any man by the way; nor if any asked him, would he vouchsafe them an answer. He went like one that was all the while treading on forbidden ground, and could by no means think himself safe, till again he was got into the Way which he left to follow Mr. Worldly Wiseman's counsel: So in process of time Christian got up to the Gate. Now over the Gate there was written, Knock, and it shall be opened unto you. He knocked therefore more than once or twice, saying,\n\n _May I now enter here? Will he within \nOpen to sorry Me, though I have bin \nAn undeserving Rebel? Then shall I \nNot fail to sing his lasting Praise on high_.\n\nEvangelist comforts him.\n\nPsalm 2. last Verse.\n\nMat. 7. 8.\n\nAt last there came a grave person to the Gate, named Goodwill, who asked, Who was there? and whence he came, and what he would have?\n\nChr. Here is a poor burdened Sinner. I come from the City of Destruction,\u00b0 but am going to Mount Zion,\u00b0 that I may be delivered from the Wrath to come; I would therefore, Sir, since I am informed that by this Gate is the Way thither, know if you are willing to let me in?\n\nGoodwill. I am willing with all my heart, said he; and with that he opened the Gate.\n\nThe Gate will be opened to broken-hearted sinners.\n\nSo when Christian was stepping in, the other gave him a pull: Then said Christian, what means that? The other told him, A little distance from this Gate, there is erected a strong castle, of which Beelzebub* is the captain; from thence both he, and them that are with him, shoot arrows at those that come up to this Gate, if haply they may die before they can enter in. Then said Christian, I rejoice and tremble. So when he was got in, the man of the Gate asked him who directed him thither.\n\nSatan envies those that enter the Strait Gate.\n\nChristian entered the Gate with joy and trembling. Talk between Goodwill and Christian.\n\nChr. Evangelist bid me come hither and knock, (as I did) and he said, that you, Sir, would tell me what I must do.\n\nGoodw An open Door is set before thee, and no man can shut it.\n\nChr. Now I begin to reap the Benefits of my hazards.\n\nGoodw. But how is it that you came alone?\n\nChr. Because none of my neighbours saw their danger, as I saw mine.\n\nGoodw. Did any of them know of your coming?\n\nChr. Yes, my Wife and Children saw me at the first, and called after me to turn again: Also some of my neighbours stood crying and calling after me to return; but I put my fingers in my ears, and so came on my way\n\nGoodw. But did none of them follow you to persuade you to go back?\n\nChr. Yes, both Obstinate and Pliable: But when they saw that they could not prevail, Obstinate went railing* back; but Pliable came with me a little way\n\n**City of Destruction** The material world; **Mount Zion** In Jerusalem; a biblical trope for the kingdom of heaven; **Beelzebub** Hebrew for \"Lord of the Flies\"; he is identified with Satan in the marginal note. Other writers, like Milton in _Paradise Lost_ , differentiate between Beelzebub and Satan; **railing** Raging.\n\nHE THAT WILL ENTER IN MUST FIRST WITHOUT \nSTAND KNOCKING AT THE GATE, NOR NEED HE DOUBT, \nTHAT IS A KNOCKER, BUT TO ENTER IN, \nFOR GOD CAN LOVE HIM, AND FORGIVE HIS SIN.\n\nGoodw. But why did he not come through?\n\nChr. We indeed came both together, until we came at the Slough of Despond, into the which we also suddenly fell, and then was my neighbour Pliable discouraged, and would not adventure further. Wherefore, getting out again on that side next to his own house, he told me, I should possess the brave country alone for him: So he went his way, and I came mine. He after Obstinate, and I to this Gate.\n\nA man may have company when he sets out for Heaven, and yetgo thither alone.\n\nGoodw. Then said Goodwill, Alas, poor man, is the Coelestial Glory of so small esteem with him, that he counteth it not worth running the hazard of a few difficulties to obtain it?\n\nChr. Truly, said Christian, I have said the truth of Pliable, and if I should also say all the truth of myself, it will appear there is no betterment 'twixt him and myself.\u00b0 'Tis true, he went back to his own house, but I also turned aside to go in the way of Death, being persuaded thereto by the carnal arguments of one Mr. Worldly Wiseman.\n\nGoodw. Oh! did he light upon you? What, he would have had you have sought for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality; they are both of them a very cheat; but did you take his counsel ?\n\nChristian accuseth himself before the Man at the Gate.\n\nChr. Yes, as far as I durst; I went to find out Mr. Legality, until I thought that the Mountain that stands by his house would have fallen upon my head; wherefore there I was forced to stop.\n\nGoodw That mountain has been the death of many, and will be the death of many more: 'Tis well you escaped being by it dashed in pieces.\n\nChr. Why truly I do not know what had become of me there, had not Evangelist happily met me again as I was musing in the midst of my dumps:\u00b0 But it was God's Mercy, that he came to me again, for else I had never come hither. But now I am come, such a one as I am, more fit indeed for death by that mountain, than thus to stand talking with my Lord: But O! what a Favour is this to me, that yet I am admitted entrance here?\n\n**no betterment 'twixt him and myself** Self-condemnation was an essential prerequisite of conversion; **dumps** Depression.\n\nGoodw. We make no objections against any, notwithstanding all that they have done before they come hither. They in no wise are cast out; and therefore, good Christian, come a little way with me, and I will teach thee about the way thou must go. Look before thee; dost thou see this narrow way? THAT is the way thou must go. It was cast up by the Patriarchs, Prophets, Christ and his Apostles, and it is as strait as a Rule can make it: This is the Way thou must go.\n\nChristian comforted _again._\n\nJohn 6.37-\n\nChristian directed yet on his Way.\n\nChr. But, said Christian, are there no turnings nor windings, by which a Stranger may lose his way?\n\nChristian afraid of losing his Way.\n\nGoodw. Yes, there are many ways butt down upon this; and they are crooked and wide: But thus thou mayst distinguish the right from the wrong, the Right only being strait and narrow.\n\nMat. 7. 14.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That Christian asked him further, If he could not help him off with his Burden that was upon his back? For as yet he had not got rid thereof, nor could he by any means get it off without help.\n\nChristian weary of his Burden.\n\nHe told him, As to thy Burden, be content to bear it, until thou comest to the place of Deliverance; for there it will fall from thy back of itself.\n\nThere is no deliverance from the guilt _and_ burden of _Sin,_ but by the death and Mood of Christ.\n\nThen Christian began to gird up his loins, and to address himself to his Journey. So the other told him, That by that he was gone some distance from the Gate, he would come at the house of the Interpreter, at whose door he should knock, and he would shew him excellent things. Then Christian took his leave of his Friend, and he again bid him God speed.\n\nThen he went on till he came at the house of the _Interpreter,_ where he knocked over and over; at last one came to the door, and asked, Who was there?\n\n\\- Christian comes to the House of the Interpreter.\n\nChr. Sir, here is a Traveller, who was bid by an acquaintance of the Good Man of this house, to call here for my profit; I would therefore speak with the Master of the house: So he called for the Master of the house; who after a little time came to Christian, and asked him what he would have?\n\n**butt** That abut.\n\nChr. Sir, said Christian, I am a man that am come from the City of Destruction, and am going to the Mount Zion; and I was told by the Man that stands at the Gate, at the head of this way, that if I called here, you would shew me excellent things, such as would be a help to me in my Journey.\n\nInter. Then said the Interpreter, Come in; I will shew thee that which will be profitable to thee. So he commanded his man to light the Candle, and bid Christian follow him: So he had him into a private room, and bid his man open a door; the which when he had done, Christian saw the picture of a very grave Person\u00b0 hang up against the wall; and this was the fashion of it, It had eyes lifted up to Heaven, the best of Books\u00b0 in his hand, the Law of Truth was written upon his lips, the World was behind his back; it\u00b0 stood as if it pleaded with men, and a Crown of Gold did hang over its head.\n\nHe is entertain'd.\n\nlllumination.\n\nChristian sees a brave picture.\n\nThe fashion of the picture.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, What means this?\n\nInter. The man whose picture this is, is one of a thousand; he can beget children,\u00b0 travel in birth with children,\u00b0 and nurse them himself when they are born. And whereas thou seest him with eyes lift up to Heaven, the best of Books in his hand, and the Law of Truth writ on his lips; it is to shew thee, that his work is to know and unfold dark things to Sinners; even as also thou seest him stand as if he pleaded with men; and whereas thou seest the World as cast behind him, and that a Crown hangs over his head; that is to shew thee, that slighting and despising the things that are present,\u00b0 for the love that he hath to his Master's service, he is sure in the World that comes next, to have Glory for his reward. Now, said the Interpreter, I have shewed thee this picture first, because the man whose picture this is, is the only man whom the Lord of the place whither thou art going, hath authorized to be thy Guide in all difficult places thou may'st meet with in the Way: Wherefore take good heed to what I have shewed thee, and bear well in thy mind what thou hast seen; lest in thy Journey thou meet with some that pretend to lead thee right, but their way goes down to death.\n\n1 Cor. 4. 15. Gal. 4. 19.\n\nThe meaning of the picture.\n\nWhy he shewed him the picture first.\n\n**a very grave Person** Possibly a generic minister of the gospel, but also perhaps Saint Paul, in particular; **the best of Books** That is, the Bible; t **he things that are present** The world of external experience, the appearance of things as they are presented to us; it Bunyan refers to the picture, not to the man depicted therein; thus he directs our attention to the medium of signification ; **he can beget children** In 1 Corinthians 4:15, Paul writes: \"In Christ Jesus I have begotten you through the gospel\" (King James Version; henceforth KJV); **travel in birth with children** In Galatians 4:19, Paul refers to \"my little children, of whom I travail in birth again until Christ be formed in you\" (KJV).\n\nThen he took him by the hand, and led him into a very large parlour that was full of dust, because never swept; the which after he had reviewed a little while, the Interpreter called for a man to sweep. Now when he began to sweep, the dust began so abundantly to fly about, that Christian had almost therewith been choaked. Then said the Interpreter to a Damsel that stood by, bring hither Water,\u00b0 and sprinkle the room; the which when she had done, it was swept and cleansed with pleasure.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, What means this?\n\nInter. The Interpreter answered, This parlour is the heart of a man that was never sanctified by the sweet Grace of the Gospel: The dust is his Original Sin, and inward Corruptions that have defiled the whole man. He that began to sweep at first, is the Law; but she that brought Water, and did sprinkle it, is the Gospel. Now, whereas thou sawest that so soon as the first began to sweep, the dust did so fly about, that the room by him could not be cleansed, but that thou wast almost choaked therewith; this is to shew thee, that the Law, instead of cleansing the heart (by its working) from Sin, doth revive, put strength into, and increase it in the soul, even as it doth discover\u00b0 and forbid it, for it doth not give Power to subdue.\u00b0\n\nRom. 7. 6. 1 Cor. 15-56. Rom. 5. 20.\n\nAgain, as thou sawest the Damsel sprinkle the room with Water, upon which it was cleansed with pleasure; this is to shew thee, that when the Gospel comes in, the sweet and pre- cious influences thereof to the heart, then, I say, even as thou sawest the Damsel lay the dust by sprinkling the floor with Water, so is Sin vanquished and subdued, and the soul made clean, through the Faith of it, and consequently fit for the King of Glory to inhabit.\n\nJohn 15. 3. Ephes. 5. 26. Acts 15. 9. Rom. 16. 25, 26. 1 John 5.13.\n\n**Water** Of baptism. However, Bunyan did not require water baptism for the members of his congregation; **discover** Reveal; **it doth not give Power to subdue** A concise statement of Bunyan's Lutheran theology,\n\nI saw, moreover, in my dream, That the Interpreter took him by the hand, and had him into a little room, where sat two little children, each one in his chair. The name of the eldest was Passion, of the other Patience.Passion seemed to be much discontent, but Patience was very quiet. Then Christian asked, What is the reason of the discontent of Passion? The Interpreter answered, the Governor of them would have him stay for his best things, 'till the beginning of the next year; but he will have all now: But Patience is willing to wait.\n\nHe shewed him Passion _and_ Patience. Passion will have it _now._\n\nPatience is for waiting.\n\nThen I saw that one came to Passion, and brought him a bag of Treasure,\u00b0 and poured it down at his feet; the which he took up and rejoiced therein, and withall laughed Patience to scorn: But I beheld but a while, and he had lavished all away, and had nothing left him but rags.\n\nPassion hath his desire.\n\nAnd quickly lavishes _all away._\n\nThe matter expounded.\n\nChr. Then said Christian to the Interpreter, Expound this matter more fully to me.\n\nInter. So he said, These two lads are Figures;\u00b0 Passion of the men of this World, and Patience of the men of That which is to come: For as here thou seest, Passion will have all now, this year; that is to say, in this world; so are the men of this world: They must have all their good things now, they cannot stay till next year, that is, until the next World, for their portion of good. That proverb, A Bird _in_ the Hand is worth two in the Bush, is of more authority with them, than are all the Divine testimonies of the Good of the World to come. But as thou sawest, that he had quickly lavished all away, and had presently left him nothing but rags; so will it be with all such men at the End of this world.\n\nThe Worldly man for _a_ bird in the hand.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, Now I see that Patience has the best Wisdom, and that upon many accounts. 1. Because he stays\u00b0 for the best things. 2. And also because he will have the Glory of his, when the other has nothing but rags.\n\n**Treasure** The things of this world represented in financial form; **Figures** Emblems.\n\nPatience had the best Wisdom.\n\nInter. Nay, you may add another, to wit,\u00b0 the Glory of the next World will never wear out; but these are suddenly gone. Therefore Passion had not so much reason to laugh at Patience, because he had his good things first, as Patience will have to laugh at Passion, because he had his best things last; for first must give place to _last,\u00b0_ because last must have its time to come; but last gives place to nothing; for there is not another to succeed: He therefore that hath his portion first, must needs have a Time to spend it; but he that has his portion last, must have it lastingly: Therefore it is said of Dives,\u00b0 In thy Lifetime thou receivedst thy good things, _and_ likewise Lazarus \u00b0 evil things; but now he is comforted, _and_ thou art tormerited.\n\nThings that _are_ First must give place, but things that _are_ Last _are_ lasting.\n\nLuke 16.\n\nDives had his good things first.\n\nChr. Then I perceive it is not best to covet things that are now, but to wait for things to come.\n\nInter. You say truth: For the things that _are_ seen _are_ Temporal ; but the things that _are_ not seen _are_ Eternal:\u00b0 But though this be so, yet since things present, and our fleshly appetite are such near neighbours one to another; and again, because things to come, and carnal Sense, are such Strangers one to another: Therefore it is, that the first of these so suddenly fall into _Amity,\u00b0_ and that Distance is so continued between the second.\n\n2 Cor. 4.18 . The first things are but Temporal.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, that the Interpreter took _Christian_ by the hand, and led him into a place where was a Fire burning against a wall, and one standing by it, always casting much water upon it, to quench it; yet did the Fire burn higher and hotter.\n\nThen said Christian, What means this?\n\n**stays** Waits; **to wit** That is; **first must give place to last** Earthly hierarchies are reversed in heaven; Dives The name associated with the rich man in the parable of Lazarus in Luke 16; **Lazarus** In Luke 16:19-31, Lazarus the beggar goes to Abraham's bosom after death, while the rich man goes to Hades. Bunyan's A Few Sighs from Hell ( 1658) is a commentary on this parable; **For the things** ... Eternal The essential tenet of Platonism; **Amity** Friendship.\n\nThe Interpreter answered; This Fire is the Work of Grace' that is wrought in the heart; he that casts water upon it, to extinguish and put it out, is the Devil: But in that thou seest the Fire notwithstanding burn higher and hotter, thou shalt also see the reason of that. So he had him about to the back side of the wall, where he saw a Man with a Vessel of Oil in his hand, of which he did also continually cast (but secretly) into the Fire.\n\nThen said Christian, What means this?\n\nThe Interpreter answered, This is Christ, who continually with the Oil of his Grace maintains the work already begun in the heart: By the means of which, notwithstanding what the Devil can do, the souls of his people prove gracious still. And in that thou sawest, that the Man stood behind the wall to maintain the Fire; this is to teach thee, That it is hard for the Tempted to see how this Work of Grace is maintained in the soul.\n\n2 Cor. 12. 9.\n\nI saw also, that the Interpreter took him again by the hand, and led him into a pleasant place, where was builded a stately Palace, beautiful to behold; at the sight of which, Christian was greatly delighted; he saw also upon the top thereof certain persons walking, who were cloathed all in Gold.\n\nThen said Christian, May we go in thither?\n\nThen the Interpreter took him and led him up toward the Door of the Palace; and behold, at the Door stood a great Company of men, as desirous to go in, but durst not. There also sat a man at a little distance from the door, at a table side, with a book, and his inkhorn before him, to take the name of him that should enter therein: He saw also, that in the doorway stood many men in armour to keep it, being resolved to do to the men that would enter, what hurt and mischief they could. Now was Christian somewhat in a maze:\u00b0 At last, when every man started back for fear of the armed men, Christian saw a man of a very stout countenance, come up to the man that sat there to write, saying, Set down my name, Sir; the which when he had done, he saw the man draw his Sword, and put an Helmet upon his head, and rush toward the Door upon the armed men, who laid upon him with deadly force: But the man, not at all discouraged, fell to cutting and hacking most fiercely. So after he had received and given many wounds to those that attempted to keep him out, he cut his way through them all, and pressed forward into the Palace; at which there was a pleasant voice heard from those that were within, even of those that walked upon the top of the Palace, saying,\n\n _Come in, Come in; \nEternal Glory thou shalt win._\n\n**the Work of Grace** This \"work\" is, of course, performed by Christ, not man; **in a maze** The figural and literal senses of the word blur; it is not immediately clear whether the maze is physical or metaphorical.\n\nThe Variant Man.\n\nSo he went in, and was cloathed with such garments as they. Then Christian smiled, and said, I think verily I know the meaning of this.\u00b0\n\nNow, said Christian, let me go hence. Nay, stay (said the Interpreter) till I have shewed thee a little more, and after that thou shalt go on thy way. So he took him by the hand again, and led him into a very dark room, where there sate* a man in an Iron Cage.\n\nDespair like an Iron Cage.\n\nNow the man, to look on, seemed very sad: he sat with his eyes looking down to the ground, his hands folded together, and he sighed as if he would break his heart. Then said Christian, What means this? At which the Interpreter bid him talk with the man.\n\nThen said Christian to the man, What are thou? The man answered, I am what I was not once.\n\nChr. What wast thou once?\n\nMan. The man said, I was once a fair and flourishing Prolessor, both in mine own eyes, and also in the eyes of others: I once was, as I thought, fair for the Coelestial City, and had then even Joy at the thoughts that I should get thither.\n\nLuke 8.13.\n\n**I know the meaning of this** Christian's interpretive skills are improving: He has recognized this vision as an allegory of entrance into heaven; **sate** Sat; **Professor** Religious man.\n\nChr. Well, but what art thou now?\n\nMan. I am now a man of Despair, and am shut up in it, as in this Iron Cage. I cannot get out; 0, Now I cannot.\n\nChr. But how camest thou in this condition?\n\nMan. I left off to watch, and be sober; I laid the reins upon the neck of my lusts; I sinned against the Light of the Word, and the Goodness of God: I have grieved the Spirit, and he is gone; I tempted the Devil, and he is come to me; I have provoked God to Anger, and he has left me; I have so hardened my heart that I cannot repent.\n\nThen said Christian to the Interpreter, But is there no Hopes for such a man as this? Ask him, said the Interpreter.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, Is there no Hope, but you must be kept in the Iron Cage of Despair?\n\nMan. No, none at all.\n\nChr. Why? The Son of the Blessed is very pitiful.\n\nMan. I have crucified him to myself afresh; I have despised his Person, I have despised his Righteousness, I have counted his Blood an unholy thing, I have done despite to\u00b0 the Spirit of Grace: Therefore I have shut myself out of all the Promises, and there now remains to me nothing but Threatnings, dreadful Threatnings, fearful Threatnings of certain Judgment and fiery Indignation, which shall devour me as an Adversary.\n\nHeb. 6. 6. Luke 19. 14. Heb. 10. 28, 29.\n\nChr. For what did you bring yourself into this condition? Man. For the Lusts, Pleasures, and Profits of this World; in the enjoyment of which, I did then promise myself much delight : But now every one of those things also bite me, and gnaw me, like a burning Worm.\n\nChr. But canst thou not now repent and turn?\n\nMan. God hath denied me Repentance. His Word gives me no encouragement to believe; yea, himself hath shut me up* in this Iron Cage: Nor can all the men in the world let me out. 0 Eternity! Eternity! How shall I grapple with the Misery that I must meet with in Eternity!\n\n**I laid ... lusts** As if to make them gallop, like a horse; **done despite to** Despised ; **himself hath shut me up** This is blasphemy, closely linked to despair in Bunyan's mind.\n\nInter. Then said the Interpreter to Christian, Let this man's Misery be remembered by thee, and be an everlasting Caution to thee.\n\nChr. Well, said Christian, this is Fearful; God help me to watch and be sober, and to pray that I may shun the Cause of this man's misery. Sir, is it not time for me to go on my way now?\n\nInter. Tarry\u00b0 till I shall show thee one thing more, and thou shalt go on thy way.\n\nSo he took Christian by the hand again, and led him into a chamber, where there was one rising out of bed; and as he put on his raiment,\u00b0 he shook and trembled. Then said Christian, Why doth this man thus tremble? The Interpreter then bid him tell to Christian the reason of his so doing: So he began and said, This night as I was in my sleep, I dreamed,\u00b0 and behold the Heavens grew exceeding black; Also it thundred and lightned in most fearful wise, that it put me into an agony. So I looked up in my dream, and saw the clouds rack* at an unusual rate; upon which I heard a great sound of a Trumpet, and saw also a Man sit upon a Cloud, attended with the Thousands of Heaven: They were all in flaming fire, also the Heavens were in a burning flame, I heard then a Voice, saying, Arise ye Dead, and come to Judgment;\" and with that the Rocks rent, the Graves opened, and the Dead, that were therein, came forth; some of them were exceeding glad, and looked upward; and some sought to hide themselves under the mountains: Then I saw the Man that sat upon the Cloud, open the Book, and bid the World draw near. Yet there was, by reason of a fierce Flame which issued out and came before him a convenient\" distance betwixt him and them, as betwixt the Judge and the Prisoners at the bar. I heard it also proclaimed to them that attended on the Man that sat on the Cloud, Gather together the Tares, the Chaff and Stubble,* and cast them into the burning Lake; and with that the bottomless Pit opened, just whereabout I stood; out of the mouth of which there came, in an abundant manner, smoak, and coals of fire, with hideous noises. It was also said to the same Persons, Gather my Wheat into the Garner. \u00b0 And with that I saw many catch'd up and carried away into the clouds, but I was left behind. I also sought to hide myself, but I could not, for the Man that sat upon the Cloud still kept his Eye upon me: My Sins also came into my mind; and my Conscience did accuse me on every side. Upon this I awakened from my sleep.\n\nMal. 3. 2, 3. Dan. 7. 9, 10.\n\nMat. 3. 12. Chap. 13. 30. Mal. 4. 1.\n\nLuke 3. 17.\n\n1 Thess. 4.16, 17.\n\nRom. 2.14,15.\n\n**Tarry** Wait; **raiment** Clothes; **I dreamed** We are now to be shown a dream within a vision within a dream; rack Drive along; **Judgment** The following lines paraphrase various biblical accounts of the Day of Judgment; **convenient** Appropriate;\n\nChr. But what was it that made you so afraid of this sight?\n\nMan. Why, I thought that the Day of Judgment was come, and that I was not ready for it: But this frighted me most, that the Angels gathered up several, and left me behind; also the Pit of Hell opened her mouth just where I stood. My Conscience too afflicted me; and, as I thought, the Judge had always his Eye upon me, shewing Indignation in his countenance.\n\nThen said the Interpreter to Christian, Hast thou considered all these things?\n\nChr. Yes, and they put me in Hope and Far. 0\n\nInt. Well, keep all things so in thy mind, that they may be as a goad in thy sides, to prick thee forward in the Way thou must go. Then Christian began to gird up his loins, and to address himself to his Journey. Then said the Interpreter, The Comforter be always with thee, good Christian; to guide thee in the Way that leads to the City. So Christian went on his Way, saying,\n\nHere I have seen Things rare and profitable, \nThings pleasant, dreadful, Things to make me stable\n\n**the Tares, the Chaff and Stubble** The reprobate; **Garner** ; **Hope and Fear** The two states are not contradictory, since both involve anticipation of the world to come, not contentment in the present world.\n\nIn what I have begun to take in hand; \nThen let me think on them, and understand \nWherefore they shewed me were, _and_ let me be \nThankful, _O_ good Interpreter, to thee.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, That the highway up which Christian was to go, was fenced on either side with a wall, and that wall was called Salvation. Up this way therefore did burdened Christian run, but not without great difficulty, because of the Load on his back.\n\nIsa. 26. i.\n\nHe ran thus till he came at a place somewhat ascending, and upon that place stood a Cross, and a little below, in the bottom, a Sepulchre. So I saw in my dream, That just as Christian came up with the Cross, his Burden loosed from off his shoulders, and fell from off his back, and began to tumble, and so continued to do, till it came to the mouth of the Sepulchre, where it fell in, and I saw it no more.\u00b0\n\nThen was Christian glad and lightsome, and said with a merry heart, He hath given me Rest by his Sorrow, and Life by his Death. Then he stood still a while to look and wonder; for it was very surprizing to him, that the sight of the Cross should thus ease him of his Burden. He looked therefore, and looked again, even till the springs that were in his head sent the waters down his cheeks. Now, as he stood looking and weeping, behold three Shining Ones' came to him and saluted him, with Peace be to thee; so the first said to him, Thy Sins be forgiven; the second stript him of his rags, and cloathed him with Change of Raiment; the third also set a Mark on his forehead, and gave him a Roll, with a Seal upon it, which he bid him look on as he ran, and that he should give it in at the Coelestial Gate; so they went their way. Then Christian gave three leaps for Joy, and went on singing:\n\nWhen God releases us of our Guilt and Burden, we are as those that leap for Ivy\n\nZech. 12. 10. Mar. 2. 5.\n\nZech. 3. 4. Eph. 1. 13.\n\n**I saw it no more** Christian is fully relieved from the guilt of sin by the cross near the beginning of his journey; **three Shining Ones** According to Sharrock, \"Since the first, not the second, says 'Thy sins are forgiven,' three angels rather than the Trinity\" (Sharrock, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 390).\n\nA Christian can sing, tho' alone, when God doth give him the Joy oj his Heart.\n\nThus far did I come laden with my Sin; \nNor could ought ease the grief that I was in, \nTill I came hither: What a place is this! \nMust here be the beginning of my bliss? \nMust here the Burden fall from off my back? \nMust here the strings that bound it to me crack? \nBlesst Cross! blest Sepulchre! blest rather be \nThe Man that there was put to Shame for me!\n\nI saw then in my dream, that he went on thus, even until he came at the bottom, where he saw, a little out of the way, three men fast asleep, with Fetters upon their heels. The name of the one was Simple, another Sloth, and the third Presumption.\n\nSimple, Sloth and Presumption.\n\nChristian then seeing them lie in this case, went to them, if peradventure\u00b0 he might awake them; and cried, You are like them that sleep on the top of a mast, for the Dead Sea\u00b0 is under you, a Gulph\u00b0 that hath no bottom: Awake, therefore, and come away; be willing also, and I will help you off with your Irons. He also told them, If he that goeth about like a roaring Lion, comes by, you will certainly become a Prey to his teeth. With that they looked upon him, and began to reply in this sort: Simple said, I see no Danger: Sloth said, Yet a little more Sleep: And Presumption said, Every Tub must stand upon his own bottom.\u00b0 And so they lay down to sleep again, and Christian went on his Way\n\nProv. 23. 34.\n\n1 Pet. 5. 8.\n\nThere is no Persuasion will do if GOD openeth not the eyes.\n\nYet was he troubled to think, that men in that danger should so little esteem the kindness of him that so freely of fered to help them, both by the awakening of them, counselling of them, and proffering to help them off with their Irons. And as he was troubled thereabout, he espied two men come tumbling over the wall, on the Left Hand\u00b0 of the narrow Way; and they made up apace to him. The name of the one was Formalist, and the name of the other Hypocrisy. So, as I said, they drew up unto him, who thus entered with them into discourse.\n\n**peradventure** By chance; **the Dead Sea** The sea of death; **Gulph** Abyss; **he that goeth about like a roaring Lion** Satan; **Every Tub** ... **bottom** Every man must rely upon himself; **the Left Hand** The sinister side.\n\nChr. Gentlemen, Whence came you, and whither do you go?\n\nChristian talked with them.\n\nFormalist and Hypocrisy. We were born in the land of Vain-Glory, and are going for Praise* to Mount Sion.\n\nChr. Why came you not in at the Gate which standeth at the beginning of the Way? Know you not that it is written, That he that cometh not in by the Door, but climbeth up some other way, the same is a Thief _and_ a Robber?\n\nJohn 10. 1.\n\nForm. and Hyp. They said, That to go to the Gate for entrance, was by all their countrymen counted too far about; and that therefore their usual way was to make a short cut of it, and to climb over the wall, as they had done.\n\nThey that come into the Way, but not by the Door, think that they can say something m Vindication of their own Practice.\n\nChr. But will it not be counted a trespass against the Lord of the City, whither we are bound, thus to violate his revealed Will?\n\nForm. and Hyp. They told him, That as for that, he needed not to trouble his head thereabout; for what they did, they had Custom for, and could produce, if need were, Testimony that would witness it, for more than a thousand years.\n\nChr. But, said Christian, will your Practice stand a Trial at Law?\n\nForm. and Hyp. They told him that Custom, it being of so long standing as above a thousand years, would doubtless now be admitted as a thing legal' by an impartial Judge: And besides, said they, if we get into the Way, what's matter which way we get in? If we are in, we are in: Thou art but in the Way, who, as we perceive, came in at the Gate; and we are also in the Way, that came tumbling over the wall: Wherein now is thy condition better than ours?\n\nChr. I walk by the Rule of my Master, you walk by the rude working of your fancies. You are counted Thieves already by the Lord of the Way, therefore I doubt you will not be found true men at the End of the Way You come in by yourselves without his Direction; and shall go out by yourselves, without his Mercy.\n\n**Vain-Glory** Futile worldly pride; **for Praise** Ambiguous; both \"in order to give praise\" and \"in order to win praise\"; **a thing legal** Formalist and Hypocrisy assume they can be justified by the law.\n\nWHO'S THIS? THE PILGRim. How! 'Tis VERY TRUE. \nOLD THINGS ARE PASS'D AWAY; ALL'S BECOME NEW. \nSTRANGE! HE'S ANOTHER MAN, UPON MY WORD; \nTHEY BE FINE FEATHERS, THAT MAKE A FINE BIRD.\n\nTo this they made him but little answer; only they bid him look to himself. Then I saw that they went on every man in his way, without much Conference one with another; save that these two men told Christian, That as to Laws and Ordinances, they doubted not but they should as conscientiously do them as he.\u00b0 Therefore, said they, we see not wherein thou differest from us, but by the Coat\u00b0 that is on thy back, which was, as we trow,\u00b0 given thee by some of thy neighbours to hide the shame of thy nakedness.\n\nChr. By Laws and Ordinances you will not be saved, since you came not in by the Door. And as for this Coat that is on my back, it was given me by the Lord of the Place whither I go; and that, as you say, to cover my nakedness with. And I take it as a token of his kindness to me; for I had nothing but Rags before; and besides, thus I comfort myself as I go: Surely, think I, when I come to the Gate of the City, the Lord thereof will know me for good, since I have his Coat on my back! a Coat that he gave me freely in the day that he stript me of my Rags. I have moreover a Mark in my forehead, of which perhaps you have taken no notice, which one of my Lord's most intimate Associates fixed there in the day that my Burden fell off my shoulders. I will tell you, moreover, that I had then given me a Roll sealed, to comfort me by reading, as I go on the Way; I was also bid to give it in at the Coelestial Gate, in token of my certain going in after it; all which things I doubt you want,* and want them, because you came not in at the Gate.\n\nGal. 2. 16. Christian has got his Lord's Coat on his back, and is comforted therewith: He is comforted also with his Mark and his Roll.\n\nTo these things they gave him no answer, only they looked upon each other, and laughed. Then I saw that they went on all, save that Christian kept before, who had no more talk but with himself, and that sometimes sighingly, and sometimes comfortably: Also he would be often reading in the Roll, that one of the Shining Ones gave him, by which he was refreshed.\n\nChristian has talk with himself.\n\n**as to Laws ... do them as he** This is true, but irrelevant to their salvation; **Coat** The freely granted, or \"imputed,\" righteousness that has replaced the \"rags\" of Christian's own sinful works; **trow** Believe; **I doubt you want** Both \"I think you lack\" and \"I doubt you desire.\"\n\nI beheld then, that they all went on till they came to the foot of the hill Difficulty, at the bottom of which was a Spring. There were also in the same place two other ways besides that which came strait from the Gate; one turned to the left hand, and the other to the right, at the bottom of the hill: but the narrow Way lay right up the hill, and the name of the going up the side of the hill is called Difficulty.\" Christian now went to the Spring, and drank thereof to refresh himself, and then began to go up the Hill, saying:\n\n _This Hill, though high, I covet to ascend, \nThe Difficulty will not me offend. \nFor I perceive the Way to Life lies here: \nCome pluck up Heart, let's neither faint nor fear; \nBetter, though difficult, the Right Way to go, \nThan Wrong, though easy, where the End is Wo_.\n\nHe comes to the hill Difficulty.\n\nIsa. 49. 10.\n\nThe other two also came to the foot of the hill; but when they saw that the hill was steep and high; and that there were two other ways to go; and supposing also that these two ways might meet again with that up which Christian went, on the other side of the hill: Therefore they were resolved to go in those ways. Now the name of one of those ways was Danger, and the name of the other Destruction. So the one took the way which is called Danger, which led him into a great Wood, and the other took directly up the way to Destruction, which led him into a wide field, full of dark Mountains, where he stumbled and fell, and rose no more.\n\nThe danger of turning out of the Way.\n\nI looked then after Christian, to see him go up the hill, where I perceived he fell from running to going, and from going to clambering upon his hands and his knees, because of the steepness of the place. Now about the midway to the top of the hill, was a pleasant Arbour, made by the Lord of the Hill, for the refreshment of weary Travellers; thither therefore Christian got, where also he sat down to rest him: Then he pulled his Roll out of his bosom, and read therein to his Comfort; he also now began afresh to take a review of the Coat or Garment that was given him as he stood by the Cross. Thus pleasing himself a while, he at last fell into a Slumber, and thence into a fast Sleep,* which detained him in that place until it was almost night: and in his Sleep his Roll fell out of his hand. Now as he was sleeping, there came one to him,\u00b0 and awaked him, saying, Go to the ant, thou Sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: And with that Christian suddenly started up, and sped him on his Way, and went apace till he came to the top of the hill.\n\n**and the name ... Difficulty** Note that it is no longer the hill itself that is named \"Difficulty,\" but the act of climbing it; **going** Walking.\n\nA Word of Grace.\n\nHe that sleeps is a Loser.\n\nProv. 6. 6.\n\nNow when he was got to the top of the hill, there came two men running against him amain; the name of the one was Timorous, and of the other Mistrust: To whom Christian said, Sirs, What's the matter you run the wrong way? Timorous answered, That they were going to the City of Zion, and had got up that difficult place: But, said he, the farther we go, the more Danger we meet with; wherefore we turned, and are going back again.\n\nChristian meets with Mistrust and Timorous.\n\nYes, said Mistrust, for just before us lies a couple of Lions in the Way; (whether sleeping or waking we know not)\u00b0 and we could not think, if we came within reach, but they would presently pull us in pieces.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, You make me afraid: But whither shall I fly to be safe? If I go back to mine own country, that is prepared for Fire and Brimstone, and I shall certainly perish there: If I can get to the Ccelestial City, I am sure to be in safety there: I must venture; to go back, is nothing but death; to go forward, is Fear of death, and Life everlasting beyond it: I will yet go forward. So Mistrust and Timorous ran down the hill, and Christian went on his Way. But thinking again of what he had heard from the men, he felt in his bosom for his Roll, that he might read therein, and be comforted; but he felt, and found it not. Then was Christian in great distress, and knew not what to do; for he wanted that which used to relieve him; and that which should have been his Pass into the Coelestial City. Here therefore he began to be much perplexed, and knew not what to do; at last he bethought himself \u00b0 that he had slept in the Arbour that is on the side of the hill; and falling down upon his knees, he asked God Forgiveness for that his foolish act, and then went back to look for his Roll. But all the Way he went back, who can sufficiently set forth the sorrow of Christian's heart? Sometimes he sighed, sometimes he wept, and oftentimes he chid' himself for being so foolish to fall asleep in that place which was erected only for a little refreshment from his weariness. Thus therefore he went back, carefully looking on this side and on that, all the way as he went, if happily he might find the Roll that had been his comfort so many times in his Journey. He went thus till he came again in sight of the Arbour where he sat and slept; but that sight renewed his sorrow the more, by bringing again even afresh, his evil of sleeping into his mind. Thus therefore he now went on bewailing his sinful sleep, saying, 0 wretched Man that I am! that I should sleep in the Day-time! that I should sleep in the midst of Difficulty! that I should so indulge the Flesh, as to use that rest, for ease to my flesh,\u00b0 which the LORD of the Hill hath erected only for the relief of the Spirits of Pilgrims! How many steps have I took in vain! (Thus it happen'd to Israel,\u00b0 for their Sin they were sent back again by the way of the Red Sea) and I am made to tread those steps with Sorrow, which I might have trod with Delight, had it not been for this sinful Sleep. How far might I have been on my Way by this time! I am made to tread those steps thrice over, which I needed not to have trod but once: Yea, now also I am like to be benighted,\u00b0 for the Day is almost spent: 0 that I had not slept! Now by this time he was come to the Arbour again, where for a while he sat down and wept; but at last (as Christian would have it) looking sorrowfully down under the settle,\u00b0 there he espied his Roll; the which he with trembling and haste catched up and put into his bosom. But who can tell how joyful this man was, when he had gotten his Roll again? For this Roll was the Assurance of his Life, and Acceptance at the desired Haven. Therefore he laid it up in his bosom, gave Thanks to GOD for directing his eye to the place where it lay, and with Joy and Tears betook himself again to his Journey. But, 0 how nimbly now did he go up the rest of the Hill! Yet, before he got up, the Sun went down upon Christian; and this made him again recall the vanity of his sleeping to his remembrance; and thus he again began to condole with himself: O thou sinful Sleep! how for thy sake am I like to be benighted in my Journey: I must walk without the Sun, darkness must cover the path of my feet, and I must hear the noise of doleful creatures, because of my sinful Sleep! Now also he remembered the story that Mistrust and Timorous told him of, how they were frighted with the sight of the Lions. Then said Christian to himself again, These Beasts range in the Night for their prey, and if they should meet with me in the dark, how should I shift them?\u00b0 How should I escape being by them torn in pieces? Thus he went on his Way; but while he was thus bewailing his unhappy miscarriage, he lift up his eyes, and behold there was a very stately palace before him, the name of which was Beautiful, and it stood just by the Highway side.\n\nChristian shakes off Fear.\n\n**fast Sleep** Representing the complacency that comes from contemplating one's elect status (Christian's \"roll\"); **there came one to him** The biblical text seems to become an active entity here; **the City of Zion** Mount Zion, in Jerusalem, is a biblical type of heaven; **whether sleeping or waking we know not** State policy toward dissenters varied widely between 1660 and 1688.\n\nChristian missed his Roll wherein he used to take Comfort.\n\nHe is perplexed for his Roll.\n\nChristian bewails his foolish Sleeping.\n\nRev. 2. 1 Thess. 5. 7, 8.\n\n**bethought himself** \"Remembered,\" but the phrase suggests a differentiation between Christian's consciousness and his essence, or self; **chid** Criticized; **Flesh ... flesh** The \"flesh\" refers to both the body and to a carnal orientation of the mind; **Israel** The wandering of the Israelites in the desert was a biblical type for the inner pilgrimage of the individual soul.\n\nChristian findeth his Roll where he lost it.\n\nSHALL THEY WHO WRONG BEGIN YET RIGHTLY END? \nSHALL THEY AT ALL HAVE SAFETY FOR THEIR FRIEND? \nNO, NO, IN HEAD-STRONG MANNER THEY SET OUT, \nAND HEAD-LONG WILL THEY FALL AT LAST NO DOUBT.\n\nSo I saw in my dream, that he made haste and went forward, that if possible he might get Lodging there. Now before he had gone far, he entered into a very narrow Passage, which was about a furlong off the Porter's lodge, and looking very narrowly before him as he went, he espied two Lions in the way.\u00b0 Now, thought he, I see the dangers that Mistrust and Timorous were driven back by. (The Lions were chained, but he saw not the chains.)\u00b0 Then he was afraid, and thought also himself to go back after them, for he thought nothing but death was before him: But the Portero at the Lodge, whose name is Watchful, perceiving that Christian made a Halt, as if he would go back, cried unto him, saying, Is thy Strength so small? Fear not the Lions, for they are chain'd, and are placed there for Trial of Faith, where it is, and for Discovery* of those that have none: Keep in the midst of the Path, and no hurt shall come unto thee.\n\n**benighted** Both literally and figuratively; the term refers to external and internal conditions simultaneously; **settle** Bench; **shift them** Both \"deal with them\" and \"get them out of the way.\"\n\nMark 13.14.\n\nThen I saw that he went on trembling for fear of the Lions; but taking good heed to the directions of the Porter, he heard them roar, but they did him no harm. Then he clapt his hands, and went on till he came and stood before the Gate where the Porter was. Then said Christian to the Porter, Sir, What house is this? and, May I lodge here to-night? The Porter answered, This house was built by the Lord of the Hill, and he built it for the relief and security of Pilgrims. The Porter also asked whence he was, and whither he was going?\n\nChr. I am come from the City of Destruction, and am going to Mount Zion; but because the Sun is now set, I desire, if I may, to lodge here to-night.\n\nPorter. What is your Name?\n\nChr. My name is now Christian, but my name at the first was Graceless: I came of the race of Japheth, whom God will persuade to dwell in the Tents of Shem. \u00b0\n\nGen. 9.27.\n\nPort. But how doth it happen that you come so late? The Sun is set.\n\n**two Lions in the way** The civil and ecclesiastical authorities forbade membership in dissenting churches; **The Lions ... saw not the chains** Penal laws against dissenters were often not enforced, but the arbitrary nature of their application was small comfort to their victims; **the Porter** The pastor; **Discovery** Exposure; **Graceless** Christian gives himself this name retroactively; after his conversion he understands that he was previously \"Graceless,\" but before it he is referred to simply as a \"man\"; **Japheth ... Shem** Sons of Noah. See the Bible, Genesis 9:27: \"God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem; and Canaan shall be his servant\" (KJV).\n\nDIFFICULTY IS BEHIND, FEAR IS BEFORE, \nTHOUGH HE'S GOT ON THE HILL, THE LIONS ROAR. \nA CHRISTIAN MAN IS NEVER LONG AT EASE: \nWHEN ONE FRIGHT'S GONE, ANOTHER DOTH HIM SEIZE.\n\nChr. I had been here sooner, but that, wretched man that I am, I slept in the Arbour that stands on the Hill-side! Nay, I had, notwithstanding that, been here much sooner, but that in my Sleep I lost my Evidence,\u00b0 and came without it to the brow of the Hill, and then feeling for it, and finding it not, I was forced, with Sorrow of Heart, to go back to the place where I slept my Sleep,\u00b0 where I found it, and now I am come.\n\nPort. Well, I will call out one of the Virgins of this place, who will, (if she likes your Talk) bring you in to the rest of the Family, according to the rules of the house. So Watchful the Porter rang a bell, at the sound of which came out of the door of the house a grave and beautiful damsel, named Discretion, and asked why she was called?\n\nThe Porter answered, This man is in a Journey from the City of Destruction to Mount Zion, but being weary and benighted, he asked me if he might lodge here to-night: So I told him I would call for thee, who, after Discourse had with him, mayest do as seemeth thee good, even according to the Law of the house.\n\nThen she asked him, whence he was, and whither he was going? And he told her.\u00b0 She asked him also, how he got into the Way? and he told her. Then she asked him, what he had seen and met with in the Way? and he told her. And at last she asked his Name? So he said, It is Christian; and I have so much the more a desire to lodge here to-night, because by what I perceive, this Place was built by the Lord of the Hill, for the relief and security of Pilgrims: So she smiled, but the water stood in her eyes:\u00b0 And after a little pause, she said, I will call forth two or three more of the Family. So she ran to the door and called out Prudence, Piety, and Charity; who after a little more discourse with him, had him into the Family ; and many of them meeting him at the Threshold of the House, said, Come in, thou blessed of the Lord; this House was built by the Lord of the Hill, on purpose to entertain such Pilgrims in. Then he bowed his head, and followed them into the House: So when he was come in, and set down, they gave him something to drink, and consented together that until Supper was ready, some of them should have some particular discourse with Christian, for the best Improvement\u00b0 of Time, and they appointed Piety, and Prudence, and Charity, to discourse with him; and thus they began:\n\n**my Evidence** His roll; **I slept my sleep** Note that \"sleep\" becomes a transitive verb; Christian's sleep is an object to him; **and he told her** New members of the congregation were expected to give personal accounts of their conversion experiences; **the water stood in her eyes** A rare naturalistic touch.\n\nPiety. Come, good Christian, since we have been so loving to you, to receive you into our House this night, let us, if perhaps we may better ourselves thereby, talk with you of all things that have happened to you in your Pilgrimage.\n\nPiety discourses him.\n\nChr. With a very good will, and I am glad that you are so well disposed.\n\nPiety. What moved you at first to betake yourself to a Pilgrim's Life?\n\nChr. I was driven out of my Native Country by a dreadful sound that was in mine ears; to wit, That unavoidable destruction did attend me, if I abode in that place where I was.\n\nPiety. But how did it happen that you came out of your Country this Way?\n\nHow Christian was driven out of his own Country.\n\nChr. It was as God would have it; for when I was under the fears of destruction, I did not know whither to go; but by chance there came a Man, even to me, (as I was trembling and weeping,) whose name is Evangelist, and he directed me to the Wicket Gate, which else I should never have found, and so set me into the Way that hath led me directly to this House.\n\nHow he got into the Way to Zion.\n\nPiety. But did you not come by the House of the Interpreter?\n\nChr. Yes, and did see such things there, the remembrance of which will stick by me as long as I live: Especially three things, to wit, How Christ, in despite of Satan, maintains his Work of Grace in the heart; how the Man had sinned himself quite out of hopes of God's Mercy; and also the dream of him that thought in his sleep the Day of Judgment was come.\n\nA Rehearsal of what he saw in the Way.\n\n**Improvement** Improving use.\n\nPiety. Why, Did you hear him tell his dream?\n\nChr. Yes, and a dreadful one it was, I thought; it made my heart ache as he was telling of it; but yet I am glad I heard it.\n\nPiety. Was that all that you saw at the House of the Interpreter?\n\nChr. No, he took me and had me where he showed me a stately Palace, and how the people were clad in Gold that were in it; and how there came a venturouso man, and cut his Way through the armed men that stood in the Door to keep him out; and how he was bid to come in, and win Eternal Glory: Methought those things did ravish my heart! I could have staid at that good man's house a twelve-month, but that I knew I had further to go.\n\nPiety. And what saw you else in the Way?\n\nChr. Saw! Why, I went but a little further, and I saw one, as I thought in my mind, hang bleeding upon a Tree; and the very Sight of him made my Burden fall off my back, (for I groaned under a weary Burden) but then it fell down from off me. 'Twas a strange thing to me, for I never saw such a thing before: Yea, and while I stood looking up, (for then I could not forbear looking) Three Shining Ones came to me: One of them testified that my Sins were forgiven me; another stript me of my Rags, and gave me this 'broidered Coat which you see; and the third set the Mark which you see in my forehead, and gave me this sealed Roll; (and with that he plucked it out of his Bosom.)\n\nPiety. But you saw more than this, did you not?\n\nChr. The things that I have told you, were the best; yet some other small matters I saw, as namely I saw three men, Simple, Sloth, and Presumption, lie asleep a little out of the Way as I came, with Irons\u00b0 upon their heels; but do you think I could awake them! I also saw Formality and Hypocrisy come tumbling over the wall, to go (as they pretended) to Zion, but they were quickly lost; even as I myself did tell them, but they would not believe: But, above all, I found it hard work to get\n\n **venturous** Daring; **Irons** Fetters.\n\nup this Hill, and as hard to come by the Lions mouths: and truly if it had not been for the good man, the Porter that stands at the Gate, I do not know, but that, after all, I might have gone back again; but now I thank God I am here, and I thank you for receiving of me.\n\nThen Prudence thought good to ask him a few questions, and desired his answer to them.\n\nPrudence. Do you not think sometimes of the Country from whence you came?\n\nPrudence discourses him.\n\nChr. Yea, but with much Shame and Detestation: Truly, if I had been mindful of that Country from whence I came out, I might have had opportunity to have returned; but now I desire a better Country; this is, a Heavenly.\n\nChristian's thoughts of his Native Country.\n\nHeb. 11.15, 6.\n\nPrud. Do you not yet bear away with you some of the things that then you were conversant withal?\n\nChr. Yes, but greatly against my will; especially my inward and carnal Cogitation, with which all my countrymen, as well as myself, were delighted; but now all those things are my Grief; and might I but choose mine own things, I would choose never to think of those things more; but when I would be doing of that which is best, that which is worst is with me.\n\nChristian distasted with Carnal Cogitations.\n\nChristian's Choice. Rom. 7.\n\nPrud. Do you not find sometimes, as if those things were vanquished, which at other times are your Perplexity?\n\nChr. Yes, but that is but seldom; but they are to me Golden Hours, in which such things happen to me.\u00b0 \u00b0\n\nChristian's Golden Hours.\n\nPrud. Can you remember by what Means you find your annoyances at times, as if they were vanquished?\n\nChr. Yes, when I think what I saw at the Cross, that will do it; and when I look upon my 'broidered Coat, that will do it; also when I look into the Roll that I carry in my bosom, that will do it; and when my thoughts waxo warm about whither I am going, that will do it.\n\nHow Christian gets Power against his Corruptions.\n\nPrud. And what is it that makes you so desirous to go to Mount Zion?\n\n**inward and carnal Cogitations** Although they were \"inward,\" his thoughts were also fleshly; **happen to me** Christian experiences his thoughts as external things that \"happen to\" him; **wax** Become.\n\nChr. Why, there I hope to see him alive that did hang dead on the Cross; and there I hope to be rid of all those things, that to this day are in me an Annoyance to me: There they say there is no Death, and there I shall dwell with such Company as I like best. For, to tell you truth, I love him, because I was by him eased of my Burden; and I am weary of my inward Sickness: I would fain\u00b0 be where I shall die no more, and with the Company that shall continually cry, Holy, Holy, Holy.\n\n_Why_ Christian would be at Mount Zion. Isa.25.8. Rev. 21. 4.\n\nThen said Charity to Christian, Have you a Family? Are you a married man?\n\nCharity discourses him.\n\nChr. I have a Wife and four small Children.\n\nCharity. And why did you not bring them along with you?\n\nChr. Then Christian wept and said, Oh! how willingly would I have done it! but they were all of them utterly averse to my going on Pilgrimage.\n\nChristian's Love to his Wife and Children.\n\nCha. But you should have talked to them, and have endeavoured to have shown them the Danger of being behind.\n\nChr. So I did; and told them also what God had shewed to me of the destruction of our City; but I seemed to them as one that mocked, and they believed me not.\n\nCha. And did you pray to God that he would bless your Counsel to them?\n\nChr. Yes, and that with much Affection;\u00b0 for you must think that my Wife and poor Children were very dear unto me.\n\n_Cha._ But did you tell them of your own Sorrow, and Fear of Destruction? For I suppose that destruction was visible enough to you?\n\nChr. Yes, over, and over, and over. They might also see my Fears in my Countenance, in my Tears, and also in my trembling under the apprehension of the Judgment that did hang over our heads; but all was not sufficient to prevail with them to come with me.\n\nChristian's Fears of perishing might be read in his very Countenance.\n\n_Cha._ But what could they say for themselves why they came not?\n\n**I would fain** I want to; **Affection** Feeling.\n\nChr. Why, my Wife was afraid of losing this World; and my Children were given to the foolish Delights of Youth: So what by one thing and what by another, they left me to wander in this manner alone.\n\nThe Cause why his Wife and Children did not go with him.\n\nCha. But did you not with your vain Life damp\u00b0 all that you by Words used by way of persuasion to bring them away with you?\n\nChr. Indeed I cannot commend my Life, for I am conscious to myself \u00b0 of many failings therein: I know also, that a man by his Conversation\u00b0 may soon overthrow what by Argument or Persuasion he doth labour to fasten upon others for their good. Yet, this I can say, I was very wary of giving them occasion, by any unseemly action, to make them averse to going on Pilgrimage. Yea, for this very thing, they would tell me I was too precise,\u00b0 and that I denied myself of things (for their sakes) in which they saw no evil. Nay, I think I may say, that, if what they saw in me did hinder them, it was my great Tenderness in\u00b0 sinning against God, or of doing any Wrong to my Neighbour.\n\nChristian's good Conversation before his Wife and Children.\n\nCha. Indeed Cain hated his brother, because his own works were Evil, and his brother's Righteous; and if thy Wife and Children have been offended with thee for this, they thereby shew themselves to be implacable\u00b0 to good; and thou hast delivered\u00b0 thy soul from their Blood.\n\n1 John 3.12. Christian clear of their Blood if they perish. Ezek. 3. 19.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, That thus they sat talking together until Supper was ready. So when they had made ready, they sat down to meat: Now the Table was furnished with fay Things, and with Wine that was well refined; and all their talk at the Table was about the LORD of the Hill; as, namely, about what HE had done, and wherefore HE did what HE did, and why HE had built that House; and by what they said, I perceived\u00b0 that HE had been a great Warrior, and had fought with, and slain him that had the Power of Death, but not without great Danger to himself, which made me love him the more.\n\nWhat Christian had to his Supper. Their Talk at Supper-Time.\n\n**damp** Render ineffective; **conscious to myself** Christian's consciousness is distinct from his self; **Conversation** Behavior; **precise** Puritanical: a \"precision\" was a puritan; **Tenderness in** Sensitivity to; **implacable** Impervious; **delivered** Exonerated; **fat** Attractive or desirable; **I perceived** The narrator is learning from Christian's discourse.\n\nFor, as they said, and as I believe, (said Christian)\u00b0 he did it with the Loss of much Blood; but that which put Glory of Grace into all he did, was, that he did it of pure Love to his Country. And besides, there were some of them of the Houshold that said, they had seen and spoke with him since he did die on the Cross; and they have attested, that they had it from his own lips, that he is such a Lover of poor Pilgrims, that the like is not to be found from the East to the West.\n\nThey moreover gave an Instance of what they affirmed, and that was, He had stript himself of his Glory, that he might do this for the Poor;\u00b0 and that they heard him say and affirm, That he would not dwell _in_ the Mountain of Zion _alone._ They said moreover, That he had made many Pilgrims princes, though by nature\u00b0 they were beggars born, and their original had been the dunghill.\u00b0\n\nHeb. 2.14, 15.\n\nChrist makes Princes of Beggars. 1 Sam. 2. 8, Ps. l13. 7.\n\nThus they discoursed together till late at night; and after they had committed themselves to their Lord for Protection, they betook themselves to rest: The Pilgrim they laid in a large upper chamber, whose window opened towards the Sun-rising: The name of the chamber was Peace, where he slept till break of Day, and then he awoke and sang,\n\n _Where am I now! Is this the Love and Care \nOf Jesus; for the men that Pilgrims are, \nThus to provide! That I should be forgiven, \nAnd dwell already the next door to Heaven!_\n\nSo, in the morning, they all got up; and, after some more discourse, they told him that he should not depart till they had shewed him the _Rarities\u00b0_ of that place. And first they had him\n\nChristian's Bed-chamber.\n\n**said Christian** The narrator blends into the fictional representation of himself ; **for the Poor** Bunyan always considered the poor to be God's chosen people; **by nature** According to the flesh; **dunghill** Garbage dump, where the poorest scavenged for food; **Rarities** Wonders, signs.\n\ninto the Study, where they shewed him Records\u00b0 of the greatest antiquity; in which, as I remember my dream, they shewed him first the Pedigree of the Lord of the Hill, that he was the Son of the Ancient of Days,\u00b0 and came by an Eternal Generation:\u00b0 Here also was more fully recorded the Acts that he had done, and the Names of many hundreds that he had taken into his service; and how he had placed them in such Habitations, that he could neither by Length of Days, nor Decays of Nature, be dissolved.\n\nChristian had into the Study _and_ what he _saw_ there.\n\nThen they read to him some of the worthy Acts that some of his Servants had done: As how they had subdued Kingdoms, wrought Righteousness, obtained Promises, stopped the Mouths of Lions, quenched the Violence of Fire, escaped the Edge of the Sword, out of Weakness were made strong, waxed valiant in Fight, and turned to Flight the Armies of the Aliens. \u00b0\n\nHeb. 11. 33, 34.\n\nThen they read again in another part of the Records of the House, where it was shewed how willing their Lord was to receive into his Favour, any, even any, though they in time past had offered great Affronts to his Person and Proceedings. Here also were several other histories of many other famous things, of all which Christian had a view: As of things both Ancient and Modern; together with Prophecies and Predictions of things that have their certain accomplishment, both to the dread and amazement of Enemies, and the comfort and solace of Pilgrims.\n\nThe next day they took him, and had him into the Armory, where they shewed him all manner of Furniture,\u00b0 which their Lord had provided for Pilgrims, as Sword, Shield, Helmet, Breast-plate, All-Prayer, and Shoes that would not wear out. And there was here enough of this to harness' out as many men, for the service of their Lord, as there be Stars in the Heaven for multitude.\n\nChristian had into the Armory.\n\n**Records** The Bible, now read in a more historical way than the purely iconic images at the Interpreter's House; **Ancient of Days** A term for God used in Daniel 7:9; **Eternal Generation** His generation took place in eternity, and He is eternally being generated; **the Aliens** In the Bible, the foreign nations surrounding Israel; but in Bunyan's typology, the worldly, from whom Christian has become alienated; **Furniture** Equipment; **harness** To arm.\n\nThey also shewed him some of the Engines* with which some of his Servants had done wonderful things. They shewed him Moses' Rod, the Hammer and Nail with which Jael slew Sisera, the Pitchers, Trumpets, and Lamps too, with which Gideon put to Flight the Armies of Midian. Then they shewed him the Ox's Goad, wherewith Shamgar slew Six Hundred men. They shewed him also the Jaw-Bone with which Samson did such mighty Feats: They shewed him moreover the Sling and Stone with which David slew Goliah of Gath; and the Sword also with which their Lord will kill the Man of Sin, in the Day that he shall rise up to the Prey. They shewed him besides many excellent things, with which Christian was much delighted. This done, they went to their Rest again.\n\nChristian made to see Ancient things.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That on the morrow he got up to go forwards, but they desired him to stay till the next day also; and then said they, we will (if the day be clear) show you the Delectable Mountains; which, they said, would yet farther add to his Comfort, because they were nearer the desired Haven than the place where at present he was; so he consented and staid. When the morning was up, they had him to the top of the House, and bid him look South: So he did; and behold, at a great Distance, he saw a most pleasant mountainous Country, beautified with Woods, Vineyards, Fruits of all sorts, Flowers also, with Springs and Fountains, very delectable to behold. Then he asked the name of the Country. They said, It was Emanuel's Land; and it is as common,\u00b0 said they, as this Hill is to and for all the Pilgrims. And when thou comest there, from thence thou mayest see to the Gate of the Ccelestial City, as the Shepherds that live there will make appear.\n\nChristian shewed the Delectable Mountains.\n\nIsa. 23. 16, 17.\n\nNow he bethought himself of setting forward, and they were willing he should. But first, said they, let us go again into the Armory: So they did; and when he came there, they harnessed him from head to foot, with what was of Proof,\u00b0 lest perhaps he should meet with Assaults in the Way. He being therefore thus accoutred,\u00b0 walketh out with his Friends to the Gate, and there he asked the Porter, If he saw any Pilgrim pass by? Then the Porter answered, Yes.\n\nChristian sets forward.\n\n**Engines** Weapons. See the footnote to \"two-edged sword\" on page 71; common Communal. The privatizing of \"common\" land was a pressing issue in seventeenth-century England.\n\nChristian sent away armed.\n\nChr. Pray, did you know him? said he.\n\nPort. I asked his name, and he told me it was Faithful.\n\nChr. O, said Christian, I know him; he is my Townsman, my near neighbour, he comes from the place where I was born: How far do you think he may be before?\u00b0\n\nPort. He is got by this time below the Hill.\n\nChr. Well, said Christian, good Porter, the Lord be with thee, and add to all thy blessings much increase for the kindness that thou hast shewed to me.\n\nHow Christian and the Porter greet at parting.\n\nThen he began to go forward; but Discretion, Piety, _Charity,_ and Prudence, would accompany him down to the foot of the Hill. So they went on together, reiterating their former discourses, till they came to go down the Hill. Then said Christian, As it was difficulty coming up, so, (so far as I can see,) it is dangerous going down. Yes, said Prudence, so it is; for it is a hard matter for a man to go down into the Valley of Humiliation, as thou art now, and to catch no slip by the Way; therefore, said they, are we come out to accompany thee down the Hill. So he began to go down, but very warily; yet he caught a slip or two.\n\nThe Valley of Humiliation.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That these good Companions (when Christian was got down to the bottom of the Hill) gave him a loaf of bread, a bottle of wine, and a cluster of raisins; and then he went his Way.\n\nBut now in this Valley of Humiliation, poor Christian was hard put to it; for he had gone but a little Way, before he espied a foul _Fiend\u00b0_ coming over the field to meet him: His name is Apollyon. Then did Christian begin to be afraid, and to cast in his mind whether to go back or to stand his ground. But he considered again, that he had no Armour for his back, and therefore thought that to turn the back to him might give him greater advantage, with ease to pierce him with his Darts; therefore he resolved to venture,\u00b0 and stand his ground: For, thought he, had I no more in mine Eye* than the saving of my life, 'twould be the best way to stand.\n\n**of Proof** Impenetrable; **accoutred** Equipped; **before** Ahead; **a foul Fiend** A dirty devil. \"Fiend\" is the Old English word for \"enemy,\" as \"Satan\" is the Hebrew.\n\nChristian ha. no Armour fc his back.\n\nChristian's Resolution on the approach of Apollyon.\n\nWHILST CHRISTIAN IS AMONG HIS GODLY FRIENDS, \nTHEIR GOLDEN MOUTHS MAKE HIM SUFFICIENT 'MENDS \nFOR ALL HIS GRIEFS; AND WHEN THEY LET HIM GO, \nHE'S CLAD WITH NORTHERN STEEL FROM TOP TO TOE.\n\nSo he went on, and Apollyon met him: Now the Monster was hideous to behold: He was cloathed with scales like a fish; (and they are his Pride)\u00b0 he had wings like a dragon, feet like a bear, and out of his belly came fire and smoke, and his mouth was as the mouth of a lion. When he was come up to Christian, he beheld him with a disdainful countenance, and thus began to question with him.\n\nApollyon. Whence come you? and whither are you bound?\n\nChr. I am come from the City of Destruction, which is the Place of all Evil, and am going to the City of Zion.\n\nDiscourse betwixt Christian ana Apollyon.\n\nApol. By this I perceive thou art one of my subjects; for all that country is mine, and I am the Prince and God of it. How is it then that thou hast run away from thy King? Were it not that I hope thou mayest do me more service, I would strike thee now at one blow to the ground.\n\nChr. I was born indeed in your Dominions, but your Service was hard, and your wages such as a man could not live on; for the Wages of Sin is Death; therefore, when I was come to years,\u00b0 I did as other considerate\" persons do, look out, if perhaps I might mend\u00b0 myself.\n\nRom. 6. 23.\n\n_Apol._ There is no prince that will thus lightly lose his subjects, neither will I as yet lose thee; but since thou complainest of thy service and wages, be content to go back; what our Country will afford, I do here promise to give thee.\n\nChr. But I have let myself to\u00b0 another, even to the King of princes, and how can I, with fairness, go back with thee?\n\nApollyon's Flattery.\n\n**venture** Dare; **in mine Eye** As my aim; **they are his Pride** Meaning both that the scales are the allegorical figure for Apollyon's pride and that he is proud of his scales; **to years** To maturity; **considerate** Prudent; **mend** Improve; **let myself** to Engaged myself in service to.\n\nApol. Thou hast done in this according to the Proverb, changed a Bad for a Worse: But it is ordinary for those that have professed themselves his Servants, after a while to give him the slip, and return again to me: Do thou so too, and all shall be well.\n\nApollyon undervalues Christ's Service.\n\nChr. I have given him my Faith, and sworn my Allegiance to him, How then can I go back from this, and not be hanged as a Traitor?\n\nApol. Thou didst the same to me, and yet I am willing to pass by all, if now thou wilt turn again and go back.\n\n[Apollyon pretends to be merciful 1St Edit. 1678 only. ]\n\nChr. What I promised thee was in my non-age;\u00b0 and besides, I count\u00b0 that the Prince under whose Banner now I stand, is able to absolve me; yea, and to pardon also what I did as to my Compliance with thee: And besides, (0 thou destroying Apollyon) to speak Truth, I like his Service, his Wages, his Servants, his Government, his Company, and Country, better than thine; and therefore leave off to persuade me further, I am his servant, and I will follow him.\n\nApol. Consider again, when thou art in cool blood, what thou art like to meet with in the Way that thou goest. Thou knowest, that for the most part, his Servants come to an ill End, because they are transgressors against me and my Ways. How many of them have been put to shameful deaths! And besides, thou countest his service better than mine, whereas he never came yet from the Place where he is, to deliver any that served him out of our hands: But as for me, how many times, as all the World very well knows, have I delivered, either by Power or Fraud, those that have faithfully served me, from him and his, though taken by them? And so I will deliver thee.\n\nApollyon pleads the grievous Ends of Christians, to dissuade Christian from persisting in his Way.\n\nChr. His forbearing at present to deliver them, is on purpose to try their Love, whether they will cleave to him to the End: And as for the ill end thou sayest they come to, that is most glorious in their account:0 But, for present Deliverance, they do not much expect it; for they stay\u00b0 for their Glory, and then they shall have it, when their Prince comes in his, and the Glory of the Angels.\n\n**non-age** Before the legal age of maturity, hence in the pre-conversion condition of being under the law; count Reckon; **account** Reckoning.\n\nApol. Thou hast already been unfaithful in thy service to him; and how dost thou think to receive Wages of him?\n\nChr. Wherein, 0 Apollyon! have I been unfaithful to him?\n\nApol. Thou didst faint at first setting out, when thou wast almost choaked in the Gulph of Despond; thou didst attempt wrong ways to be rid of thy Burden, whereas thou shouldest have stayed till thy Prince had taken it off. Thou didst sinfully sleep, and lose thy choice Things. Thou wast also almost persuaded to go back at the sight of the Lions: And when thou talkest of thy Journey, and of what thou hast heard and seen, thou art inwardly desirous of Vain-glory in all that thou sayest or dost.\n\nApollyon pleads Christian's Infirmities against him.\n\nChr. All this is true, and much more, which thou hast left out; but the Prince whom I serve and honour, is merciful and ready to forgive: But besides, these Infirmities possessed me in thy Country; for there I sucked them in, and I have groaned under them, been sorry for them, and have obtained Pardon of my Prince.\n\nApollyon in a Rage falls upon Christian.\n\nApol. Then _Apollyon_ broke out into a grievous Rage, saying, I am an Enemy to this Prince; I hate his Person, his Laws, and People: I am come out on purpose to withstand thee.\n\nChr. Apollyon, beware what you do; for I am in the King's highway, the Way of Holiness; therefore take heed to yourself.\n\nApol. Then Apollyon straddled quite over the whole breadth of the Way, and said, I am void of Fear in this matter; prepare thyself to die; for I swear by my infernal Den,\u00b0 That thou shalt go no further: Here will I spill thy Soul !\u00b0\n\nAnd with that he threw a flaming Dart at his breast; but Christian had a Shield in his hand, with which he caught it, and so prevented the danger of that.\n\nThen did Christian draw;\u00b0 for he saw it was time to bestir\n\n **stay** Wait; **Den** Hell, but Bunyan uses the word to signify his prison on page 13 and elsewhere; **Here will I spill thy Soul!** Apollyon imagines that the soul is part of the physical body; **draw** That is, draw his sword.\n\nhim;\u00b0 and Apollyon as fast made at him, throwing Darts as thick as hail; by the which, notwithstanding all that Christian could do to avoid it, Apollyon wounded him in his head, his hand, and foot. This made Christian give a little back: Apollyon, therefore, followed his Work amain, and Christian again took Courage, and resisted as manfully as he could. This sore Combat lasted for above half a day, even till Christian was almost quite spent. For you must know that Christian, by reason of his Wounds, must needs grow weaker and weaker.\n\nChristian wounded in his Understanding Faith, and Conversation.\n\nThen Apollyon espying his opportunity, began to gather up close to Christian, and wrestling with him, gave him a dreadful Fall; and with that Christian's Sword flew out of his hand. Then said Apollyon, I am sure of thee now: And with that he had almost pressed him to Death; so that Christian began to despair of Life. But, as God would have it, while Apollyon was fetching of \u00b0 his last blow, thereby to make a full end of this good man, Christian nimbly reached out his hand for his Sword, and caught it, saying, Rejoyce not against me, 0 mine Enemy! when I fall I shall arise; and with that gave him a deadly thrust, which made him give back, as one that had received his mortal wound. Christian perceiving that, made at him again; saying, Nay, in all these things we are more than Conquerors, through him that loved us. And with that Apollyon spread forth his Dragon's wings, and sped him away, that Christian saw him no more.\n\nApollyon casteth Christian down to the Ground.\n\nChristian's Victory over Apollyon.\n\nMic. 7. 8.\n\nRom. 8. 37. Jam. 4.7.\n\nIn this Combat no man can imagine, unless he had seen and heard as I did, what yelling and hideous roaring Apollyon made all the time of the fight: He spake like a Dragon: And on the other side, what sighs and groans burst from Christian's heart. I never saw him all the while give so much as one pleasant look, till he perceived he had wounded Apollyon with his two-edged Sword;\u00b0 then, indeed, he did smile, and look upward: But it was the dreadfullest Fight that ever I saw.\n\nA brief Relation of the Combat, by the spectator.\n\n**bestir him** Take action; **fetching** of Preparing for; **two-edged sword** Compare Milton's \"Lycidas\" (1638): \"But that two-handed engine at the door \/ Stands ready to smite once, and smite no more\" (lines 130-131).\n\nA MORE UNEQUAL MATCH CAN HARDLY BE: \nCHRISTIAN MUST FIGHT AN ANGEL; BUT YOU SEE \nTHE VALIANT MAN, BY HANDLING SWORD AND SHIELD \nDOTH MAKE HIM, THO' A DRAGON, QUIT THE FIELD.\n\nSo when the Battle was over, Christian said, I will here give Thanks to him that hath delivered me out of the mouth of the Lion, to him that did help me against Apollyon. And so he did; saying,\n\n _Great Beelzebub, the Captain of this Fiend, \nDesign'd my Ruin; therefore to this end \nHe sent him harness'd out; and he with rage, \nThat hellish was, did fiercely me engage: \nBut blessed Michael\u00b0 helped me, and I, \nBy dint of Sword, did quickly make him fly: \nTherefore to him let me give lasting Praise, \nAnd Thank, and bless his holy Name always._\n\nChristian gives God thanks for Deliverance.\n\nThen there came to him a Hand with some of the leaves of the Tree of Life, the which Christian took and applied to the wounds that he had received in the battle, and was healed immediately. He also sat down in that place to eat bread, and to drink of the bottle that was given him a little before; so being refreshed, he addressed himself to his Journey, with his Sword drawn in his hand; for he said, I know not but some other Enemy may be at hand. But he met with no other affront from Apollyon quite through this Valley.\n\nChristian goes on his Journey with his Sword drawn in his hand.\n\nNow at the end of this Valley was another, called, The valley of the Shadow of Death, and Christian must needs go through it, because the Way to the Coelestial City lay through the midst of it: Now this Valley is a very solitary place. The prophet Jeremiah thus describes it: A wilderness, a land of desarts, and of pits; a land of drought, and of the shadow of death, a land that no man (but a Christian)\u00b0 \u00b0 passeth through, and where no man dwelt.\n\nThe _Valley_ of the Shadow of Death.\n\nJer. a. 6.\n\nNow here Christian was worse put to it than in his fight with Apollyon; as by the sequel\" you shall see.\n\nI saw then in my dream, That when Christian was got to\n\n **Michael** The warrior angel in the Bible, Revelation 12:7. Note that the character has not appeared; Christian refers to his own courage as \"Michael\"; **but a Christian** This is Bunyan's interjection; **sequel** That is, what follows.\n\nPsal. 69.14.\n\nthe borders of the Shadow of Death, there met him two men, children of them that brought up an evil report of the good land, making haste to go back; to whom Christian spake as follows:\n\nChr. Whither are you going?\n\nMen. They said, Back! Back! And we would have you to do so too, if either Life or Peace is prized by you.\n\nChr. Why! What's the matter? said Christian.\n\nMen. Matter! said they, we were going that Way as you are going, and went as far as we durst; and indeed we were almost past coming back; for had we gone a little farther, we had not been here to bring the news to thee.\n\nThe Children of the Spies gc back.\n\nNumb. 13.\n\nChr. But what have you met with? said Christian.\n\nMen. Why we were almost in the Valley of the Shadow of Death, but that by good hap\u00b0 we looked before us, and saw the danger before we came to it.\n\nChr. But what have you seen? said Christian.\n\nMen. Seen! Why the Valley itself, which is as dark as pitch: We also saw there the Hobgoblins, Satyrs,\u00b0 and Dragons of the Pit: We heard also in that Valley a continual howling and yelling, as of a people under unutterable misery, who there sat bound in affliction and irons;\u00b0 and over that Valley hangs the discouraging clouds of Confusion: Death also doth always spread his wings over it. In a word, it is every whit* dreadful, being utterly without Order.\n\nJob. 3. 5. ch. 10. 22.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, I perceive not yet, by what you have said, but that this is my Way to the desired Haven.\n\nMen. Be it thy Way, we will not choose it for ours.\n\nSo they parted, and Christian went on his Way, but still with his Sword drawn in his hand, for fear lest he should be assaulted.\n\nJer. 2. 5.\n\nI saw then in my dream, so far as this Valley reached, there was on the right hand a very deep Ditch: That Ditch is it, into\n\n **hap** Luck; **Satyrs** According to Sharrock, \"not classical, but Biblical satyrs\" (Sharrock, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 393); **affliction and irons** Note the elision between physical and mental fetters; **every whit** Every bit.\n\nwhich the blind have led the blind in all ages, and have both there miserably perished. Again, behold, on the left hand, there was a very dangerous Quag, into which, if even a good man falls, he finds no bottom for his foot to stand on: Into that Quag King David once did fall, and had, no doubt, therein been smothered, had not he that is able plucked him out.\n\nPsal. 44.19. Psal. 107. 10.\n\nThe pathway was here also exceeding narrow, and therefore good Christian was the more put to it; for when he sought, in the Dark, to shun the Ditch on the one hand, he was ready to tip over into the Mire on the other: Also when he sought to escape the Mire, without great carefulness he would be ready to fall into the Ditch. Thus he went on, and I heard him here sigh bitterly: For besides the dangers mentioned above, the pathway was here so dark, that oftimes, when he lift up his foot to set forward, he knew not where, or upon what, he should set it next.\n\nAbout the midst of this Valley, I perceived the mouth of Heir to be, and it stood also hard by\u00b0 the Wayside: Now, thought Christian, what shall I do? And ever and anon the flame and smoke would come out in such abundance, with sparks and hideous noises, (things that cared not for Christian's Sword, as did Apollyon before) that he was forced to put up his Sword, and betake himself to another Weapon, called All Prayer: So he cried, in my hearing, 0 Lord, I beseech thee, deliver my Soul. Thus he went on a great while, yet still the flames would be reaching towards him: Also he heard doleful voices, and rushings to and fro, so that sometimes he thought he should be torn in pieces, or trodden down like mire in the streets. This frightful sight was seen, and these dreadful noises were heard by him for several miles together: And coming to a place, where he thought he heard a Company of Fiends coming forward to meet him, he stopt, and began to muse what he had best to do: Sometimes he had half a thought to go back; then again he thought he might be half\n\n **King David** Noted for his vulnerability to the sin of lust; see 2 Samuel 11:1-12; **the mouth of Hell** A physical \"Hell-mouth\" was a prominent feature on the Renaissance stage; **hard by** Close by.\n\nway through the Valley: He remembred also, how he had already vanquished many a danger; and that the danger of going back might be much more than for to go forward; so he resolved to go on: Yet the Fiends seemed to come nearer and nearer: But when they were come even almost at him, he cried out with a most vehement voice, I will walk in the Strength of the Lord God: So they gave back, and came no further.\n\nEph. 6. i8. Psal. 116. 4.\n\nChristian put to a stand, but for a while.\n\nPOOR MAN! WHERE ART THOU NOW? THY DAY IS NIGHT: \nGOOD MAN, BE NOT CAST DOWN, THOU YET ART RIGHT. \nTHY WAY TO HEAV'N LIES BY THE GATES OF HELL: \nCHEAR UP, HOLD OUT, WITH THEE IT SHALL GO WELL.\n\nOne thing I would not let slip:\u00b0 I took notice that now poor Christian was so confounded, that he did not know his own voice: And thus I perceived it: Just when he was come over-against the mouth of the burning Pit, one of the Wicked Ones got behind him, and stept up softly to him, and whisperingly suggested many grievous Blasphemies to him, which he verily thought had proceeded from his own mind.\u00b0 This put Christian more to it than any thing that he met with before, even to think that he should now blaspheme him that he loved so much before; yet, if he could have helped it, he would not have done it: But he had not the discretion either to stop his ears, or to know from whence those Blasphemies came.\n\nChristian made believe that he spake Blasphemies when 'twas Satan that suggested them into his mind.\n\nWhen Christian had travelled in this disconsolate condition some considerable time, he thought he heard the voice of a man, as going before him, saying, Though _I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I will fear none Ill, for thou art with me._\n\nPsal. 23. 4.\n\nThen was he glad; and that for these reasons:\n\nFirst, Because he gathered from thence, that some who feared God were in this Valley as well as himself.\n\nSecondly, For that he perceived God was with them, though in that dark and dismal state: And why not, thought he, with me? Though by reason of the impediment that attends this place, I cannot perceive it.\n\nJob 9. 10.\n\n**let slip** Pass by; **from his own mind** In Grace Abounding, Bunyan reports hearing a voice urging him to \"sell\" Christ (see Introduction), and blasphemy was a constant temptation for him.\n\nThirdly, For that he hoped (could he overtake them) to have Company by-and-by.\n\nSo he went on, and called to him that was before; but he knew not what to answer: For that he also thought himself to be alone. And by and by the Day broke: Then said _Christian, He hath turned the Shadow of Death into the Morning._\n\nAmos 5. 8.\n\nNow Morning being come, he looked back, not out of desire to return, but to see, by the Light of the Day, what Hazards he had gone through in the Dark: So he saw more perfectly the Ditch that was on the one hand, and the Quag that was on the other; also how narrow the Way was which led betwixt them both; also how he saw the Hobgoblins, and Satyrs, and Dragons of the Pit, but all afar off: For after break of Day they came not nigh, yet they were discovered to him, according to that which is written, _He discovereth deep things out of Darkness, and bringeth out to Light the shadow of death._\n\nChristian glad at break of Day.\n\nJob 12. 22.\n\nNow was Christian much affected with his deliverance from all the dangers of his solitary Way; which dangers, though he feared them more before, yet he saw them more clearly now, because the light of the day made them conspicuous to him; and about this time the Sun was rising, and this was another Mercy to Christian: For you must note, that though the first part of the Valley of the Shadow of Death was dangerous, yet this second part, which he was yet to go, was, if possible, far more dangerous: For, from the place where he now stood, even to the end of the Valley, the Way was all along set so full of snares, traps, gins, and nets here, and so full of pits, pitfalls, deep holes, and shelvings down there, that had it now been dark, as it was when he came the first part of the Way, had he had a thousand Souls, they had in reason been cast away; but, as I said, just now the Sun was rising. Then said he, _His Candle shineth on my head, and by his Light 1 go through Darkness._\n\nThe second part of this Valley very dangerous.\n\nJob 29. 3.\n\nIn this Light therefore he came to the end of the Valley. Now I saw in my dream, that at the end of this Valley lay blood, bones, ashes, and mangled bodies of men, even of Pilgrims that had gone this Way formerly: And while I was musing what should be the reason, I espied a little before me a Cave, where two giants, Pope and Pagan,\u00b0 dwelt in old Time; by whose power and tyranny\u00b0 the men, whose bones, blood, ashes, _& c._ lay there, were cruelly put to death. But by this place Christian went without much danger, whereat I somewhat wondered: But I have learnt since, that Pagan has been dead many a day;\u00b0 and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is, by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes\u00b0 that he met with in his younger days, grown so crazy and stiff in his joints, that he can now do little more than sit in his Cave's mouth, grinning at Pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails, because he cannot come at them.\n\nSo I saw that Christian went on his Way; yet, at the sight of the Old Man,* that sat in the mouth of the Cave, he could not tell what to think,'specially because he spake to him, though he could not go after him; saying, You will never mend, till more of you be burnt.\u00b0 But he held his peace, and set a good face on't, and so went by, and catched no hurt. Then sang Christian:\n\n _O World of 4honders! (I can say no less) \nThat I should be preserv'd in that Distress \nThat I have met with here! _O_ blessed be \nThat Hand that from it hath deliver'd me! \nDangers in darkness, Devils, Hell, and Sin, \nDid compass me, white I this Yale was in: \nYea Snares, and Pits, and Traps, and Nets did lie \nMy Path about, that worthless, silly I \nMight have been catch'd, entangled, and cast down: \nBut since I live, let JESUS wear the Crown_.\n\n**Pope and Pagan** Bunyan regarded these as equally enemies of true religion; **tyranny** The pagan tyranny of ancient Rome and the Catholic tyranny of modern Rome; **Pagan has been dead many a day** Note that Bunyan does not consider witchcraft, which was flourishing as he wrote, a form of paganism; he would have seen it as Satanism; **shrewd brushes** Harsh blows; a reference to the Reformation; **the Old Man** Giant Pope, but the term was used to refer to the fleshly mind as a whole; **burnt** Keeble finds ''an allusion to the 'fires of Smithfield; the execution of Protestants by burning during the reign of Mary Tudor\u00b0 (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 271); **compass** Surround.\n\nNow, as Christian went on his Way, he came to a little ascent, which was cast up on purpose, that Pilgrims might see before them: Up there, therefore, Christian went; and looking forward, he saw Faithful before him upon his Journey: Then said Christian aloud, Ho, ho: Soho:* Stay, and I will be your Companion. At that Faithful looked behind him; to whom Christian cried again, _Stay, stay, till I come up to you. But Faithful answer'd, No, I am upon my Life, and the Avenger of Blood is behind me._\n\nAt this Christian was somewhat moved, and putting to all his strength, he quickly got up with Faithful, and did also overrun him; so the last was first.\u00b0 Then did Christian vain-gloriously smile, because he had gotten the start of his Brother: But not taking good heed to his feet, he suddenly stumbled and fell, and could not rise again, until Faithful came up to help him.\n\nChristian overtakes Faithful.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, they went very lovingly on together, and had sweet discourse of all things that had happened to them in their Pilgrimage; and thus Christian began.\n\nChristian's Fall makes Faithful and he go lovingly together.\n\nChr. _My honoured_ and well beloved Brother _Faithful_ , I am glad that I have overtaken you; and that God has so tempered * our Spirits, that we can walk as Companions in this so pleasant a path.\n\nFaith. I had thought, dear Friend, to have had your Company quite from our town, but you did get the start of me: Wherefore I was forced to come thus much of the Way alone.\n\nChr. How long did you stay in the City of Destruction, before you set out after me on your Pilgrimage?\n\nFaith. Till I could stay no longer; for there was great talk presently after you were gone out, that our City would, in a short time, with Fire from Heaven, be burned down to the ground.\n\nTheir talk about the Country from whence they came.\n\nChr. What, did your Neighbours talk so?\n\n_Faith._ Yes, 'twas for a while in everybody's mouth.\n\n**Soho** A hunting cry; Bunyan uses it as a greeting; **the last was first** Reference to Matthew 19:30; **tempered** Blended.\n\nChr. What and did no more of them but you come out to escape the danger?\n\nFaith. Though there was, as I said, a great Talk thereabout, yet I do not think they did firmly believe it. For in the heat of the discourse, I heard some of them deridingly speak of you and of your desperate Journey (for so they called this your Pilgrimage:) But I did believe, and do still, that the end of our City will be with fire and brimstone from Above. And therefore I have made my escape.\n\nChr. Did you hear no talk of neighbour Pliable?\n\nFaith. Yes, Christian, I heard that he followed you till he came at the Slough of Despond; where, as some said, he fell in: But he would not be known to have so done; but I am sure he was soundly bedaubed with that kind of dirt.\n\nChr. And what said the neighbours to him?\n\nFaith. He hath, since his going back, been had greatly in derision, and that among all sorts of people; some do mock and despise him, and scarce will any set him on work.\u00b0 He is now seven times worse than if he had never gone out of the City.\n\nHow Pliable was accounted of, when he got home.\n\nChr. But why should they be so set against him, since they also despise the Way that he forsook?\n\nFaith. 0, they say, Hang him; he is a turncoat he was not true to his Profession! I think God has stirred up even his enemies to hiss at him, and make him a proverb, because he hath forsaken the Way.\n\nJer. 29. 18, 19.\n\nChr. Had you no talk with him before you came out? Faith. I met him once in the streets, but he leered\u00b0 away on the other side, as one ashamed of what he had done: So I spake not to him.\n\nChr. Well, at my first setting out, I had hopes of that man; but now I fear he will perish in the overthrow of the City. For it has happened to him according to the true proverb, _The dog is turned to his vomit again; and the sow that was washed, to her wallowing in the mire._\n\n2 Pet. 2. 22. The Dog and the Sow.\n\n**set him on work** Give him a job; **leered** Sneaked.\n\nHe was assaulted by Adam the First.\n\nFaith. They are my fears of him too, but who can hinder that which will be?\n\nChr. Well, neighbour Faithful (said Christian) let us leave him, and talk of things that more immediately concern ourselves. Tell me now what you have met with in the Way as you came: For I know you have met with some things, or else it may be writ for a Wonder.\n\nFaith. I escaped the Slough that I perceive you fell into, and got up to the Gate without that danger; only I met with one whose name was Wanton,\u00b0 that had like to have done me a mischief.\n\nChr. 'Twas well you escaped her Net: Joseph' was hard put to it by her, and he escaped her as you did; but it had like to have cost him his Life. But what did she do to you?\n\nGen. 39. 11, 12, 13.\n\nFaith. You cannot think (but that you know something) what a flattering tongue she had; she lay at me hard to turn aside with her, promising me all manner of Content.\n\nChr. Nay, she did not promise you the Content of a good Conscience.\n\nFaith. You know what I mean; all carnal and fleshly content.\n\nChr. Thank God you have escaped her: The abhorred of the Lord shall fall into her ditch.\n\nProvo 22.14.\n\nFaith. Nay, I know not whether I did wholly escape her, or no.\n\nChr. Why, I trow, you did not consent to her desires?\n\nFaith. No not to defile myself; for I remembered an old Writing that I had seen, which said, Her steps take hold of Hell. So I shut mine eyes, because I would not be bewitched\" with her looks: Then she railed on me, and I went my way.\n\nProvo 5. 5. Job 31. 1.\n\nChr. Did you meet with no other assault as you came?\n\nFaith. When I came to the foot of the Hill called Difficulty, I met with a very aged Man, who asked me what I was? and whither bound? I told him, that I was a Pilgrim, going to the\n\nFaithful _assaulted_ by Wanton.\n\n**without** On the other side of; **Wanton** Horny; **Joseph** In Genesis 39, Potipher's wife attempts to seduce Joseph; **bewitched** Sexual temptation was often described as a kind of witchcraft.\n\nCoelestial City. Then said the old man, Thou lookest like an honest fellow; wilt thou be content to dwell with me, for the Wages' that I shall give thee? Then I asked him his name, and where he dwelt? He said his name was Adam the first and I dwell in the town of Deceit. I asked him then, What was his Work? and what the Wages that he would give? He told me, that his Work was many delights; and his Wages, that I should be his Heir at last. I further asked him, what House he kept, and what other Servants he had? So he told me, that his House was maintained with all the dainties in the world; and that his servants were those of his own begetting. Then I asked, how many children he had? He said, that he had but three daughters, The Lust of the Flesh, The Lust of the Eyes, and The Pride of Life; and that I should marry them all, if I would. Then I asked, how long Time he would have me live with him? And he told me, As long as he lived himself.\n\nEph. 4. 22.. 1 John 2. 16.\n\nChr. Well, and what conclusion came the old man and you to at last?\n\nFaith. Why, at first I found myself somewhat inclinable to go with the man, for I thought he spake very fair; but looking in his forehead, as I talked with him, I saw there written,\u00b0 Put off the Old Man with his Deeds.\n\nChr. And how then?\n\nFaith. Then it came burning hot into my mind, whatever he said, and however he flattered, when he got me home to his house, he would sell me for a Slave.\u00b0 So I bid him forbear to talk, for I would not come near the door of his house. Then he reviled me, and told me, that he would send such a one after me, that should make my Way bitter to my Soul. So I turned to go away from him; but just as I turned myself to go thence, I felt him take hold of my Flesh, and give me such a deadly twitch back, that I thought he had pulled part of me\n\n **Wages** As in Christian's encounter with Apollyon, wage-labor is used as a figure for allegiance to the world; **Adam the first** The \"old man.\" Paul describes Christ as the Second Adam in Romans 5:12-14; **there written** Faithful shows his ability to read the real significance of the Old Man, which is the reverse of his apparent meaning; **a Slave** The Old Man, or flesh, is a child of Hagar the bondwoman (see Introduction).\n\nafter himself: This made me cry, 0 wretched Man! So I went on my Way up the Hill.\n\nRom. 7. a4.\n\nNow when I had got above half way up, I looked behind me, and saw one coming after me, swift as the wind; so he overtook me just about the place where the Settle stands.\n\nChr. Just there, said Christian, did I sit down to rest me; but being overcome with Sleep, I there lost this Roll out of my bosom.\n\nFaith. But, good brother, hear me out: So soon as the man overtook me, he was but a word and a blow;\u00b0 for down he knocked me, and laid me for dead. But when I was a little come to myself again, I asked him, Wherefore he serves' me so? He said, Because of my secret inclining to Adam the First: And with that he struck me another deadly blow on the breast, and beat me down backward; so I lay at his foot as dead as before. So when I came to myself again, I cried him mercy: But he said, I know not how to show mercy;\u00b0 and with that knocked me down again. He had doubtless made an end of me, but that one came by, and bid him forbear.\n\nChr. Who was that, that bid him forbear?\n\nFaith. I did not know him at first; but as he went by, I perceived the holes in his hands and in his side: Then I concluded that he was our Lord. So I went up the Hill.\n\nChr. That Man that overtook you, was Moses. He spareth none, neither knoweth he how to shew mercy to those that transgress his Law.\n\nThe temper of Moses.\n\nFaith. I know it very well; it was not the first time that he has met with me. 'Twas he that came to me when I dwelt securely at home, and that told me he would burn my house over my head, if I staid there.\n\n_Chr._ But did you not see the House that stood there on the top of that Hill, on the side of which Moses met you?\n\nFaith. Yes, and the Lions too, before I came at it; but for the Lions, I think they were asleep; for it was about Noon: And\n\n **but a word and a blow** That is, he hit me as soon as he spoke to me; Moses' words _are_ blows; served Treated; **I know not how to show mercy** The purpose of the law is to diagnose sin, not to treat it.\n\nbecause I had so much of the Day before me, I passed by the Porter, and came down the Hill.\n\nChr. He told me indeed, That he saw you go by; but I wish you had called at the House; for they would have shewed you so many rarities, that you would scarce have forgot them to the day of your death. But pray tell me, Did you meet nobody in the Valley of Humility?\n\nFaith. Yes, I met with one Discontent, who would willingly have persuaded me to go back again with him: His reason was, For that the Valley was altogether without _Honour._ _57_ He told me moreover, That there to go, was the way to disobey all my Friends, as Pride, _Arrogancy,_ Self-Conceit, Worldly-Glory, with others, who, he knew, as he said, would be very much of fended, if I made such a Fool of myself as to wade through this Valley.\n\nFaithful _assaulted_ by Discontent.\n\nChr. Well, and how did you answer him?\n\nFaith. I told him, That although all these that he named, might claim kindred of me, and that rightly, (for indeed they were my relations, according to the Flesh) yet since I became a Pilgrim, they have disowned me, as I also have rejected them; and therefore they were to me now, no more than if they had never been of my lineage; I told him moreover, That as to this Valley, he had quite misrepresented the thing; for before Honour is Humility, and a Haughty Spirit before a Fall. Therefore, said I, I had rather go through this Valley to the honour that was so accounted by the Wisest, than choose that which he esteemed most worthy our affections.\n\nFaithful's _answer_ to Discontent.\n\nChr. Met you with nothing else in that Valley?\n\nFaith. Yes I met with Shame; but of all the men that I met with in my Pilgrimage, he, I think, bears the wrong name.\u00b0 The other would be said Nay, after a little argumentation, (and somewhat else): But this bold-faced Shame would never have done.\n\nHe is _assaulted_ with Shame.\n\nChr. Why, what did he say to you?\n\nFaith. What! why he objected against Religion itself; he said, 'Twas a pitiful, low, sneaking business for a man to mind\n\n **the wrong name** Shame causes shame in others; he is himself shameless.\n\nReligion; he said that a tender Conscience was an unmanly thing; and that for a man to watch over his Words and Ways, so as to tie up himself from that hectoring liberty\u00b0 that the brave Spirits of the _Times\u00b0_ accustomed themselves unto, would make him the ridicule of the Times. He objected also, That but few of the Mighty, Rich, or Wise, were ever of my opinion; nor any of them neither, before they were persuaded to be fools, and to be of a voluntary fondness\u00b0 to venture the Loss of all, for nobody else knows what. He moreover objected the base and low estate\" and condition of those that were chiefly the Pilgrims of the times in which they lived; also their Ignorance, and want of understanding in all Natural Science. Yea, he did hold me to it at that rate also, about a great many more things than here I relate; as that it was a shame to sit whining and mourning under a sermon, and a shame to come sighing and groaning home: That it was a shame\u00b0 to ask my neighbour Forgiveness for petty faults, or to make Restitution where I have taken from any. He said also, That Religion made a man grow strange to the Great, because of a few Vices, (which he called by finer names) and made him own and respect the Base,\u00b0 because of the same Religious Fraternity:\" And is not this, said he, a Shame?\n\n1 Cor. 1. 26. ch. 3. 18. Phil. 3. 7. 8. John 7. 48.\n\nChr. And what did you say to him?\n\nFaith. Say! I could not tell what to say at first. Yea, he put me so to it, that my blood came up in my face; even this Shame fetched it up,* and had almost beat me quite off. But at last I began to consider, That that which is highly esteemed among Men, is had in abomination with God. And I thought\n\nLuke 16.15.\n\n**tie up himself from that hectoring liberty** Prevent himself from indulging in riotous behavior; a \"hector\" is a bully; **Spirits of the Times** Libertinism was much in vogue during the Restoration, particularly at court; **fondness** Silliness; **low estate** The pilgrims are again identified as the poor; **shame ... shame ... shame** See Mark 8:38. Shame sees shame everywhere, but he is unaware that this is because of his own shameful nature; the Base Bunyan regards true Christianity as the ideology of the lower class; Fraternity Term commonly applied to dissenting congregations; Shame fetched it up Faithful blushes for shame.\n\nagain, this Shame tells me what men are; but it\u00b0 tells me nothing what God or the Word of God is. And I thought moreover, That at the Day of Doom we shall not be doomed to Death or Life, according to the hectoring spirits of the world, but according to the Wisdom and Law of the Highest. Therefore, thought I, what God says, is best, though all the men in the world are against it: Seeing then that God prefers his Religion; seeing God prefers a tender Conscience; seeing they that make themselves fools for the Kingdom of Heaven,\u00b0 are wisest; and that the poor man that loveth Christ, is richer than the greatest man in the world that hates him; Shame, depart, thou art an Enemy to my Salvation; shall I entertain thee against my Sovereign Lord? How then shall I look him in the Face at his Coming? Should I now be ashamed of his Ways and Servants, how can I expect the blessing? But indeed this Shame was a bold villain: I could scarce shake him out of my company: Yea, he would be haunting of me, and continually whispering me in the ear, with some one or other of the Infirmities that attend Religion ; but at last I told him, it was but in vain to attempt further in this business; for those things that he disdained, in those did I see most Glory: And so at last I got past this importunate \u00b0 one. And when I had shaken him off, then I began to sing:\n\n _The Tryals that those men do meet withal, \nThat are obedient to the Heavenly Call, \nAre manifold and suited to the Flesh, \nAnd come, and come, and come again afresh; \nThat now, or some time else, we by them may \nBe taken, overcome, and cast away. \n0 let the Pilgrims, let the Pilgrims then \nBe vigilant, and quit\u00b0 themselves like Men_.\n\nMar. 8. 38.\n\n**it** Faithful now perceives shame as one of his own abstract qualities, no longer as a personified character; **fools for the Kingdom of Heaven** Rejecting worldly wisdom; **importunate** Demanding; **quit** Acquit.\n\nChr. I am glad, my Brother, that thou didst withstand this villain so bravely; for of all, as thou sayest, I think he has the wrong name; for he is so bold as to follow us in the streets, and to attempt to put us to shame before all men, that is, to make us ashamed of that which is Good; but if he was not himself audacious, he would never attempt to do as he does; but let us still resist him; for notwithstanding all his bravados, he promoteth the Fool, and none else. The Wise shall inherit Glory, said Solomon; but Shame shall be the promotion of Fools.\n\nProvo 3. 35.\n\nFaith. I think we must cry to Him for help against Shame, that would have us be valiant for Truth upon the earth.\n\nChr. You say true: But did you meet nobody else in that Valley?\n\nFaith. No not I; for I had Sun-shine all the rest of the Way through that,\u00b0 and also through the Valley of the Shadow of Death.\n\nChr. It was well for you; I am sure, it fared far otherwise with me; I had for a long season, as soon almost as I entered into that Valley, a dreadful Combat with that foul Fiend Apollyon; yea, I thought verily he would have killed me, especially when he got me down, and crushed me under him, as if he would have crushed me to pieces. For as he threw me, my Sword flew out of my hand; nay, he told me, he was sure of me: but I cried to God, and he heard me, and delivered me out of all my troubles. Then I entered into the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and had no Light for almost half the Way through it. I thought I should have been killed there over and over; but at last Day brake, and the Sun rose, and I went through that which was behind with far more ease and quiet.\n\nMoreover I saw in my dream, that as they went on, Faithful, as he chanced to look on one side, saw a man whose name was Talkative, walking at a distance besides them (for in this place there was room enough for them all to walk.)\n\n **through that** That is, through that day.\n\nHe was a tall man,\u00b0 and something more comely at a distance, than at hand: To this man Faithful addressed himself in this manner.\n\nTalkative described.\n\nFaith. Friend, Whither away? are you going to the Heavenly Country?\n\nTalk. I am going to that same Place.\n\nFaith. That is well; then I hope we may have your good company?\n\nTalk. With a very good will will I be your Companion.\n\nFaith. Come on then, and let us go together, and let us spend our time in discoursing of things that are profitable.\n\nTalk. To talk of things that are good, to me is very acceptable, with you, or with any other; and I am glad that I have met with those that incline to so good a work: For to speak the truth, there are but few that care thus to spend their time (as they are in their Travels) but choose much rather to be speaking of things to no profit; and this hath been a Trouble to me.\n\nFaith. That is indeed a thing to be lamented; for what thing so worthy of the use of the tongue and mouth of men on Earth, as are the things of the God of Heaven?\n\nFaithful and Talkative enter into discourse.\n\nTalkative's dislike of his discourse.\n\nTalk. I like you wonderful well; for your sayings are full of conviction; and I will add, What thing is so pleasant, and what so profitable, as to talk of the Things of God?\n\nWhat things so pleasant? (that is, if a man hath any delight in things that are wonderful) for instance: If a man doth delight to talk of the History, or the Mystery of things; or if a man doth love to talk of Miracles, Wonders, or Signs, where shall he find things recorded so delightful, and so sweetly penned, as in the Holy Scripture?\n\nFaith. That's true; but to be profited by such things in our talk, should be that which we design.\n\nr Talkative's fine discourse.\n\nTalk. That is it that I said; for to talk of such things is most profitable; for by so doing, a man may get Knowledge of many things; as of the vanity of Earthly things, and the ben-\n\n **a tall man** A rare physical description of a Bunyan character. In The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680) the title character is called \"tall, and fair\" (1988 ed., p. 66).\n\nefit of things Above: (Thus in general) but more particularly; by this a man may learn the necessity of the New Birth; the insufficiency of our Works; the need of Christ's righteousness, e'rc. Besides, by this a man may learn what it is to repent, to believe, to pray, to suffer, or the like: By this also, a Man may learn what are the great Promises and consolations of the Gospel, to his own comfort. Farther, by this a Man may learn to refute false opinions, to vindicate the Truth, and also to instruct the Ignorant.\n\nFaith. All this is true, and glad am I to hear these things from you.\n\nTalk. Alas! the want of this is the cause that so few understand the need of Faith, and the necessity of a work of Grace in their soul, in order to Eternal Life; but ignorantly live in the works of the Law, by which a man can by no means obtain the Kingdom of Heaven.\n\nFaith. But, by your leave, Heavenly knowledge of these is the Gift of God; no man attaineth to them by human industry, or only by the talk of them.\u00b0\n\nTalk. All this I know very well.\u00b0 For a man can receive nothing, except it be given him from Heaven; all is of Grace, not of works: I could give you an hundred Scriptures for the confirmation of this.\n\nO brave Talkative.\n\nFaith. Well then, said Faithful, what is that one thing that we shall at this time found our discourse upon?\n\nTalk. What you will: I will talk of things Heavenly, or things Earthly; things Moral, or things Evangelical; things Sacred, or things Prophane; things past, or things to come; things foreign, or things at home; things more essential, or things circumstantial; provided that all be done to our Profit.\n\nO brave Talkative.\n\nFaith. Now did Faithful begin to wonder; and stepping to Christian, (for he walked all this while by himself) he said to\n\nFaithful beguiled by Talkative.\n\n**But by your leave ... by the talk of them** This is Bunyan's argument against the Quakers; they deny man's utter sinfulness and thus obviate the need for imputed grace; **All this I know very well** Talkative's theology is unimpeachable.\n\nhim, (but softly,) What a brave Companion have we got? Surely this man will make a very excellent Pilgrim.\n\nChr. At this Christian modestly smiled, and said, This man, with whom you are so taken, will beguile, with this Tongue of his, twenty of them that know him not.\n\nFaith. Do you know him then?\n\nChr. Know him! Yes, better than he knows himself.\u00b0 \u00b0\n\nFaith. Pray what is he?\n\nChristian makes a discovery of Talkative, telling Faithful who he was.\n\nChr. His name is Talkative; he dwelleth in our town; I wonder that you should be a stranger to him, only I consider that our Town is large.\n\nFaith. Whose son is he? And whereabout doth he dwell?\n\nChr. He is the son of one Say-well, he dwelt in PratingRow; and he is known of all that are acquainted with him, by the name of Talkative in Prating-Row; and notwithstanding his fine tongue, he is but a sorry fellow.\n\nFaith. Well, he seems to be a very pretty\u00b0 man.\n\nChr. That is, to them that have not a thorough acquaintance with him; for he is best abroad, near home he is ugly enough: Your saying that he is a pretty man, brings to my mind what I have observed in the work of the Painter, whose pictures shew best at a distance; but very near, more unpleasing.\n\nFaith. But I am ready to think you do but jest, because you smiled.\u00b0\n\nChr. God forbid that I should jest, (though I smiled) in this matter, or that I should accuse any falsely; I will give you a further discovery of him: This man is for any company, and for any talk; as he talketh now with you, so will he talk when he is on the ale-bench: And the more Drink he hath in his crown, the more of these things he hath in his mouth: Religion hath no place in his heart, or house, or conversation; all he hath lieth in his tongue, and his religion is to make a noise therewith.\n\nFaith. Say you so! then am I in this man greatly deceived.\n\n **better than he knows himself** Talkative is ignorant of his own allegorical significance, while Christian is distinguished by his ability to read the other characters as allegorical figures; **Prating-Row** To \"prate\" is to chatter nonsense; **pretty** Charming; **you smiled** Christian is amused at Faithful's ingenuousness.\n\nChr. Deceived! you may be sure of it: Remember the proverb, They say, and do not; but the Kingdom of God is not in word, but in power. He talketh of Prayer, of Repentance, of Faith, and of the New Birth; but he knows but only to talk of them. I have been in his Family, and have observed him both at home and abroad; and I know what I say of him is the truth. His house is as empty of religion, as the white of an egg is of savour.\u00b0 There is there neither Prayer, nor sign of Repentance for Sin: Yea, the brute in his kind,\" serves God far better than he. He is the very stain, reproach, and shame of Religion to all that know him; it can hardly have a good word in all that end of the Town where he dwells, through him. Thus, say the common people that know him, A Saint abroad, and a Devil at home. His poor family finds it so, he is such a churl;\u00b0 such a railer at, and so unreasonable with his servants, that they neither know how to do for, or speak to him. Men that have any dealings with him, say, 'Tis better to deal with a Turk' than with him, for fairer dealing they shall have at their hands. This Talkative (if it be possible) will go beyond them, defraud, beguile, and over-reach them. Besides, he brings up his sons to follow his steps; and if he findeth in any of them a foolish Timourousness, (for so he calls the first appearance of a tender conscience) he calls them Fools and blockheads; and by no means will employ them in much, or speak to their commendations before others. For my part, I am of opinion, that he has, by his wicked Life, caused many to stumble and fall; and will be, if God prevent not, the ruin of many more.\n\nMat. 23. 1 Cor. 4. 20. Talkative talks, but does not.\n\nHis House is empty of Religion.\n\nHe is a Stain to Religion. Rom. 2. 24. 25.\n\nThe Proverb that goes of him.\n\nMen shun to deal with him.\n\nFaith. Well, my brother, I am bound to believe you; not only because you say you know him, but also because, like a Christian, you make your reports of men. For I cannot think that you speak these things of Ill-will, but because it is even so as you say.\n\nChr. Had I known him no more than you, I might perhaps\n\n **savour** Taste; **the brute in his kind** The animal in his nature; **churl** Boor, lout, yokel; **a Turk** Famed for their alleged cruelty, the Ottoman Turks were still a clear and present threat to Christendom in the mid-seventeenth century.\n\nhave thought of him as at the first you did: Yea, had he received this report at their hands only that are enemies to Religion, \u00b0 I should have thought it had been a slander. (A lot that often falls from bad mens mouths, upon good mens names and professions:) But all these things, yea, and a great many more as bad, of my own knowledge, I can prove him guilty of. Besides, good men are ashamed of him; they can neither call him brother nor friend; The very naming of him among them, makes them blush, if they know him.\n\nFaith. Well, I see that saying and doing are two things, and hereafter I shall better observe this distinction.\n\nChr. They are two things indeed, and are as diverse, as are the Soul and the Body; for as the Body without the Soul is but a dead carcass, so saying, if it be alone, is but a dead carcass also. The Soul of Religion is the Practick' part: Pure Religion and undefiled, before God and the Father, is this, To visit the fatherless and widows _in_ their _affliction, and_ to keep himself unspotted from the World. This Talkative is not aware of; he thinks that hearing and saying will make a good Christian; and thus he deceiveth his own soul. Hearing is but as the sowing of the seed: Talking is not sufficient to prove that fruit\u00b0 is indeed in the Heart and Life; and let us assure ourselves, that at the day of Doom, men shall be judged according to their Fruit: It will not be said then, Did you believe? But were you Doers, or Talkers only? And accordingly shall they be judged. The end of the world is compared to our harvest; and you know men at harvest regard nothing but fruit. Not that any thing can be accepted, that is not of Faith; but I speak this to shew you how insignificant the profession of Talkative will be at that Day.\n\nThe carcass of Religion.\n\nJam. 1. 27. See ver. 23, 24,\n\nF 25,26.\n\nSee Matt. 13. _and_ ch. 25.\n\nFaith. This brings to my mind that\u00b0 of Moses, by which he described the beast that is clean. He is such an one that parteth the hoof, and cheweth the cud; not that parteth the hoof only, or that cheweth the cud only. The hare cheweth the cud, but yet is unclean; because he parteth not the hoof. And\n\nLev. 11. Deut.14. Faithful convinced of the badness of Talkative.\n\n**enemies to religion** Bunyan and the Ranters shared common enemies, but he did not consider his enemy's enemy to be his friend; **Practick** Practical; **fruit** Fruition of faith; result; **that** That saying.\n\nthis truly resembleth\u00b0 _Talkative;_ he cheweth the cud, he seeketh Knowledge, he cheweth upon the Word; but he divideth not the hoof, he parteth not with the Way of Sinners; but as the hare, he retaineth the foot of a dog or bear, and therefore is unclean.\n\nChr. You have spoken, for ought I know,\u00b0 the true Gospel sense of those texts. And I will add another thing: Paul calleth some men, yea, and those great Talkers too, Sounding Brass, and Tinkling Cymbals; that is, as he expounds them in another place, Things without life, giving sound. Things without life, that is, without the true Faith and Grace of the Gospel; and consequently, things that shall never be placed in the Kingdom of Heaven among those that are the Children of Life: Though their sound by their talk, be as it were the tongue or voice of an Angel.\n\n1 Cor. 13. 1, 2, 3. ch. 14. 7. Talkative like to things that sound without Life.\n\nFaith. Well, I was not so fond of his company at first, but I am as sick of it now. What shall we do to be rid of him?\n\nChr. Take my advice, and do as I bid you, and you shall find that he will soon be sick of your company too, except\u00b0 God shall touch his heart and turn it.\n\nFaith. What would you have me to do?\n\nChr. Why, go to him, and enter into some serious discourse about the Power of Religion; and ask him plainly, (when he has approved of it, for that he will) whether this thing be set up in his Heart, House, or Conversation.\n\nFaith. Then Faithful stept forward again, and said to _Talkative,_ Come, what _chear?_ How is it now?\n\nTalk. Thank you, well; I thought we should have had a great deal of talk by this time.\n\nFaith. Well, if you will, we will fall to it now; and since you left it with me to state the question, let it be this: How doth the Saving Grace of God discover itself, when it is in the Heart of Man?\n\nTalk. I perceive then that our talk must be about the Power of Things: Well, 'tis a very good question, and I shall be willing to answer you. And take my answer in brief, thus: First,\n\nTalkative's false discovery of a Work of Grace.\n\n**resembleth** Faithful understands Talkative through biblical typology; **for ought I know** As far as I can see; **except** Unless.\n\nWhere the Grace of God is in the heart, it causeth there a great Outcry against Sin. Secondly,\n\nFaith. Nay, hold, let us consider of one at once: I think you should rather say, It shews itself by inclining the soul to abhor its Sin.\u00b0 \u00b0\n\nTalk. Why, what difference is there between crying out against, and abhorring of Sin?\n\nFaith. Oh! a great deal: A man may cry out against Sin, of Policy,\u00b0 but he cannot abhor it but by virtue of a godly antipathy against it: I have heard many cry out against Sin in the Pulpit, who yet can abide it well enough in the Heart, House, and Conversation. Joseph's Mistress cried out with a loud voice, as if she had been very holy; but she would willingly, notwithstanding that, have committed uncleanness\u00b0 with him. Some cry out against Sin, even as the mother cries out against her child in her lap, when she calleth it slut\u00b0 and naughty girl, and then falls to hugging and kissing it.\n\nThe Crying out against Sin, no sign of Grace.\n\nGen. 39.15.\n\nTalk. You lie at the Catch, I perceive.\n\nFaith. No, not I, I am only for setting things right. But what is the second thing whereby you would prove a discovery of a Work of Grace in the heart?\n\nTalk. Great Knowledge of Gospel-Mysteries.\n\nFaith. This sign should have been first; but first or last, it is also false; for Knowledge, great knowledge may be obtained in the mysteries of the Gospel, and yet no Work of Grace in the Soul. Yea, if a man have all Knowledge, he may yet be nothing; and so consequently be no child of God. When Christ said, Do you know all these things? And the disciples had answered, Yes: He added, Blessed are ye, if ye do them. He doth not lay the blessing in the knowing of them, but in the doing of them. For there is a knowledge that is not attended with doing: He that knoweth his Master's will, and doth it not.\n\nGreat Knowledge no sign of Grace. i Cor. i3.\n\n**inclining the soul to abhor its Sin** Talkative believes he can separate his sin from himself and \"cry out against it\" as something outside him. Faithful believes that his soul is irremediably sinful and that he must learn to \"abhor\" it; **of Policy** Out of self-interested calculation; **uncleanness** Adultery; **slut** Dirty, not necessarily in the sexual sense.\n\nA man may know like an Angel, and yet be no Christian; therefore your sign is not true. Indeed, to know, is a thing that pleaseth Talkers and Boasters; but to do, is that which pleaseth God. Not that the heart can be good without knowledge ; for without that, the heart is naught. There is therefore knowledge and knowledge; knowledge that resteth in the bare speculation of things,\u00b0 and knowledge that is accompanied with the grace of Faith and Love; which puts a man upon doing\" even the Will of God from the Heart: The first of these will serve the Talker; but without the other, the true Christian is not content. Give me Understanding, and I shall keep thy Law; yea, I shall observe it with my whole Heart. Psal. cxix. 34.\n\nTalk. You lie at the Catch again; this is not for edification.\n\nKnowledge and knowledge.\n\nTrue Knowledge attended with Endeavours.\n\nFaith. Well, if you please, propound another sign how this work of Grace discovereth itself where it is.\n\nTalk. Not I, for I see we shall not agree.\n\nFaith. Well, if you will not, will you give me leave to do it?\n\nTalk. You may use your liberty.\n\nFaith. A Work of Grace in the Soul discovereth itself, either to him that hath it, or to standers by.\n\nTo him that hath it, thus; It gives him Conviction of Sin, especially the defilement of his Nature,\u00b0 and the Sin of Unbelief,\" (for the sake of which he is sure to be damned, if he findeth not Mercy at God's hand, by faith in Jesus Christ.) This fight and sense of things worketh in him sorrow and shame for Sin: He findeth, moreover, revealed in him the Saviour of the World, and the absolute necessity of closing with him for Life, at the which he findeth hungrings and thirstings after him; to which hungrings, e'rc. the Promise is made. Now according to the strength or weakness of his faith in his Saviour, so is his Joy and Peace, so is his love to Holiness, so are his desires to know him more, and also to serve him in this World. But though, I say, it discovereth itself thus unto him,\n\nOne good sign of Grace. John 16. 8. Rom. 7. 24. John 16. 9. Mark 6. 16. Ps. 38. 18. Jer. 31. 19. Gal. 2. 16. Acts 4. 12. Matt. 5. 6. Rev. 2i. 6.\n\n**knowledge ... of things** Empiricism, a mode of inquiry much in fashion after the Restoration; **puts a man upon doing** Makes a man do; **defilement of his Nature** Man is sinful by nature, in essence; **Sin of Unbelief** According to Bunyan no one is born a Christian, and the first step on the way to becoming one is the realization that one is not a Christian.\n\nyet it is but seldom that he is able to conclude, that this is a Work of Grace, because his Corruptions now, and his abused Reason, make his mind to misjudge in this matter; therefore in him that hath this Work, there is required a very sound judgment, before he can with steadiness conclude that this is a Work of Grace. To others it is thus discovered:\n\n1. By an experimental confession of his Faith in Christ. 2. By a Life answerable\u00b0 to that confession, to wit, a life of Holiness: heart-holiness, family-holiness, (if he hath a family,) and by conversation-holiness in the world; which in the general teacheth him inwardly to abhor his Sin, and himself for that, in secret ; to suppress it in his family, and to promote holiness in the world; not by talk only, as an hypocrite or talkative person may do, but by a practical subjection in Faith and Love to the Power of the Word: And now, Sir, as to this brief description of the Work of Grace, and also the discovery of it, if you have ought to object, object; if not, then give me leave to propound to you a second question.\n\nRom. 10. 10. Phil. 1. 27. Matt. 5. 9. John 14.15. Ps. 50. 23. Job 42. 5, 6. Ezek. 20. 43.\n\nTalk. Nay, my part is not now to object, but to hear: Let me therefore have your second question.\n\nFaith. It is this: Do you experience the first part of the description of it? And doth your Life and Conversation testify the same? Or standeth your Religion in Word or Tongue, and not in Deed and Truth? Pray, if you incline to answer me in this, say no more than you know the God above will say Amen to; and also nothing but what your Conscience can justify you in: For not he that commandeth himself, is approved, but whom the Lord commendeth. Besides, to say, I am thus, and thus, when my conversation, and all my neighbours, tell me I lie, is great wickedness.\n\nAnother good sign of Grace.\n\nTalk. Then Talkative at first began to blush; but recovering himself, thus he replied: You come now to Experience, to Conscience, and God; and to appeal to him for justification of what is spoken: This kind of discourse I did not expect: nor am I disposed to give an answer to such questions, because I count not myself bound thereto, unless you take upon you to\n\nTalkative not pleased with Faithful's Question.\n\n**answerable Both** corresponding\" and \"responsible.\"\n\nbe a Catechizer; and though you should so do, yet I may refuse to make you my Judge: But I pray will you tell me why you ask me such questions?\n\nFaith. Because I saw you forward\u00b0 to talk, and because I knew not that you had ought else but Notion. Besides, to tell you all the truth, I have heard of you, that you are a man whose Religion lies in Talk, and that your Conversation gives this your mouth-profession the lie.\u00b0 They say you are a Spot\u00b0 among Christians; and that Religion fareth the worse for your ungodly conversation; that some already have stumbled at your wicked ways, and that more are in danger of being destroyed thereby; your Religion, and an ale-house, and covetousness, and uncleanness, and swearing, and lying, and vain company-keeping, e'rc.\u00b0 will stand together. The proverb is true of you, which is said of a whore, to wit, That she is a Shame to all Women, so you are a shame to all professors.\n\nThe reason why Faithful put him to that question.\n\nFaithful's plain dealing to Talkative.\n\nTalk. Since you are ready to take up Reports, and to judge so rashly as you do, I cannot but conclude you are some peevish or melancholy man, not fit to be discoursed with, and so Adieu.\n\nTalkative flings away from Faithful.\n\nChr. Then came up Christian, and said to his brother, I told you how it would happen; your Words and his Lusts could not agree: He had rather leave your Company, than reform his Life; but he is gone, as I said, let him go, the Loss is no man's but his own; he has saved us the trouble of going from him; for he continuing (as I suppose he will do) as he is, he would have been but a Blot in our Company: Besides, the Apostle says, From such withdraw thyself.\n\nA good riddance.\n\nFaith. But I am glad we had this little discourse with him; it may happen that he will think of it again; however, I have dealt plainly with him, and so am clear\u00b0 of his blood, if he perisheth.\n\nChr. You did well to talk so plainly to him as you did; there\n\n **forward** Eager; **Conversation... the lie** Your behavior contradicts what you say; **a Spot** A blemish; **an ale-house ... vain company-keeping** Note that the list includes physical places, abstract concepts, and practical actions; **clear** Innocent.\n\nis but little of this faithful dealing with men now a days, and that makes Religion so stink in the nostrils of many as it doth; for they are these talkative fools, whose Religion is only in word, and are debauched and vain in their conversation, that (being so much admitted into the fellowship of the godly) do puzzle the world, blemish Christianity, and grieve the sincere. I wish that all men would deal with such, as you have done; then should they either be made more conformable to Religion, or the company of Saints would be too hot for them. Then did Faithful say,\n\n _How Talkative at first lifts up his plumes! \nHow bravely doth he speak! How he presumes \nTo drive down all before him! But so soon \nAs Faithful talks of Heart-work, like the Moon \nThat's past the Fall, into the Wane he goes; \nAnd so will all, but he that Heart-work knows._\n\nThus they went on talking' of what they had seen by the Way, and so made that Way easy, which would otherwise, no doubt, have been tedious to them; For now they went through a Wilderness.\n\nNow when they were got almost quite out of this Wilderness, Faithful chanced to cast his eye back, and espied one coming after them, and he knew him. Oh! said Faithful to his brother, who comes yonder? Then Christian looked, and said, It is my good friend Evangelist; Ay, and my good friend too, said Faithful, for 'twas he that set me the Way to the Gate. Now was Evangelist come up unto them, and thus saluted them:\n\nEvangelist overtakes them again.\n\nEvangelist. Peace be with you, dearly beloved; and, Peace be to your helpers.\u00b0\n\n**they went on talking** Having purged themselves of empty words, the pilgrims are free to carry on a genuinely profitable discourse; **your helpers** No other pilgrims are present; the \"helpers\" are interior.\n\nChr. Welcome, welcome, my good Evangelist; the sight of thy countenance brings to my remembrance thy ancient0 kindness and unwearyed labouring for my Eternal Good.\n\nThey are glad at the sight of him.\n\nFaith. And a thousand times Welcome, said good Faithful; thy company, 0 sweet Evangelist, how desirable is it to us poor Pilgrims!\n\nEvan. Then, said Evangelist, How hath it fared with you, my Friends, since the time of our last parting? What have you met with, and how have you behaved yourselves?\n\nThen Christian and Faithful told him of all things that had happened to them in the Way; and how, and with what difficulty, they had arrived to that place.\n\nEvan. Right glad am I, said Evangelist, not that you met with Trials, but that you have been Victors, and for that you have (notwithstanding many weaknesses) continued in the way to this very day\n\nHis Exhortation to them.\n\nI say, right glad am I of this thing, and that for mine own sake and yours; I have sowed, and you have reaped; and the Day is coming, when both he that soweth, and they that reaped, shall rejoice together; that is, if you hold out; for in due time ye shall reap, if you faint not. The Crown is before you, and it is an uncorruptible one; so run, that you may obtain it. Some there be that set out for this Crown, and after they have gone far for it, another comes in and takes it from them: Hold fast therefore that you have, let no man take your Crown: You are not yet out of the gunshot\u00b0 of the Devil: You have not resisted unto Blood,\u00b0 striving against Sin: Let the Kingdom be always before you, and believe stedfastly concerning things that are invisible: Let nothing that is on this side the other World get within you: And above all, look well to your own Hearts and to the Lusts thereof, for they are deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked; set your faces like a flint; you have all power in Heaven and Earth on your side.\n\nJohn 4. 36. Gal. 6. 9. i Cor. 9. 24, 25, 26, 7.\n\nRev. 3. m.\n\nThey do thank him for his Exhortation.\n\nChr. Then Christian thanked him for his exhortation; but told him withal, that they would have him speak farther to them for their help the rest of the Way; and the rather, for that they well knew that he was a Prophet, and could tell them of things that might happen unto them, and also how they might resist and overcome them. To which request Faithful also consented. So Evangelist began as followeth:\n\n**ancient** Former; **gunshot** Range; **resisted unto Blood** Evangelist is preparing the pilgrims for their imminent ordeal at Vanity Fair.\n\nEvan. My Sons, you have heard in the words of the truth of the Gospel, that you must through many Tribulations enter into the Kingdom of Heaven. And again, That in every City, Bonds and Afflictions abide in you;\u00b0 and therefore you cannot expect that you should go long on your Pilgrimage without them, in some sort or other: You have found some thing of the truth of these Testimonies upon you already, and more will immediately follow; for now, as you see, you are almost out of this Wilderness, and therefore you will soon come into a Town that you will by and by see before you; and in that Town you will be hardly\u00b0 beset with enemies, who will strain \u00b0 hard but they will kill you; and be you sure that one or both of you must seal the testimony which you hold, with Blood; but be you faithful unto Death, and the King will give you a Crown of Life. He that shall die there, although his death will be unnatural,\u00b0 and his pains perhaps great, he will yet have the better of his fellow; not only because he will be arrived at the Coelestial City soonest, but because he will escape many miseries that the other will meet with in the rest of his Journey. But when you are come to the Town, and shall find fulfilled what I have here related, then remember your Friend, and quit yourselves like men, and commit the keeping of your souls to your God (in well-doing), as unto a Faithful Creator.\n\nHe predicteth what troubles they shall meet with in Vanity Fair, and encourageth them to Steadfastness.\n\nHe whose lot it will be there to suffer, will have the better of his brother.\n\n**in you** Note that the \"Bonds and Afflictions\" are internal; **hardly** Sorely; **strain** Try; **unnatural** Monstrous, both ethically and physically.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, that when they were got out of the Wilderness, they presently saw a Town before them, and the name of that Town is Vanity, and at the Town there is a Fair kept, called Vanity-Fair: It is kept all the year long; it beareth the name of Vanity-Fair, because the Town where it is kept, is lighter than Vanity; and also, because all that is there sold, or that cometh thither, is vanity. As is the saying of the Wise, All that cometh is Vanity.\n\nIsa. 40.17. Eccles. i. ch. 2. m, 17.\n\nThis Fair is no new erected business, but a thing of ancient standing: I will shew you the original\u00b0 of it.\n\nAlmost five thousand years agone,\u00b0 there were Pilgrims walking to the Coelestial City, as these two honest persons are; and Beelzebub, Apollyon, and Legion,\u00b0 with their companions, perceiving by the path that the Pilgrims made, that their Way to the City lay through this Town of Vanity, they contrived here to set up a Fair; a Fair, wherein should be sold all Sorts of Vanity, and that it should last all the year long; therefore, at this Fair, are all such merchandizes sold, as houses, lands, trades, places, honours, preferments, titles, countries, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures; and delights of all sorts, as whores, bawds, wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not?\n\nThe Antiquity of this Fair.\n\nThe merchandize of this Fair.\n\nAnd moreover, At this Fair there is at all times to be seen jugglings, cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that of every kind.\n\nHere are to be seen too, and that for nothing, thefts, murders, adulteries, false-swearers, and that of a blood-red colour.\n\nThe Streets of this Fair. r.\n\nAnd as in other fairs of less moment,\u00b0 there are the several rows and streets under their proper names, where such and such wares are vended: So here likewise, you have the proper places, rows, streets, (viz. Countries and Kingdoms) where the wares of this Fair are soonest to be found: Here is the Britain row, the French row, the Italian row, the Spanish row, the German row, where several sorts of vanities are to be sold. But as in other fairs, some one commodity is as the chief of all the fair, so the ware of Rome\u00b0 and her merchandize is greatly promoted in this Fair: Only our English nation, with some others, have taken a dislike thereat.\n\n**original** Origin; **five thousand years agone** Keeble believes that \"Bunyan refers ... to the age after Noah's flood (2348 B.C.), the period of the patriarchs, the first pilgrims\" (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 273); **Legion** Mark 5:9 reads: \"And he asked him, What is thy name? And he answered, saying, My name is Legion: for we are many\" (KJV); **less moment** Less significance.\n\nBEHOLD _VANITY-FAIR!_ THE PILGRIMS THERE \nARE CHAIN'D, AND STON'D BESIDE: \nEVEN SO IT WAS OUR LORD PASS'D HERE, \nAND ON MOUNT CALVARY DY'D.\n\nNow, as I said, the Way to the Coelestial City lies just through this Town, where this lusty Fair is kept; and he that will go to the City, and yet not go through this Town, must needs go out of the World. The Prince of Princes himself, when here, went through this Town to his own Country, and that upon a Fair-day too: Yea, and as I think, it was Beelzebub, the Chief Lord of this Fair, that invited him to buy of his Vanities ; yea, would have made him Lord of the Fair, would he but have done him reverence as he went through the Town. Yea, because he was such a Person of Honour, Beelzebub had him from street to street, and shewed him all the Kingdoms of the World in a little time,\u00b0 that he might, (if possible) allure that Blessed One, to cheapen and buy* some of his Vanities ; but he had no mind to the merchandize, and therefore left the Town, without laying out so much as one farthing upon these Vanities. This Fair, therefore, is an ancient thing, of long standing, and a very great Fair.\n\n1 Cor.5.10. Christ went through this Fair. Mat. 4. 8. Luke 4. 5, 6, 7.\n\nChrist bought nothing in this Fair.\n\nNow these Pilgrims, as I said, must needs go through this Fair. Well, so they did; but behold, even as they entered into the Fair, all the people in the Fair were moved, and the Town itself, as it were, in a hubbub about them; and that for several reasons: For,\n\nThe Pilgrims enter the Fair.\n\nThe Fair in a hubbub about them.\n\nFirst, The Pilgrims were cloathed with such kind of Raiment as was diverse from the Raiment of any that traded in that Fair. The people, therefore, of the Fair made a great Gazing upon them: Some said they were fools; some they were bedlams; and some they were outlandish men.0\n\nThe First cause of the hubbub.\n\n1 Cor. 2. 7. 8.\n\nSecondly, And as they wondered at their apparel, so they did likewise at their speech; for few could understand what they said; they naturally spoke the language of Canaan; but they that kept the Fair were the men of this World: So that from one end of the Fair to the other, they seemed barbarians\" each to the other.\n\nThe second cause of the hubbub.\n\n**the ware of Rome** Luther protested against the Papacy's commodification of salvation through the sale of indulgences and the sacraments; **Beelzebub ... a little time** Bunyan refers to the devil's temptation of Jesus in the wilderness, when he offers Him power over the entire world; **cheapen and buy** If Jesus had bought Satan's commodities He would have cheapened Himself; **outlandish men** Foreigners, aliens.\n\nThirdly, But that which did not a little amuse the merchandizers, \u00b0 was, that these Pilgrims set very light by all their wares; they cared not so much as to look upon them; and if they called upon them to buy, they would put their fingers in their ears, and cry, Turn away mine eyes from beholding Vanity; and look upwards, signifying, That their trade and traf fick was in Heaven.\n\nThird cause of the hubbub.\n\nFourth cause of the hubbub.\n\nProv.23.23. They are mocked.\n\nThe Fair in a hubbub.\n\nThey are examined.\n\nThey tell who , they are, and whence they came. Heb. 11.13,14, 15, 16.\n\n**barbarians** Uncivilized foreigners; **merchandizers** A stronger term than \"merchants,\" meaning \"those who make everything into merchandise\"; **carriages** Demeanors; **We buy the Truth** The pilgrims are interested in the logos. The Greek word used in the New Testament for God's \"Word,\" it is the true source of all value; **all order was confounded** The very presence of the pilgrims turns the world upside down; **the Great One of the Fair** Both Satan and King Charles II; **almost overturned** The pilgrims pose a threat to Vanity Fair by their very existence; **sat upon them** Sat in judgment upon them, but with a semi-comic suggestion of physical oppression.\n\nOne chanced mockingly, beholding the carriages' of the men, to say unto them, What will ye buy? But they looking gravely upon him, said, We buy the Truth.\u00b0 At that, there was an occasion taken to despise the men the more; some mocking, some taunting, some speaking reproachfully, and some calling upon others to smite them. At last things came to an hubbub, and great stir in the Fair, insomuch that all order was confounded.\u00b0 Now was word presently brought to the Great One of the Fair,\u00b0 who quickly came down and deputed some of his most trusty Friends to take these men into examination, about whom the Fair was almost overturned.\u00b0 So the men were brought to examination; and they that sat upon them,\u00b0 asked them, Whence they came, whither they went, and what they did there in such an unusual Garb? The men told them, That they were Pilgrims and Strangers in the World, and that they were going to their own country, which was the Heavenly Jerusalem; and that they had given none occasion to the men of the Town, nor yet to the merchandizers, thus to abuse\u00b0 them, and to let* them in their Journey: Except it was for that, when one asked them what they would buy, they said, they would buy the Truth. But they that were appointed to examine them, did not believe them to be any other than Bedlams and Mad, or else such as came to all things into a confusion in the Fair. Therefore they took them and beat them, and besmeared them with dirt, and then put them into the Cage, that they might be made a Spectacle to all the men of the Fair. There therefore they lay for some time, and were made the objects of any man's Sport, or Malice, or Revenge; the Great One of the Fair laughing still at all that befell them: But, the men being patient, and not rendring railing for railing, but contrariwise blessing, and giving good words for bad, and kindness for injuries done; some men in the Fair that were more observing, and less prejudiced than the rest,\u00b0 began to check and blame the baser sort for their continual abuses done by them to the men: They therefore in angry manner let fly at them again, counting them as bad as the men in the Cage, and telling them that they seemed Confederates, and should be made partakers of their misfortunes. The other replied, that for ought they could see, the men were quiet and sober, and intended nobody any harm: And that there were many that traded in their Fair, that were more worthy to be put into the Cage, yea, and Pillory too, than were the men that they had abused. Thus, after divers\" words had passed on both sides, (the men behaving themselves all the while very wisely and soberly before them) they fell to some blows among themselves, and did harm one to another. Then were these two poor men brought before their examiners again, and there charged as being guilty of the late hubbub that had been in the Fair. So they beat them pitifully, and hanged irons upon them, and led them in chains up and down the Fair, for an example and a terror to others, lest any should further speak in their behalf, or join themselves unto them. But Christian and Faithful behaved themselves yet more wisely, and received the ignominy and shame that was cast upon them, with so much meekness and patience, that it won to their side (though but few in comparison of the rest) several of the men in the Fair. This put the other Party yet into a greater rage, insomuch that they concluded the death of these two men. Wherefore they threatned, that neither Cage nor irons should serve their turn, but that they should die for the abuse they had done, and for deluding the men of the Fair.\n\nThey are taken for Madmen. [They are not believed. ist Edit.] ]\n\nThey are put in the Cage.\n\nTheir behavior in the Cage.\n\nThe men of the Fair do fall out among themselves about these two men.\n\nThey are made the Authors of this disturbance.\n\nThey are led up and down the Fair sin chains, for a terror to others.\n\n**abuse** The term was often used to mean \"commodity\" or \"make merchandise of\"; let Hinder; **some men ... the rest** Alludes to the diversions among the Anglicans as to how much toleration should be extended to dissenters; **divers** Various.\n\nSome men of the Fair won over to them. Their adversaries resolve to kill them.\n\nThen were they remanded to the Cage again, until further order should be taken with them. So they put them in, and made their feet fast in the stocks.\n\nThey are again put into the Cage, and after brought to Tryal.\n\nHere also they called again to mind what they had heard from their faithful friend Evangelist, and were the more confirmed in their ways and sufferings, by what he told them would happen to them. They also now comforted each other, that whose Lot it was to suffer, even he should have the best on't; therefore each man secretly wished that he might have that preferment: But committing themselves to the All-wise dispose of Him that ruleth all things, with much content they abode in the condition in which they were, until they should be otherwise disposed of.\n\nThen a convenient time being appointed, they brought them forth to their Tryal, in order to their condemnation. When the time was come, they were brought before their enemies, and arraigned. The Judge's name was Lord Hate-Good: Their indictment was one and the same in substance, though somewhat varying in form; the contents whereof was this:\n\nThat they were Enemies to, and Disturbers of their Trade: That they had made Commotions and Divisions in the Town, and had won a Party to their own most dangerous Opinions, in contempt of the Law of their Prince.\n\nTheir Indictment.\n\nFaithful's answerfor himself.\n\nThen Faithful began to answer, That he had only set himself against that, which had set itself against Him that is higher than the Highest.\u00b0 And, said he, as for Disturbance, I make none, being myself a man of Peace; the parties that were won to us, were won by beholding our Truth and Innocence, and they are only turned from the worse to the better. And as to the King you talk of, since he is Beelzebub, the Enemy\u00b0 of our Lord, I defy him and all his angels.\n\n**he had ... Highest** Not the pilgrims but the \"Great One\" is the true rebel, as he is in revolt against God. John Milton applied the same argument to both Satan and King Charles I.\n\nThen proclamation was made, That they that had ought to say for their Lord the King against the Prisoner at the Bar, should forthwith appear, and give in their evidence. So there came in three witnesses, to wit, _Envy, Superstition, and Pickthank_ : They were then asked, if they knew the Prisoner at the Bar; and what they had to say for their Lord the King against him.\n\nThen stood forth Envy, and said to this effect: My Lord, I have known this man a long time, and will attest upon my oath before this honourable Bench, that he is\n\nEnvy begins.\n\nJudge. Hold\u2014Give him his Oath.\n\nSo they sware him: Then he said, My Lord, this man, notwithstanding his plausible name, is one of the vilest men in our Country; he neither regardeth Prince nor People, Law nor Custom: but doth all that he can to possess all men with certain of his disloyal notions, which he in the general calls Principles of Faith and Holiness. And in particular, I heard him once myself affirm, That Christianity and the Customs of our town of vanity, were diametrically opposite, and could not be reconciled. By which saying, my Lord, he doth, at once, not only condemn all our laudable\u00b0 doings, but us in the doing of them.\n\nJudge. Then did the Judge say to him, Hast thou any more to say?\n\nEnvy. My Lord, I could say much more, only I would not be tedious to the Court. Yet if need be, when the other gentlemen have given in their evidence, rather than any thing shall be wanting that will dispatch him, I will enlarge my testimony against him. So he was bid stand by.\n\n**Beelzebub, the Enemy** Identifies Beelzebub with Satan; **laudable** With a pun on Archbishop Laud, the much-hated leading prelate under Charles I; Laud was executed by parliament in 1645.\n\nThen they called Superstition, and bid him look upon the Prisoner: They also asked, what he could say for their Lord the King against him? Then they sware him; so he began:\n\nSuper. My Lord, I have no great acquaintance with this man, nor do I desire to have further knowledge of him; however, this I know, That he is a very pestilent fellow,\u00b0 from some discourse that the other day I had with him in this Town; for then talking with him, I heard him say, That our Religion was naught, and such by which a man could by no means please God. Which saying of his, my Lord, your Lordship very well knows what necessarily thence will follow, to wit, that we still do worship in vain, are yet in our Sins, and finally shall be damned: And this is that which I have to say.\n\nSuperstition follows.\n\nThen was Pickthank sworn, and bid say what he knew in the behalf of their Lord the King, against the Prisoner at the Bar.\n\nPick. My Lord and you gentlemen all; this fellow I have known of a long time, and have heard him speak things that ought not to be spoke; for he hath railed on our noble Prince Beelzebub, and hath spoke contemptibly of his honourable Friends, whose names are, the Lord Old-Man, the Lord CarnalDelight, the Lord Luxurious, the Lord Desire of Vain-Glory, my old Lord Leachery, Sir Having Greedy, with all the rest of our nobility;\u00b0 and he hath said moreover, That if all men were of his mind, if possible, there is not one of these noblemen should have any longer a being in this Town. Besides, he hath not been afraid to rail on you, my Lord, who are now appointed to be his Judge, calling you an ungodly Villain, with many other such-like vilifying terms, with which he hath bespattered most of the gentry\" of our Town.\n\nPickthank's testimony.\n\nSins are all Lord and great ones.\n\n**a very pestilent fellow** When Bunyan's wife appealed to the High Court, Justice Chester called her husband \"a pestilent fellow\" (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and A Relation of the Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan, p. 107). The trial at Vanity Fair is patterned after Bunyan's own trial; **the** **Lord Old-Man ... all the rest of our nobility** Bunyan comes close to suggesting that all aristocrats are evil; **gentry** These occupied a rank below the aristocrats, and whereas Christian attacks \"all\" the nobility, he limits his ire to \" most\"of the gentry.\n\nWhen this Pickthank had told his tale, the Judge directed his speech to the Prisoner at the Bar, saying, Thou Renegade, Heretick, and Traitor, hast thou heard what these honest gentlemen have witnessed against thee?\n\n[Runagate ist edit.]\n\nFaith. May I speak a few words in my own defence?\n\nJudge. Sirrah, sirrah,\u00b0 thou deservest to live no longer, but to be slain immediately upon the place; yet that all men may see our Gentleness towards thee, let us see what thou hast to say.\n\nFaith. i. I say then, in answer to what Mr. Envy hath spoken, I never said ought but this, That what rule, or laws, or custom, or people, were flat against the Word of God, are diametrically opposite to Christianity. If I have said amiss in this, convince me of my error, and I am ready here before you to make my recantation.\n\nFaithful's defence of himself.\n\n2. As to the second, to wit, Mr. Superstition, and his charge against me, I said only this, That in the worship of God there is required a Divine Faith: but there can be no Divine Faith without a Divine Revelation\u00b0 of the Will of God. Therefore, whatever is thrust into the worship of God, that is not agreeable to Divine Revelation, cannot be done but by an human Faith, which Faith will not profit to eternal Life.\n\n3. As to what Mr. Pickthank hath said, I say (avoiding terms,\u00b0 as that I am said to rail, and the like) that the Prince of this Town, with all the rablement, his attendants, by this gentleman named, are more fit for being in Hell, than in this Town and Country; and so the Lord have Mercy upon me.\n\nThe Judge's speech to the Jury.\n\nThen the Judge called to the Jury (who all this while stood by to hear and observe) Gentlemen of the Jury, you see this man about whom so great an uproar hath been made in this Town: You have also heard what these worthy gentlemen have witnessed against him: Also you have heard his Reply and Confession: It lieth now in your breasts to hang him, or save his life; but yet I think meet to instruct you into our Law.\n\n**Sirrah** Derogatory term used by a social superior toward an inferior; **Revelation** Statement of the Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura: the idea that only what is revealed in the Bible, as opposed to the traditions of the church, is valid in religious practice; **terms** Name-calling.\n\nNow, FAITHFUL, PLAY THE MAN, SPEAK FOR THY GOD; \nFEAR NOT THE WICKED'S MALICE, NOR THEIR ROD: \nSPEAK BOLDLY, MAN, THE TRUTH IS ON THY SIDE; \nDIE FOR IT, AND TO LIFE IN TRIUMPH RIDE.\n\nThere was an act made in the days of Pharaoh the Great, servant to our Prince, that lest those of a contrary Religion should multiply, and grow too strong for him, their males should be thrown into the river. There was also an act made in the days of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, another of his servants, that whoever would not fall down and worship his Golden Image, should be thrown into a Fiery Furnace. There was also an act made in the days of Darius,\u00b0 That whoso for some time called upon any God but him, should be cast into the Lions Den. Now the substance of these Laws this Rebel has broken, not only in thought (which is not to be borne) but also in word and deed; which must therefore needs be intolerable.\n\nExod. i.\n\nDan. 3.\n\nDan. 6.\n\nFor that of Pharaoh, his Law was made upon a supposition, to prevent mischief, no Crime being yet apparent; but here is a Crime apparent. For the second and third, you see he disputeth against our Religion; and for the Treason he hath confessed, he deserveth to die the Death.\n\nThe Jury and their names.\n\nEvery one's private Verdict.\n\n**Darius** Ruler of Persia mentioned in the book of Daniel; **I see clearly** Blind-man reveals his allegorical significance in the act of denying it; he is blind to his own nature; **Scrub** Stunted tree\u2014hence, an insignificant person.\n\nThen went the Jury out, whose names were Mr. Blind-man, Mr. No-good, Mr. Malice, Mr. Love-lust, Mr. Live-loose, Mr. Heady, Mr. High-mind, Mr. Enmity, Mr. Lyer, Mr. Cruelty, Mr. Hate-light, and Mr. Implacable; who every one gave in his private verdict against him among themselves, and afterwards unanimously concluded to bring him in Guilty, before the Judge. And first among themselves, Mr. Blind-man the foreman said, I see clearly\u00b0 that this man is an Heretick. Then said Mr. No-good, Away with such a fellow from the earth. Ay, said Mr. Malice, for I hate the very looks of him. Then said Mr. Love-lust, I could never endure him. Nor I, said Mr. Live-loose, for he would always be condemning my Way. Hang him, hang him, said Mr. Heady. A sorry Scrub,\u00b0 said Mr. High-mind. My heart riseth against him, said Mr. Enmity. He is a Rogue, said Mr. Lyer. Hanging is too good for him, said Mr. Cruelty. Let's dispatch him out of the way, said Mr. Hate-light. Then said Mr. Implacable, Might I have all the World given me, I could not be reconciled to him, therefore let us forthwith bring him in Guilty of Death. And so they did; therefore he was presently condemned to be had from the place where he was, to the place from whence he came, and there to be put to the most cruel Death that could be invented.\n\nThey conclude to bring him in Guilty of Death.\n\nBRAVE FAITHFUL! BRAVELY DONE IN WORD AND DEED! \nJUDGE, WITNESSES, AND JURY HAVE, INSTEAD \nOF OVERCOMING THEE, BUT SHEWN THEIR RAGE, \nWHEN THEY ARE DEAD, THou'LT LIVE, FROM AGE TO AGE.\n\nThey therefore brought him out, to do with him according to their Law; and first they scourged him, then they buffeted him, then they lanced his flesh with knives: after that they stoned him with stones, then pricked him with their swords; and last of all, they burnt him to ashes at the Stake. Thus came Faithful to his end.\n\nThe cruel death of Faithful.\n\nNow I saw, that there stood behind the multitude a Chariot and a couple of horses waiting for Faithful, who (so soon as his adversaries had dispatched him) was taken up into it, and straitway was carried up through the clouds with Sound of Trumpet, the nearest way to the Coelestial Gate. But as for Christian, he had some respite, and was remanded back to prison; so he there remained for a space: But he that over-rules all things, having the Power of their rage in his own Hand, so wrought it about, that Christian for that time escaped them and went his way. And as he went he sang, saying:\n\n _Well, Faithful, thou hast faithfully profest \nUnto thy Lord, with Him thou shalt be blest; \nWhen faithless ones, with all their vain delights, \nAre crying out under their hellish plights: \nSing, Faithful, sing, and let thy Name survive; \nFor tho' they kill'd thee, thou art yet alive_.\n\nChariot and horses take away Faithful.\n\nChristian still a Prisoner. [early edits. 'is still alive.']\n\nThe Song that Christian made of Faithful after his death.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that Christian went not forth alone; for there was one whose name was Hope, (being made so by the beholding of Christian and Faithful in their words and behaviour, in their sufferings at the Fair)\u00b0 who joined himself unto him, and entring into a brotherly covenant, told him, that he would be his companion. Thus one died to make testimony to the Truth, and another rises out of his ashes to be a companion with Christian in his Pilgrimage. This Hopeful also told Christian, that there were many more of the men in the Fair that would take their time, and follow after.\n\nChristian has another companion.\n\n**Hopeful... Fair** The commonplace that \"the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church\" originated with African church father Tertullian (c.155-after 220 A.D.).\n\nThere are more of the men of the Fair will follow.\n\nSo I saw, that quickly after they were got out of the Fair, they overtook one that was going before them, whose name was By-ends;\u00b0 so they said to him, What countryman, Sir? and how far go you this Way? He told them, that he came from the town of Fair-speech, and he was going to the Coelestial City, (but told them not his name.)\n\nThey overtake By-ends.\n\nFrom Fair-speech, said Christian, is there any good that lives there?\n\nProv. 26. 25.\n\nBy-ends. Yes, (said By-ends,) I hope.\n\nChr. Pray, Sir, what may I call you?\n\nBy-ends. I am a Stranger to you, and you to me. If you be going this Way, I shall be glad of your company: If not, I must be content.\n\nBy-ends loth to tell his name.\n\nChr. This town of Fair-speech (said Christian,) I have heard of it, and, as I remember, they say it's a wealthy place.\u00b0 \u00b0\n\nBy-ends. Yes, I will assure you that it is, and I have very many Rich Kindred there.\n\nChr. Pray, who are your kindred there, if a man may be so bold?\n\nBy-ends. Almost the whole Town: And in particular my Lord Turn-about,\u00b0 my Lord Time-server, my Lord Fair-speech, (from whose ancestors that town first took its name:) Also Mr. Smooth-man,\u00b0 Mr. Facing-both-ways, Mr. Any-thing, and the parson of our parish, Mr. Two-tongues, was my mother's own brother by father's side: And, to tell you the truth, I am become a Gentleman of good quality, yet my great grandfather was but a waterman, looking one way and rowing another, and I got most of my estate by the same occupation.\n\n**By-ends** According to Keeble, \"incidental or secondary considerations\" (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 273), but \"self-interest\" seems a better definition; **a wealthy place** By-Ends, who appears just after Christian has left Vanity Fair, stands for the pursuit of self-interest in the ostensible service of religion; **Lord Turn-about** The names of his \"kindred\" indicate that By-Ends is an opportunist Latitudinarian like Edward Fowler (see Introduction); **Mr. Smooth-man** Jacob tricked his blind father, Isaac, into bestowing his brother Esau's birthright on him by putting goat's hair on his arms; in reality, he was a \"smooth man.\"\n\nChr. Are you a married man?\n\nBy-ends. Yes, and my wife is a very vertuous woman, the daughter of a vertuous woman; she was my Lady Feigning's daughter, therefore she came of a very honourable family, and is arrived to such a pitch of breeding, that she knows how to carry it to all, even to prince and peasant. 'Tis true, we somewhat differ in Religion from those of the stricter sort, yet but in two small points: First, We never strive against Wind and Tide. Secondly, We are always most zealous when Religion goes in his Silver Slippers; we love much to walk with him in the street, if the Sun shines and the People applaud him.\n\nThe wife and kindred of By-ends\n\nWhere By-ends differs from others in Religion.\n\nThen Christian stept a little aside to his fellow Hopeful, saying, It runs in my mind that this is one By-ends of Fairspeech ; and, if it be he, we have as very a Knave in our company as dwelleth in all these parts. Then said Hopeful, Ask him, methinks he should not be ashamed of his Name. So Christian came up with him again, and said, Sir, You talk as if you knew something more, than all the world doth; and, if I take not my mark amiss, I deem I have half a guess of you: Is not your name Mr. By-ends of Fair-speech?\n\nBy-ends. That is not my name, but indeed it is a nick-name that is given me by some that cannot abide me, and I must be content to bear it as a Reproach, as other good men have borne theirs before me.\n\nChr. But did you never give an occasion to men to call you by this name?\n\nBy-ends. Never! never! The worst that ever I did to give them an occasion to give me this name was, that I had always the Luck to jump in my judgment with the present Way of the Times, whatever it was, and my Chance was to get thereby; but if things are thus cast upon me, let me count them a blessing; but let not the malicious load me therefore with reproach.\n\nHow By-ends got his name.\n\nChr. I thought indeed that you were the man that I had heard of; and, to tell you what I think, I fear this name belongs to you more properly than you are willing we should think it doth.\u00b0\n\nBy-ends. Well, if you will thus imagine, I cannot help it: You shall find me a fair company-keeper, if you will still admit me your associate.\n\nHe desires to keep company with Christian.\n\nChr. If you will go with us, you must go against Wind and Tide; the which, I perceive, is against your opinion: You must also own Religion in his Rags as well as when in his Silver Slippers; and stand by him too when bound in Irons, as well as when he walketh the streets with Applause.\n\nBy-ends. You must not impose, nor lord it over my faith; leave me to my Liberty, and let me go with you.\n\nChr. Not a Step further, unless you will do in what I propound, as we.\n\nThen said By-ends, I shall never desert my old Principles, since they are harmless and profitable. If I may not go with you, I must do as I did before you overtook me, even go by myself, until some overtake me that will be glad of my company.\n\nBy-endsand Christian part.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that Christian and Hopeful forsook him, and kept their distance before him; but one of them looking back, saw three men following Mr. By-ends, and behold, as they came up with him, he made them a very low conger; and they also gave him a compliment. The mens names were Mr. Hold-the-World, Mr. Money-love, and Mr. Save-all; men that Mr. By-ends had formerly been acquainted with; for in their minority they were school-fellows, and taught by one Mr. Gripe-man,* a school-master in Love-gain, which is a market-town in the county of Coveting, in the north . This School-master taught them the Art of Getting,\u00b0 either by violence, cozenage, flattery, lying, or by putting on a guise of Religion; and these four gentlemen had attained much of the Art of their Master, so that they could each of them have kept such a school themselves.\n\nHe has new companions.\n\n**I fear this name ... doth** Christian is able to recognize the allegorical essence behind appearances; **congee** Bow; **Gripe-man** To \"gripe\" was to grab or clutch; the word was often used to mean oppressive covetousness, as in the many contemporary references to \"griping usury\"; **the Art of Getting** The new science of \"political economy,\" known to us as \"economics,\" was fashionable after the Restoration.\n\nWell, when they had, as I said, thus saluted each other, Mr. Money-love said to Mr. By-ends, Who are they upon the road before us? For Christian and Hopeful were yet within view.\n\nBy-ends. They are a couple of far country-men, that after their mode are going on Pilgrimage.\n\nBy-end's character of the Pilgrims.\n\nMoney-love. Alas! why did they not stay, that we might have had their good company; for they, and we, and you, Sir, I hope, are all going on Pilgrimage?\n\nBy-ends. We are so, indeed; but the men before us are so rigid, and love so much their own notions, and do also so lightly esteem the opinions of others, that let a man be never so godly, yet if he jumps not with them in all things, they thrust him quite out of their company.\n\nMr. Save-all. That's bad; but we read of some that are righteous over-much, and such mens Rigidness prevails with them to judge and condemn all but themselves; but I pray what, and how many were the things wherein you differed?\n\nBy-ends. Why they, after their head-strong manner, conclude that it is their Duty to rush on their journey all weathers, and I am for waiting for Wind and Tide. They are for hazarding all for God at a clap, and I am for taking all advantages to secure my Life and Estate. They are for holding their notions, though all other men be against them; but I am for Religion, in what, and so far as the Times and my safety will bear it. They are for Religion when in Rags and Contempt, but I am for him when he walks in his Golden Slippers in the sunshine, and with Applause.\n\nMr. Hold-the-World. Ay, and hold you there still, good Mr. By-ends; for, for my part, I can count him but a Fool, that having the Liberty to keep what he has, shall be so unwise as to lose it. Let us be wise as Serpents; it's best to make hay when the Sun shines; you see how the Bee lieth still all winter, and bestirs her only when she can have Profit with Pleasure. God sends sometimes rain, and sometimes sun-shine: If they be such fools to go through the first, yet let us be content to take fair weather along with us. For my part, I like that Religion best, that will stand with the security of God's good blessings unto us: For who can imagine, that is ruled by his Reason,\" since God has bestowed upon us the good things of this Life, but that he would have us keep them for his Sake. Abraham and Solomon grew rich in Religion. And Job says, That a good man shall lay up Gold as Dust. But he must not be such as the men before us, if they be as you have described them.\n\nMr. Save-all. I think that we are all agreed in this matter, and therefore there needs no more words about it.\n\nMr. Money-love. No, there needs no more words about this matter indeed; for he that believes neither Scripture nor Reason, (and you see we have both on our side) neither knows his own Liberty, nor seeks his own Safety.\n\nMr. By-ends. My brethren, we are, as you see, going all on Pilgrimage, and for our better diversion from things that are bad, give me leave to propound unto you this question:\n\nSuppose a man, a Minister, or a Tradesman,\u00b0 &c. should have an advantage lie before him, to get the good blessings of this life, yet so as that he can by no means come by them, except, in appearance at least, he becomes extraordinary zealous in some points of Religion that he meddled not with before; may he not use this Means to attain his End,\u00b0 and yet be a right honest man?\n\nMr. Money-love. I see the bottom\u00b0 of your question; and, with these gentlemen's good leave, I will endeavour to shape you an answer: And first, to speak to your question as it concerns a Minister himself. Suppose a Minister a worthy man, possess'd but of a very small benefice,\u00b0 and has in his eye a greater, more fat and plump by far; he has also now an opportunity of getting of it, yet so as by being more studious, by preaching more frequently and zealously, and, because the temper of the people requires it, by altering of some of his Principles; for my part, I see no reason but a man may do this; (provided he has a Call)\u00b0 ay, and more a great deal besides, and yet be an honest man. For why?\n\n**Reason** Much beloved of the Latitudinarians, of whom Hold-the-World is representative; **a Minister, or a Tradesman** By-Ends blithely omits the distinction between the two lines of work; in the terminology of the day he is a \"hireling,\" who views preaching the gospel as labor to be exchanged for money; **Means to attain his End** By-Ends betrays the significance of his name; **bottom** Import; **benefice** Living.\n\n1. His desire of a greater benefice is lawful, (this cannot be contradicted) since 'tis set before him by Providence; so then he may get it if he can, making no question for Conscience sake.\n\n2. Besides, his desire after that benefice makes him more studious, a more zealous Preacher, &c. and so makes him a better man, yea, makes him better improve his parts, which is according to the Mind of God.\n\n3. Now as for his complying with the temper of his people, by dissenting, to serve them, some of his Principles, this argueth, 1. That he is of a Self-denying temper. 2. Of a sweet and winning deportment. 3. And so more fit for the ministerial function.\n\n4. 1 conclude then, that a minister that changes a small for a great, should not, for so doing, be judged as covetous; but rather, since he is improved in his parts and industry hereby, be counted as one that pursues his Call, and the opportunity put into his hand to do Good.\n\nAnd now to the second part of the question, which concerns the Tradesman you mentioned: Suppose such a one to have but a poor employ in the world, but, by becoming Religious, he may mend his market,\u00b0 perhaps get a rich wife, or more and far better customers to his shop. For my part, I see no reason but this may be lawfully done. For why?\n\n1. To become Religious is a Vertue, by what Means soever a man becomes so.\n\n2. Nor is it unlawful to get a rich wife, or more custom to my shop.\n\n**a Call** An ironic qualification; **mend his market** Improve his market share.\n\n3. Besides, the man that gets these by becoming religious, gets that which is good of them that are good, by becoming good himself; so then here is a good Wife, and good Customers, and good Gain, and all these by becoming Religious, which is good: Therefore, to become religious to get all these, is a good and profitable Design.\n\nThis answer thus made by this Mr. Money-love to Mr. Byends's question, was highly applauded by them all; wherefore they concluded upon the whole, that it was most wholesome and advantageous. And because, as they thought, no man was able to contradict it, and because Christian and Hopeful were yet within call, they jointly agreed to assault them with the question as soon as they overtook them; and the rather,\u00b0 \u00b0 because they had opposed Mr. By-ends before. So they called after them, and they stopt and stood still till they came up to them; but they concluded, as they went that not Mr. By-ends, but old Mr. Hold-the-World should propound the question to them, because, as they supposed, their answer to him would be without the remainder of that heat that was kindled betwixt Mr. By-ends and them, at their parting a little before.\n\nSo they came up to each other, and after a short salutation, Mr. Hold-the-World propounded the question to Christian and his fellow, and bid them to answer it if they could.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, Even a babe in Religion may answer ten thousand such questions. For, if it be unlawful to follow Christ for loaves, as it is, John 6. how much more abominable is it to make of him and Religion a Stalkinghorse\" to get and enjoy the World? Nor do we find any other than Heathens, Hypocrites, Devils, and Witches, that are of this opinion.\n\n1. Heathens; for when Hamor and Sechem had a mind to the daughters and cattle of Jacob, and saw that there was no ways for them to come at them, but by becoming circumcised; they said to their companions, If every male of us be circumcised, as they are circumcised, shall not their cattle, and their substance, and every beast of theirs be ours? Their Daughters and their Cattle were that which they sought to obtain, and their Religion the stalking-horse they made use of to come at them. Read the whole story, Gen. 34. 20, 21, 22, 23.\n\n**the rather** Especially; **Stalking-horse** Facade to conceal true motives.\n\n2. The Hypocritical Pharisees were also of this Religion: Long Prayers were their Pretence; but to get widows houses was their Intent, and greater damnation was from God their Judgment, Luke 20. 46, 47.\n\n3. Judas the Devil was also of this Religion; he was religious for the Bag,\u00b0 that he might be possessed of what was therein; but he was lost, cast away, and the very Son of Perdition.\n\n4. Simon the Witch\u00b0 was of this Religion too; for he would have had the Holy Ghost, that he might have got Money therewith, and his sentence from Peter's mouth was according, Acts 8.19, 20, 21, 22.\n\n5. Neither will it out of my mind, but that that man that takes up Religion for the world, will throw away Religion for the World; for so surely as Judas designed\u00b0 the world in becoming religious, so surely did he also sell religion and his Master for the same. To answer the question therefore affirmatively, as I perceive you have done; and to accept of, as authentick, such answer, is both Heathenish, Hypocritical, and Devilish; and your Reward will be according to your Works. Then they stood staring one upon another, but had not wherewith to answer Christian. Hopeful also approved of the soundness of Christian's answer, so there was a great Silence among them. Mr. By-ends and his company also staggered and kept behind, that Christian and Hopeful might out-go them. Then said Christian to his fellow, If these men cannot stand before the sentence of men, what will they do with the sentence of God? And if they are mute when dealt with by vessels of Clay, what will they do when they shall be rebuked by the flames of a devouring Fire?\n\n**the Bag** \"The bag in which Judas carried the 30 pieces of silver\" (Sharrock, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 395); **Simon the Witch** A Samarian sorcerer who in Acts 8:18-19 tried to purchase the power of the Holy Spirit and gave his name to ecclesiastical corruption, or \"simony\"; **designed** Had designs on.\n\nThen Christian and Hopeful out-went them again, and went till they came at a delicate plain, called Ease, where they went with much content; but that plain was but narrow, so they were quickly got over it. Now at the further side of that plain was a little hill called Lucre, and in that hill a _Silver-Mine_ , which some of them that had formerly gone that way, because of the rarity of it, had turned aside to see; but going too near the brink of the pit, the ground, being deceitful under them, broke, and they were slain: Some also had been maimed there, and could not, to their Dying-day, be their own men\u00b0 again.\n\nThe Ease that Pilgrims have, is but little in this life.\n\nLucre hill a dangerous hill.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, that a little off the road, over against the Silver-Mine, stood Demas' (gentleman-like) to call to passengers to come and see; who said to Christian and his fellow, Ho! turn aside hither, and I will shew you a thing.\n\nChr. What thing so deserving, as to turn us out of the Way?\n\nDemas. Here is a Silver-Mine, and some digging in it for Treasure; if you will come, with a little pains, you may richly provide for yourselves.\n\nDemas at the hill Lucre.\n\nHe calls to Christian and Hopeful to come to him.\n\nHope. Then said Hopeful, Let us go see.\n\nChr. Not I, said Christian, I have heard of this place before now, and how many have there been slain; and besides, that treasure is a Snare to those that seek it; for it hindreth them in their Pilgrimage.\n\nHopeful tempted to go, but Christian holds him back.\n\nThen Christian called to Demas, saying, Is not the place dangerous? Hath it not hindred many in their Pilgrimage?\n\nHos. 4. 18.\n\nDemas. Not very dangerous,\u00b0 except to those that are careless ; but withal, he blushed as he spake.\n\nChr. Then said Christian to Hopeful, Let us not stir a Step; but still keep on our Way.\n\n**their own men** Independent, but implying that they are alienated from their selves, having sold them; **Demas** Paul describes his desertion, \"having loved this present world,\" in 2 Timothy 4:10; **gentleman-like** Note Bunyan's constant insistence on the high social class of the bad characters; **Not very dangerous** A deliciously naturalistic qualification.\n\nHope. I will warrant you, when By-ends comes up, if he hath the same Invitation as we, he will turn in thither to see.\n\nChr. No doubt thereof, for his principles lead him that way, and a hundred to one but he dies there.\n\nDemas. Then Demas called again, saying, But will you not come over and see?\n\nChr. Then Christian roundly\u00b0 answered, saying, Demas, Thou art an Enemy to the right ways of the Lord of this Way, and hast been already condemned for thine own turning aside, by one of his Majesties Judges: And why seekest thou to bring us into the like condemnation? Besides, if we at all turn aside; our Lord the King will certainly hear thereof, and will there put us to shame, where we would stand with boldness before him.\n\nChristian roundeth up Demas. 2 Tim. 4. 10.\n\nDemas cried again, That he also was one of their Fraternity ; and that if they would tarry a little, he also himself would walk with them.\n\nChr. Then said Christian, What is thy name?* Is it not the same by the which I have called thee?\n\nDemas. Yes, my name is Demas, I am the son of Abraham.\n\nChr. I know you; Gehazi was your great grandfather, and Judas your father, and you have trod their steps; it is but a devilish prank that thou usest: Thy father was hang'd for a Traitor, and thou deservest no better reward. Assure thyself, that when we come to the King, we will do him word of \u00b0 this thy behaviour. Thus they went their Way.\n\n2 Kings 5. 20. Matt. 26. 4, 15. Ch. 27. 1, 2, 3, 5,6.\n\nBy this time By-ends and his companions were come again within sight, and they at the first beck\u00b0 went over to Demas. Now, whether they fell into the pit by looking over the brink thereof, or whether they went down to dig, or whether they were smothered in the bottom by the damps that commonly arise, of these things I am not certain; but this I observed, that they never were seen again in the Way. Then sang Christian:\n\n_By-ends and Silver Demas both agree; \nOne calls, the other runs, that he may be \nA Sharer in his Lucre, so these two \nTake up in this World, and no further go_.\n\nBy-ends goes over to Demas.\n\n**roundly** Bluntly; **What is thy name?** Christian knows that the name will reveal the nature; **Gehazi** A servant of Elisha, he begs a talent of silver from Namaan in 2 Kings 5:22; **do him word** of Tell him about; **beck** Call.\n\nNow I saw, that just on the other side of this plain, the Pilgrims came to a place where stood an old Monument, hard-by the highway side, at the sight of which they were both concerned, because of the strangeness of the form thereof, for it seemed to them as if it had been a Woman transformed into the shape of a Pillar; here therefore they stood looking and looking upon it, but could not for a time tell what they should make thereof: At last Hopeful espied written above upon the head thereof, a writing in an unusual hand; but he being no scholar, called to Christian (for he was learned) to see if he could pick out the meaning; so he came, and after a little laying of letters together, he found the same to be this, Remember Lot's Wife. So he read it to his fellow; after which they both concluded that that was the Pillar of Salt into which Lot's wife was turned, for her looking back with a covetous heart, while she was going from Sodomo for safety. Which sudden and amazing sight, gave them occasion of this discourse.\n\nThey see a strange Monument.\n\nGen 19. 26.\n\nChr. Ah, my brother! this is a seasonable* sight; it came opportunely to us after the invitation which Demas gave us to come over to view the hill Lucre; and had we gone over, as he desired us, and as thou wast inclined to do, my brother, we had, for ought I know, been made ourselves, like this Woman, a spectacle for those that shall come after, to behold.\n\nHope. I am sorry that I was so foolish, and am made to wonder that I am not now as Lot's wife; for wherein was the difference betwixt her Sin and mine? She only looked back, and I had a desire to go see; let Grace be adored, and let me be ashamed, that ever such a thing should be in mine heart.\n\nChr. Let us take notice of what we see here, for our help for time to come: This woman escaped one Judgment, for she fell not by the destruction of Sodom; yet she was destroyed by another ; as we see, she is turned into a Pillar of Salt.\n\n**Sodom** An emblem of all fleshly perversion, not necessarily sexual. Lot's wife's sin is covetousness, not lust; **seasonable** Timely.\n\nHope. True, and she may be to us both Caution, and Example; caution, that we should shun her sin; or a sign of what Judgment will overtake such as shall not be prevented by this caution: So Korah, Dathan, and Abiram,\u00b0 with the two hundred and fifty men that perished in their sin, did also become a sign or example to beware. But above all, I muse\u00b0 at one thing, to wit, how Demas and his fellows can stand so confidently yonder to look for that treasure, which this woman, but for looking behind her after, (for we read not that she stept one foot out of the Way) was turned into a Pillar of Salt; especially since the Judgment which overtook her did make her an example, within sight of where they are: For they cannot choose but see her, did they but lift up their eyes.\n\nNumb. 26. 9, 10.\n\nChr. It is a thing to be wondred at, and it argueth that their heart is grown desperate in the case; and I cannot tell who to compare them to so fitly, as to them that pick pockets in the presence of the Judge, or that will cut purses under the Gallows. It is said of the men of Sodom, that they were sinners exceedingly, because they were sinners before the Lord, that is, in his Eyesight, and notwithstanding the Kindnesses that he had shewed them; for the land of Sodom was now like the Garden of Eden heretofore. This therefore provoked him the more to Jealousy, and made their plague as hot as the fire of the Lord out of Heaven could make it. And it is most rationally to be concluded, That such, even such as these are, that shall sin in the Sight, yea, and that too in Despite\u00b0 of such examples, that are set continually before them to caution them to the contrary, must be partakers of severest Judgments.\n\nGen. 13. 13.\n\nVer. io.\n\nHope. Doubtless thou hast said the truth; but what a Mercy is it, that neither thou, but especially I, am not made myself this example? This ministreth occasion to us to thank God, to fear before him, and always to remember Lot's wife.\n\n**Korah, Dathan, and Abiram** Rebels against Moses, they were swallowed up by the earth and so \"became a sign\" (Numbers 26:10); **muse** Wonder; **Despite** Defiance.\n\nI saw then, that they went on their way to a pleasant river;* which David the King called the river of God; but John, the river of the Water of Life. Now their Way lay just upon the bank of this River: Here therefore Christian and his companion walked with great delight; they drank also of the water of the River, which was pleasant and enlivening to their weary spirits. Besides, on the banks of this River, on either side, were green Trees, that bore all manner of fruit; and the leaves of the trees were good for Medicine; with the fruit of these trees they were also much delighted; and the leaves they eat to prevent Surfeits,\u00b0 and other diseases that are incident too those that heat their blood by Travels. On either side of the River was also a meadow, curiously beautified with lillies; and it was green all the year long. In this meadow they lay down and slept; for here they might lie down safely. When they awoke, they gathered again of the fruit of the trees, and drank again of the water of the River, and then lay down again to sleep. Thus they did several days and nights. Then they sang:\n\nBehold ye, how these Crystal Streams do glide \n(To comfort Pilgrims) by the Highway side. \nThe Meadows green, besides their fragrant smell, \nYield dainties for them: And he that can tell \nWhat pleasant Fruit, yea, Leaves, these Trees do yield, \nWill soon sell all, that he may buy this Field.\n\nA River. Psal. 65. 9.\n\nRev. 22. Ezek. 47.\n\nTrees by the River.\n\nThe fruit and leaves of the trees.\n\nA Meadow in which they lie down to sleep. Psal. 23. 2. Isa.14.30.\n\nSo when they were disposed to go on, (for they were not as yet at their Journey's end), they eat and drank, and departed.\n\nNumb. 21. 4.\n\n**a pleasant river** The river has one meaning as an Old Testament type (Psalm 65:9) and another as a New Testament antitype (Revelation 22:1); see endnote 9 to part one; **Surfeits** Diseases caused by overeating; **incident** to Common among.\n\nNow I beheld in my dream, that they had not journied far, but the River and the Way for a time parted, at which they were not a little sorry, yet they durst not go out of the Way. Now the way from the River was rough, and their feet tender by reason of their travels. So the Soul of the Pilgrims were much discouraged, because of the way. Wherefore still as they went on, they wished for better Way. Now a little before them, there was on the Left Hand of the road a Meadow, and a Stile to go over into it, and that meadow is called By-PathMeadow. Then said Christian to his fellow, If this meadow lieth along by our Wayside, let us go over into it. Then he went to the Stile to see, and behold a Path lay along by the Way on the other side of the fence. 'Tis according to my wish, said Christian, here is the easiest going; come, good Hopeful, and let us go over.\n\nBy-Path-Meadow.\n\nOne Temptation makes way for another.\n\nHope. But how if this Path should lead us out of the Way?\n\nChr. That's not likely, said the other; look, doth it not go along by the Wayside? So Hopeful, being persuaded by his fellow, went after him over the Stile. When they were gone over, and were got into the Path, they found it very easy for their feet; and withal, they looking before them, espied a man walking as they did, (and his name was Vain Confidence), so they called after him, and asked him, whither that Way led? He said, to the Ccelestial Gate: Look, said Christian, did not I tell you so? By this you may see we are right; so they followed, and he went before them. But behold, the Night came on, and it grew very dark; so that they that were behind lost the sight of him that went before.\n\nStrong Christians may lead weak ones out the way.\n\nSee what it is too suddenly to fall in with Strangers.\n\nHe therefore that went before (Vain- Confidence0 by name), not seeing the way before him, fell into a deep Pit, which was on purpose there made by the Prince of those grounds, to catch vain-glorious fools withal, and was dashed in pieces with his fall.\n\nIsa. 9. i6.\n\nA Pit to catch the Vainglorious in.\n\nNow Christian and his fellow heard him fall. So they called to know the matter, but there was none to answer, only they heard a groaning. Then said Hopeful, Where are we now? Then was his fellow silent, as mistrusting that he had led him out of the Way; and now it began to rain, and thunder and lighten in a very dreadful manner; and the water rose amain.\n\nReasoning between Christian and Hopeful.\n\nThen Hopeful groaned in himself saying, Oh that I had kept on my Way!\n\n**Vain-Confidence** Self-righteousness; **groaned in himself** His self is distinguished from his action.\n\nChr. Who could have thought that this Path should have led us out of the Way?\n\nHope. I was afraid on't at the very first, and therefore gave you that gentle caution. I would have spoke plainer, but that you are older than I.\nChr. Good brother, be not offended, I am sorry I have brought thee out of the way, and that I have put thee into such imminent Danger; pray, my brother, forgive me; I did not do it of an Evil Intent.\n\nChristian's Repentance for leading his brother out of the Way.\n\nHope. Be comforted, my brother, for I forgive thee; and believe too, that this shall be for our good.\n\nChr. I am glad I have with me a merciful brother: But we must not stand thus; let's try to go back again.\n\nHope. But, good brother, let me go before.\n\nChr. No, if you please, let me go first; that if there be any danger, I may be first therein, because by my means we are both gone out of the way.\n\nHope. No, said Hopeful, you shall not go first; for your mind being troubled, may lead you out of the Way again. Then for their Encouragement, they heard the Voice of one, saying, Let thine Heart be towards the Highway; even the Way that thou wentest, turn again. But by this time the Waters were greatly risen, by reason of which, the Way of going back was very dangerous. (Then I thought that it is easier going out of the way when we are in, than going in when we are out.) Yet they adventured to go back, but it was so dark, and the Flood was so high, that in their going back, they had like to have been drowned nine or ten times.\n\nJer. 31. 21.\n\nThey are in danger of drowning as they go back.\n\nThey sleep in the ground of Giant Despair.\n\n**lighting** Alighting.\n\nNeither could they, with all the skill they had, get again to the Stile that night. Wherefore at last, lighting* under a little shelter, they sat down there 'till the Day brake; but being weary, they fell asleep. Now there was, not far from the place where they lay, a castle, called Doubting-Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they now were sleeping; wherefore he getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in his grounds: Then with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were Pilgrims, and that they had lost their Way. Then said the Giant, You have this night trespassed on me, by trampling in and lying on my grounds, and therefore you must go along with me. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a Fault.\u00b0 The Giant therefore drove them before him, and put them into his castle, in a very dark Dungeon, nasty and stinking to the spirit of these two men: Here then they lay from Wednesday morning till Saturday night, without one bit of bread, or drop of drink, or Light, or any to ask how they did: They were therefore here in evil case,* and were far from Friends and Acquaintances. Now in this place Christian had double sorrow, because 'twas through his unadvised haste that they were brought into this distress.\n\nHe finds them in his ground, and carries them to Doubting-Castle.\n\nThe Grievousness of their Imprisonment. Psal. 88.\n\nTHE PILGRIMS NOW, TO GRATIFY THE FLESH, \nWILL SEEK ITS EASE; BUT OH! HOW THEY AFRESH \nDo THEREBY PLUNGE THEMSELVES NEW GRIEFS INTO! \nWHO SEEK TO PLEASE THE FLESH, THEMSELVES UNDO.\n\nOn Thursday Giant Despair beats his Prisoners.\n\n**they knew themselves in a Fault** That is, according to the property laws; **in evil case** In a bad way; **Diffidence** Distrust of God's mercy; **rating** Scolding.\n\nNow Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was _Diffidence_ :\u00b0 So when he was gone to bed, he told his wife what he had done, to wit, That he had taken a couple of Prisoners, and cast them into his Dungeon, for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her also, what he had best to do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound? and he told her. Then she counselled him, that when he arose in the morning, he should beat them without any mercy: So when he arose, he getteth him a grievous crab-tree cudgel, and goes down into the Dungeon to them, and there first falls to rating' of them as if they were dogs, although they gave him never a word of distaste: Then he falls upon them, and beats them fearfully, in such sort, that they were not able to help themselves, or to turn them upon the floor. This done, he withdraws, and leaves them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress: So all that day they spent the time in nothing but sighs and bitter Lamentations. The next night she talking with her husband about them further, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise him to counsel them to make away themselves: So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner, as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them, That since they were never like\u00b0 to come out of that place, their only way would be forthwith to make an end of themselves, either with Knife, Halter, or Poison: For why, said he, should you choose Life, seeing it is attended with so much Bitterness? But they desired him to let them go; with that he looked ugly upon them, and rushing to them had doubtless made an end of them himself, but that he fell into one of his fits (for he sometimes in Sun-shine weather fell into fits) and lost, for a time, the use of his hand: Wherefore he withdrew, and left them as before, to consider what to do. Then did the Prisoners consult between themselves, whether 'twas best to take his counsel or no; and thus they began to discourse:\n\nOn Friday Giant Despair counsels them to kill themselves.\n\nThe Giant sometimes has Fits.\n\nChr. Brother, said Christian, what shall we do? The life that we now live is miserable! For my part, I know not whether 'tis best to live thus, or to die out of hand. My Soul chooseth Strangling rather than Life, and the Grave is more easy for me than this Dungeon! Shall we be ruled by the Giant?\n\nChristian begins to despair. Job 7.15.\n\nHope. Indeed our present condition is dreadful, and death would be far more welcome to me, than thus for ever to abide: But yet let us consider, the Lord of the Country to which we are going, hath said, Thou shalt do no Murder, no not to another man's person; much more then are we forbidden to take his counsel, to kill ourselves. Besides, he that kills another, can but commit murther upon his body: But for one to kill himself, is to kill Body and Soul at once. And moreover, my brother, thou talkest of ease in the grave, but hast thou forgotten the Hell, whither for certain the Murderers go? For no Murderer hath Eternal Life, &c. And let us consider again, that all the Law is not in the hand of Giant Despair; others, so far as I can understand, have been taken by him, as well as we; and yet have escaped out of his hands. Who knows, but that God, who made the world, may cause that Giant Despair may die, or that, at some time or other, he may forget to lock us in; or but he may in short time have another of his fits before us, and may lose the use of his limbs? And if ever that should come to pass again, for my part I am resolved to pluck up the heart of a Man, and to try my utmost to get from under his hand. I was a fool that I did not try to do it before; but however, my brother, let's be patient, and endure a while, the time may come that may give us a happy release: But let us not be our own murderers. With these words Hopeful at present did moderate the mind of his brother; so they continued together (in the Dark) that day in their sad and doleful condition.\n\nHopeful comforts him.\n\n**like** Likely.\n\nWell, towards evening the Giant goes down into the Dungeon again, to see if his prisoners had taken his counsel; but when he came there, he found them alive; and truly alive was all;\u00b0 for now, what for want of bread and water, and by reason of the Wounds they received when he beat them, they could do little but breathe. But I say, he found them alive; at which he fell into a grievous rage, and told them, that seeing they had disobeyed his counsel, it should be worse with them than if they had never been born.\n\nAt this they trembled greatly, and I think that Christian fell into a Swoon;* but coming a little to himself again, they renewed their discourse about the Giant's counsel, and whether yet they had best take it or no. Now Christian again seemed to be for doing it, but Hopeful made his second reply as followeth.\n\nChristian still dejected.\n\nHope. My Brother, said he, remembrest thou not, how valiant thou hast been heretofore? Apollyon could not crush thee, nor could all that thou didst hear, or see, or feel, in the valley of the Shadow of Death; what hardship, terror, and amazement hast thou already gone through, and art thou now nothing but Fear?\u00b0 Thou seest that I am in the Dungeon with thee, a far weaker man by nature than thou art; also this Giant has wounded me as well as thee, and hath also cut off the bread and water from my mouth, and with thee I mourn without the Light. But let's exercise a little more patience, remember how thou playedst the Man at Vanity Fair, and was neither afraid of the chain nor cage, nor yet of bloody Death; wherefore let us (at least to avoid the Shame that becomes not a Christian to be found in) bear up with patience as well as we can.\n\nHopeful comforts him again, by calling former things to remembrance.\n\n**alive was all** Barely alive; **I think ... Swoon** The narrator is not omniscient.\n\nNow night being come again, and the Giant and his wife being in bed, she asked him concerning the prisoners, and if they had taken his counsel: To which he replyed; They are sturdy rogues,\u00b0 they choose rather to bear all hardships, than to make away themselves. Then said she; Take them into the castle-yard to-morrow, and shew them the Bones and Skulls of those that thou hast already dispatch'd, and make them believe e're a week comes to an end, thou also wilt tear them in pieces, as thou hast done their fellows before them.\n\nSo when the morning was come, the Giant goes to them again, and takes them into the castle-yard, and shews them as his wife had bidden him: These, said he, were Pilgrims as you are, once, and they trespassed in my grounds, as you have done; and when I thought fit, I tore them in pieces, and so within ten days I will do you; go, get you down to your Den\u00b0 0 again; and with that he beat them all the way thither. They lay therefore all day on Saturday in a lamentable case, as before. Now, when night was come, and when Mrs. Diffidence and her husband the Giant were got to bed, they began to renew their discourse of their prisoners; and withal, the old Giant wondered that he could neither by his Blows nor Counsel bring them to an end. And with that his wife replied; I fear, said she, that they live in hope that some will come to relieve them, or that they have picklocks about them, by the means of which they hope to escape. And say'st thou so, my dear,\u00b0 said the Giant; I will therefore search them in the morning.\n\nOn Saturday the Giant threatned, that shortly he would pull them in pieces.\n\n**nothing but Fear** Hopeful thinks allegorically; he does not ask whether Christian feels fear, but whether he is Fear; **sturdy rogues** Several commentators note that the English poor law provided for the relief of the incapacitated, but for the punishment of \"sturdy beggars\"; **Den** Prison.\n\nWell, on Saturday about midnight they began to pray, and continued in Prayer till almost break of day.\n\nNow, a little before it was Day, good Christian, as one half amazed, brake out in this passionate speech; What a Fool, quoth he, am I, thus to lie in a stinking dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty? I have a key in my bosom, called Promise, that will I am persuaded open any lock in DoubtingCastle. Then said Hopeful, That's good news, good brother, pluck it out of thy bosom and try.\n\nA Key in Christian's bosom called Promise, opens any lock in Doubting-Castle.\n\nThen Christian pulled it out of his bosom, and began to try at the dungeon door, whose bolt (as he turned the Key) gave back, and the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out. Then he went to the outward door that leads into the castle-yard, and with his key opened that door also. After he went to the Iron Gate, for that must be opened too, but that lock went very hard, yet the Key did open it. Then they thrust open the gate to make their escape with speed; but that gate as it opened made such a creaking, that it waked Giant Despair, who hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail, for his fits took him again, so that he could by no means go after them. Then they went on, and came to the King's Highway again, and so were safe, because they were out of his jurisdiction.\n\nA Pillar erected by Christian and his fellow.\n\n**my dear** Despair and Diffidence are a happy couple, and as such virtually unique in Bunyan's fiction.\n\nNow, when they were gone over the Stile, they began to contrive with themselves what they should do at that Stile, to prevent those that should come after from falling into the hands of Giant Despair. So they consented to erect there a pillar, and to engrave upon the side thereof this sentence; 'Over this Stile is the way to Doubting-Castle, which is kept by Giant Despair, who despiseth the King of the Coelestial Country, and seeks to destroy his holy Pilgrims.' Many therefore that followed after, read what was written, and escaped the danger. This done, they sang as follows:\n\n _Out of the Way we went, and then we found \nWhat 'twas to tread upon forbidden ground. \nAnd let them that come after have a care, \nLest heedlessness makes them as we to fare, \nLest they for trespassing, his Pris'ners are, \nWhose Castle's Doubting, and whose name's Despair_.\n\nMOUNTAINS DELECTABLE THEY NOW ASCEND, \nWHERE SHEPHERDS BE, WHICH TO THEM DO COMMEND \nALLURING THINGS, AND THINGS THAT CAUTIONS ARE, \nPILGRIMS ARE STEADY KEPT, BY FAITH AND FEAR.\n\nThey went then till they came to the Deflectable Mountains;\u00b0 which mountains belong to the Lord of that Hill, of which we have spoken before; so they went up to the mountains, to behold the Gardens and Orchards, the Vineyards, and Fountains of water; where also they drank and washed themselves, and did freely eat of the vineyards. Now there was on the tops of those mountains, Shepherds\u00b0 feeding their Flocks, and they stood by the Highway side. The Pilgrims therefore went to them, and leaning upon their staves, (as is common with weary Pilgrims, when they stand to talk with any by the way) they asked, Whose Delectable Mountains are these? And whose be the Sheep that feed upon them?\n\nThe Delectable Mountains. They are refreshed in the mountains.\n\nTalk with the Shepherds.\n\nShepherd. These mountains are Emmanuel's Land, and they are within sight of his City; and the Sheep also are his, and he laid down his Life for them.\n\nHos.14.9.\n\nJohn 10. m.\n\nChr. Is this the Way to the Coelestial City?\n\nShep. You are just in your Way.\n\nChr. How far is it thither?\n\nShep. Too far for any, but those that shall get thither indeed.\n\nChr. Is the Way safe or dangerous?\n\nShep. Safe for those for whom it is to be safe, but Transgressors shall fall therein.\n\nChr. Is there in this place any Relief, for Pilgrims that are weary, and faint in the Way?\n\n**the Delectable Mountains** See endnote 48 to part one; **Shepherds** Pastors.\n\nShep. The Lord of these mountains hath given us a Charge not to be forgetful to entertain strangers, therefore the Good of the place is even before you.\n\nHeb. 13. i, 2.\n\nI saw also in my dream, That when the Shepherds perceived they were Way-fairing men, they also put questions to them, (to which they made answer as in other places) as, Whence came you? And how got you into the Way? And by what Means have you so persevered therein? For, but few of them that begin to come hither, do shew their face on these mountains. But when the Shepherds heard their answers, being pleased therewith, they looked very lovingly upon them, and said, Welcome to the Delectable Mountains.\n\nThe Shepherds welcome them.\n\nThe Shepherds, I say, whose names were Knowledge, Experience, Watchful, and Sincere, took them by the hand, and had them to their tents, and made them partake of that which was ready at present. They said, moreover, We would that you should stay here a while, to be acquainted with us, and yet more to solace yourselves with the good of these Delectable Mountains. They then told them, That they were content to stay; so they went to their Rest that night, because it was very late.\n\nThe names of the Shepherds.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That in the morning the Shepherds called up Christian and Hopeful to walk with them upon the Mountains: So they went forth with them, and walked a while, having a pleasant prospect on every side. Then said the Shepherds one to another, Shall we shew these Pilgrims some Wonders?* So when they had concluded to do it, they had them first to the Top of an Hill, called Error, which was very steep on the furthest side, and bid them look down to the bottom. So Christian and Hopeful looked down, and saw at the bottom several men dashed all to pieces by a Fall that they had from the top. Then said Christian, What meaneth this? The Shepherds answered, Have you not heard of them that were made to err, by hearkning to Hymeneus and Philetus, as concerning the Faith of the Resurrection of the body? They answered, Yes. Then said the Shepherds, Those that you see lie dashed in pieces at the bottom of this mountain are they; and they have continued to this day unburied, (as you see) for an Example for others to take heed how they clamber too high, or how they come too near to the brink of this Mountain.\n\nThey are shewn wonders. The Mountain of Error.\n\n2 Tim. 2. 17, 18.\n\n**Wonders** Signs.\n\nThen I saw that they had them to the top of another mountain, and the name of that is Caution, and bid them look afar off: Which when they did, they perceived, as they thought, several men walking up and down among the Tombs that were there: And they perceived that the men were blind, because they stumbled sometimes upon the Tombs, and because they could not get out from among them. Then said Christian, What means this?\n\nMount Caution.\n\nThe Shepherds then answered, Did you not see a little below these mountains a Stile that led into a Meadow, on the left hand of this Way? They answered, Yes. Then said the Shepherds, From that Stile there goes a path that leads directly to Doubting-Castle, which is kept by Giant Despair, and these men (pointing to them among the Tombs) came once on Pilgrimage, as you do now, even till they came to that same Stile. And because the right Way was rough in that place, they chose to go out of it into that Meadow, and there were taken by Giant Despair, and cast into Doubting-Castle; where, after they had a while been kept in the Dungeon, he at last did put out their Eyes, and led them among those Tombs, where he has left them to wander to this very day, that the saying of the Wise Man\u00b0 might be fulfilled, He that wandereth out of the Way of Understanding, shall remain in the Congregation of the Dead. Then Christian and Hopeful looked one upon another, with tears gushing out, but yet said nothing to the Shepherds.\" 0\n\nProvo 21. 16.\n\n**the Wise Man** Solomon, reputed author of the book of Proverbs; **said nothing to the Shepherds** According to Offor, Bunyan's purpose here is \"probably to guard pilgrims against the Popish doctrine of auricular confession\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 145); **bottom** Valley.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That the Shepherds had them to another place in a bottom,\u00b0 where was a door in the side of an Hill, and they opened the door, and bid them look in: They looked in therefore, and saw that within it was very dark and smoky; they also thought that they heard there a rumbling noise, as of fire, and a Cry of some tormented, and that they smelt the scent of brimstone. Then said Christian, What means this? The Shepherds told them, This is a by-way to Hell, a way that Hypocrites\u00b0 go in at; namely, such as sell their Birth-right with Esau; such as sell their Master, with Judas; such as blaspheme the Gospel, with Alexander; and that Lie and dissemble, with Ananias and Sapphira his wife.\n\nA By-way to Hell.\n\nThen said Hopeful to the Shepherds, I perceive that these had on them, even every one, a shew of Pilgrimage, as we have now, had they not?\n\nShep. Yes, and held it a long time too.\n\nHope. How far might they go on Pilgrimage in their day, since they notwithstanding were thus miserably cast away.\n\nShep. Some further, and some not so far as these Mountains. Then said the Pilgrims one to another, We had need cry to the Strong for strength.\n\nShep. Ay, and you will have need to use it, when you have it, too.\n\nBy this time the Pilgrims had a desire to go forwards, and the Shepherds a desire they should; so they walked together towards the end of the mountains. Then said the Shepherds one to another, Let us here shew to the Pilgrims the Gates of the Coelestial City, if they have skill to look through our Perspective-Glass.\u00b0 The Pilgrims then lovingly accepted the motion: So they had them to the top of an high hill, called Clear, and gave them the Glass to look.\n\nThe Shepherds PerspectiveGlass.\n\nThe hill Clear.\n\nThen they essayed\u00b0 to look, but the Remembrance of that last thing that the Shepherds had shewed them, made their hands shake; by means of which impediment, they could not look steadily through the Glass; yet they thought they saw something like the Gate, and also some of the Glory of the place. Then they went away and sang this song:\n\n **Hypocrites** Greek for \"actors,\" always used pejoratively in the New Testament ; **Alexander** In 1 Timothy 1:20, Paul refers to him among former disciples \"whom I have delivered unto Satan, that they may learn not to blaspheme\" (KJV); shew Appearance; **Perspective-Glass** Telescope; **essayed** Attempted.\n\n_Thus by the Shepherds Secrets are reveal'd, \nWhich from all other men are kept conceal'd: \nCome to the Shepherds then, if you would see \nThings deep, Things hid, and that Mysterious be._\n\nThe fruits of Servile Fear.\n\nWhen they were about to depart, one of the Shepherds gave them a Note of the Way. Another of them bid them Beware of the Flatterer. The third bid them Take Heed that they sleep not upon the Inchanted Ground. And the fourth bid them God Speed. So I awoke from my Dream.\n\nA two-fold Caution.\n\nAnd I slept, and dreamed again, and saw the same two Pilgrims going down the mountains along the highway towards the City. Now a little below these mountains on the Left Hand,\u00b0 lieth the country of Conceit; from which country there comes into the Way in which the Pilgrims walked, a little crooked lane. Here therefore, they met with a very brisk' lad, that came out of that country; and his name was Ignorance. So Christian asked him From what Parts he came, and whither he was going.\n\nThe country of Conceit, out of which came Ignorance.\n\nIgnor. Sir, I was born in the country that lieth off there, a little on the Left Hand, and am going to the Coelestial City.\n\nChr. But how do you think to get in at the Gate? for you may find some difficulty there.\n\nChristian and Ignorance have some talk together.\n\nIgnor. As other good people do, said he.\n\nChr. But what have you to shew at that Gate, that the Gate should be opened to you?\n\nIgnor. I know my Lord's Will, and have been a good liver; I pay every man his own; I Pray, Fast, pay Tithes, and give Alms, and have left my country, for whither I am going.\n\nThe Grounds of Ignorance's Hope.\n\n**brisk** Lively, showy. Recalling, in Grace Abounding, his period of merely formal, hypocritical religion, Bunyan describes himself as \"a brisk talker ... in the matters of religion\" (p. 14).\n\nChr. But thou camest not in at the Wicket-Gate that is at the Head of this Way; thou camest in hither through that same crooked lane, and therefore I fear, however thou mayest think of thyself, when the reckoning-day shall come, thou wilt have laid to thy charge, that thou art a Thief and a Robber, instead of getting admittance into the City.\n\nIgnor. Gentlemen, ye be utter Strangers to me, I know you not; be content to follow the Religion of your country, and I will follow the Religion of mine. I hope all will be well; and as for the Gate that you talk of, all the world knows that that is a great way off our Country; I cannot think that any men in all our parts, do so much as know the way to it; nor need they matter whether they do or no, since we have, as you see, a fine pleasant green lane, that comes down from our country the next way into it.\n\nHe telleth every one he is but a Fool.\n\nWhen Christian saw that the man was wise in his own conceit,\u00b0 he said to Hopeful whisperingly, There is more hopes of a Fool than of him. And said moreover, When he that is a Fool walketh by the Way, his wisdom faileth him, and he saith to every one, that he is a Fool. What, shall we talk further with him, or out-go him at present, and so leave him to think of what he hath heard already; and then stop again for him af terwards, and see if by Degrees we can do any good of him? Then said Hopeful,\n\n _Let Ignorance a little while now muse \nOn what is said, and let him not refuse \nGood Counsel to embrace, lest he remain \nStill ignorant of what's the chiefest Gain. \nGod saith, Those that no Understanding have, \n(Altho' he made them) them he will not save_.\n\nProvo 26.13. Eccles. 10. 3. How to carry it to a Fool.\n\nHope. He further added, It is not good, I think, to say all to him at once; let us pass him by, if you will, and talk to him anon,\u00b0 even as he is able to bear it.\n\n**wise in his own conceit** Ignorance is considered wise in his home town of Conceit; **anon** Immediately.\n\nSo they both went on, and Ignorance he came after. Now when they had passed him a little way, they entered into a very dark lane, where they met a man whom seven devils had bound with seven strong cords, and were carrying of him back to the door that they saw on the side of the Hill: Now good Christian began to tremble, and so did Hopeful his companion : Yet, as the devils led away the man, Christian looked to see if he knew him; and he thought it might be one Turn-away that dwelt in the town of Apostasy.\u00b0 But he did not perfectly see his face; for he did hang his head like a thief that is found. But being gone past, Hopeful looked after him, and espied on his back a paper, with this inscription, Wanton Professor,\u00b0 and damnable Apostate. Then said Christian to his fellow, Now I call to remembrance that which was told me, of a thing that happened to a good man hereabout. The name of the man was Little-Faith, but a good man, and he dwelt in the town of Sincere. The thing was this: At the entering in of this passage, there comes down from Broad-way-gate, a lane called Deadman's -lane; so called, because of the Murders that are commonly done there: And this Little-Faith going on Pilgrimage, as we do now, chanced to sit down there and slept: Now there happened at that time to come down that Lane from Broadway-gate, three sturdy Rogues, and their names were Faintheart, Mistrust, and Guilt, (three brothers) and they espying Little-Faith where he was, came galloping up with speed: Now the good man was just awakened from his sleep, and was getting up to go on his Journey. So they came up all to him, and with threatning language bid him stand.\u00b0 At this Little-Faith looked as white as a clout,\u00b0 and had neither power to fight nor fly. Then said Faint-Heart, Deliver thy purse; but he making no haste to do it, (for he was loth to lose his Money) Mistrust ran up to him, and thrusting his hand into his pocket, pull'd out thence a bag of silver. Then he cried out, Thieves, thieves.\n\nMatt.12. 45. Prov. 5. 22.\n\nThe Destruction of one Turn-away.\n\nChristian telleth his companion a story of Little-Faith.\n\nBroad-way-gate. Dead-man's-lane.\n\nLittle-Faith robbed by Faint-Heart, Mistrust, and Guilt.\n\nThey got away his Silver and knocked him down.\n\n**Apostas** y To commit apostasy\u2014to turn away from true religion having once known it\u2014is worse than ignorance; **Wanton Professor** Wayward religious man; **stand** Freeze, as in the highwayman's demand: \"Stand and deliver\" ; **clout** Either \"cloud\" or \"cloth.\"\n\nWith that Guilt, with a great club that was in his hand, struck Little-Faith on the head, and with that blow fell'd him flat to the ground; where he lay bleeding as one that would bleed to death. All this while, the Thieves stood by: But at last, they hearing that some were upon the road, and fearing lest it should be one Great Grace,\u00b0 that dwells in the city of GoodConfidence, they betook themselves to their heels, and left this good man to shift\u00b0 for himself. Now after a while, Little-Faith came to himself, and getting up, made shift\" to scrabble on his Way. This was the story.\n\nHope. But did they take from him all that ever he had?\n\nChr. No: The place where his Jewels were, they never ransack' d ; so those he kept still: But, as I was told, the good man was much afflicted for his loss; for the thieves got most of his spending-money. That which they got not, (as I said) were Jewels; also he had a little odd money left, but scarce enough to bring him to his Journey's end; nay, (if I was not misinformed,) he was forced to beg as he went, to keep himself alive; for his Jewels he might not sell:\u00b0 But beg and do what he could, he went (as we say) with many a hungry belly, the most part of the rest of the Way.\n\nLittle-Faith lost not his best things.\n\n1 Pet. 4.18.\n\nLittle-Faith forced to beg to his Journey's end.\n\nHope. But is it not a wonder they got not from him his Certificate,\u00b0 by which he was to receive his admittance at the Coelestial Gate?\n\nChr. 'No,' ('tis a wonder) but they got not that; though they missed it not through any good cunning of his: for he being dismay'd with their coming upon him, had neither power nor skill to hide any thing, so 'twas more by good Providence than by his Endeavour, that they miss'd of that good thing.\n\nHope. But it must needs be a Comfort to him, that they got not this Jewel from him.\n\n['No' only in ist edit.]\n\nHe kept not his best things by his own Cunning. 2 Tim. 1. 14. 2 Pet. 2. 9.\n\nChr. It might have been great comfort to him, had he used it as he should: But they that told me the story, said, that he made but little use of it all the rest of the Way; and that because of the Dismay that he had in their taking away of his money: Indeed he forgot it a great part of the rest of his Journey; and besides when, at any time it came into his mind, and he began to be comforted therewith, then would fresh thoughts of his Loss come again upon him, and those thoughts would swallow up all.\n\n**Great Grace** Even a little faith will be rewarded by God's freely given grace; shift Care; **made shift** Managed; **he might not sell** Faith can be neither earned nor lost by human effort, only granted by God; **his Certificate** Of election.\n\nHope. Alas, poor man! This could not but be a great grief unto him!\n\nHe is pitied by both.\n\nChr. Grief! Ay, a grief indeed. Would it not have been so to any of us, had we been used as he, to be robbed and wounded too, and that in a strange place, as he was? 'Tis a wonder he did not die with grief, poor heart; I was told that he scattered almost all the rest of the Way with nothing but doleful and bitter complaints: Telling also to all that overtook him, or that he overtook in the Way as he went, where he was robbed, and how; who they were that did it, and what he lost; how he was wounded, and that he hardly escaped with his life.\n\nHope. But 'tis a wonder that his Necessities did not put him upon selling or pawning some of his Jewels, that he might have wherewith to relieve himself in his Journey.\n\nChr. Thou talkest like one upon whose head is the Shell\u00b0 to this very day: For What should he Pawn them? or to whom should he sell them? In all that country where he was robbed, his Jewels were not accounted of; nor did he want that Relief which could from thence be administered to him; besides, had his Jewels been missing at the Gate of the Celestial City, he had (and that he knew well enough) been excluded from an Inheritance there, and that would have been worse to him than the appearance and villany of ten thousand thieves.\n\nChristian snubs his fellow for unadvised speaking.\n\nHope. Why art thou so tart,\u00b0 my brother; Esau sold his birth-right, and that for a mess of pottage, and that birthright was his greatest Jewel; and if he, why might not LittleFaith do so too?\n\nHeb. i2. i6.\n\nChr. Esau did sell his birth-right indeed, and so do many\n\nA discourse about Esau and Little-Faith.\n\n**whose head is the Shell** Hard-headed, stubborn; also hiding one's head like a snail, hence blind, and also extremely youthful and naive, like a baby bird emerging from the shell; **tart** Sharp.\n\nbesides, and by so doing exclude themselves from the chief blessing, as also that caitiff did; but you must put a difference betwixt Esau and Little-Faith, and also betwixt their estates. Esau's birth-right was Typical, but Little-Faith's Jewels were not so. Esau's belly was his God, but Little-Faith's belly was not so. Esau's Want lay in his appetite, Little-Faith's did not so: Besides, Esau could see no further than to the fulfilling of his Lusts; For I am at the point to die, said he, and what good will this birth-right do me? But Little-Faith, though it was his lot to have but a little faith, was by his little faith\u00b0 kept from such extravagancies, and made to see and prize his Jewels more, than to sell them as Esau did his birth-right. You read not any where that Esau had Faith, no, not so much as a little; therefore no marvel if where the Flesh only bears sway, (as it will in that man where no faith is to resist) if he sells his birth-right, and his Soul and all, and that to the Devil of Hell;\u00b0 for it is with such, as it is with the ass, who in her occasions cannot be turned away. When their minds are set upon their lusts, they will have them, whatever they cost; but LittleFaith was of another temper, his mind was on things Divine; his livelihood\u00b0 was upon things that were Spiritual and from above; therefore, to what end should he that is of such a temper, sell his Jewels, (had there been any that would have bought them) to fill his mind with empty things? Will a man give a penny to fill his belly with Hay? or can you persuade the turtle-dove to live upon carrion like the crow?\u00b0 Though faithless ones can for carnal lusts, pawn, or mortgage, or sell what they have, and themselves outright to boot; yet they that have Faith, Saving faith, though but a little of it, cannot do so. Here therefore, my brother, is thy mistake.\n\nEsau was ruled by his Lusts. Gen. 25. 32.\n\nEsau never had Faith.\n\nJer.2.24.\n\nLittle-Faith could not live upon Esau's cottage.\n\nA comparison between the turtle-dove and the crow.\n\nHope. I acknowledge it; but yet your severe Reflexion had almost made me angry.\n\n**caitiff** Rogue; **Typical** Symbolic; **by his little faith** The person is separated from his allegorical qualities; **the Devil of Hell** The Faust legend was a powerful, popular myth in seventeenth-century England; **livelihood** What he needed to live; **turtle-dove ... crow** The elect and the reprobate are different species.\n\nChr. Why, I did but compare thee to some of the birds that are of the brisker sort, who will run to and fro in trodden paths with the shell upon their heads:\u00b0 But pass by that, and consider the matter under debate, and all shall be well betwixt thee and me.\n\nHope. But, Christian, these three fellows, I am persuaded in my heart, are but a company of Cowards: Would they have run else, think you, as they did, at the noise of one that was coming on the road? Why did not Little-Faith pluck up a greater heart? He might, methinks, have stood one brush\u00b0 \u00b0 with them, and have yielded when there had been no Remedy.\n\nHopeful swaggers.\n\nChr. That they are Cowards, many have said, but few have found it so in the time of Trial. As for a great heart,\u00b0 LittleFaith had none; and I perceive by thee, my brother, hadst thou been the man concerned, thou art but for a brush, and then to yield. And verily, since this is the height of thy stomarch,\" now they are at a distance from us, should they appear to thee, as they did to him, they might put thee to second thoughts.\n\nNo great heart for God where there is but little Faith.\n\nWe have more Courage when out, than when we are in.\n\nBut consider again, they are but journey-men thieves,\u00b0 they serve under the King of the bottomless Pit; who, if need be, will come in to their aid himself, and his voice is as the Roaring of a Lion. I myself have been engaged as this LittleFaith was, and I found it a terrible thing. These three villains set upon me, and I beginning like a Christian to resist, they gave but a call, and in came their Master; I would (as the saying is), have given my life for a penny;\" but that, as God would have it, I was cloathed with Armour of Proof.\u00b0 Ay, and yet, though I was so harnessed, I found it hard work to quit myself like a Man; no man can tell what in that combat attends us, but he that hath been in the Battle himself.\n\nPsal. 5. 8. [Provo 28.15?] J Christian tells his own Experience in this case.\n\n**birds ... with the shell upon their heads** Like a newborn bird; see the footnote to \"whose head is the Shell\" on page 145; **brush** Bout; **a great heart** This is rectified in the second part of The Pilgrim's Progress, where \"Great-heart\" is a character; **stomach** Courage; **but journey-men thieves** Only hired thieves; my life for a penny He was tempted to \"sell\" himself; **Armour of Proof** Impenetrable armor.\n\nHope. Well, but they ran, you see, when they did but suppose that one Great-Grace was in the way\n\nChr. True, they have often fled, both they and their Master, when Great-Grace hath but appeared; and no marvel, for he is the King's Champion: But I tro,\u00b0 you will put some difference between Little-Faith and the King's Champion. All the King's subjects are not his Champions, nor can they, when tried, do such feats of War as he. Is it meet to think, that a little child should handle Goliah as David did? Or, that there should be the strength of an ox in a wren? Some are strong, some are weak; some have great Faith, some have little; this man was one of the weak, and therefore he went to the walls. \u00b0\n\nThe King's Champion.\n\nHope. I would it had been Great-Grace for their sakes.\n\nChr. If it had been he, he might have had his hands full: For I must tell you, that though Great-Grace is excellent good at his weapons, and has and can, so long as he keeps them at sword's point, do well enough with them; yet, if they get within him, even Faint-heart, Mistrust, or the other, it shall go hard, but they will throw up his heels. And when a man is down, you know, what can he do?*\n\nWhoso looks well upon Great-Grace's face, shall see those scars and cuts there, that shall easily give demonstration of what I say. Yea, once I heard he should say, (and that when he was in the combat) We despaired even of Life. How did these sturdy rogues and their fellows make David groan, mourn, and roar? Yea, Heman\u00b0 and Hezekiah' too, though Champions in their day, were forced to bestir them,\u00b0 when by these assaulted ; and yet notwithstanding they had their Coats soundly brushed\u00b0 by them. Peter, upon a time, would go try what he could do; but though some do say of him, that he is the Prince of the Apostles, they handled him so, that they made him at last afraid of a sorry Girl.\u00b0\n\n**tro** Believe; **went to the walls** Pews for the sick and infirm were placed along the walls of churches, hence the saying \"the weakest go to the wall\"; **throw up his heels** Knock him over; **And when ... what can he do** At times Bunyan's colloquial style sounds startlingly contemporary; Heman A follower of David, mentioned in 1 Chronicles 25:1; **Hezekiah** King of Judah, described in 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles as an iconoclastic reformer and successful warrior ; **to bestir them** To exert themselves; **brushed** Beaten.\n\nBesides, their King is at their whistle;\u00b0 he is never out of hearing; and if at any time they be put to the worst, he, if possible,\" comes in to help them: And of him it is said, The Sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold; the Spear, the Dart, nor the Habergeon; \u00b0 he esteemeth Iron as Straw, and Brass as rotten Wood. The Arrow cannot make him fly; Sling-stones are turned, with him, into stubble; Darts are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a Spear. What can a man do in this case? 'Tis true, if a man could at every turn have Job's horse, and had Skill and Courage to ride him, he might do notable things. For his neck is clothed with Thunder; he will not be afraid as the grass-hopper; the Glory of his nostrils is terrible; he paweth in the Valley, rejoyceth in his Strength, and goeth out to meet the Armed Men. He mocketh at Fear, and is not affrighted, neither turneth back from the Sword. The Quiver rattleth against him, the glittering Spear, and the Shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage, neither believeth he that it is the sound of the Trumpet. He saith among the Trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the Battle afar off, the Thundering of the captains and the Shoutings.\n\nJob 41. 26. Leviathan's sturdiness.\n\nJob 39. i9. The excellent mettle that is in Job's horse.\n\nBut for such footmen\u00b0 as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an Enemy, nor vaunt' as if we could do better, when we hear of others that they have been foiled, nor be tickled at the thoughts of our own Manhood, for such commonly come by the worst when tried. Witness Peter, of whom I made mention before; he would swagger, ay, he would; he would, as his vain mind prompted him to say, do better, and stand more for his Master than all men; but, who so foiled and run down by these villains as he?\n\nWhen therefore we hear that such Robberies are done on the King's Highway, two things become us to do: First, to go out harnessed, and to be sure to take a Shield with us; for it was for want of that, that he that laid so lustily at Leviathan could not make him yield; for indeed, if that be wanting, he fears us not at all. Therefore, he that had Skill, hath said, Above all, take the Shield of Faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery Darts of the Wicked.\n\n**a sorry Girl** In Matthew 26 Peter denies being a follower of Jesus when he is accused by a serving maid; **at their whistle** He will come when they call him; **if possible** That is, if God permits it; **Habergeon** Coat of chain mail; **footmen** Foot soldiers, but also servants and travelers; vaunt Boast.\n\nEph. 6. i6.\n\n'Tis good also that we desire of the King a Convoy, yea that he will go with us himself. This made David rejoyce when in the valley of the Shadow of Death; and Moses was rather for dying where he stood, than to go one Step without his God. 0, my brother, if he will but go along with us, what need we be afraid of ten thousands that shall set themselves against us? but without him, the proud Helpers fall under the Slain.\n\n'Tis good to have a Convoy.\n\nExod. 33. 1i5.\n\nPsal. 3. 5, 6, 7, 8.&27.1,2, 3.\n\nI, for my part, have been in the fray before now; and though (through the Goodness of him that is best) I am, as you see, alive, yet I cannot boast of my manhood. Glad shall I be, if I meet with no more such brunts;\u00b0 though I fear we are not got beyond all danger. However, since the Lion and the Bear have not as yet devoured me, I hope God will also deliver us from the next uncircumcised Philistine. Then sang Christian:\n\n _Poor Little-Faith! Hast been among the Thieves? \nWast robb'd? Remember this; Whoso believes, \nAnd gets more Faith, shall then a Victor be \nOver ten thousand; else scarce over three_.\n\nIsa. 10.4.\n\nSo they went on, and Ignorance followed. They went then till they came at a place where they saw a way put itself into their Way, and seemed withal to lie as strait as the Way which they should go; and here they knew not which of the two to take, for both seemed strait before them; therefore here they stood still to consider. And as they were thinking about the Way, behold a man black of Flesh, but covered with a very light Robe came to them, and asked them why they stood there? They answered, They were going to the Coelestial City, but knew not which of these Ways to take. Follow me, said the man, it is thither that I am going. So they followed him in the Way that but now came into the road, which by Degrees turned, and turned them so from the City, that they desired to go to, that in a little time their faces were turned away from it; yet they followed him. But, by and by, before they were aware, he led them both within the compass of a Net, in which they were both so entangled, that they knew not what to do; and with that, the White robe fell off the black man's back: Then they saw where they were. Wherefore there they lay crying some time, for they could not get themselves out.\n\nA way and a Way.\n\nThe Flatterer finds them.\n\n**Convoy** Escort; **brunts** Blows.\n\nChristian and his fellow deluded.\n\nThey are taken in a Net.\n\nChr. Then said Christian to his fellow, Now do I see myself in an Error. Did not the Shepherds bid us beware of the Flatterers ? As is the saying of the Wise Man, so we have found it this day: A man that f lattereth his neighbour, spreadeth a Net for his feet.\n\nThey bewail their condition.\n\nProvo 29. 5.\n\nHope. They also gave us a Note of Directions about the Way, for our more sure finding thereof; but therein we have also forgotten to read, and have not kept ourselves from the paths of the Destroyer. Here David was wiser than we; for, saith he, Concerning the works of men, by the Word of thy Lips, I have kept me from the paths of the Destroyer. Thus they lay bewailing themselves in the Net. At last they espied a Shining One\u00b0 coming toward them with a Whip of small cord in his hand. When he was come to the place where they were, he asked them whence they came, and what they did there. They told him, that they were poor Pilgrims going to Zion, but were led out of their Way by a black man, cloathed in white, who bid us, said they, follow him, for he was going thither too. Then said he with the Whip, It is Flatterer, a false Apostle, that hath transformed himself into an Angel of Light. So he rent\" the Net, and let the men out. Then said he to them, Follow me, that I may set you in your Way again; so he led them back to the Way which they had left to follow the Flatterer. Then he asked them, saying, Where did you lie the last night? They said, With the Shepherds, upon the Delectable Mountains. He asked them then, If they had not of those Shepherds a note of direction for the Way? They answered, Yes. But, did you, said he, when you were at a stand, pluck out and read your Note? They answered, No. He asked them, Why? They said, They forgot. He asked moreover, If the Shepherds did not bid them beware of the Flatterer? They answered, Yes. But we did not imagine, said they, that this fine-spoken man\u00b0 had been he.\n\nPsal. 17. 4.\n\nA Shining One comes to them with a Whip in his hand.\n\nProv. 29. 5. Dan. 11.32. 2 Cor. 11. 13, 14.\n\n**a Shining One** Either an angel or a glorified soul; **an Angel of Light** Satan too can appear as such according to Paul (2 Corinthians 11:14); **rent** Tore.\n\nThey are examined, and convicted of Forgetfulness. Deceivers fine spoken. Rom. 6. 18. Deut. 25. 2. 2Chron.6. 26,27.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That he commanded them to lie down; which when they did, he chastized them sore, to teach them the good Way wherein they should walk: And as he chastized them, he said, As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten, be zealous, therefore, and repent. This done, he bids them go on their Way, and take good heed to the other directions of the Shepherds. So they thanked him for all his Kindness, and went softly along the right Way, singing;\n\n _Come hither, you that walk along the Way, \nSee how the Pilgrims fare, that go astray: \nThey catched are in an intangling Net, \n'Cause they good Counsel lightly did forget: \n'Tis true, they rescu'd were, but yet you see \nThey're scourg'd to boot: Let this your Caution be_.\n\nRev. 3.19.\n\nThey are whipt and sent on their Way.\n\nNow, after a while, they perceived afar off, one coming softly, and alone, all along the highway to meet them. Then said Christian to his fellow, Yonder is a man with his back toward Zion, and he is coming to meet us.\n\nHope. I see him, let us take heed to ourselves now, lest he should prove a Flatterer also. So he drew nearer and nearer, and at last came up unto them. His name was Atheist, and he asked them whither they were going.\n\nThe Atheist meets them.\n\nChr. We are going to the Mount Zion.\n\n**this fine-spoken man** The Flatterer confirms his identity in the act of concealing it.\n\nThen Atheist fell into a very great Laughter.\n\nChr. What is the meaning of your laughter?\n\nHe laughs at them.\n\nAtheist. I laugh to see what ignorant\u00b0 persons you are, to take upon you so tedious a journey, and yet are like to have nothing but your Travel' for your pains.\n\nChr. Why, man? Do you think we shall not be received?\n\nAtheist. Received! There is no such place as you dream of in all this World.\n\nThey reason together.\n\nChr. But there is in the World to come.\n\nAtheist. When I was at home in mine own country, I heard as you now affirm, and from that hearing went out to see, and have been seeking this City these twenty years, but find no more of it than I did the first day I set out.\n\nJer. 22. 13. Eccl. 10.15.\n\nChr. We have both heard, and believe that there is such a place to be found.\n\nAtheist. Had not I, when at home, believed, I had not come thus far to seek: but finding none, (and yet I should, had there been such a place to be found, for I have gone to seek it further than you)\u00b0 I am going back again, and will seek to refresh myself with the things that I then cast away, for hopes of that which I now see is not.\n\nChr. Then said Christian to Hopeful, his fellow, Is it true which this man hath said?\n\nThe Atheist takes up his content in this World. Christian proveth his brother. Hopeful's gracious Answer. 2 Cor. 5. 7.\n\nHope. Take heed, he is one of the Flatterers; remember what it hath cost us once already for our hearkening to such kind of fellows. What! No Mount Zion? Did we not see' from the Delectable Mountains, the Gate of the City? Also, are we not now to walk by Faith? Let us go on, said Hopeful, lest the man with the Whip overtake us again.\n\nRemembrance of former Chastisements, is a Help against present Temptations.\n\nYou should have taught me that Lesson, which I will round you in the ears withal: Cease, my Son, to hear the Instruction that causeth to err from the Words of Knowledge: I say, my brother, cease to hear him, and let us Believe to the saving of the soul.\n\nProv. i9. 27. Heb. io. 39.\n\n**ignorant** Atheist considers himself learned\u2014he espouses the materialist worldview of Baconian empiricism; **Travel** With a pun on \"travail\" (labor); **I have ... you** Atheist is aware only of the world of experience; **Did we not see** The pilgrims experience the world as an allegory.\n\nChr. My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the Truth of our belief myself, but to prove\u00b0 thee, and to fetch from thee a Fruit of the honesty of thy heart. As for this man, I know that he is blinded by the God of this world. Let thee and I go on, knowing that we have belief of the Truth, and no Lie is of the truth.\n\nThe Fruit of an honest heart.\n\n1 John 2.11, 21.\n\nHope. Now do I rejoice in hope of the Glory of God: So they turned away from the man; and he laughing at them, went his way.\n\nI saw then in my dream, that they went till they came into a certain Country, whose air naturally tended to make one drowzy, if he came a Stranger into it. And here Hopeful began to be very dull and heavy of sleep; wherefore he said unto Christian, I do now begin to grow so drowzy, that I can scarcely hold up mine eyes: Let us lie down here, and take one nap.\n\nThey are come to the Enchanted ground. Hopeful begins to be drowzy.\n\nChr. By no means, (said the other) lest sleeping we never awake more.\n\nChristian keeps him awake. 1. Thes. 5. 6.\n\nHope. Why, my brother? Sleep is sweet to the labouring man; we may be refreshed if we take a nap.\n\nChr. Do you not remember, that one of the Shepherds bid us beware of the Enchanted ground?\u00b0 He meant by that, that we should beware of Sleeping; wherefore let us not sleep as do others; but let us watch and be sober.\n\nHope. I acknowledge myself in fault; and had I been here alone, I had by sleeping run the danger of Death. I see it is true, that the Wise Man saith, Two are better than one. Hitherto hath thy company been my mercy; And thou shalt have a good reward for thy labour.\n\nHe is thankful.\n\nEccl. 4. 9.\n\nChr. Now then, said Christian, to prevent drowziness in this place, let us fall into good discourse.\n\nHope. With all my heart, said the other.\n\nChr. Where shall we begin?\n\nHope. Where God began with us, but do you begin if you please.\n\nTo prevent Drowziness they fall to good discourse. Good discourse preventeth drowziness.\n\n**prove** Test; **the God of this world** Satan; **the Enchanted ground** Offor cites a note from T. Scott's edition ( 1797): \"The Enchanted Ground may represent worldly prosperity\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 153).\n\nChr. I will sing you first this song.\n\n _When Saints do sleepy grow, let them come hither, \nAnd hear how these two Pilgrims talk together, \nYea, let them learn of them in any wise \nThus to keep ope' their drowzy slumb'ring eyes; \nSaints Fellowship if it be manag'd well, \nKeeps them awake, and that in spite of Hell_.\n\nThe dreamer's note.\n\nChr. Then Christian began, and said, I will ask you a question. How came you to think at first of doing as you do now?\n\nHope. Do you mean, how came I at first to look after the Good of my Soul\n\nThey begin at the beginning of their Conversion.\n\nChr. Yes, that is my meaning.\n\nHope. I continued a great while in the delight of those things which were seen and sold at our Fair; things which I believe now would have (had I continued in them still) drowned me in perdition and destruction.\n\nChr. What things were they?\n\nHope. All the treasures and riches of the World. Also I delighted much in rioting, revelling, drinking, swearing, lying, uncleanness, sabbath-breaking, and what not, that tended to destroy the Soul. But I found at last, by hearing and considering of things that are Divine, which indeed I heard of you, as also of beloved Faithful, that was put to death for his faith and good living in Yanity-Fair, That the end of these things is Death. And that for these things sake, the wrath of God cometh upon the children of disobedience.\n\nHopeful's life before Conversion.\n\nRom. 6. 21,\n\n22,23.\n\nEph. 5. 6.\n\nChr. And did you presently* fall under the power of this conviction?\n\nHope. No, I was not willing presently to know the Evil of Sin, nor the Damnation that follows upon the commission of it; but endeavoured, when my mind at first began to be shaken with the Word, to shut mine eyes against the light thereof.\n\nHopeful at first shuts his eyes against the Light.\n\n**the end of these things is Death** Everything earthy is transient, thus unreal, and to take it for reality is sinful; **presently** Both \"currently\" and \"immediately.\"\n\nChr. But what was the Cause of your carrying of it thus to the first workings of God's blessed Spirit upon you?\n\nHope. The causes were, i. 1 was ignorant that this was the work of God upon me. I never thought that by awakenings for Sin, God at first begins the Conversion of a Sinner. 2. Sin was yet very sweet to my Flesh, and I was loth to leave it. 3. I could not tell how to part with mine old Companions, their presence and actions were so desirable unto me. 4. The hours in which Convictions were upon me, were such troublesome and such Heart-affrighting hours, that I could not bear, no not so much as the Remembrance of them upon my heart.\n\nReasons of his resisting the Light.\n\nChr. Then, as it seems, sometimes you got rid of your Trouble.\n\nHope. Yes, verily, but it would come into my mind again, and then I should be as bad, nay worse than I was before.\n\nChr. Why, what was it that brought your Sins to mind again?\n\nHope. Many things; as,\n\n1. If I did but meet a Good man in the streets; or,\n\n2. . If I have heard any read in the Bible; or,\n\n3. If mine head did begin to ache; or,\n\n4. If I were told that some of my neighbours were sick; or,\n\n5. If I heard the bell toll for some that were dead, or,\n\n6. If I thought of Dying myself; or,\n\n7. If I heard that sudden Death happened to others.\n\n8. But especially when I thought of myself, that I must quickly come to Judgment.\n\nWhen he had lost his Sense of Sin, what brought it again.\n\nChr. And could you at any time, with ease, get off the Guilt of Sin, when by any of these ways it came upon you?\n\nHope. No, not latterly;' for then they got faster hold of my Conscience; and then, if I did but think of going back to Sin, (though my mind was turned against it) it would be double Torment to me.\n\n**latterly** Toward the end.\n\nChr. And how did you do then?\n\nHope. I thought I must endeavour to mend my Life; for else, thought I, I am sure to be damned.\n\nChr. And did you endeavour to mend?\n\nHope. Yes; and fled from, not only my Sins, but sinful company too, and betook me to religious duties; as Praying, Reading, weeping for Sin, speaking Truth to my neighbours, e'rc. These things I did, with many others, too much here to relate.\n\nChr. And did you think yourself well then?\n\nWhen he could no longer shake off his Guilt by sinful courses, then he endeavours to mend.\n\nHope. Yes, for a while;\u00b0 but at the last my Trouble came tumbling upon me again, and that over the neck of all my ref ormations.\u00b0\n\nThen he thought himself _well._\n\nChr. How came that about, since you were now reformed?\n\nHope. There were several things brought it upon me, especially such sayings as these: All our _Righteousnesses are as filthy_ rags. By the Works of the Law, no man _shall_ be justified. When ye have done _all_ things, say, We _are_ unprofitable: With many more such like. From whence I began to reason with myself thus: If all my Righteousnesses are filthy rags; if by the Deeds of the Law no man can be justified; and if when we have done _all_ we are yet unprofitable, then 'tis but a folly to think of Heaven by the Law. I further thought thus: If a man runs a hundred pounds into the shop-keeper's Debt, and after that shall pay for all that he shall fetch; yet his old Debt stands still in the Book uncross'd, for the which the shop-keeper may sue him, and cast him into Prison, till he shall pay the debt.\n\nReformation at last could not help, and why.\n\nIsa. 64. 6. Gal. 2. 16. Luke 17. 10.\n\nHis being a Debtor by the Law troubled him.\n\nChr. Well, and how did you apply this to yourself?\n\nHope. Why, I thought thus with myself; I have by my Sins run a great way into GOD's Book,\u00b0 and that my now Reforming will not pay off that score;* therefore I should think still, under all my present amendments, But how shall I be freed from that Damnation that I have brought myself in danger of by my former Transgressions?\n\n**for a while** This is Hopeful's phase of \"works righteousness,\" when he believes he can be saved by his own actions; **tumbling ... my reformations** Note that Hopeful has personified both his \"Trouble\" and his \"reformations\" ; the allegorical mode comes naturally to him; **God's Book** Not the Bible, but the account book kept by the shopkeeper-God who terrified Hopeful; **score** Bill.\n\nChr. A very good application; but pray go on.\n\nHope. Another thing that hath troubled me even since my late amendments is, that if I look narrowly\u00b0 into the best of what I do now, I still see Sin, new Sin, mixing itself with the best of that I do; so that now I am forced to conclude, that notwithstanding my former fond Conceits of myself and duties, I have committed Sin enough in one duty to send me to Hell,\u00b0 tho' my former life had been faultless.\n\nHis espying bad things in his best Duties troubled him.\n\nChr. And what did you do then?\n\nHope. Do! I could not tell what to do, till I brake my mind to Faithful, for he and I were well acquainted. And he told me, that unless I could obtain the Righteousness\u00b0 of a man that never had sinned; neither mine own, nor all the Righteousness of the World could save me.\n\nThis made him break his mind to Faithful, who told him the way to be saved.\n\nChr. And did you think he spake true?\n\nHope. Had he told me so when I was pleased and satisfied with mine own amendments, I had called him Fool for his pains; but now, since I see mine own Infirmity, and the Sin that cleaves to my best performance, I have been forced to be of his opinion.\n\nChr. But did you think, when at first he suggested it to you, that there was such a man to be found, of whom it might justly be said, That he never committed Sin?\n\nHope. I must confess the words at first sounded strangely, but after a little more talk and company with him, I had full conviction about it.\n\nAt which he started at present.\n\nChr. And did you ask him, What man this was, and how you must be justified by him?\n\n**narrowly** Closely; **I have ... Hell** The Calvinist doctrine of total depravity, which grew from Luther's conviction that our works cannot save us; **Righteousness** The imputed righteousness of Christ.\n\nHeb. 10. Rom. 4. Col. 1. 1 Pet. 1.\n\nHope. Yes, and he told me it was the Lord Jesus, that dwelleth on the right hand of the Most High: And thus, said he, you must be justified by him, even by trusting to what he hath done by himself in the days of his flesh, and suffered when he did hang on the Tree. I asked him further, how that Man's righteousness could be of that efficacy, as to justify another before GOD? And he told me, He was the Mighty GOD, and did what he did, and died the Death also, not for himself, but for me; to whom His doings, and the worthiness of them, should be imputed,\u00b0 if I believed on him.\n\nA more particular Discovery of the Way to be saved.\n\nChr. And what did you do then?\n\nHope. I made my objections against my believing, for that I thought he was not willing to save me.\n\nHe doubts of Acceptation.\n\nChr. And what said Faithful to you then?\n\nHope. He bid me go to him and see; then I said it was Presumption ; he said No, for I was Invited to come. Then he gave me a Book of Jesus his inditing,\" to encourage me the more freely to come; and he said concerning that Book, That every jot and tittle thereof stood firmer than Heaven and earth. Then I asked him what I must do when I came: And he told me, I must entreat upon my knees, with all my heart and soul, the Father to reveal him to me. Then I ask'd him further, how I must make my supplication to him? And he said, Go, and thou shalt find him upon a Mercy-Seat,\u00b0 where he sits all the year long, to give Pardon and Forgiveness to them that come. I told him, that I knew not what to say when I came. And he bid me say to this effect:\n\n _God be merciful to me a Sinner, and make me to know and believe in Jesus Christ; for 1 see, that if his Righteousness had not been, or I have not Faith in that Righteousness, I am utterly cast away. Lord, I have heard that thou art a merciful God, and hast ordained that thy Son Jesus Christ should be the Saviour of the World; and moreover, that thou art willing to bestow upon such a poor sinner as I am, (and 1 am a sinner indeed) Lord, take therefore this opportunity, and magnify thy Grace in the Salvation of my soul, through thy Son Jesus Christ. Amen_.\n\nMat. 11. z8. He is defter _instructed._\n\nMat. 24. 35. Psal. 95. 6. Dan. 6. 10. Jer. 29. 12, 13.\n\nEx.25.22. Lev. 16. 2. Num. 7. 8, 9. Heb. 4. 16.\n\nHe is bid to Pray.\n\n**imputed** Through faith in the efficacy of His sacrifice, the righteousness of Christ is bestowed upon us; **inditing** Writing; **jot and tittle** Iota; **Mercy-Seat** A physical part of the Jewish temple mentioned in the Old Testament, and read by Christians as a type of Christ's mercy.\n\nChr. And did you do as you were bidden?\n\nHope. Yes; over and over, and over.\n\nChr. And did the Father reveal his Son to you?\n\nHope. Not at the first, nor second, nor third, nor fourth, nor fifth; no, nor at the sixth time neither.\n\nChr. What did you do then?\n\nHope. What! why I could not tell what to do.\n\nChr. Had you not thoughts of leaving off Praying?\n\nHope. Yes; an hundred times twice told.\n\nChr. And what was the reason you did not?\n\nHope. I believed that that was true, which had been told me, to wit, That without the Righteousness of this Christ, all the World could not save me; and therefore thought I with myself, if I leave off, I die, and I can but die at the Throne of Grace. And withal this came into my mind, If it tarry, wait for it, _because_ it will surely come, _and_ will not tarry. So I continued Praying, until the Father shewed me his Son.\n\nHe _prays._\n\nHe thought to leave off praying. Durst not leave off praying, _and_ why.\n\nHabb. 2.3.\n\nChr. And how was he revealed unto you?\n\nHope. I did not see him with my bodily eyes, but with the eyes of mine Understanding; and thus it was. One day I was very sad, I think sadder than at any one time of my Life; and this sadness was through a fresh sight of the greatness and vileness of my Sins. And as I was then looking for\u00b0 nothing but Hell, and the everlasting Damnation of my Soul, suddenly, as I thought, I saw\u00b0 the Lord Jesus looking down from Heaven upon me, and saying, Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, _and_ thou shalt be saved.\n\nEph. 1.18,19.\n\nChrist is _revealed_ to him, and how.\n\nActs 16. 30, 31.\n\nBut I replied, Lord I am a great, a very great Sinner: And he answered, My Grace is sufficient for thee. Then I said, but Lord, what is Believing? And then I saw from that saying, He that cometh to me _shall_ never hunger, _and_ he that believeth on me _shall_ never thirst that Believing and Coming was all one; and that he that came, that is, ran out in his heart and affections after Salvation by Christ, he indeed believed in Christ.\n\n2 Cor. 12. 9.\n\nJohn 6. 35.\n\n**looking for** Expecting; **I saw** This is not a vision, as Hopeful has just explained, but an understanding.\n\nThen the water stood in mine eyes, and I asked further, But Lord, may such a great Sinner as I am, be indeed accepted of thee, and be saved by thee? And I heard him say, _and_ him that cometh to me, _I_ will in no _wise\u00b0_ cast out. Then I said, But how, Lord, must I consider of thee in my coming to thee, that my Faith may be placed aright upon thee? Then he said, Christ Jesus came into the World to save Sinners. He is the end of the Law for Righteousness to every one that believes. He dyed for our Sins, and rose again for our Justification: He loved us, and washed us from our Sins in his own blood: He is Mediator between God and us: He ever liveth to make Intercession for us. From all which I gathered, that I must look for Righteousness in his Person, and for Satisfaction for my Sins by his Blood; that what he did in Obedience to his Father's Law, and in submitting to the Penalty thereof, was not for himself, but for him that will accept it for his Salvation, and be thankful. And now was my heart full of joy, mine eyes full of tears, and mine affections running over with love to the Name, People, and Ways of Jesus Christ.\n\nJohn 6. 37.\n\n1 Tim. 1. 15. Rom. 10. 4. Chap. 4.\n\nHeb.7.24,25.\n\nChr. This was a Revelation of Christ to your soul indeed; But tell me particularly what effect this had upon your spirit?\n\nHope. It made me see that all the World, notwithstanding all the righteousness thereof, is in a state of Condemnation. It made me see that God the Father, though he be just, can justly justify the coming Sinner: It made me greatly ashamed of the Vileness of my former life, and confounded me with the sense of mine own Ignorance;\u00b0 for there never came thought into my heart before now, that showed me so the beauty of Jesus Christ: It made me love a Holy Life, and long to do something for the honour and glory of the name of the Lord Jesus; Yea, I thought that had I now a thousand gallons of blood in my body, I could spill it all for the sake of the Lord Jesus.\n\n**in no wise** In no way; **mine own Ignorance** Anticipating that character's imminent reappearance.\n\nI then saw in my dream, that Hopeful looked back and saw Ignorance, whom they had left behind, coming after. Look, said he to Christian, how far yonder youngster loitereth behind ?\n\nChr. Ay, ay, I see him; he careth not for our company.\n\nHope. But I trow it would not have hurt him, had he kept pace with us hitherto.\n\nChr. That's true, but I warrant you he thinketh otherwise.\n\nHope. That I think he doth; but however, let us tarry for him. So they did.\n\nThen Christian said to him, Come away man, why do you stay so behind?\n\nIgnorance. I take my pleasure in walking alone,\u00b0 even more a great deal than in company, unless I like it the better.\n\nYoung Ignorance comes up again. Their talk.\n\nThen said Christian to Hopeful, (but softly) Did I not tell you he cared not for our company: But however, said he, come up, and let us talk away the time in this solitary place. Then directing his speech to Ignorance, he said, Come how do you? How stands it between God and your Soul now?\n\nIgnor. I hope well, for I am always full of good motions, that come into my mind, to comfort me as I walk.\n\nChr. What good motions?\u00b0 Pray tell us.\n\nIgnor. Why, I think of GOD and Heaven.\n\nChr. So do the Devils and damned souls.\n\nIgnor. But I think of them, and desire them.\n\nChr. So do many that are never like to come there. The soul of the Sluggard desires, and hath nothing.\n\nIgnor. But I think of them, and leave all for them.\n\nChr. That I doubt; for leaving of all is a hard matter; yea, a harder matter than many are aware of. But why or by what, art thou persuaded that thou hast left all for GOD and Heaven?\n\nIgnor. My Heart tells me so.\u00b0\n\nIgnorance's Hope, and the Ground of it.\n\nProv. 13. 4.\n\n**alone** Ignorance does not see the necessity of church membership; **motions** Thoughts; **My Heart tells me so** Like the Quakers, Ignorance believes the testimony of his \"inner light.\"\n\nChr. The Wise Man says, He that trusts his own heart, is a fool.\n\nIgnor. This is spoken of an evil heart, but mine is a good one. \u00b0\n\nProv. 28. 26.\n\nChr. But how dost thou prove that?\n\nIgnor. It comforts me in hopes of heaven.\n\nChr. That may be through its Deceitfulness; for a man's Heart may minister comfort to him in the Hopes of that thing for which he yet has no Ground to hope.\n\nIgnor. But my Heart and Life agree together, and therefore my Hope is well grounded.\n\nChr. Who told thee that thy Heart and Life agree together?\n\nIgnor. My Heart tells me so.\n\nChr. Ask my Fellow, if I be a Thief? Thy Heart tells thee so! Except the Word of GOD beareth witness in this matter, other testimony is of no value.\n\nIgnor. But is it not a good Heart that has good Thoughts? And is not that a good Life, that is according to God's Commandments ?\n\nChr. Yes, that is a good Heart that hath good Thoughts; and that is a good Life that is according to God's Commandments : But it is one thing indeed to have these, and another thing only to think so.\n\nIgnor. Pray what count you good thoughts, and a life according to God's commandments?\n\nChr. There are good thoughts of divers kinds; some respecting ourselves, some God, some Christ, and some other things.\n\nIgnor. What be good thoughts respecting ourselves?\n\nChr. Such as agree with the Word of God.\n\nIgnor. When do our thoughts of ourselves agree with the Word of God?\n\nWhat are good thoughts.\n\nChr. When we pass the same Judgment upon ourselves which the Word passes. To explain myself: The Word of God saith of persons in a Natural Condition, There is none Righteous, there is none that doth good; it saith also, That every imagination of the heart of a man is only Evil, and that contin _ually;_ and again, The imagination of _man's_ heart is Evil from his youth. Now then, when we think thus of ourselves, having _Sense\u00b0_ thereof, then are our thoughts good ones, because according to the Word of God.\n\nRom. 3. Gen. 6. 5.\n\n**mine is a good one** The Quakers believed in the essential goodness of man.\n\n_Ignor._ I will never believe that my heart is thus bad.\n\nChr. Therefore thou never hadst one good thought concerning thyself in thy life.\u00b0 But let me go on. As the Word passeth a judgment upon our Heart, so it passeth a judgment upon our Ways, and when our thoughts of our Hearts and Ways agree with the judgment which the Word giveth of both, then are both good, because agreeing thereto.\n\n_Ignor._ Make out your meaning.\n\nChr. Why, the Word of God saith, That man's ways are crooked ways, not good, but perverse: It saith, They are naturally out of the good Way, that they have not known it. Now when a man thus thinketh of his ways, I say, when he doth sensibly, and with Heart-humiliation thus think, then hath he good thoughts of his own ways, because his thoughts now agree with the judgment of the Word of God.\n\nPsal. 125. 5. Prove 2. 15. Rom. 3.\n\n_Ignor._ What are good thoughts concerning God?\n\nChr. Even (as I have said concerning ourselves) when our thoughts of God do agree with what the Word saith of him; and that is, when we think of his Being and Attributes as the Word hath taught; of which I cannot now discourse at large: But to speak of him with reference to us, then we have right thoughts of God, when we think that he knows us better than we know ourselves, and can see Sin in us when and where we can see none in ourselves: When we think He knows our inmost thoughts, and that our heart, with all its depths, is always open unto his eyes: Also when we think that all our Righteousness stinks in his nostrils,\u00b0 and that therefore he cannot abide to see us stand before him in any Confidence, even of all our best performances.\u00b0\n\n**Sense** Understanding; **thou never hadst one good thought... life** For Christian, the only good thoughts about one's self are bad thoughts; our **Righteousness stinks in his nostrils** A strikingly anthropomorphic image of God; **performances** Actions, but with the sense of empty shows, as in a performance of a play.\n\n_Ignor._ Do you think that I am such a Fool as to think God can see no further than I? Or, that I would come to God in the best of my Performances?\n\nChr. Why, how dost thou think in this matter?\n\n_Ignor._ Why, to be short, I think I must believe in Christ for Justification.\n\nChr. How! Think thou must believe in Christ, when thou seest not thy need of him! Thou neither seest thy original nor actual Infirmities,\u00b0 but hast such an opinion of thyself, and of what thou dost, as plainly renders thee to be one that did never see a necessity of Christ's personal Righteousness\u00b0 to justify thee before God. How then dost thou say, I believe in Christ?\n\n_Ignor._ I believe well enough for all that.\n\n_Chr._ How dost thou believe?\n\n_Ignor._ I believe that Christ died for sinners, and that I shall be justified before God from the Curse, through his gracious acceptance of my obedience to his law. Or thus, Christ makes my Duties, that are religious, acceptable to his Father by virtue of his Merits, and so shall I be justified.\n\nThe Faith of Ignorance.\n\nChr. Let me give an answer to this confession of thy Faith.\n\n1. Thou believest with a fantastical Faith; for this faith is no where described in the Word.\n\n2. Thou believest with a false Faith, because it taketh Justification from the Personal Righteousness of Christ, and applies it to thy own.\n\n3. This Faith maketh not Christ a justifier of thy person, but of thy actions; and of thy person, for thy actions sake, which is false.\n\n4. Therefore this Faith is deceitful, even such as will leave thee under Wrath in the day of God Almighty; For true _Justi_ fying Faith puts the soul (as sensible of its lost condition by the Law) upon flying for refuge unto Christ's Righteousness:\n\nwhich righteousness of his is not an act of Grace, by which he maketh, for Justification, thy Obedience accepted with God; but his Personal Obedience to the Law, in doing and suffering for us what that requireth at our hands. This righteousness, I say, true Faith accepteth; under the skirt of which, the soul being shrouded, and by it presented as spotless before God, it is accepted, and acquit from Condemnation.\n\n**original or actual Infirmities** Neither the sin that naturally comes with being human nor the particular sins Ignorance himself has committed; **Christ's personal Righteousness** The Quakers believed Christ was resurrected in their own flesh, not in the personal figure of Jesus of Nazareth.\n\n_Ignor._ What! would you have us trust to what Christ in his own Person has done without us? This conceit would loosen the reins of our Lust, and tolerate us to live as we list: For, what matter how we live, if we may be justify'd by Christ's Personal Righteousness, from all, when we believe it.\n\nChr. Ignorance is thy Name; and as thy name is, so art thou;\u00b0 even this thy answer demonstrateth what I say. _Ignorant_ thou art of what Justifying Righteousness is, and as ignorant how to secure thy Soul through the Faith of it from the heavy Wrath of GOD. Yea, thou also art ignorant of the true effects of Saving Faith in this righteousness of Christ, which is to bow and win over the heart to God in Christ, to love his Name, his Word, Ways, and People, and not as thou ignorantly imaginest.\n\nHope. Ask him if ever he had Christ revealed to him from Heaven?\n\n_Ignor._ What! You are a man for Revelations! I believe that what both you and all the rest of you\u00b0 say about that matter, is but the fruit of distracted brains.\n\nIgnorance jangles with them.\n\nHope. Why man! Christ is so hid in God from the natural apprehensions of all Flesh, that he cannot by any man be savingly known, unless God the Father reveals him to them.\n\n_Ignor._ That is your Faith, but not mine; yet mine, I doubt not, is as good as yours, though I have not in my head so many Whimsies as you.\n\nHe speaks reproachfully of what he knows not.\n\n**so art thou** Christian's usual trump card of identifying the character's allegorical significance by the manner in which they deny it; **all the rest of you** Indicating that Christian represents an entire denomination.\n\nChr. Give me leave to put in a word: You ought not so slightly to speak of this matter; For this I will boldly affirm, (even as my good companion hath done) that no man can know Jesus Christ but by the revelation of the Father; yea, and Faith too, by which the soul layeth hold upon Christ, (if it be right) must be wrought by the exceeding greatness of his mighty Power; the working of which Faith, I perceive, poor Ignorance! thou art ignorant of. Be awakened then, see thine own wretchedness, and fly to the Lord Jesus; and by his righteousness, which is the righteousness of GOD, (for he himself is GOD) thou shalt be delivered from Condemnation.\n\nMatt. 11. 27.\n\n1 Cor. 12. 3.\n\nEph. 1.18,19.\n\n_Ignor._ You go so fast, I cannot keep pace with you: Do you go on before; I must stay a while behind. Then they said,\n\n _Well, Ignorance, wilt thou yet foolish be_ \n_To slight good Counsel, ten times given thee?_ \n_And if thou yet refuse it, thou shalt know,_ \n_E're long, the Evil of thy doing so._ \n_Remember, man, in time; stoop, do not fear;_ \nGood Counsel taken well saves; therefore hear. \nBut if thou yet shalt slight it, thou wilt be \n_The Loser, Ignorance, I'll warrant thee._\n\nThe Talk broke up.\n\nThen Christian addressed himself thus to his fellow:\n\nChr. Well, come my good Hopeful, I perceive that thou and I must walk by ourselves again.\n\nSo I saw in my dream, that they went on apace before, and Ignorance he came hobbling after. Then said Christian to his companion, It pities me much for this poor man;\u00b0 it will certainly go ill with him at last.\n\nHope. Alas! there are abundance in our town in his condition, whole families, yea, whole streets, (and that of Pilgrims too;)\u00b0 and if there be so many in our parts, how many, think you, must there be in the place where he was born?\n\n**It pities me much for this poor man** Christian rarely sympathizes with the unregenerate; the young Bunyan may have been tempted by Ignorance's ideas himself; **and that of Pilgrims too** It is possible for true pilgrims to share Ignorance's erroneous theology.\n\n_Chr._ Indeed the Word saith, He hath blinded their eyes, lest they should see, &c.\n\nBut now we are by ourselves, What do you think of such men? Have they at no time, think you, Convictions of Sin, so consequently fears that their state is dangerous?\n\nHope. Nay, do you answer that question yourself, for you are the elder man.\n\nChr. Then I say, sometimes (as I think) they may; but they being naturally ignorant, understand not that such convictions tend to their Good; and therefore they do desperately seek to stifle them, and presumptuously continue to flatter themselves in the way of their own hearts.\u00b0\n\nHope. I do believe, as you say, that Fear tends much to men's good, and to make them right at their beginning to go on Pilgrimage.\n\nThe good Use of Fear.\n\nChr. Without all doubt it doth, if it be right; for so says the Word, The _Fear_ of the Lord is the beginning of Wisdom.\n\nHope. How will you describe right fear?\n\n_Chr._ True or right fear is discovered by three things:\n\n1. By its rise, It is caused by saving Convictions for Sin.\n\n2. It driveth the soul to lay fast hold of Christ for Salvation.\n\n3. It begetteth and continueth in the soul a great Reverence of God, his Word and Ways, keeping it tender, and making it afraid to turn from them, to the right hand or to the left, to any thing that may dishonour God, break its peace, grieve the Spirit, or cause the enemy to speak reproachfully.\n\nJob 28. 28. Psal. 111.10. Provo 1. 7. ch. 9. 10. Right Fear.\n\nHope. Well said; I believe you have said the truth. Are we now almost got past the Enchanted ground?\n\nChr. Why, art thou weary of this discourse?\n\nHope. No, verily, but that I would know where we are.\n\nChr. We have not now above two miles further to go thereon. But let us return to our matter. Now the Ignorant know not that such convictions that tend to put them in Fear, are for their Good, and therefore they seek to stifle them.\n\nWhy ignorant persons do stifle Convictions. 1. In general.\n\n**the way of their own hearts** Both \"as their own hearts incline them,\" and \"about the nature of their own hearts.\"\n\nHope. How do they seek to stifle them?\n\nChr. 1. They think that those fears are wrought by the Devil; (tho' indeed they are wrought of God;) and thinking so, they resist them, as things that directly tend to their overthrow. 2. They also think that these fears tend to the spoiling of their Faith, (when, alas for them, poor men that they are, they have none at all) and therefore they harden their hearts against them. 3. They presume they ought not to fear, and therefore in despite of them wax\u00b0 presumptuously confident. 4. They see that those fears tend to take away from them their pitiful old Self-holiness, and therefore they resist them with all their might.\n\n2. In particular.\n\nHope. I know something of this myself; before I knew myself, it was so with me.\n\nChr. Well, we will leave, at this time, our neighbour _Ignorance_ by himself, and fall upon another profitable question.\n\nHope. With all my heart, but you shall still begin.\n\nTalk _about_ one Temporary.\n\nChr. Well then, did you not know, about ten years ago,\u00b0 one _Temporary\u00b0_ in your parts, who was a forward man in religion then?\n\nHope. Know him! yes, he dwelt in Graceless, a town about two miles off of Honesty, and he dwelt next door to one Turn-back.\n\nWhere he dwelt.\n\nChr. Right, he dwelt under the same roof with him. Well, that man was much awakened once; I believe that then he had some sight of his Sins, and of the Wages that were due thereto.\n\nHe was towardly once.\n\nHope. I am of your mind, for (my house not being above three miles from him) he would oft times come to me, and that with many tears. Truly I pitied the man, and was not altogether without Hope of him: But one may see, it is not every one that cries, Lord, Lord,\n\n_Chr._ He told me once, That he was resolved to go on Pil- grimage, as we do now; but all of a sudden he grew acquainted with one _Saveself,_ and then he became a stranger to me.\n\n**wax** Grow; **ten years ago** Before the Restoration, suggesting that this section was written around 1670; **Temporary** A turncoat. Offor cites Mason: \"one who is doctrinally acquainted with the Gospel, but a stranger to its sanctifying power\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 160).\n\nHope. Now, since we are talking about him, let us a little enquire into the Reason of the sudden backsliding of him and such others.\n\nChr. It may be very profitable, but do you begin.\n\nHope. Well then, there are, in my judgment, four reasons for it.\n\n1. Though the Consciences of such men are awakened, yet their Minds are not changed: Therefore, when the power of Guilt weareth away, that which provoked them to be religious ceaseth: Wherefore they naturally turn to their own course again; even as we see the dog that is sick of what he hath eaten, so long as his sickness prevails, he vomits and casts up all: Not that he doth this of a free mind (if we may say a dog has a mind) but because it troubleth his stomach; but now, when his sickness is over, and so his stomach eased, his desires being not at all alienated\u00b0 from his vomit, he turns him about and licks up all; and so it is true which is written, The dog is turned to his own vomit _again._ This I say; being hot for Heaven by virtue only of the sense and fear of the torments of Hell; as their sense of hell and the fears of damnation chills and cools, so their desires for Heaven and Salvation cool also: So then it comes to pass, that when their Guilt and Fear is gone, their desires for Heaven and happiness die, and they return to their course again.\n\nReasons why _towardly ones_ go back.\n\n2 Pet. 2. 22.\n\n2. Another reason is, they have slavish fears that do over-master them; I speak now of the fears that they have of men:\u00b0 For the fear of men bringeth a Snare. So then though they seem to be hot for Heaven so long as the flames of Hell are about their ears, yet when that terror is a little over, they betake themselves to second thoughts, namely, that 'tis good to be wise, and not to run (for they know not what) the hazard of losing all, or at least of bringing themselves into unavoidable and unnecessary Troubles, and so they fall in with the World again.\n\nProv.29.25.\n\n**alienated** Just as Temporary was not truly alienated from the world; **fears that they have of men** Many dissenters conformed to the Anglican Church for fear of the penal laws known as the Clarendon Code.\n\n3. The Shame that attends Religion lies also as a block in their way; they are proud and haughty, and Religion in their eye is low and contemptible: Therefore when they have lost their sense of Hell, and Wrath to come, they return again to their former course.\n\n4. Guilt, and to meditate Terror, are grievous to them; they like not to see their misery before they come into it, though perhaps the Sight of it first, if they loved\u00b0 that sight, might make them fly whither the righteous fly and are safe; but because they do, as I hinted before, even shun the thoughts of guilt and terror, therefore when once they are rid of their awakenings about the terrors and wrath of God, they harden their hearts gladly, and chuse such ways as will harden them more and more.\n\nChr. You are pretty near the business, for the bottom of all is, for want of a change in their Mind and Will. And therefore they are but like the felon that standeth before the Judge; he quakes and trembles, and seems to repent most heartily; but the bottom of all is, the fear of the halter;\u00b0 not that he hath any detestation of the offence, as it is evident, because, let but this man have his liberty, and he will be a thief, and so a rogue still; whereas, if his mind was changed, he would be otherwise.\n\nHope. Now I have shewed you the Reasons of their going back, do you shew me the Manner thereof.\n\nChr. So I will willingly.\n\n1. They draw off their thoughts, all that they may, from the remembrance of God, Death, and Judgment to come.\n\nHow the Apostate goes back.\n\n2. Then they cast off by degrees private duties, as Closet-Prayer, Curbing their Lusts, Watching, Sorrow for Sin, and the like.\n\n3. Then they shun the company of lively and warm Christians.\n\n4. After that they grow cold to publick duty, as Hearing, Reading, Godly Conference, and the like.\n\n **loved** \"Valued,\" rather than \"enjoyed\"; **halter** Noose.\n\n5. Then they begin to pick holes, as we say, in the coats of some of the Godly,\u00b0 and that devilishly, that they may have a seeming colour to throw Religion (for the sake of some infirmity they have spied them) behind their backs.\n\n6. Then they begin to adhere to, and associate themselves with carnal, loose, and wanton men.\n\n7. Then they give way to carnal and wanton discourses in secret; and glad are they if they can see such things in any that are counted honest, that they may the more boldly do it through their Example.\n\n8. After this, they begin to play with little Sins openly.\n\n9. And then being hardened, they shew themselves as they are. Thus being launched again into the gulph of misery, unless a Miracle of Grace prevent it, they everlastingly perish in their own deceivings.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that by this time the Pilgrims were got over the Enchanted ground, and entering into the Country of Beulah, whose air was very sweet and pleasant, the Way lying directly through it, they solaced themselves there for a season. Yea, here they heard continually the singing of birds, and saw every day the flowers appear in the earth, and heard the voice of the turtle in the land. In this country the Sun shineth night and day; wherefore this was beyond the valley of the Shadow of Death, and also out of the reach of Giant Despair, neither could they from this place so much as see _Doubting-Castle._ Here they were within sight of the City they were going to; also here met them some of the inhabitants thereof: For in this land the Shining Ones commonly walked, because it was upon the borders of Heaven. In this land also the contract between the Bride and the Bridegroom was renewed:\u00b0 Yea, here, _as_ the Bridegroom rejoyceth over the Bride, so did their God rejoyce over them. Here they had no want of corn and wine; for in this place they met with abundance of what they had sought in all their Pilgrimage.\n\nIsa. 62. 4. Cant. 2. 10, 11, 12.\n\nAngels.\n\nIsa. 62. 5. Ver. 8.\n\n**to pick holes ... the Godly** To criticize the holiness of others; **the con-** **tract... was renewed** Several biblical texts describe the Church as the bride of Christ.\n\nHere they heard voices from out of the City, loud voices, saying, Say ye to the Daughter of Zion, Behold thy Salvation cometh! Behold his Reward is with him! Here all the inhabitants of the Country called them, _The holy People, the Redeemed of the Lord, Sought out_ , &c.\n\nVer. 11.\n\nVer. 12.\n\nNow, as they walked in this land, they had more Rejoycing than in parts more remote from the Kingdom to which they were bound; and drawing near to the City, they had yet a more perfect View thereof: It was builded of Pearls and precious Stones; also the streets thereof were paved with Gold, so that by reason of the natural glory of the City, and the reflection of the Sun-beams upon it, Christian with desire fell sick; Hopeful also had a fit or two of the same disease: Wherefore here they lay by it a while, crying out because of their pangs; _If you_ see my Beloved tell him that _I am_ sick of Love.\n\nBut being a little strengthned, and better able to bear their sickness, they walked on their Way, and came yet nearer and nearer, where were orchards, vineyards and gardens, and their gates opened into the High-way. Now as they came up to these places, behold the gardener stood in the Way, to whom the Pilgrims said, Whose goodly vineyards and gardens are these? He answered, They are the KING'S, and are planted here for his own delight, and also for the solace of Pilgrims: So the gardener had them into the vineyards, and bid them refresh themselves with dainties; He also shewed them there the King's walks and the arbours, where he delighted to be: And here they tarried and slept.\n\nDeut.23.24.\n\nNow I beheld in my dream, that they talked more in their sleep at this time, than ever they did in all their Journey; and being in a muse thereabout, the gardener said even to me,\u00b0 Wherefore musest thou at the matter? It is the nature of the fruit of the grapes of these vineyards to go down so sweetly, as to cause the lips of them that are asleep to speak.\n\n**even to me** The narrator comes into more prominence toward the end of the journey.\n\nSo I saw that when they awoke, they addressed themselves to go up to the City. But as I said, the reflection of the Sun upon the City (for the City was pure gold) was so extremely glorious, that they could not as yet with open face behold it; but through an _instrument\u00b0_ made for that purpose. So I saw that as they went on, there met them two Men in raiment that shone like gold, also their faces shone as the light.\n\nRev. 21. 18. 2 Cor. 3. 18.\n\nThese men asked the Pilgrims whence they came? and they told them. They also asked them where they had lodged, what difficulties and dangers, what comforts and pleasures they had met with in the Way? And they told them. Then said the men that met them, You have but two Difficulties more to meet with, and then you are in the City.\n\nChristian then and his Companion asked the men to go along with them, so they told them they would: But, said they, you must obtain it by your own Faith. So I saw in my dream that they went on together till they came within Sight of the Gate.\n\nNow I further saw, that betwixt them and the Gate was a River,\u00b0 but there was no bridge to go over, and the river was very deep. At the sight therefore of this River, the Pilgrims were much astounded, but the men that went with them, said, You must go through, or you cannot come at the Gate.\n\nThe Pilgrims then began to enquire if there was no other Way to the Gate; to which they answered, Yes, but there hath not any, save two, to wit, _Enoch_ and Elijah,\u00b0 been permitted to tread that path, since the foundation of the World, nor shall until the last Trumpet shall sound. The Pilgrims then (especially Christian) began to despond in his mind, and looked this way and that, but no way could be found by them, by which they might escape the River. Then they asked the Men if the Waters were all of a depth? They said, No; yet they could not help them in that case; For, said they, you _shall_ find it deeper or _shallower, as you_ believe _in_ the King of the Place.\n\nDeath is not welcome to Nature, though by it we pass out of this world into Glory. 1 Cor. 15. 51, 52.\n\n_Angels_ help us not comfortably through Death.\n\n**instrument** In 2 Corinthians 3:18 Paul describes \"beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord\" (KJV); **a River** Of death. The biblical type is the River Jordan ; after crossing it the Israelites entered the promised land; **Enoch and Elijah** In Genesis 5:22-24 Enoch and Elijah are translated to heaven without dying.\n\nThey then addressed themselves to the Water, and entring, Christian began to sink, and crying out to his good friend Hopeful, he said, I sink in deep Waters; the Billows go over my head, all the Waves go over me. Selah. \u00b0\n\nThen said the other, Be of good cheer, my Brother, I feel the bottom, and it is good. Then said Christian, Ah! my friend, the sorrows of Death have compassed me about, I shall not see the Land that flows with milk and honey. And with that a great darkness and horror fell upon Christian, so that he could not see before him. Also here he in a great measure lost his senses, so that he could neither remember nor orderly talk of any of those sweet refreshments that he had met with in the Way of his Pilgrimage. But all the words that he spake still tended to discover, that he had Horror of Mind, and Heart-Fears that he should die in that River, and never obtain Entrance in at the Gate. Here also, as they that stood by perceived,\u00b0 he was much in the troublesome thoughts of the Sins that he had committed, both since and before he began to be a Pilgrim. 'Twas also observed, that he was troubled with apparitions of Hobgoblins and evil Spirits; \u00b0 for ever and anon he would intimate so much by words. Hopeful therefore here had much ado to keep his brother's head above water, yea sometimes he would be quite gone down, and then e're a while he would rise up again half dead. Hopeful also would endeavour to comfort him, saying, Brother, I see the Gate, and Men standing by to receive us; but Christian would answer, 'Tis you, 'tis you they wait for; you have been Hopeful ever since I knew you. And so have you,\u00b0 said he to Christian. Ah, brother! said he, surely if I was right, he would now rise to help me, but for my Sins he hath brought me into the snare, and hath left me. Then said Hopeful, My Brother, you have quite forgot the text, where it is said of the Wicked, There is no _Bands\u00b0_ in their Death, but their Strength is firm, they are not troubled as other men, neither are they plagued like other men. These troubles and distresses that you go through in these Waters, are no sign that God hath forsaken you, but are sent to try you, whether you will call to mind that which heretofore you have received of his Goodness, and live upon him in your Distresses.\n\nChristian's Conflict _at_ the hour of Death.\n\n**Selah** This word, which occurs frequently in the Bible, is not a word but a form of punctuation designating a pause for consideration. In Bunyan's time a similar function was performed by marginal drawings of pointing fingers; **they that stood by perceived** Death was a public event in Bunyan's milieu, and the dying person's behavior was studied closely for clues about their soul's destination; **Hobgoblins and evil Spirits** In Grace Abounding, Bunyan tells us: \"I have in my bed been greatly afflicted with the apprehensions of devils, and wicked spirits\" (p. 8); **so have you** As they cross the river, and leave the world, the characters slough off the allegorical significances that designate their alienated condition; now Christian is called \"hopeful.\"\n\nPsal. 73. 4, 5.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, That Christian was as in a muse a while. To whom also Hopeful added these words, Be of good cheer, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole: And with that Christian brake out with a loud voice, Oh, I see him again! and he tells me, When thou passest through the Waters, I will be with thee; and through the Rivers, they shall not overflow thee. Then they both took courage, and the Enemy\u00b0 was after that as still as a stone, until they were gone over. Christian therefore presently found Ground to stand upon, and so it followed, that the rest of the River was but shallow: Thus they got over. Now upon the bank of the River on the other side, they saw the two shining men again, who there waited for them: Wherefore being come up out of the River, they saluted them, saying, We _are Ministring_ Spirits sent forth to minister to those that _shall be_ Heirs of Salvation; Thus they went along toward the Gate. Now you must note, that the City stood upon a mighty Hill, but the Pilgrims went up that Hill with ease, because they had these two men to lead them up by the arms; also they had left their _mortal Garments\u00b0_ behind them in the River; for though they went in with them, they came out without them. They therefore went up here with much agility and speed, though the Foundation upon which the City was framed was higher than the Clouds; They therefore went up through the region of the air, sweetly talking as they went, being comforted, because they safely got over the River, and had such glorious Companions to attend them.\n\nChristian delivered from his Fears in Death.\n\nIsa. 43. 2.\n\nThe Angels do wait for them so soon as they are passed out of this World.\n\nThey have put off Mortality.\n\n**Bands** Pains, concerns; the wicked die peacefully because they are oblivious to the afterlife; **the Enemy** We have met no external \"enemy\" here; the word refers to Christian's temptation to despair, stimulated by Satan; **mortal Garments** Not their bodies, but their bodies' mortality.\n\nThe talk that they had with the Shining Ones was about the Glory of the place, who told them, that the Beauty and Glory of it was inexpressible. There, said they, is Mount _Sion,_ the heavenly Jerusalem, the innumerable Company of Angels, _and_ the Spirits of just men made Perfect. You are going now, said they, to the Paradise of GOD, wherein you shall see the Tree of Life, and eat of the never-fading Fruits thereof; and when you come there you shall have white Robes given you, and your walk and talk shall be every day with the KING, even all the days of Eternity. There you shall not see again such things as you saw when you were in the lower region upon the earth, to wit, Sorrow, Sickness, Affliction, and Death, for the former things _are_ passed _away._ You are going now to _Abraham,_ Isaac, and Jacob, and to the Prophets, men that God hath taken away from the Evil to come, and that are now resting upon their beds, each one walking\u00b0 in his Righteousness. The men then asked, What must we do in the Holy Place? To whom it was answered, You must there receive the Comfort of all your Toil, and have Joy for all your Sorrow; you must reap what you have sown, even the fruit of all your Prayers and Tears, and Sufferings for the King by the Way. In that place you must wear Crowns of Gold, and enjoy the perpetual sight and vision of the Holy One, for there you shall see him as he is. There also you shall serve him continually with Praise, with Shouting, and Thanksgiving, whom you desired to serve in the World, though with much difficulty because of the Infirmity of your Flesh. There your eyes shall be delighted with seeing, and your ears with hearing the pleasant Voice of the Mighty One. There you shall enjoy your Friends again, that are gone thither before you; and there you shall with joy receive even every one that follows into the Holy Place after you. There also you shall be cloathed with Glory and Majesty, and put into an equipage\u00b0 fit to ride out with the King of Glory. When he shall come with Sound of Trumpet in the Clouds, as upon the wings of the Wind, you shall come with him; and when he shall sit upon the Throne of Judgment, you shall sit by him; yea, and when he shall pass Sentence upon all the workers of Iniquity, let them be Angels or men; you also shall have a voice in that Judgment, because they were his and your Enemies. Also when he shall again return to the City, you shall go too with sound of Trumpet, and be ever with him.\n\nHerb. 12. 22, 23,24.\n\nRed. 2. 7.\n\n& 3. 4.\n\nRev. 22. 7.\n\nIsa. 57. 1, 2. & 65. 16, 17.\n\nGal. 6. 7.\n\n1 John 3. 2.\n\n**the Evil to come** The Apocalypse; **resting ... walking** Bunyan forces the figural interpretation on the reader; they could not rest and walk at the same time if these verbs were taken literally; **as he is** In essence, rather than in the mediated form that Christ is manifest in the world. See 1 Corinthians 13:12: \"For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face\" (KJV).\n\n1 Thes. 4. 13, to 17. Jude 14. Dan. 7. 9, 10. 1 Cor. 6. 2, 3.\n\nNow while they were thus drawing towards the Gate, behold a company of the Heavenly Host came out to meet them; to whom it was said by the other two Shining Ones, These are the men that have loved our Lord, when they were in the World, and that have left all for his Holy Name, and he hath sent us to fetch them, and we have brought them thus far on their desired Journey, that they may go in and look their Redeemer in the face with Joy. Then the Heavenly Host gave a great shout, saying, Blessed are they that are called to the Marriage Supper of the Lamb. There came out also at this time, to meet them, several of the King's Trumpeters, cloathed in white and shining raiment, who with melodious noises and loud, made even the Heavens to echo with their sound. These Trumpeters saluted Christian and his fellow with ten thousand Welcomes from the world; and this they did with shouting and Sound of Trumpet.\n\nRev. 19. 9.\n\nThis done, they compassed them round on every side; some went before, some behind, and some on the right-hand, some on the left, (as 'twere to guard them through the upper regions) continually sounding as they went with melodious noise, in notes on high; so that the very sight was to them that could behold it, as if Heaven itself was come down to meet them. Thus therefore they walked on together; and as they walked ever and anon these Trumpeters, even with joyful sound, would, by mixing their musik with looks and gestures, still signify to Christian and his brother how welcome they were into their company, and with what gladness they came to meet them: And now were these two men, as 'twere, in Heaven before they came at it; being swallowed up with the sight of Angels, and with hearing their melodious notes. Here also they had the City itself in view, and they thought they heard all the bells therein to ring, to welcome them thereto; but above all, the warm and joyful thoughts that they had about their own dwelling there with such Company, and that for ever and ever; Oh! by what tongue or pen can their glorious Joy be expressed! Thus they came up to the Gate.\n\n**put into an equipage** Furnished with equipment.\n\nNOW, NOW LOOK HOW THE HOLY PILGRIMS RIDE, \nCLOUDS ARE THEIR CHARIOTS, ANGELS ARE THEIR GUIDE; \nWHO WOULD NOT HERE FOR HIM ALL HAZARDS RUN? \nTHAT THUS PROVIDES FOR His, WHEN THIS WORLD'S DONE.\n\nNow, when they were come up to the Gate, there was written over it in letters of Gold, Blessed are they that do his Commandments, that they may have right to the Tree of Life, and may enter in through the Gates into the City.\n\nRev. 22. 14.\n\nThen I saw in my dream, that the shining men bid them call at the Gate, the which when they did, some from above looked over the Gate; to wit, Enoch, Moses, and Elijah, e'rc. to whom it was said, These Pilgrims are come from the City of Destruction, for the Love that they bear to the King of this place; and then the Pilgrims gave in unto them each man his Certificate, which they had received in the beginning; those therefore were carried in to the King, who when he had read them, said, Where are the men? to whom it was answered, They are standing without the Gate. The King then commanded to open the Gate, that the Righteous Nation, said he, that keepeth Truth, may enter in.\n\nIsa. 26. 2.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that these two men went in at the Gate; and lo, as they entered, they were transfigured:* and they had raiment put on that shone like Gold. There was also that met them, with Harps and Crowns, and gave them to them, the harps to praise withal, and the crowns in token of honour. Then I heard in my dream, that all the bells in the City rang again for joy; and that it was said unto them, Enter ye into the Joy of our Lord. I also heard\u00b0 the men themselves say, that they sang with a loud voice, saying, Blessing, Honour, Glory, and Power, be to Him that sitteth upon the Throne, and to the Lamb, for ever and ever.\n\n**transfigured** Transformed into a source of radiance; Jesus is \"transfigured\" in front of the disciples in Matthew 17:2.\n\nRev. 5.13,14.\n\nNow, just as the Gates were opened to let in the men, I looked in after them; and behold the City shone like the Sun, the streets also were paved with Gold, and in them walked many men with Crowns on their heads, Palms in their hands, and Golden Harps to sing praises withal.\n\nThere were also of them that had wings, and they answered one another without intermission, saying, Holy, Holy, Holy is the Lord: and after that, they shut up the Gates: which when I had seen, I wished myself among them.\u00b0 \u00b0\n\nIgnorance comes up to the River, and Vain-Hope ferrys him over.\n\n**I also heard** The narrator repeatedly asserts his presence now that Christian has been transfigured, since human beings no longer have direct access to his experience; **I wished myself among them** The story does not end happily, but on a melancholy note of exclusion.\n\nNow, while I was gazing upon all these things, I turned my head to look back, and saw Ignorance coming up to the River-side ; but he soon got over, and that without half the Difficulty which the other two men met with. For it happened that there was then in that place one Yain-Hope, a ferry-man, that with his boat helped him over: so he, as the other, I saw did ascend the Hill, to come up to the Gate, only he came alone; neither did any man meet him with the least encouragement. When he was come up to the Gate, he looked up to the Writing that was above, and then began to knock, supposing that Entrance should have been quickly administred to him: But he was asked by the men that looked over the top of the Gate, Whence come you? And what would you have? He answered, I have eat and drank in the Presence of the King, and he has taught in our streets. Then they asked him for his Certificate, that they might go in and shew it to the King; so he fumbled in his bosom for one, and found none. Then, said they, Have you none? but the man answered never a word. So they told the King, but he would not come down to see him, but commanded the two shining Ones that conducted Christian and Hopeful to the City, to go out and take Ignorance and bind him hand and foot, and have him away. Then they took him up, and carried him through the air to the door that I saw in the side of the Hill, and put him in there. Then I saw that there was a Way to Hell, even from the Gates of Heaven, as well as from the City of Destruction. So I awoke, and behold it was a Dream. \u00b0\n\nbehold it was a Dream This does not diminish, but rather augments, the truth of the vision.\n\n# **The _Conclusion_**\n\n**_N_** _ow, Reader, I have told my Dream to thee, See if thou canst Interpret\u00b0 it to me, Or to Thyself, or Neighbour; but take heed Of mis-interpreting; for that, instead Of doing Good, will but thyself abuse:\u00b0 By mis-interpreting, Evil ensues._\n\n_Take heed also that thou be not extreme \nIn playing with the out-side\u00b0 of my dream: \nNor let my Figure or similitude\u00b0 \nPut thee into a Laughter, or a Feud; \nLeave this for Boys and Fools; but as for thee, \nSo thou the Substance\u00b0 of my matter see_.\n\nPut _by\u00b0_ the curtains, look within my vail, \nTurn _up\u00b0_ my metaphors, _and_ do not fail; \nThere, if thou seekest them, such things _thou'lt_ find \nAs will be helpful to _an_ honest mind.\n\nWhat of my dross\u00b0 thou findest here, be bold \nTo _throw away,_ but yet preserve the Gold. \nWhat if my _Gold\u00b0_ be wrapped up in _ore?\u00b0_ \nNone throws _away_ the Apple for the Core. \nBut if thou shalt cast all away as vain, \nI know not but 'twill make me dream again.\n\nThe End of the First Part.\n\n**Interpret** The book's purpose has been to teach the skill of allegorical interpretation. This is the \"progress\" achieved by Christian and, Bunyan hopes, the reader; **abuse** Misinterpret, idolize, sell; **the out-side** The apparent, external, fleshly, and literal meaning; **Figure or similitude** The outward trappings in which Bunyan has dressed his message; **Substance** Essence; **Put by** Draw; **Turn up** Look under; **dross** The waste product in the purification of gold; **Gold** Bunyan alludes to the ethical significance of gold as the most perfect of all metals, not to its financial significance as the incarnation of exchange value; **ore** Unpurified mixture of minerals, including gold.\n\n**The Author's Way of sending forth his Second Part of the Pilgrim**\n\n**_G_** o now, my little Book, to every place, Where my first Pilgrim has but shewn his Face: _Call at_ their _door: If any_ say, Who's there? Then _answer_ thou, Christiana is here. If they bid thee Come in, then enter thou, With all thy boys: And then as thou know'st how; Tell who they are, also from whence they came; Perhaps they'll know them by their looks or name: But if they should not, ask them yet again, If formerly they did not entertain One Christian a Pilgrim? If they say, They did, and were delighted in his Way, Then let them know, that those related were Unto him: Yea, his Wife and Children are.\n\nTell them that they have left their House and Home; \nAre turned Pilgrims, seek a World to come: \nThat they have met with Hardships in the Way, \nThat they do meet with Troubles night and day: \nThat they have trod on Serpents, fought with Devils, \nHave also overcome a many evils. \nYea, tell them also of the next, who have \nOf Love to Pilgrimage, been stout and brave \nDefenders of that Way, and how they still \nRefuse\u00b0 this World, to do their Father's will.\n\n**Of** Out of; **Refuse** Both \"reject\" and \"turn into refuse.\"\n\nGo tell them also of those dainty things, \nThat Pilgrimage unto the Pilgrim brings: \nLet them acquainted be too, how they are \nBeloved of their King, under his Care; \nWhat goodly Mansions for them he provides, \nTho' they meet with rough Winds and swelling Tides, \nHow brave a Calm they will enjoy at last, \nWho to their Lord, and by his Ways hold fast.\n\nPerhaps with heart and hand they will embrace \nThee, as they did my firstling,\u00b0 and will grace \nThee, and thy fellows, with such cheer and fare, \nAs shew will, they of Pilgrims Lovers are.\n\n# **1. Objection.**\n\nBut how, if they will not believe of me \nThat I am truly thine; 'cause some there be \nThat counterfeit the Pilgrim and his Name, \nSeek, by Disguise, to seem the very same, \nAnd by that means have brought themselves into \nThe hands and houses of I know not who.\n\n## **Answer.**\n\n_'Tis true, some have of late to counterfeit \nMy Pilgrim, to their own, my Title set; \nYea, others half my Name and Title too \nHave stitched to their Book, to make them do; \nBut yet they by their Features do declare \nThemselves not mine to be, whose e'er they are_.\n\n_If such thou meet'st with, then thine only way \nBefore them all, is, to Say out thy Say, \nIn thine own native Language, which no man \nNow useth,\u00b0 nor with ease dissemble can. \nIf, after all, they still of you shall doubt, \nThinking that you, like Gipsies,\"go about \nIn naughty wise,\u00b0 the Country to defile,_\n\n**firstling** Firstborn; counterfeit In 1682 Thomas Sherman had published his own Second Part of the Pilgrim's Progress, and numerous imitations of Bun- yan's work were circulating; **In thine ... Now useth** The plainspoken Puri- tanism Bunyan espouses was deeply unfashionable in Restoration England; **Gipsies** Bunyan himself was a tinker, a profession usually practiced by gyp- sies in his day; **In naughty wise** In a wicked manner.\n\nOr that you seek good people to beguile \nWith things unwarrantable, send for me, \nAnd I will testify you Pilgrims be; \nYea, I will testify that only you \nMy Pilgrims are; and that alone will do.\n\n# **2. Object.**\n\nBut yet, perhaps, I may enquire for him, \nOf those that wish him damned life and limb. \u00b0 \nWhat shall I do, when I at such a door \nFor Pilgrims ask, and they shall rage the more?\n\n## **Answer.**\n\n_Fright not thyself, my Book, for such bugbears\u00b0 \nAre nothing else but Ground for groundless fears, \nMy Pilgrim's Book has travell'd Sea and Land, \nYet could I never come to understand \u00b0 \nThat it was slighted or turn'd out of door \nBy any Kingdom, were they Rich or Poor._\n\nI _n France\u00b0 and Flanders, where men kill each other, \nMy Pilgrim is esteem'd a Friend, a Brother._\n\nI _n Holland too, 'tis said, as I am told, \nMy Pilgrim is with some worth more than Gold._\u00b0\n\n_Highlanders and Wild Irish\u00b0 can agree, \nMy Pilgrim should familiar with them be. \n'Tis in New England\" under such advance, \nReceives there so much loving countenance, \u00b0 \nAs to be trim'd, new-cloath'd, and deck'd with gems \nThat it may shew its features and its limbs, \nYet more, so comely doth my Pilgrim walk, \nThat of him Thousands daily sing and talk._\n\n**Of those ... life and limb** The radical theology of The Pilgrim's Progress had not endeared Bunyan to the authorities; **bugbears** Boogeymen; **understand** Hear; **In France** The following lines boast of the many translations and widespread popularity of the first part; **In Holland ... Gold** The Dutch, like the Scots, were reputed misers; **Highlanders and Wild Irish** The most \"primitive\" people in Bunyan's experience; **New England** Bunyan's book was strongly influential in New England, whose inhabitants had long styled themselves \"pilgrims\"; **countenance** Regard.\n\n_If you draw nearer Home, it will appear, \nMy Pilgrim knows no ground of shame or fear; \nCity and Country will him entertain \nWith, Welcome, Pilgrim, yea, they can't refrain, \nFrom smiling, if my Pilgrim be but by, \nOr shews his head in any Company_.\n\n_Brave Gallants * do my Pilgrim hug and love, \nEsteem it much, yea, value it above \nThings of a greater bulk, yea, with delight, \nSay, my Lark's leg is better than a Kite._\u00b0\n\n_Young Ladies, and young Gentlewomen too, \nDo no small kindness to my Pilgrim shew; \nTheir cabinets, their bosoms, and their hearts, \nMy Pilgrim has, 'cause he to them imparts \nHis pretty riddles, in such wholsome strains, \nAs yields them Profit double to their Pains \nOf reading; yea, I think I may be bold \nTo say, some prize him far above their Gold_.\n\n_The very Children that do walk the street, \nIf they do but my Holy Pilgrim meet, \nSalute him will, will wish him well, _and_ say, \nHe is the only stripling of the day._\n\n_They that have never seen him, yet admire \nWhat they have heard of him, and much desire \nTo have his Company, and hear him tell \nThose Pilgrim stories, which he knows so well_.\n\n_Yea, some who did not love him at the first, \nBut call'd him Fool and Noddy, say they must, \nNow they have seen and heard him, him commend; \nAnd to those whom they love, they do him send._\n\n_Wherefore, my Second Part, thou need'st not be \nAfraid to shew thy head; none can hurt thee, \nThat wish but well to him that went before, \n'Cause thou com'st after with a second store,_ \n_Of things as good, as rich, as profitable, \nFor Young, for Old; for Stagg'ring, and for Stable_.\n\n**ground of** Cause for; **Brave Gallants** Dashing young men; **my Lark's ... Kite** A dainty, apparantly trivial dish is preferable to a hearty but indi- gestible repast; **Noddy** Twit.\n\n# **3. Object.**\n\n_But some there be that say, He laughs too loud; \nAnd some do say, His Head is in a Cloud. n \nSome say, His Words and Stories are so dark, \nThey know not how by them to find his mark_.\n\n## **Answer.**\n\n_One may (I think) say, Both his laughs and cries \nMay well be guess'd at by his wat'ry eyes. \nSome things are of that nature; as to make \nOne's Fancy checkle, while his Heart doth ake;0 \nWhen Jacob saw his Rachel with the sheep, \nHe did at the same time both kiss and weep._\u00b0\n\n_Whereas some say, A Cloud is in his Head, \nThat doth but shew how Wisdom's covered \nWith its own mantles, and to stir the mind \nTo a search after what it fain would find. \nThings that seem to be hid in words obscure, \nDo but the Godly mind the more allure, \nTo study what those sayings should contain, \nThat speak to us in such a cloudy strain._\n\n_I also know a dark Similitude \nWill on the Fancy more itself intrude, \nAnd will stick faster in the Heart and Head, \nThan things from Similies not borrowed.\u00b0_\n\n_Wherefore, my Book, let no discouragement \nHinder thy travels: Behold; thou art sent \nTo Friends, not foes, to Friends that will give place* \nTo thee, thy Pilgrims, and thy Words embrace._\n\nBesides, what my first Pilgrim left conceal'd, \nThou, my brave Second Pilgrim hast reveal'd; \nWhat Christian left lock'd up, and went his Way, \nSweet Christiana opens with her Key.\n\n**His Head is in a Cloud** Compare the endnote to \"Dark Clouds bring Wa- ters\" on page 342; checkle Chuckle; **ake** Ache; **When Jacob ... weep** Gene- sis 29:11: \"And Jacob kissed Rachel, and lifted up his voice, and wept\" (KJV); **mantles** Cloaks; **I also know ... borrowed** The truth can be approached only through linguistic mediation: \"Similies\" and analogies; **place** Honor.\n\n# **4. Object.**\n\nBut some love not the method of your first; \nRomance\u00b0 they count it, throw't away as dust. \nIf I should meet with such, What should I say? \nMust I slight them as they slight me, or nay?\n\n## **Answer.**\n\n_My Christiana, if with such thou meet, \nBy all means in all Loving wise them greet; \nRender them not reviling for revile; \nBut if they frown, I prithee\u00b0 on them smile: \nPerhaps 'tis Nature,\u00b0 or some ill report, \nHas made them thus despise, or thus retort_.\n\n_Some love no cheese, some love no fish, and some \nLove not their Friends, nor their own house or Home. \nSome start at pig, slight chicken, love not fowl, \nMore than they love a cuckow, or an owl. \nLeave such, my Christiana, to their Choice, \nAnd seek those, who to find thee will rejoice; \nBy no means strive, but in all humble wise, \u00b0 \nPresent thee to them in thy Pilgrim's guise._\n\n_Go then, my little Book, and shew to all \nThat entertain, and bid thee Welcome shall, \nWhat thou shalt keep close, shut up from the rest, \nAnd wish what thou shall shew them, may be blest \nTo them for good, may make them chuse to be \nPilgrims better by far, than thee or me._\n\n_Go then, I say, tell all men who thou art, \nSay, I am Christiana, and my part \nIs now with my four Sons to tell you what \nIt is for men to take a Pilgrim's lot_.\n\n**Romance** Fiction; **prithee** Ask you to; **Nature** That is, their own nature; **start** Recoil; **slight** Criticize; **strive** Fight; **wise** Manner; **close** Secret.\n\n_Go also, tell them who and what they be, \nThat now do go on Pilgrimage with thee: \nSay, Here's my neighbour Mercy, she is one, \nThat has long time with me a Pilgrim gone: \nCome, see her in her Virgin face, and learn \n'Twixt idle ones,\u00b0 and Pilgrims, to discern. \nYea, let young Damsels learn of her to prize \nThe World which is come, in any wise: \nWhen little tripping* maidens follow God, \nAnd leave all doting' Sinners to his Rod; \n'Tis like those days wherein the young ones cry'd \nHosanna, to whom old ones did deride.\u00b0_\n\n_Next tell them of old Honest, who you found \nWith his white hairs treading the Pilgrim's ground \nYea, tell them how plain-hearted this man was, \nHow after\u00b0 his good Lord he bare his Cross: \nPerhaps with some gray head this may prevail \nWith Christ to fall in Love, and Sin bewail_.\n\n_Tell them also, how Master Fearing went \nOn Pilgrimage, and how the time he spent \nIn solitariness, with fears and cries; \nAnd how, at last, he won the Joyful Prize. \nHe was a good man, tho' much down in spirit; \nHe is a good man, and doth Life inherit._\n\n_Tell them of Master Feeble-mind also, \nWho, not before, but still behind would go; \nShew them also how he had like \u00b0 been slain, \nAnd how one Great-Heart did his life regain: \nThis man was true of Heart, tho' weak in Grace, \nOne might true Godliness read in his face._\n\n_Then tell them of Master Ready-to-halt, \nA man with Crutches, but much without fault. \nTell them how Master Feeble-mind and he \nDid love, and in Opinions much agree._\n\n**idle** Lazy, vain, with a pun of \"idol\"; **tripping** Skipping; **doting** Foolish; **old ones did deride** Children were attracted to Jesus; the elders of his society were not; **after** Both \"behind\" and \"after the fashion of\"; **like** Likely.\n\nAnd let all know, tho' Weakness was their chance, Yet sometimes one would Sing, the other Dance.\n\nForget not Master Valiant-for-the-Truth, \nThat man of courage, tho' a very Youth: \nTell every one his spirit was so stout, \nNo man could ever make him face about; \nAnd how Great-Heart and he could not forbear, \nBut put down Doubting-Castle, slay Despair.\n\nOverlook not Master Despondency, \nNor Much-afraid his daughter, tho' they lie \nUnder such mantles, as may make them look \n(With some) as if their God had them forsook. \nThey softly went, but sure, and at the End \nFound that the Lord of Pilgrims was their Friend. \nWhen thou hast told the World of all these things, \nThen turn about, my Book, and touch these strings; \u00b0 \nWhich, if but touched, will such musick make, \nThey'll make a Cripple dance, a Giant quake.\n\nThose Riddles that lie couch'd within thy breast, \nFreely propound expound: And for the rest \nOf thy mysterious lines, let them remain \nFor those whose nimble Fancies \u00b0 shall them gain.\n\nNow may this little Book a blessing be \nTo those that love this little Book, and me: \nAnd may its Buyer have no cause to say, \nHis money is but lost or thrown away; \nYea, may this Second Pilgrim yield that Fruit \nAs may with each good Pilgrim's fancy suit; \nAnd may it persuade some that go astray, \nTo turn their Foot and Heart to the right Way.\n\nIs the Hearty Prayer of THE AUTHOR, JOHN BUNYAN.\n\n**touch these strings** The strings of a lyre, a classical emblem of poetic inspiration ; **couch'd** Contained; **nimble Fancies** Quick minds. Despite Bunyan's claims to universal appeal, some especially \"mysterious\" meanings will be accessible only to skilled readers.\n**The Pilgrims Progress**\n\n**In the Similitude of a Dream. THE SECOND PART.**\n\n**_C_** ourteous Companions, some time since, to tell you my Dream that I had of Christian the Pilgrims, and of his dangerous Journey towards the Celestial Country, was pleasant to me, and profitable to you. I told you then also what I saw concerning his Wife and Children, and how unwilling they were to go with him on Pilgrimage; insomuch that he was forced to go on his Progress without them; for he durst not run the danger of that destruction, which he feared would come, by staying with them in the City of Destruction: Wherefore, as I then shewed you, he left them and departed.\n\nNow, it hath so happened, through the multiplicity of business,* that I have been much hindred and kept back from my wonted Travels into those parts whence he went, and so could not, till now, obtain an opportunity to make further enquiry after whom he left behind, that I might give you an account of them. But having had some concerns that way of late, I went down again thitherward. Now having taken up my lodgings in a Wood, about a mile off the place, as I slept, I dreamed again.\n\nAnd as I was in my dream, behold an aged gentleman came by where I lay; and because he was to go some part of the Way that I was travelling, methought I got up and went with him. So as we walked, and as Travellers usually do, I was as if we fell into discourse, and our talk happened to be about Christian, and his Travels: For thus I began with the old man.\n\nSir, said I, what Town is that, there below, that lieth on the Left Hand of our Way?\n\n**the multiplicity of business** Part two was written when Bunyan was at liberty to preach and to practice his tinker's trade.\n\nThen said Mr. Sagacity,\u00b0 for that was his name, it is the City of Destruction, a populous place, but possess'd with a very ill-condition'd and idle sort of people.\n\nI thought that was that City, quoth Iwent once myself thro' that Town; and therefore I know that this report you give of it is true.\n\nSag. Too true; I wish I could speak truth in speaking better of them that dwell therein.\n\nWell Sir, quoth I, then I perceive you to be a well-meaning man, and so one that takes pleasure to hear and tell of that which is Good: Pray, did you never hear what happen'd to a man some time ago in this Town, (whose name was Christian) that went on Pilgrimage up towards the higher Regions?\n\nSag. Hear of him! Ay; and I also heard of the molestations, troubles, wars, captivities, cries, groans, frights, and fears that he met with and had in his Journey; besides, I must tell you, all our Country rings of him; there are but few houses that have heard of him and his doings, but have sought after, and got the Records of his Pilgrimage; yea, I think I may say, that his hazardous Journey has got many well-wishers to his ways: For tho' when he was here, he was Fool in every man's mouth, yet now he is gone, he is highly commended of all; for, 'tis said, he lives bravely where he is: Yea, many of them that are resolved never to run his hazards, yet have their mouths water at his gains.\n\nChristians are well spoken of when gone, tho' called Fools while they are here.\n\nThey may, quoth I, well think, if they think any thing that is true, that he liveth well where he is; for he now lives at, and in the Fountain of Life, and has what he has without labour and sorrow, for there is no grief mixed therewith. 'But pray; what talk have the people about him?'\n\n[Edit. 172.8.]\n\nSag. Talk! The people talk strangely about him: Some say, that he now walks in white, that he has a chain of Gold about his neck, that he has a crown of Gold, beset with Pearls, upon his head: Others say, that the shining Ones that sometimes shewed themselves to him in his Journey, are become his companions, and that he is as familiar with them in the place where he is, as here one neighbour is with another. Besides, 'tis confidently affirmed concerning him, that the King of the place where he is, has bestowed upon him already, a very rich and pleasant dwelling at Court, and that he every day eateth and drinketh, and walketh and talketh with him, and receiveth of the smiles and favours of him that is Judge of all there. Moreover, it is expected of some, that his Prince, the Lord of that country, will shortly come into these parts,\u00b0 and will know the reason, if they can give any, why his neighbours set so little by him, and had him so much in derision, when they perceived that he would be a Pilgrim.\n\nRev. 3. 4. Chap. 6. m.\n\n**Mr. Sagacity** The wisdom Bunyan has acquired from contemplation of Christian's pilgrimage.\n\nZech. 3. 7. Luke 14. 15.\n\nJude 14, 5.\n\nFor they say, that now he is so in the affections of his Prince, and that his Sovereign is so much concern'd with the indignities that were cast upon Christian, when he became a Pilgrim, that he will look upon all as if done unto himself; and no marvel, for 'twas for the Love that he had to his Prince, that he ventured as he did.\n\nChristian's King will take Christian's part.\n\nLuke 10. 16.\n\nI dare say, quoth I, I am glad on't; I am glad for the poor man's sake, for that\u00b0 now he has Rest from his labour, and for that he now reapeth the benefit of his tears with Joy; and for that he has got beyond the gun-shot of his enemies, and is out of the reach of them that hate him. I also am glad, for that a rumour of these things is noised abroad\u00b0 in this country; who can tell but that it may work some good effect on some that are left behind? But, pray, Sir, while it is fresh in my mind, do you hear any thing of his Wife and Children? Poor hearts, I wonder in my mind what they do!\n\nRev. 14. 13. Psal. 126. 5, 6.\n\nSag. Who! Christiana and her Sons! They are like to do as well as did Christian himself; for though they all play'd the fool at the first, and would by no means be persuaded by either the tears or entreaties of Christian, yet second thoughts have wrought wonderfully with them, so they have pack'd up, and are also gone after him.\n\nGood tidings of Christian's Wife and Children.\n\n**come into these parts** The second coming of Christ; **for that** Because; **noised abroad** Spread around.\n\nBetter and better, quoth I: But, what! Wife and Children and all?\n\nSag. 'Tis true, I can give you an account of the matter, for I was upon the spot at the instant, and was throughly acquainted with the whole affair.\n\nThen, said I, a man it seems may report it for a Truth?\n\nSag. You need not fear to affirm it; I mean, that they are all gone on Pilgrimage, both the good woman and her four boys. And being we are, as I perceive, going some considerable way together, I will give you an account of the whole matter.\n\nPart I. page 176.\n\nMark this, you that are churls to your godly relations.\n\n**carriage** Actions, bearing; **broken** \"Breaking\" the heart with guilt was a precondition of conversion; **brinish** Salty.\n\nThis Christiana (for that was her name from the day that she with her children betook themselves to a Pilgrim's life,) after her husband was gone over the River, and she could hear of him no more, her thoughts began to work in her mind. First, for that she had lost her husband, and for that the loving bond of that relation was utterly broken betwixt them. For you know, said he to me, Nature can do no less but entertain the living with many a heavy cogitation in the remembrance of the loss of loving relations. This therefore of her husband did cost her many a tear. But this was not all, for Christiana did also begin to consider with herself, Whether her unbecoming behaviour towards her husband was not one Cause that she saw him no more; and that in such sort he was taken away from her. And upon this, came into her mind by swarms, all her unkind, unnatural, and ungodly carriage\u00b0 to her dear friend; which also clogg'd her conscience, and did load her with Guilt. She was moreover much broken\u00b0 with calling to remembrance the restless groans, the brinish\u00b0 tears, and self-bemoanings of her husband, and how she did harden her heart against all his entreaties, and loving persuasions (of her and her Sons) to go with him; yea, there was not any thing that Christian either said to her, or did before her, all the while that his Burden did hang on his back, but it returned upon her like a Flash of Lightning, and rent the caul of her heart in sunder;\u00b0 especially that bitter out-cry of his, What shall I do to be saved? did ring in her ears most dolefully.\n\nPart I. pages 13, 14.\n\nThen said she to her children, Sons, we are all undone. I have sinned away your father, and he is gone; he would have had us with him, but I would not go myself; I also hindred you of Life. With that the boys fell all into tears, and cried out to go after their father. Oh! said Christiana, that it had been but our lot to go with him, then had it fared well with us, beyond what 'tis like to do now. For tho' I formerly foolishly imagin'd concerning the Troubles of your father, that they proceeded of a foolish fancy that he had, or for that he was over-run with melancholy humours; yet now 'twill not out of my mind, but that they sprang from another cause, to wit, for that the Light of Life was given him; by the help of which, as I perceive, he has escaped the Snares of Death. Then they all wept again, and cry'd out, Oh, Wo worth the day!\u00b0\n\nJames 1. 23, 24, 25.\n\n[ist Edit. 'Light of Light.']\n\nThe next night, Christiana had a dream; and behold, she saw as if a broad Parchment was opened before her, in which were recorded the Sum of her ways, and the crimes, as she thought, look'd very black upon her. Then she cry'd out aloud in her sleep, Lord have Mercy upon me, a Sinner; and the little children heard her.\n\nChristiana's dream.\n\nLuke 18.13.\n\nAfter this, she thought she saw two very ill-favour'd Ones standing by her bed-side and saying, What shall we do with this Woman? For she cries out for Mercy waking and sleeping: If she be suffer'd \u00b0 to go on as she begins, we shall lose her as we have lost her Husband. Wherefore we must, by one way or other, seek to take her off from the thoughts of what shall be hereafter, else all the world cannot help it but she will become a Pilgrim.\n\nMark this, this is the Quintessence of Hell.\n\nNow she awoke in a great sweat, also a trembling was upon her; but after a while she fell to sleeping again. And then she thought she saw Christian her husband in a place of Bliss among many Immortals, with a Harp in his hand, standing and playing upon it before one that sat on a Throne, with a Rainbow about his head. She saw also as if he bowed his head with his face to the paved-work* that was under the Prince's feet, saying, I heartily thank my Lord and King for bringing me into this Place. Then shouted a Company of them that stood round about and harped with their harps: But no man living could tell what they said, but Christian and his Companions.\n\nHelp against Discouragement.\n\n**in sunder** Asunder; **Wo worth the day**! Both \"woe to the day\" and \"it was a woeful day\"; **ill-favour'd** Ugly. The marginal note indicates that these are devils; **suffer'd** Allowed.\n\nNext morning, when she was up, had pray'd to God, and talked with her children a while, one knocked hard at the door; to whom she spake out, saying, If thou comest in God's name, come in. So he said, Amen; and open'd the door and saluted her with Peace be to this House. The which, when he had done, he said, Christiana, knowest thou wherefore I am come? Then she blushed and trembled, also her heart began to wax warm with desires to know whence he came, and what his errand was to her. So he said unto her, My name is Secret I dwell with those that are high. It is talked of where I dwell, as if thou hadst a desire to go thither; also there is a report that thou art aware of the Evil thou hast formerly done to thy husband, in hardning of thy heart against his Way, and in keeping of these thy babes in their Ignorance. Christiana, the Merciful One has sent me to tell thee, That he is a God ready to forgive, and that he taketh Delight to multiply the pardon of offences. He also would have thee know, that he inviteth thee to come into his Presence, to his Table, and that he will feed thee with the fat of his house, and with the heritage of Jacob thy father. 0\n\nConvictions seconded with fresh tidings of God's Readiness to pardon.\n\n[ist edit. 'To multiply to pardon offences.' See Isa.55.7, margin. ]\n\nThere is Christian thy husband, that was, with Legions more, his companions, ever beholding that Face that doth minister Life to beholders: And they will all be glad when they shall hear the sound of thy feet step over thy Father's threshold.\n\nChristiana at this was greatly abashed in herself, and bowed her head to the ground, this Visiter proceeded, and said, Christiana, here is also a Letter for thee, which I have brought from thy husband's King; so she took it and opened it, but it smelt after the manner of the best perfume. Also it was written in letters of Gold. The contents of the letter was; That the King would have her do as did Christian her husband, for that was the way to come to his City, and to dwell in his Presence with Joy for ever. At this the good woman was quite overcome : So she cried out to her Visiter, Sir, will you carry me and my Children with you, that we also may go and worship this King?\n\nSong 1. 11, 12.\n\nChristiana quite overcome.\n\n**paved-work** Pavement; **Jacob thy father** Luke 1:33 describes Israel as the \"House of Jacob\"; for Bunyan the modern Israelites were members of godly congregations such as his own.\n\nThen said the Visiter, Christiana! the Bitter is before the Sweet. Thou must through Troubles, as did he that went before thee, enter this Coelestial City. Wherefore I advise thee to do as did Christian thy husband: Go to the Wicket-Gate yonder over the Plain, for that stands in the head of the Way up which thou must go, and I wish thee all good speed. Also I advise, that thou put this Letter in thy bosom: That thou read therein to thyself, and to thy Children, until you have got it by root-of heart:\u00b0 For it is one of the songs that thou must sing while thou art in this House of thy Pilgrimage:* Also this thou must deliver in at the further Gate.\n\nFurther instructions to Christiana.\n\nPsal. 119. 54.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that this old gentleman, as he told me this story, did himself seem to be greatly affected therewith. He moreover proceeded, and said: So Christiana called her Sons together, and began thus to address herself unto them: My Sons, I have, as you may perceive, been of late under much exercise in my Soul, about the death of your father ; not for that I doubt at all of his happiness; for I am satisfied now that he is well. I have also been much affected\u00b0 with the thoughts of mine own State and yours, which I verily believe is by Nature\" miserable. My carriage also to your father in his distress, is a great load' to my conscience: For I harden'd both my own heart and yours against him, and refused to go with him on Pilgrimage.\n\nChristiana prays well for her journey.\n\n**by root-of-heart** Keeble notes this \"conflation of \"by rote\" and \"by heart\" (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 278); **House of thy Pilgrimage** A deliberately mixed metaphor, emphasizing the symbolic nature of the journey; **affected** Moved; **by Nature** According to the flesh; load Burden. Christiana has acquired a corresponding burden to Christian's in part one.\n\nThe thoughts of these things would now kill me outright, but that for a dream which I had last night, and but that for the Encouragement that this Stranger has given me this morning. Come, my children, let us pack up, and be gone to the Gate that leads to the Coelestial Country, that we may see your father, and be with him and his companions in Peace, according to the laws of that land.\n\nThen did her Children burst out into tears, for joy that the heart of their mother was so inclined: So their Visiter bid them farewell; and they began to prepare to set out for their Journey.\n\nBut while they were thus about to be gone, two of the women that were Christiana's neighbours,\u00b0 came up to her house, and knocked at the door: To whom she said as before, If you come in God's name, come in. At this the women were stunn'd; for this kind of language they used not to hear, or to perceive to drop from the lips of Christiana. Yet they came in: But behold, they found the good woman a preparing to be gone from her house.\n\nChristiana's new language stuns her old neighbours.\n\nSo they began, and said, Neighbour, pray what is your meaning by this?\n\nChristiana answered, and said to the eldest of them, whose name was Mrs. Timorous, I am preparing for a Journey. (This Timorous was daughter to him\u00b0 that met Christian upon the Hill of Difficulty, and would ha' had him gone back for fear of the Lions.)\n\nPart 1. page 51-\n\nTim. For what Journey, I pray you?\n\nChrist. Even to go after my good Husband; and with that she fell a weeping.\n\nTim. I hope not so, good neighbour; pray, for your poor children's sake, do not so unwomanly cast away yourself.\u00b0\n\nTimorous comes to visit Christiana with Mercy, one of her neighbours.\n\nChrist. Nay, my children shall go with me, not one of them is willing to stay behind.\n\n**Christiana's neighbours** As with Obstinate and Pliable in part one, Christiana's recognition of these two characters' allegorical identities betokens the beginning of her psychological pilgrimage; **him** This character from part one was also called \"Timorous\"; **cast away yourself** Christiana must cast off her \"old man\" and be born again.\n\nTim. I wonder in my very heart, what or who has brought you into this mind.\n\nChrist. Oh, neighbour, knew you but as much as I do, I doubt not but that you would go with me.\n\nTim. Prithee, what new Knowledge hast thou got, that so worketh off thy mind from thy Friends, and that tempteth thee to go no body knows where?\n\nChrist. Then Christiana reply'd, I have been sorely afflicted since my husband's departure from me; but especially since he went over the River. But that which troubleth me most, is my churlish\u00b0 carriage to him, when he was under his distress. Besides I am now, as he was then; nothing will serve\" me, but going on Pilgrimage. I was a dreaming last night, that I saw him. 0 that my Soul was with him! He dwelleth in the Presence of the King of the Country; he sits and eats with him at his table; he is become a companion of Immortals, and has a House now given him to dwell in, to which the best palaces on Earth, if compared, seem to me to be but as a dunghill. The Prince of the Place has also sent for me, with promise of entertainment, if I shall come to him; his Messenger was here even now, and has brought me a Letter, which invites me to come. And with that she pluck'd out her Letter, and read it, and said to them, what now will you say to this?\n\nDeath.\n\n2 Cor. 5. it, 3,4.\n\nTim. Oh! the Madness that has possessed thee and thy husband ! to run yourselves upon such Difficulties! You have heard, I am sure, what your husband did meet with, even in a manner\u00b0 at the first step that he took on his Way, as our neighbour Obstinate can yet testify, for he went along with him; yea, and Pliable too, until they, like wise men, were afraid to go any further. We also heard over and above, how he met with the Lions, Apollyon, the Shadow of Death, and many other things. Nor is the Danger that he met with at Vanity-Fair to be forgotten by thee. For if he, tho' a man, was so hard put to it, what canst thou, being but a poor woman, do? Consider also, that these four sweet babes are thy children, thy flesh, and thy bones. Wherefore, though thou shouldest be so rash as to cast away thyself; yet for the sake of the fruit of thy body, keep thou at home.\n\nPart I. pages 17 to 20.\n\nThe reasonings of the Flesh.\n\n**churlish** Rude; **serve** Both \"satisfy\" and \"be of use to\"; **in a manner** That is, in a manner of speaking; a signal that the \"step\" is figurative.\n\nBut Christiana said unto her, tempt me not, my neighbour : I have now a price put into my hand to get gain,\u00b0 and I should be a Fool of the greatest size, if I should have no heart to strike in with\u00b0 the opportunity. And for that you tell me of all these Troubles that I am like to meet with in the Way, they are so far off from being to me a Discouragement, that they shew I am in the right. The Bitter must come before the Sweet, and that also will make the Sweet the sweeter. Wherefore since you came not to my house in God's name, as I said; I pray you to be gone, and not to disquiet* me farther.\n\nA pertinent Reply to fleshly Reasonings.\n\nThen Timorous also reviled her, and said to her fellow, Come, neighbour Mercy, let's leave her in her own hands, since she scorns our counsel and company. But Mercy was at a stand,* and could not so readily comply with her neighbour, and that for a twofold reason, ist, Her bowels\u00b0 yearned over Christiana: So she said within herself, if my neighbour will be gone, I will go a little way with her, and help her. 2dly, Her bowels yearned over her own Soul, (for what Christiana had said, had taken some hold upon her mind:) Wherefore she said within herself again, I will yet have more talk with this Christiana, and if I find Truth and Life in what she shall say, myself with my heart shall also go with her. Wherefore Mercy began thus to reply to her neighbour Timorous.\n\nMercy's bowels yearn over Christiana.\n\nMercy. Neighbour, I did indeed come with you to see Christiana this morning; and since she is, as you see, a taking of her last farewell of her Country, I think to walk this sunshine morning, a little way with her, to help her on the Way. But she told her not of her second reason, but kept that to herself.\n\nTimorous forsakes her, but Mercy cleaves to her.\n\nTim. Well, I see you have a mind to go a fooling too; but take heed in time and be wise; while we are out of danger, we are out; but when we are in, we are in. So Mrs. Timorous returned to her house, and Christiana betook herself to her journey. But when Timorous was got home to her house, she sends for some of her neighbours, to wit, Mrs. Bat's-eyes, Mrs. Inconsiderate, Mrs. Light-mind, and Mrs. Know-nothing. So when they were come to her house, she falls to telling of the story of Christiana, and of her intended Journey. And thus she began her tale.\n\n**price ... gain** A principal sum that I can invest gainfully; **strike in with** Seize; **disquiet** Disturb; **at a stand** At a loss; **bowels** Conventional synecdoche for compassion.\n\nTimorous acquaints her friends, what the good Christiana intends to do.\n\nTim. Neighbours, having had little to do this morning, I went to give Christiana a visit; and when I came at the door, I knocked, as you know 'tis our custom; and she answered, If you come in God's name, come in. So in I went, thinking all was well: But when I came in, I found her preparing herself to depart the town, she and also her children. So I asked her, what was her meaning by that? and she told me in short, that she was now of a mind to go on Pilgrimage, as did her Husband. She told me also a dream that she had, and how the King of the Country where her Husband was, had sent her an inviting Letter to come thither.\n\nThen said Mrs. Know-nothing, And what do you think she will go?\n\nMrs. Know-nothing.\n\nTim. Ay, go she will, whatever comes on't; and methinks I know it by this; for that which was my great argument to persuade her to stay at home, (to wit, the Troubles she was like to meet with in the Way) is one great argument with her, to put her forward on her Journey. For she told me in so many words, The Bitter goes before the Sweet: Yea, and forasmuch as it so doth, it makes the sweet the sweeter.\n\nMrs. Bat's-eyes. Oh, this blind and foolish woman, said she; will she not take warning by her Husband's afflictions? For my part, I see,\u00b0 if he was here again, he would rest him content in a whole skin,\u00b0 and never run so many hazards for nothing.\n\nMrs. Bat's-eyes.\n\n**I see** Mrs. Bat's-eyes reveals the propriety of her name in the act of denying it; **he would ... skin** He would be glad to be alive, but Bat's-eyes refers to worldly, not eternal, life.\n\nMrs. Inconsiderate also replied, saying, Away with such fantastical fools from the town; a good riddance, for my part, I say, of her; should she stay where she dwells, and retain this her mind, who could live quietly by her; for she will either be dampish or unneighbourly, or talk of such matters as no wise body can abide: Wherefore, for my part, I shall never be sorry for her departure; let her go, and let better come in her room; 'twas never a good world since these whimsical fools dwelt in it.\n\nMrs. Inconsiderate.\n\nThen Mrs. Light-mind added as followeth; Come, put this kind of talk away. I was yesterday at Madam Wanton's, where we were as merry as the maids. For who do you think should be there, but I and Mrs. Love-the-Flesh\u00b0 and three or four more, with Mr. Lechery, Mrs. Filth, and some others: So there we had musick, and dancing, and what else was meet to fill up\u00b0 the Pleasure. And I dare say, my Lady herself is an admirable well-bred\u00b0 gentlewoman, and Mr. Lechery is as pretty a fellow. By this time Christiana was got on her Way, and Mercy went along with her: So as they went, her Children being there also, Christiana began to discourse. And Mercy, said Christiana, I take this as an unexpected favour, that thou shouldest set foot out of doors with me, to accompany me a little in my Way.\n\nMrs. Light-mind. Madam Wanton, she that had like to have been too hard for Faithful in time past, Part 1. page 82.\n\nDiscourse between Mercy and good Christiana.\n\nMercy. Then said young Mercy, (for she was but young) If I thought it would be to purpose to go with you, I would never go near the town any more.\n\nmercy inclines to go.\n\nChrist. Well, Mercy, said Christiana, cast in thy lot with me, I well know what will be the end of our Pilgrimage; my Husband is where he would not but be for all the Gold in the Spanish Mines. Nor shalt thou be rejected, tho' thou goest but upon my Invitation. The King who hath sent for me and my Children, is one that delighteth in Mercy. Besides, if thou wilt, I will hire thee, and thou shalt go along with me as my servant. Yet we will have all things in common betwixt thee and me, only go along with me.\n\nChristiana would have her Neighbour with her.\n\n**dumpish** Grumpy; **Mrs. Love-the-flesh** Note that the female vices are married women; **meet to fill up** \"Suitable to complete,\" with hints of drinking and sex; **well-bred** Sin is once again associated with the upper classes; Mrs. Light-mind's snobbery parallels her sexual lust; both are manifestations of worldliness.\n\nMercy. But how shall I be ascertained\u00b0 that I also shall be entertained?\" Had I this Hope but from one that can tell, I would make no stick\u00b0 at all, but would go, being helped by him that can help, tho' the Way was never so tedious.\n\nMercy doubts of Acceptance.\n\nChrist. Well, loving Mercy, I will tell thee what thou shalt do; go with me to the Wicket-Gate, and there I will further enquire for thee; and if there thou shalt not meet with encouragement, I will be content that thou shalt return to thy place; I also will pay thee for thy kindness which thou shewest to me and my Children, in thy accompanying of us in our Way as thou doest.\n\nChristiana allures her to the Gate, which is Christ, and promiseth there to enquire for her.\n\nMercy. Then will I go thither, and will take what shall follow ; and the Lord grant that my lot may there fall, even as the King of Heaven shall have his heart upon me.\n\nMercy prays.\n\nChristiana then was glad at her heart, not only that she had a companion, but also for that she had prevailed with this poor maid to fall in love with her own Salvation. So they went on together, and Mercy began to weep. Then said Christiana, Wherefore weepeth my Sister so?\n\nChristiana glad of Mercy's company.\n\nMercy. Alas! said she, who can but lament, that shall but rightly consider what a state and condition my poor relations are in, that yet remain in our sinful town: And that which makes my grief the more heavy, is because they have no instructor, nor any to tell them what is to come.\n\nMercy grieves for her carnal Relations.\n\nChrist. Bowels become Pilgrims; and thou dost for thy friends, as my good Christian did for me when he left me; he mourned for that I would not heed nor regard him, but his Lord and ours did gather up his tears, and put them into his bottle,\u00b0 and now both I and thou, and these my sweet Babes, are reaping the fruit and benefit of them. I hope, Mercy, these tears of thine will not be lost; for the Truth hath said, that they that sow in Tears, shall reap in Joy and singing. And he that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoycing, bringing his Sheaves with him.\n\nChristian's Prayers were answered for his Relations, after he was dead.\n\n**ascertained** Made certain; **entertained** Welcomed; **stick** Delay; **his bottle** God suckles Christiana, as she suckles her \"sweet Babes.\"\n\nPsal. 126. 5, 6.\n\nThen said Mercy,\n\nLet the most Blessed be my Guide, If't be his blessed Will,\n\nUnto his Gate, into his Fold, Up to his Holy Hill:\n\nAnd let him never suffer me To swerve or turn aside\n\nFrom his Free Grace, and Holy Ways, Whate'er shall me betide.\n\nAnd let him gather them of mine, That I have left behind;\n\nLord, make them pray they may be thine, With all their Heart and Mind.\n\nNow my old Friend proceeded, and said,-But when Christiana came to the Slough of Despond, she began to be at a stand; for, said she, This is the place in which my dear Husband had like to have been smothered with mud. She perceived also, that notwithstanding the command of the King to make this place for Pilgrims good, yet it was rather worse than formerly: So I asked if that was true? Yes, said the old Gentleman, too true: For that many there be, that pretend to be the King's Labourers, and that say, they are for mending the King's Highway, that bring dirt and dung instead of stones, and so mar instead of mending. Here Christiana therefore, with her boys, did make a stand: But said Mercy, Come let us venture, only let us be wary. Then they looked well to the Steps, and made a shift to get staggeringly over.\n\nPart I. page 20,21. Their own Carnal Conclusions instead of the Word of Life.\n\nMercy the boldest at the Slough of Despond.\n\n**suffer** Allow.\n\nYet Christiana had like to have been in,\u00b0 and that not once nor twice. Now they had no sooner got over, but they thought they heard words, that said unto them, Blessed is she that believeth, for there shall be a Performance of the things that have been told her from the Lord.\n\nLuke is\n\nThen they went on again, and said Mercy to Christiana, had I as good ground\u00b0 to hope for a loving reception at the Wicket-Gate, as you, I think no Slough of Despond would discourage me.\n\nWell, said the other, you know your sore,\u00b0 and I know mine; and, good friend, we shall all have enough evil before we come at our Journey's end.\n\nFor can it be imagined, that the people that design to attain such excellent Glories as we do, and that are so envied that happiness as we are; but that we shall meet with what Fears and Scares, with what troubles and afflictions they can possibly assault us with, that hate us.\u00b0\n\nAnd now Mr. Sagacity left me to dream out my dream by myself. Wherefore, methought I saw Christiana and Mercy, and the Boys, go all of them up to the Gate: To which, when they were come, they betook themselves to a short debate, about how they must manage their calling at the Gate; and what should be said to him that did open to them. So it was concluded, since Christiana was the eldest, that she should knock for entrance, and that she should speak to him that did open, for the rest. So Christiana began to knock, and as her poor Husband did, she knocked, and knocked again. But instead of any that answered, they all thought that they heard as if a Dog* came barking upon them; a Dog, and a great one too, and this made the Women and Children afraid, nor durst they for a while to knock any more, for fear the Mastiff should fly upon them. Now therefore they were greatly tum- bled up and down in their minds,\u00b0 and knew not what to do; Knock they durst not, for fear of the Dog; Go back they durst not, for fear that the Keeper of that Gate' should espy them as they so went, and should be offended with them: At last they thought of knocking again, and knocking more vehemently than they did at the first. Then said the Keeper of the Gate, Who is there? So the Dog left off to bark, and he opened unto them.\n\nPrayer should be made with Consideration and Fear, as well as in Faith and Hope.\n\nPart I. page 31.\n\nThe Dog, the Devil, an enemy to Prayer.\n\n**in** Sunk; **ground** Note the convergence of the literal and figural senses; **sore** Pain, weakness; **that hate us** The persecuting civil and ecclesiastical authorities, a reminder that The Pilgrim's Progress is a partisan text addressed specifically to dissenters; **a Dog** The practical effects of Satan's influence. See Psalm 22:20: \"Deliver ... my darling from the power of the dog\" (KJV).\n\nChristiana and her Companions perplexed about Prayer.\n\nThen Christiana made low obeisance,\u00b0 and said, Let not our Lord be offended with his hand-maidens, for that we have knocked at his Princely Gate. Then said the Keeper, Whence come ye? And what is that you would have?\n\nChristiana answered, We are come from whence Christian did come, and upon the same errand as he; to wit, to be, if it shall please you, graciously\u00b0 admitted, by this Gate, into the Way that leads to the Coelestial City: And I answer, my Lord, in the next place, that I am Christiana, once the Wife of Christian, that now is gotten above.\n\nWith that the Keeper of the Gate did marvel, saying, What is she become now a Pilgrim, that but a while ago abhorred that Life? Then she bowed her head, and said, Yes, and so are these my sweet Babes also.\n\nThen he took her by the hand and let her in, and said also, Suffer the little Children to come unto me,\u00b0 and with that he shut up the Gate. This done, he called to a Trumpeter that was above, over the Gate, to entertain Christiana with Shouting, and Sound of Trumpet, for Joy. So he obeyed and sounded, and filled the air with his melodious notes.\n\nHow Christiana is entertained at the Gate.\n\nLuke 15 7.\n\nNow all this while poor Mercy did stand without, trembling and crying, for fear that she was rejected. But when Christiana had gotten admittance for herself and her Boys, then she began to make intercession for Mercy.\n\nChrist. And she said, My Lord, I have a companion of mine that stands yet without, that is come hither upon the same account as myself: One that is much dejected in her mind, for that\u00b0 she comes, as she thinks, without sending for; whereas I was sent to by my husband's King to come.\n\n**tumbled up and down in their minds** The pilgrims are described as inhabitants of their own minds; **the Keeper of that Gate** Christ; **obeisance** Curtsy; **graciously** By grace; **Suffer ... unto me** Jesus' words at Mark 10:14.\n\nChristiana's Prayer for her friend Mercy.\n\nNow Mercy began to be very impatient, for each minute was as long to her as an hour; wherefore she prevented Christiana from a fuller interceding for her, by knocking at the Gate herself. And she knocked then so loud, that she made Christiana to start. Then said the Keeper of the Gate, Who is there? And Christiana said, It is my friend.\n\nThe Delays make the hungering Soul the ferventer.\n\nSo he opened the Gate and looked out, but Mercy was fallen down without in a swoon, for she fainted, and was afraid that no Gate would be opened to her.\n\nMercy faints.\n\nThen he took her by the hand, and said, Damsel, I bid thee arise.\n\n0, Sir, said she, I am faint; there is scarce life left in me. But he answered, that one once said, When my soul fainted within me, I remembred the Lord, and my Prayer came in unto thee, into thy Holy Temple. Fear not, but stand upon thy feet, and tell me wherefore thou art come.\n\nJonah 2. 7.\n\nMercy. I am come for that unto which I was never invited, as my friend Christiana was. Hers was from the King, and mine was but from her: Wherefore I fear I presume.\n\nThe Cause of her fainting.\n\nDid she desire thee to come with her to this place?\n\nMercy. Yes; and as my Lord sees, I am come. And if there is any Grace and Forgiveness of Sins to spare, I beseech that I thy poor hand-maid may be partaker thereof.\n\nThen he took her again by the hand, and led her gently in, and said, I pray for all them that believe on me, by what Means soever they come unto me. Then said he to those that stood by, fetch something and give it Mercy to smell on, thereby to stay her fainting: So they fetch'd her a bundle of myrrh; and a while after, she was revived.\n\nMark this.\n\nAnd now was Christiana and her Boys, and Mercy, received of the Lord at the head of the Way, and spoke kindly unto by him. Then said they yet further unto him, we are sorry for our Sins, and beg of our Lord his Pardon and further information what we must do.\n\n**for that** Because; **myrrh** A healing herb, among the gifts presented to the infant Christ.\n\nI grant Pardon, said he, by word and deed; by word, in the Promise of Forgiveness; by deed, in the Way I obtained it. Take the first from my lips with a kiss, and the other as it shall be revealed.\n\nSong 1. 2. John 20. 20.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that he spake many good words unto them, whereby they were greatly gladded. He also had them up to the top of the Gate, and shewed them by what Deed they were saved; and told them withal, that that sight they would have again as they went along in the Way, to their comfort.\n\nChrist Crucified seen afar off.\n\nSo he left them awhile in a summer parlour below, where they entred into talk by themselves; and thus Christiana began: 0 Lord! how glad am I, that we are got in hither!\n\nTalk between the Christians.\n\nMercy. So you well may; but I of all have cause to leap for Joy.\n\nChrist. I thought one time as I stood at the Gate, (because I had knocked and none did answer) that all our labour had been lost, 'specially when that ugly cur made such a heavy barking against us.\n\nMercy. But my worst fears was, after I saw that you was taken into his favour, and that I was left behind: Now, thought I, 'tis fulfilled which is written; Two Women shall be grinding together, the one shall be taken, and the other left. I had much ado to forbear crying out, Undone! Undone!\n\nMat. 24. 41.\n\nAnd afraid I was to knock any more; but when I looked up to what was written over the Gate, I took courage. I also thought that I must either knock again, or die: So I knocked, but I cannot tell how; for my spirit now struggled betwixt Life and Death.\n\nPart 1. p. 31.\n\nChrist. Can you not tell how you knocked? I am sure your knocks were so earnest, that the very sound of them made me start; I thought I never heard such knocking in all my life; I thought you would ha' come in by violent hands, or ha' took the Kingdom by storm.\n\nChristiana thinks her Companion prays better than she. Mat. 13. 12.\n\n**Deed** The Crucifixion.\n\nMercy. Alas! to be in my case, who that so was, could but ha' done so? You saw that the Door was shut upon me, and that there was a most cruel Dog thereabout.\u00b0 Who, I say, that was so faint-hearted as I, that would not ha' knocked with all their might? But pray, what said my Lord unto my rudeness? was he not angry with me?\n\nChrist. When he heard your lumbringo noise, he gave a wonderful innocent smile: I believe what you did, pleased him well enough, for he shewed no sign to the contrary. But I marvel in my heart why he keeps such a Dog; had I known that afore, I fear I should not have had heart enough to ha' ventured myself in this manner. But now we are in, we are in, and I am glad with all my heart.\n\nChrist pleased with loud and restless Prayer. If the soul at first did know all it should meet with in its journey to Heaven, it would hardly ever set out.\n\nMercy. I will ask, if you please, next time he comes down, why he keeps such a filthy cur in his yard; I hope he will not take it amiss.\n\nAy do, said the Children, and persuade him to hang him, for we are afraid he will bite us when we go hence.\n\nSo at last he came down to them again, and Mercy fell to the ground on her face, before him, and worshipped, and said, Let my Lord accept the Sacrifice of Praise which I now offer unto him with the calves of my lips.\u00b0\n\nThe Children are afraid of the Dog.\n\nSo he said unto her, Peace be to thee, stand up. But she continued upon her face, and said, Righteous art thou, 0 Lord, when 1 plead with thee, yet let me talk with thee of thy Judgments: Wherefore dost thou keep so cruel a Dog in thy yard, at the sight of which, such women and children, as we, are ready to fly from thy Gate for fear?\n\nJer. 12. 1, 2.\n\nMercy expostulates about the Dog.\n\nHe answered and said, That Dog has another Owner; he also is kept close in another man's ground, only my Pilgrims hear his barking:\u00b0 He belongs to the Castle which you see there at a distance, but can come up to the walls of this place. He has frighted many an honest Pilgrim from worse to better, by the great Voice of his Roaring. Indeed, he that owneth him, doth not keep him of any good-will to me or mine, but with intent to keep the Pilgrims from coming to me, and that they may be afraid to knock at this Gate for entrance. Sometimes also he has broken out, and has worried some that I love; but I take all at present patiently. I also give my Pilgrims timely help, so they are not delivered up to his power, to do them what his doggish nature would prompt him to. But what! my purchased\u00b0 one, I tro,\u00b0 hadst thou known never so much before-hand, thou wouldest not have been afraid of a dog.\n\nDevil.\n\nPart I. p. 32.\n\n**You saw ... a most cruel Dog thereabout** The experience of being shut out from salvation and threatened by the \"dog\" impels Mercy to seek admission more emphatically; **lumbring** Heavy, sad, burdened; **the calves of my lips** Sacrifices. See Hosea 14:2: \"So will we render the calves of our lips\" (KJV), in which the verbal praise of God replaces the sacrificial calves; **only my Pilgrims hear his barking** The unregenerate are unaware of Satan's power and influence in the world.\n\nThe Beggars that go from door to door, will, rather than they will lose a supposed alms, run the hazard of the bawling, barking, and biting too of a Dog: and shall a dog, a dog in another man's yard, a dog, whose barking I turn to the Profit of Pilgrims, keep any from coming to me? I deliver them from the Lions, and my darling from the power of the Dog.\n\nA Check to the carnal fear of the Pilgrims.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy, I confess my Ignorance: I spake what I understood not; I acknowledge that thou doest all things well.\n\nChristians when wise enough, acquiesce in the Wisdom of their Lord.\n\nChrist. Then Christiana began to talk of their Journey, and to enquire after the Way. So he fed them, and washed their feet,\u00b0 and set them in the Way of his steps, according as he had dealt with her Husband before. So I saw in my dream, that they walked on in their Way, and had the weather very comfortable to them.\n\nPart I, p. 35.\n\nThen Christiana began to sing, saying,\n\nBlest be the Day that I began A Pilgrim for to be;\n\nAnd blessed also be that man That thereto mov-ed me.\n\n**purchased** Redeemed; tro Warrant; **washed their feet** As Jesus does for the disciples in John 13.\n\n'Tis true, 'twas long ere I began To seek to live for ever:\n\nBut now I run fast as I can; 'Tis better late, than never.\n\nOur Tears to Joy, our Fears to Faith, Are turned as we see;\n\nThus our Beginning (as one saith) Shews what our End will be.\n\nNow there was on the other side of the Wall, that fenced in the Way up which Christiana and her companions was to go, a garden, and that garden belonged to him whose was that barking Dog, of whom mention was made before. And some of the fruit-trees\u00b0 that grew in that garden, shot their branches over the Wall; and being mellow,\u00b0 they that found them did gather them up and oft eat of them to their hurt. So Christiana's boys, as boys are apt to do, being pleased with the trees, and with the fruit that did hang thereon, did plash\u00b0 them and began to eat. Their mother did also chide them for so doing, but still the boys went on.\n\nThe Devil's Garden.\n\nThe Children eat of the Enemy's Fruit.\n\nWell, said she, my Sons, you transgress, for that fruit is none of ours; but she did not know that they did belong to the Enemy: I'll warrant you, if she had, she would have been ready to die for fear. But that passed, and they went on their Way. Now, by that they were gone about two bows-shot\u00b0 from the place that let them into the Way, they espied two very illfavoured Ones coming down apace to meet them. With that Christiana, and Mercy her friend, covered themselves with their veils, and kept also on their Journey: The Children also went on before; so that at last they met together. Then they that came down to meet them, came just up to the Women, as if they would embrace\" them; but Christiana said, Stand back, or go peaceably by as you should. Yet these two, as men that are deaf, regarded not Christiana's words, but began to lay hands upon them; at that Christiana waxing very wroth,\u00b0 \u00b0 spurned* at them with her feet. Mercy also, as well as she could, did what she could to shift them. Christiana again said to them, Stand back, and be gone, for we have no money to lose, being Pilgrims as ye see, and such too as live upon the Charity of our friends.\n\nTwo Illfavoured Ones.\n\nThey assault Christiana.\n\n**fruit-trees** Alluding to the fruit of the tree of knowledge in the garden of Eden; **mellow** Ripe; **plash** \"Bend down,\" or possibly \"crush\"; **bows-shot** The distance an arrow can be shot from a bow; **embrace** Sexually assault.\n\nIll-Fav. Then said one of the two men, we make no assault upon you for money, but are come out to tell you, that if you will but grant one small request which we shall ask, we will make Women of you\u00b0 for ever.\n\nThe Pilgrims struggle with them.\n\nChrist. Now Christiana imagining what they should mean, made answer again, We will neither hear, nor regard, nor yield to what you shall ask. We are in haste, and cannot stay, our business is a business of Life and Death: So again, she and her companions made a fresh essay to go past them: But they letted\" them in their Way.\n\nIll-Fav. And they said, We intend no hurt to your lives, 'tis another thing we would have.\n\nChrist. Ay, quoth Christiana, you would have us Body and Soul, for I know 'tis for that you are come; but we will die rather upon the spot, than suffer ourselves to be brought into such snares as shall hazard our well-being hereafter. And with that they both shrieked out, and cried, Murder, Murder: And so put themselves under those laws that are provided for the protection of Women.\u00b0 But the men still made their approach upon them, with design to prevail against them. They therefore cried out again.\n\nShe cries out.\n\nDeut. 22. 23, 26,27.\n\nNow, they being, as I said, not far from the Gate, in at which they came, their Voice was heard from where they was, thither: Wherefore some of the house came out, and knowing that it was Christiana's tongue, they made haste to her relief. But by that\u00b0 they was got within sight of them, the women were in a very great scuffle, the children also stood crying by. Then did he that came in for their relief call out to the Ruffians, saying, What is that thing you do? Would you make my Lord's people to transgress? He also attempted to take' them, but they did make their escape over the Wall into the garden of the man to whom the great Dog belonged; so the Dog became their protector. This Reliever then came up to the women, and asked them how they did. So they answered, we thank thy Prince, pretty well, only we have been somewhat af frighted ; we thank thee also, for that thou camest in to our help, for otherwise we had been overcome.\n\n'Tis good to cry out when we are assaulted.\n\n**waxing very wroth** Becoming very angry; spurned Kicked; **make Women of you** Both \"enrich\" and \"rape\"; the ill-favored ones offer money in exchange for sex; **letted** Hindered; **those laws ... Women** The law will prove incapable of saving them; **by that** By that time.\n\nThe Reliever comes.\n\nThe ill Ones fly to the Devil for relief.\n\nReliever. So after a few more words, this Reliever said, as followeth: I marvelled much when you was entertained at the Gate above, being ye knew that ye were but weak women, that you petitioned not the Lord there for a Conductor:\u00b0 then might you have avoided these troubles and dangers; for he would have granted you one.\n\nThe Reliever talks to the women.\n\nChrist. Alas! said Christiana, We were so taken with our present blessing, that dangers to come were forgotten by us; besides, who could have thought, that so near the King's Palace, there should have lurked such naughty\u00b0 ones? Indeed, it had been well for us, had we asked our Lord for one; but since our Lord knew 'twould be for our profit, I wonder he sent not one along with us.\n\nMark this.\n\nRel. It is not always necessary to grant things not asked for, lest by so doing, they become of little esteem; but when the Want* of a thing is felt, it then comes under, in the eyes of him that feels it, that estimate,\u00b0 that properly is its due, and so consequently will be hereafter used. Had my Lord granted you a Conductor, you would not neither so have bewailed that oversight of yours, in not asking for one, as now you have occasion to do. So all things work for good, and tend to make you more wary.\n\nWe lose for want of asking.\n\nChrist. Shall we go back again to my Lord, and confess our folly, and ask one?\n\nRel. Your confession of your folly I will present him with: To go back again, you need not; for in all places where you shall come, you will find no want at all; for in every of my Lord's lodgings, which he has prepared for the reception of his Pilgrims, there is sufficient to furnish them against all attempts whatsoever: But as I said, he will be enquired of by them to do it for them; and it is a poor thing that is not worth asking for. When he had thus said, he went back to his place, and the Pilgrims went on their Way.\n\n**take** Capture; **Conductor** But women, like the congregation in general, need pastoral guidance; **naughty** Wicked; **Want** Lack; **estimate** Price, appraisal.\n\nEzek. 36. 37.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy, What a sudden blank' is here? I made account\u00b0 we had been past all danger, and that we should never sorrow more.\n\nThe mistake of Mercy.\n\nChrist. Thy innocency, my Sister, said Christiana to Mercy, may excuse thee much; but as for me, my fault is so much the greater, for that I saw this danger before I came out of the doors, and yet did not provide for it where provision might ha' been had. I am much therefore to be blamed.\n\nChristiana's Guilt.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy, How knew you this before you came from home? Pray open\u00b0 to me this riddle?\n\nChrist. Why, I will tell you: Before I set foot out of doors, one night, as I lay in my bed, I had a dream about this; for methought I saw two men, as like these as ever the world they could look, stand at my bed's feet, plotting how they might prevent my Salvation. I will tell you their very words: They said, ('twas when I was in my Troubles)\u00b0 What shall we do with this woman? For she cries out waking and sleeping for Forgiveness; if she be suffered to go on as she begins, we shall lose her as we have lost her Husband. This you know might ha' made me take heed, and have provided when Provision might ha' been had.\n\nChristiana's dream repeated.\n\nMercy. Well, said Mercy, As by this neglect we have an occasion ministred unto us, to behold our own imperfections: So our Lord has taken occasion thereby to make manifest the Riches of his Grace; for he, as we see, has followed us with unasked kindness, and has delivered us from their hands that were stronger than we, of his mere good Pleasure.\u00b0\n\nMercy makes good use of their neglect of duty.\n\n**blank** Check, obstacle; **made account** Calculated; **open** Interpret; **Troubles** Spiritual tribulation.\n\nThus now when they had talked away a little more time, they drew nigh to a house which stood in the Way, which house was built for the relief of Pilgrims, as you will find more fully related in the First Part of these Records of the Pilgrims Progress: So they drew on towards the House, (the house of the Interpreter) and when they came to the door, they heard a great talk in the house, they then gave ear, and heard, as they thought, Christiana mentioned by name; for you must know, that there went along even before her, a talk of her and her Children's going on Pilgrimage. And this thing was the more pleasing to them, because they had heard that she was Christian's wife; that woman who was some time ago so unwilling to hear of going on Pilgrimage. Thus, therefore, they stood still, and heard the good people within commending her, who they little thought stood at the door. At last, Christiana knocked, as she had done at the Gate before. Now when she had knocked, there came to the door a young damsel, and opened the door, and looked, and behold, two women were there.\n\nPart 1. p. 35, &c.\n\nTalk in the Interpreter's house about Christiana's going on Pilgrimage.\n\nShe knocks at the Door.\n\nThe Door is opened to them by Innocent.\n\nDamsel. Then said the damsel to them, With whom would you speak in this place?\n\nChrist. Christiana answered, We understand that this is a privileged place for those that are become Pilgrims, and we now at this door are such: Wherefore we pray that we may be partakers of that for which we at this time are come; for the day, as thou seest, is very far spent, and we are loth, to night, to go any further.\n\nDamsel. Pray what may I call your name, that I may tell it to my Lord within?\n\nChrist. My name is Christiana; I was the wife of that Pilgrim that some years ago did travel this Way, and these be his four children. This maiden also is my companion, and is going on Pilgrimage too.\n\n**mere good Pleasure** Pure grace\n\nInnocent. Then ran Innocent in (for that was her name) and said to those within, Can you think who is at the Door? There is Christiana and her Children, and her Companion, all waiting for entertainment here. Then they leaped for joy, and went and told their Master. So he came to the door, and looking upon her, he said, Art thou that Christiana whom Christian the good man left behind him, when he betook himself to a Pilgrim's life?\n\nJoy in the house of the Interpreter, that Christiana is turned Pilgrim.\n\nChrist. I am that woman that was so hard-hearted as to slight my Husband's troubles, and that left him to go on in his Journey alone, and these are his four children; but now I also am come, for I am convinced that no Way is right but this.\n\nMat.21.29.\n\nInterp. Then is fulfilled that which is written of the Man that said to his son, Go work to day in my vineyard; and he said to his Father, I will not; but afterwards repented and went.\n\nChrist. Then said Christiana, So be it, Amen. God make it a true saying upon me, and grant that I may be found at the last of him in peace, without spot, and blameless.\n\nInterp. But why standest thou thus at the door? Come in, thou daughter of Abraham;o we was talking of thee but now, for tidings have come to us before, how thou art become a Pilgrim. Come, children, come in; come, maiden, come in; so he had them all into the house.\n\nSo when they were within, they were bidden sit down and rest them; the which, when they had done, those that attended upon the Pilgrims in the house, came into the room to see them. And one smiled, and another smiled, and they all smiled, for joy that Christiana was become a Pilgrim: They also looked upon the boys; they stroked them over the faces with the hand, in token of their kind reception of them: They also carried if lovingly to Mercy, and bid them all welcome into their Master's house.\n\nOld Saints glad to see the young ones walk in God's ways.\n\nAfter a while, because supper was not ready, the Interpreter took them into his Significant Rooms, and shewed them what Christian, Christiana's Husband, had seen some time before. Here therefore they saw the Man in the Cage, the Man and his Dream, the Man that cut his Way through his Enemies, and the Picture of the biggest of them all, together with the rest of those things that were then so profitable to Christian.\n\n**daughter of Abraham** Chosen one; **carried it** Behaved.\n\nThe Significant Rooms.\n\nThis done, and after these things had been somewhat digested by Christiana and her company, the Interpreter takes them apart again, and has them first into a room, where was a Man that could look no way but downwards, with a muckrake\u00b0 in his hand: There stood also one over his head, with a Coelestial Crown in his hand, and proffered to give him that Crown for his muckrake; but the man did neither look up, nor regard, but raked to himself the straws, the small sticks, and dust of the floor.\n\nThe Man with the muckrake, expounded.\n\nThen said Christiana, I persuade myself, that I know somewhat the meaning of this: For this is a Figure\u00b0 of a man of this World: Is it not, good Sir?\n\nInterp. Thou hast said the right, said he, and his muckrake doth shew his Carnal mind. And whereas thou seest him rather give heed to rake up straws and sticks, and the dust of the floor, than to what he says that calls to him from above, with the Coelestial Crown in his hand; it is to shew, that Heaven is but as a Fable to some, and that things here are counted the only things substantial.\u00b0 Now, whereas, it was also shewed thee, that the man could look no way but downwards: It is to let thee know, that earthly things, when they are with power upon men's minds, quite carry their hearts away from God.\n\nChrist. Then said Christiana, Oh! deliver me from this muckrake.\n\nChristiana's Prayer against the muckrake. Prov. 30. 8.\n\nInterp. That Prayer, said the Interpreter, has lain by 'till it is almost rusty;\u00b0 Give me not Riches, is scarce the prayer of one of ten thousand. Straws and sticks, and dust, with most, are the great things now looked after.\n\n**muckrake** \"A traditional image for avarice\" (Sharrock, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 401). Christian was not shown this image; Bunyan suggests that avarice is a greater problem now than it was before; Figure Symbol; **substantial** Real. The Interpreter describes the growth of philosophical materialism, which he presents as a by-product of avarice; **almost rusty** From lack of use; Bunyan emphasizes the contemporary prevalence of avarice.\n\nWith that Mercy and Christiana wept, and said, It is, alas! too true.\n\nOf the Spider.\n\nWhen the Interpreter had shewed them this, he has them into the very best room in the house; (a very brave room it was) so he bid them look round about, and see if they could find any thing profitable there. Then they looked round and round; for there was nothing to be seen but a very great Spider' on the wall; and that they over-looked.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy, Sir, I see nothing: But Christiana held her peace.\n\nInterp. But said the Interpreter, look again; she therefore looked again, and said, Here is not any thing but an ugly spider, who hangs by her hands upon the wall. Then said he, is there but one spider in all this spacious room? Then the water stood in Christiana's eyes, for she was a woman quick of apprehension : and she said, Yes Lord, there is here more than one. Yea, and Spiders, whose venom is far more destructive than that which is in her. The Interpreter then looked pleasantly upon her, and said, Thou hast said the Truth. This made Mercy blush, and the boys to cover their faces; for they all began now to understand the riddle.\n\nTalk about the Spider.\n\nThen said the Interpreter again, The Spider taketh hold with her hands, as you see, and is in King's Palaces. And wherefore is this recorded, but to shew you, that how full of the venom of Sin soever you be, yet you may, by the hand of Faith, lay hold of and dwell in the best room\u00b0 that belongs to the King's House above.\n\nThe Interpretation. Provo 30. 28.\n\nChrist. I thought, said Christiana, of something of this; but I could not imagine it all. I thought, that we were like spiders, and that we looked like ugly creatures, in what fine room soever we were: But that by this spider, this venomous and illfavoured creature, we were to learn how to act Faith, came not into my mind; and yet she has taken hold with her hands, as I see, and dwells in the best room in the house: God has made nothing in vain.\n\n**the best room** Heaven, where sinners are welcomed, once they acknowledge their sin.\n\nThen they seemed all to be glad; but the water stood in their eyes: Yet they looked one upon another, and also bowed before the Interpreter.\n\nHe had them then into another room, where was a Hen and chickens, and bid them observe a while. So one of the chickens went to the trough to drink, and every time she drank, she lifted up her head, and her eyes towards Heaven. See, said he, what this little chick doth, and learn of her to acknowledge whence your mercies come, by receiving them with looking up. Yet again, said he, observe and look; so they gave heed, and perceived that the Hen did walk in a four-fold method towards her chickens. 1. She had a common call, and that she hath all day long. 2. She had a special call, and that she had but sometimes. 3. She had a brooding note. And, 4. She had an out-cry.\n\nOf the Hen and chickens.\n\nMat. 23. 37.\n\nNow, said he, compare this Hen to your King, and these chickens to his obedient ones. For answerable to\u00b0 her, himself has his methods, which he walketh in towards his People; by his common Call, he gives nothing; by his special Call, he always has something to give; he has also a brooding Voice, for them that are under his Wing; and he has an Out-cry, to give the alarm when he seeth the enemy come. I chose, my darlings, to lead you into the room where such things are, because you are women, and they are easy for you.\n\nChrist. And, Sir, said Christiana, pray let us see some more: So he had them into the slaughter-house, where was a butcher killing a sheep:\u00b0 And behold the sheep was quiet, and took her death patiently. Then said the Interpreter, You must learn of this sheep to suffer, and to put up wrongs without murmurings and complaints. Behold how quietly she takes her death, and without objecting, she suffereth her skin to be pulled over her ears. Your King doth call you his Sheep.\n\nOf the Butcher and the Sheep.\n\n**answerable to** Corresponding to; **sheep** The Bible describes Christ as the \"lamb of God\"; the lamb that God gave to Abraham to sacrifice in place of his son Isaac was a type of Christ.\n\nAfter this, he led them into his Garden, where was great variety of flowers: And he said, Do you see all these? So Christiana said, Yes. Then said he again, Behold the flowers are divers* in stature, in quality, and colour, and smell, and virtue; and some are better than some: Also where the gardener has set them, there they stand, and quarrel not one with another.\n\nOf the Garden.\n\nAgain, he had them into his Field, which he had sowed with wheat and corn: But when they beheld the tops of all was cut off, only the straw remained, he said again, This ground was dunged, and ploughed, and sowed, but what shall we do with the crop? Then said Christiana, burn some and make muck of the rest. Then said the Interpreter again, Fruit,\u00b0 you see, is that thing you look for, and for want of that you condemn it to the Fire, and to be trodden under foot of men: Beware that in this you condemn not yourselves.\n\nOf the Field.\n\nThen as they were coming in from abroad, they espied a little Robin with a great spider in his mouth: So the Interpreter said, look here: So they looked, and Mercy wondered; but Christiana said, What a disparagement\u00b0 is it to such a little pretty bird as the Robin-red-breast is, he being also a bird above many, that loveth to maintain a kind of sociableness with man; I had thought they had lived upon crums of bread, or upon other such harmless matter; I like him worse than I did.\n\nThe Interpreter then replyed, This Robin is an emblem, very apt to set forth\u00b0 some professors by; for to sight they are, as this Robin, pretty of note, colour and carriage: They seem also to have a very great love for professors that are sincere; and above all other to desire to sociate\u00b0 with them, and to be in their company, as if they could live upon the good man's crums: They pretend also, that therefore it is, that they frequent the house of the godly, and the appointments of the Lord: But when they are by themselves, as the Robin, they can catch and gobble up spiders,\" they can change their diet, drink iniquity, and swallow down Sin like water.\n\nOf the Robin and the Spider.\n\n**divers** Diverse, indicating the variety among human beings; **Fruit** The external manifestations of inner faith; **disparagement** Discredit; **set forth** Represent; **sociate** Associate; **spiders** Sins.\n\nSo when they were come again into the house, because supper as yet was not ready, Christiana again desired that the Interpreter would either shew or tell of some other things that are profitable.\n\nPray, and you will get at that which yet lies unrevealed.\n\nThen the Interpreter began\u00b0 and said: The fatter the Sow is, the more she desires the mire; the fatter the Ox is, the more gamesomely he goes to the slaughter; and the more healthy the lusty' man is, the more prone he is unto Evil.\n\nThere is a desire in Women to go neat and fine, and it is a comely thing to be adorned with that, that in God's sight is of great Price.\n\n'Tis easier watching a night or two, than to sit up a whole Year together: So 'tis easier for one to begin to profess well, than to hold out as he should to the End.\n\nEvery Ship-master, when in a Storm, will willingly cast that over-board that is of the smallest value in the vessel; but who will throw the Best out first? None but he that feareth not God.\n\nOne Leak will sink a Ship, and one Sin will destroy a Sinner.\n\nHe that forgets his friend, is ungrateful unto him; but he that forgets his Saviour, is unmerciful to himself.\n\nHe that lives in Sin, and looks for happiness hereafter, is like him that soweth cockle,\u00b0 and thinks to fill his barn with wheat or barley.\n\nIf a man would live well, let him fetch his last day to him, and make it always his Company-keeper.\n\nWhispering and change of thoughts, proves that Sin is in the World.\n\nIf the World, which God sets light by, is counted a thing of that worth with men, what is Heaven that God commendeth?\n\nIf the Life that is attended with so many Troubles, is so loth to be let go by us, what is the Life above?\n\nEvery body will cry up the Goodness of men; but who is there, that is, as he should, affected with the Goodness of God?\n\nWe seldom sit down to meat, but we eat, and leave: So there is in Jesus Christ, more Merit and Righteousness, than the whole World has need of.\n\n**the Interpreter began** The following series of metaphors recalls the book of Proverbs, as well as the parables of Jesus; **lusty** Strong; **cockle** A species of weed.\n\nWhen the Interpreter had done, he takes them out into his Garden again, and had them to a Tree, whose inside was all rotten and gone, and yet it grew and had leaves. Then said Mercy, What means this? This tree, said he, whose outside is fair, and whose inside is rotten, it is, to which many may be compared that are in the Garden of God: Who with their mouths speak high in behalf of God, but indeed will do nothing for him; whose leaves are fair, but their Heart good for nothing but to be tinder for the Devil's tinder-box.\u00b0\n\nOf the Tree that is rotten at heart.\n\nNow supper was ready, the table spread, and all things set on the board; so they sat down and did eat, when one had given thanks. And the Interpreter did usually entertain those that lodged with him with musick at meals; so the minstrels played. There was also one that did sing, and a very fine voice he had. His Song was this:\n\nThe Lord is only my support, And he that doth me feed;\n\nHow can I then want any thing. 4Vhereof I stand in Need?\n\nThey are at supper.\n\nWhen the song and musick was ended, the Interpreter asked Christiana, What it was that at first did move her thus to betake herself to a Pilgrim's life? Christiana answered, First, the loss of my Husband came into my mind, at which I was heartily grieved; but all that was natural' affection. Then, after that came the troubles and Pilgrimage of my Husband into my mind, and also how like a churl\u00b0 I had carried it to him as to that. So Guilt took hold of my mind, and would have drawn me into the pond;\u00b0 but that opportunely I had a dream of the well-being of my Husband, and a Letter sent me by the King of that country where my Husband dwells to come to him. The dream and the Letter together so wrought upon my mind, that they forced me to this Way.\n\nTalk at supper. A Repetition of Christiana's Experience.\n\n**tinder-box** Used to strike a light; **natural** Pertaining to the flesh; **churl** Brute. Christian's empathy with her husband replaces her selfish grief at having lost him; **So Guilt... into the pond** Note the elision of the mental and physical dimensions.\n\nInterp. But met you with no Opposition before you set out of doors?\n\nChrist. Yes, a neighbour of mine, one Mrs. Timorous, (she was akin to him that would have persuaded my Husband to go back, for fear of the Lions.) She also befooled me,\u00b0 for, as she called it, my intended desperate\u00b0 adventure; she also urged what she could to dishearten me to it, the hardship and troubles that my Husband met with in the Way; but all this I got over pretty well. But a dream that I had of two ill-look'd Ones, that I thought did plot how to make me miscarry in my Journey, that hath troubled me much: Yea, it still runs in my mind, and makes me afraid of every one that I meet, lest they should meet me to do me a mischief, and to turn me out of the Way. Yea, I may tell my Lord, tho' I would not every body know it, that between this and the Gate by which we got into the Way, we were both so sorely assaulted, that we were made to cry out Murder; and the two that made this assault upon us, were like the two that I saw in my dream.\n\nThen said the Interpreter, Thy beginning is Good, thy latter end shall greatly increase. So he addressed himself to Mercy, and said unto her, And what moved thee to come hither, Sweet-heart?\n\nA Question put to Mercy.\n\nMercy. Then Mercy blushed and trembled, and for a while continued silent.\n\nInterp. Then said he, Be not afraid, only believe, and speak thy mind.\n\nMercy. So she began, and said, Truly, Sir, my want of experience is that, that makes me covet to be in silence, and that also that fills me with Fears of coming short at last. I cannot tell of Visions and Dreams,\u00b0 as my friend Christiana can: Nor They address themselves for bed. know I what it is to mourn for my refusing of the counsel of those that were good relations.\n\nMercy's Answer.\n\n**akin** Related; **befooled me** Called me a fool; **desperate** Hopeless; **I cannot tell of Visions and Dreams** Mercy has not received Christian's direct inspiration, but this is no bar to her salvation.\n\nInterp. What was it then, dear heart, that hath prevailed with thee to do as thou hast done?\n\nMercy. Why, when our friend here was packing up to be gone from our Town; I and another went accidentally' to see her. So we knocked at the Door, and went in. When we were within, and seeing what she was doing, we asked what was her meaning? She said, she was sent for to go to her Husband; and then she up and told us how she had seen him in a dream, dwelling in a curious Place, among Immortals, wearing a Crown, playing upon a Harp, eating and drinking at his Prince's Table, and singing Praises to him for bringing him thither, e'rc. Now methought while she was telling these things unto us, my heart burned within me. And I said in my heart, If this be true, I will leave my Father and my Mother, and the land of my nativity, and will, if I may, go along with Christiana.\n\nSo I asked her further of the Truth of these things, and if she would let me go with her; for I saw now, that there was no dwelling, but with the danger of Ruin, any longer in our town. But yet I came away with a heavy heart, not for that I was unwilling to come away, but for that so many of my relations were left behind. And I am come with all the desire of my heart, and will go if I may, with Christiana, unto her Husband and his King.\n\nInterp. Thy setting out is Good, for thou hast given credit to the Truth; thou art a Ruth, who did for the love that she bore to Naomi, and to the Lord her God, leave Father and Mother, and the land of her nativity, to come out and go with a People that she knew not heretofore, Ruth 2. n, 12. The LORD recompence thy work, and a full reward be given thee of the LORD GOD of Israel, under whose Wings thou art come to trust.\n\nNow supper was ended, and preparations was made for bed, the women were laid singly alone, and the boys by themselves. Now when Mercy was in bed, she could not sleep for joy, for that now her doubts, of missing* at last, were removed further from her than ever they were before; so she lay blessing and praising God, who had such favour for her.\n\n**accidentally** By chance.\n\nIn the morning they arose with the sun, and prepared themselves for their departure; but the Interpreter would have them tarry a while, for said he, you must orderly\u00b0 go from hence. Then said he to the damsel that at first opened unto \u00b0 and there wash them, and make them clean from the Soil, which they have gathered by travelling. Then Innocent the damsel took them, and had them into the Garden, and brought them to the Bath; so she told them, that there they must wash and be clean, for so her Master would have the women to do, that called at his house as they were going on Pilgrimage. They then went in and washed, yea, they and the boys and all; and they came out of that Bath, not only sweet and clean, but also much enlivened and strengthened in their joints. So when they came in, they looked fairer a deal, than when they went out to the washing.\n\nMercy's good night's rest.\n\nThe Bath of Sanctification.\n\nThey wash in it.\n\nWhen they were returned out of the Garden from the Bath, the Interpreter took them, and looked upon them, and said unto them, Fair as the Moon. Then he called for the Seal, wherewith they used to be sealed that were washed in his Bath. So the Seal was brought, and he set his Mark upon them, that they might be known in the places whither they were yet to go: Now the Seal was the contents and sum of the Passover which the children of Israel did eat, when they came out from the land of Egypt; and the Mark was set between their eyes. This Seal greatly added to their beauty, for it was an ornament to their faces. It also added to their gravity, and made their countenance more like them of Angels.\n\nThey are sealed.\n\nExod. 13. 8, 9, 10.\n\nThen said the Interpreter again to the damsel that waited upon these Women, Go into the vestry and fetch out Gar- ments for these people: So she went and fetched out White Raiment, and laid it down before him; so he commanded them to put it on. It was fine Linen white and clean. When the women were thus adorned, they seemed to be a terror one to the other; for that they could not see that Glory each one on herself, which they could see in each other. Now therefore they began to esteem each other better than themselves. For you are fairer than I am, said one; and you are more comely than I am, said another. The children also stood amazed, to see into what fashion they were brought.\n\n**missing** Missing her aim, missing out on salvation; **orderly** In proper order, having received the sacrament of baptism; **vestry** The storehouse and dressing-room in a church.\n\nThey are clothed.\n\nTrue Humility.\n\nThe Interpreter then called for a man-servant of his, one Great-heart, and bid him take Sword, and Helmet, and Shield, and take these my daughters, said he, and conduct them to the house called Beautiful, at which place they will rest next. So he took his weapons and went before them; and the Interpreter said, God speed. Those also that belonged to the family, sent them away with many a good wish. So they went on their Way, and sang;\n\n _This place has been our second stage, \nHere we have heard, and seen \nThose good things, that from Age to Age \nTo others hid have been._\n\n_The Dunghill-raker, Spider, Hen, \nThe Chicken too, to me, \nHath taught a lesson, let me then \nConformed to it be_.\n\n_The Butcher, Garden, and the Field, \nThe Robin, and his bait, \nAlso the rotten Tree doth yield \nMe argument of weight;_\n\nT _o move me for to Watch and Pray, \nTo strive to be sincere; \nTo take my Cross up day by day, \nAnd serve the Lord with fear._\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that they went on, and Greatheart went before them; so they went and came to the place where Christian's Burden fell off his back, and tumbled into a Sepulchre. Here then they made a pause; and here also they blessed God. Now, said Christiana, it comes to my mind, what was said to us at the Gate, to wit, that we should have Pardon by Word and Deed; by word, that is, by the Promise; by Deed, to wit, in the Way it was obtained. What the Promise is, of that I know something: But what is it to have Pardon by deed, or in the Way that it was obtained? Mr. Great-heart, I suppose you know; therefore, if you please, let us hear your discourse thereof.\n\nPart I. page 4.\n\nGreat-heart. Pardon by the Deed done, is pardon obtained by some one for another that hath need thereof: Not by the person pardoned, but in the Way, saith another, in which I have obtained it. So then to speak to the question more at large, the pardon that you and Mercy, and these boys have attained, was obtained by another;\" to wit, by him that let you in at the Gate: and he hath obtained it in this double way; he has performed Righteousness to cover you, and spilt Blood to wash you in.\n\nA Comment upon what was said at the Gate, or a Discourse of our being justified by Christ.\n\nChrist. But if he parts with his Righteousness to us, what will he have for himself?\n\nGreat-heart. He has more Righteousness than you have Need of, or than he needeth himself.\n\nChrist. Pray make that appear. \u00b0\n\nGreat-heart. With all my heart; but first I must premise, that he of whom we are now about to speak, is One that has not his fellow: He has two Natures in one Person, plain to be distinguish'd, impossible to be divided. Unto each of these natures a righteousness belongeth, and each righteousness is essential to that nature. So that one may as easily cause the nature to be extinct, as to separate its Justice or Righteousness from it. Of these righteousnesses therefore we are not made partakers, so as that they, or any of them, should be put upon us, that we might be made Just, and lively* thereby. Besides these, there is a righteousness which this Person has, as these two natures are joined in one. And this is not the righteousness of the God-head, as distinguished from the Manhood; nor the righteousness of the Manhood, as distinguished from the God-head, but a righteousness which standeth\u00b0 in the Union of both natures; and may properly be called the righteousness that is essential to his being prepared of God to the capacity of the Mediatory Office,\u00b0 which he was to be entrusted with. If he parts with his first righteousness, he parts with his God-head: If he parts with his second righteousness, he parts with the Purity of his Manhood: If he parts with his third, he parts with that Perfection that capacitates him to the office of Mediation. He has therefore another righteousness, which standeth in Performance, or obedience to a revealed Will: And that is it that he puts upon\u00b0 Sinners, and that by which their Sins are covered. Wherefore he saith, As by one man's Disobedience, many were made Sinners: So by the Obedience of one, shall many be made Righteous.\n\n**obtained by another** Righteousness is imputed by Christ, not earned by human works; **appear** Clear.\n\nRom. 5. 1i9.\n\nChrist. But are the other righteousnesses of no Use to us?\n\nGreat-heart. Yes; for though they are essential to his Natures and Office, and so cannot be communicated unto another, yet it is by virtue of them, that the righteousness that justifies, is for that purpose efficacious. The righteousness of his God-head gives Virtue\u00b0 to his obedience; the righteousness of his Manhood giveth Capability to his obedience to justify, and the righteousness that standeth in the union of these two Natures to his Office, giveth Authority to that righteousness to do the work for which it was ordained.\n\nSo then here is a righteousness that Christ, as God, has no need of; for he is God without it: Here is a righteousness, that Christ, as Man, has no need of, to make him so, for he is perfect Man without it. Again, here is a righteousness, that Christ, as God-man, has no need of; for he is perfectly so without it. Here then is a righteousness, that Christ, as God, as man and as God-man, has no need of, with reference to himself, and therefore he can spare it a justifying righteousness, that he for himself wanteth not, and therefore he giveth it away: Hence it is called the Gift of Righteousness. This righteousness, since Christ Jesus the Lord has made himself under the Law, must be given away; for the Law doth not only bind him that is under it, to do justdy, but to use Charity.\u00b0 Wherefore he must, he ought by the Law, if he hath two Coats, to give one to him that hath none. Now our Lord indeed hath two Coats, one for himself, and one to spare: Wherefore he freely bestows one upon those that have none; and thus, Christiana and Mercy, and the rest of you that are here, doth your Pardon come by Deed, or by the work of another man. Your Lord Christ is he that has worked, and has given away what he wrought* for, to the next poor beggar he meets.\n\n**lively** Alive; **standeth** Consists; **Mediatory Office** Christ is the mediator between God and man; **puts upon** Imputes to; **Virtue** Power.\n\nRom. 5.17.\n\nBut again, in order to pardon by Deed, there must something be paid to God as a Price, as well as something prepared to cover us withal. Sin has delivered us up to the just Curse of a righteous Law: Now from this curse we must be justified by way of Redemption, a Price being paid for the harms we have done; and this is by the Blood of your Lord, who came and stood in your place and stead, and died your Death for your Transgressions: Thus has he ransomed you from your transgressions, by Blood, and covered your polluted and deformed Souls with Righteousness: For the sake of which, God passeth by you,\u00b0 and will not hurt you, when he comes to judge the world.\n\nRom. 4. 24. Gal. 3.13.\n\nChrist. This is brave:\" Now I see that there was something to be learned by our being pardoned by Word and Deed. Good Mercy, let us labour to keep this in mind; and, my children, do you remember it also. But, Sir, was not this it that made my good Christian's Burden fall from off his shoulder, and that made him give three leaps for Joy?\n\nChristiana affected with this Way of Redemption.\n\n**Charity** Charity is part of the law, since it is enjoined by the law; **wrought** Worked; **God passeth by you** The Jewish feast of Passover is the Old Testament type of redemption by Christ; **brave** Splendid.\n\nGreat-heart. Yes, 'twas the Belief of this that cut out those strings, that could not be cut by other means; and 'twas to give him a proof of the virtue of this, that he was suffer'd\u00b0 to carry his Burden to the Cross.\n\nHow the Strings that bound Christian's Burden to him were cut.\n\nChrist. I thought so; for tho' my heart was lightful and joyous before, yet it is ten times more lightsome and joyous now. And I am persuaded by what I have felt, tho' I have felt but little as yet, that if the most burdened man in the world was here, and did see and believe as I now do, 'twould make his heart the more merry and blithe.\n\nGreat-heart. There is not only Comfort, and the Ease of a Burden brought to us, by the sight and consideration of these, but an endeared Affection begot in us by it: For who can (if he doth but once think that Pardon comes not only by Promise, but thus)\u00b0 but be affected with the way and means of Redemption, and so with the Man that hath wrought it for him?\n\nHow Affection to Christ is begot in the Soul.\n\nChrist. True; methinks it makes my heart bleed to think that he should bleed for me. Oh! thou loving One: Oh! thou blessed One. Thou deservest to have me; thou hast bought0 me: Thou deservest to have me all; thou hast paid for me ten thousand times more than I am worth. No marvel that this made the water stand in my Husband's eyes, and that it made him trudge so nimbly on: I am persuaded he wished me with him; but vile wretch that I was, I let him come all alone. 0 Mercy, that thy Father and Mother were here; yea, and Mrs. Timorous also: Nay, I wish now with all my heart, that here was Madam Wanton too. Surely, surely, their hearts would be affected; nor could the Fear of the one, nor the powerful Lusts of the other, prevail with them to go home again, and to refuse to become good Pilgrims.\n\nPart I. page 45.\n\nCause of Admiration.\n\nGreat-heart. You speak now in the warmth of your affections:\u00b0 Will it, think you, be always thus with you? Besides, this is not communicated to every one, nor to every one that did see your JESUS bleed. There was that\u00b0 stood by, and that saw the Blood run from the Heart to the ground, and yet were so far off this, that instead of lamenting, they laugh'd at him; and instead of becoming his Disciples, did harden their hearts against him: So that all that you have, my daughters, you have by a peculiar\u00b0 impression made by a divine contemplating upon what I have spoken to you. Remember that 'twas told you, that the Hen, by her common call, gives no meat to her Chickens.\u00b0 This you have therefore by a special Grace.\n\n**suffer'd** Allowed; **not only by Promise, but thus** Another dig at the Quakers, who denied the efficacy of the historical Crucifixion; **bought** Redeemed ; **affections** Passions; **There was that** There were some who.\n\nTo be affected with Christ, and with what he has done, is a thing Special.\n\nNow I saw still in my dream, That they went on until they were come to the place, that Simple, and Sloth, and Presumption, lay and slept in, when Christian went by on Pilgrimage: And behold they were hanged up in irons a little way off on the other side.\n\nSimple, Sloth and Presumption hanged, and why.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy to him that was their Guide and conductor, What are those three men? And for what are they hanged there?\n\nGreat-heart. These three men were men of very bad qualities ; they had no mind to be Pilgrims themselves, and whosoever they could, they hinder'd; they were for sloth and folly themselves, and whosoever they could persuade with, they made so too; and withal taught them to presume that they should do well at last. They were asleep when Christian went by, and now you go by, they are hanged.\n\nTheir Crimes.\n\nMercy. But could they persuade any one to be of their opinion?\n\nGreat-heart. Yes, they turned several out of the Way. There was Slow-pace that they persuaded to do as they; they also prevailed with one Short-wind, with one No-heart, with one Linger-after-Lust, and with one Sleepy-head, and with a young woman, her name was Dull, to turn out of the Way and become as they. Besides, they brought up an ill report of your Lord, persuading others that he was a task-Master.\u00b0 They also brought up an Evil report of the good Land, saying, it was not half so good as some pretended it was. They also began to villify his Servants, and to count the very best of them meddlesome, troublesome busy-bodies: Further, they would call the Bread of God Husks; the Comforts of his Children Fancies; the travel and labour of Pilgrims, Things to no Purpose.\n\nWhom they prevailed upon to turn out of the Way.\n\n**peculiar** Special; **the Hen... Chickens** That is, there is no general salvation offered to the human race as a whole; a **task-Master** Luther protests against those who depict Christ as a harsh, judgmental master in his Commentary on Galatians (1535).\n\nthe Slothful are a sign Such editorial pointers grow more common as the pilgrimage progresses.\n\nBEHOLD HERE, HOW THE SLOTHFUL ARE A SIGN\u00b0 \nHUNG UP, 'CAUSE HOLY WAYS THEY DID DECLINE: \nSEE HERE TOO, HOW THE CHILD DOTH PLAY THE MAN, \nAND _WEAK_ GROWS STRONG, WHEN _GREAT-HEART_ LEADS THE VAN.\n\nChrist. Nay, said _Christiana,_ if they were such, they shall never be bewailed by me; they have but what they deserve; and I think it is well that they hang so near the highway, that others may see and take Warning. But had it not been well if their crimes had been engraven in some plate of Iron or Brass, and left here, even where they did their mischiefs, for a caution to other bad men?\n\nGreat-heart. So it is, as you may well perceive, if you will go a little to the Wall.\n\nMercy. No, no; let them hang, and their names rot, and their Crimes live for ever against them: I think it a high favour that they were hanged afore we came hither; Who knows else what they might ha' done to such poor women as we are? Then she turned it into a Song, saying,\n\nNow then you three hang there, and be a Sign \nTo _all_ that _shall against_ the Truth combine. \nAnd let him that comes _after,_ fear this End, \nIf unto Pilgrims he is not _a_ Friend. \nAnd thou, my Soul, _of all_ such men beware, \nThat unto Holiness _opposers are._\n\nThus they went on, till they came at the foot of the Hill Difficulty, where again their good Friend, Mr. Great-heart, took an occasion to tell them of what happened there when Christian himself went by. So he had them first to the Spring; Lo, saith he, this is the Spring that Christian drank of before he went up this Hill, and then 'twas clear and good, but now 'tis dirty\u00b0 with the feet of some that are not desirous that Pilgrims here should quench their thirst: Thereat Mercy said,\n\nPart 1. p. 50.\n\nEzek. 34. 18. 'Tis difficult getting of good Doctrine _in_ erroneous Times.\n\n**now'tis dirty** True doctrine has been polluted by the erroneous religion in fashion during the Restoration.\n\nBy-paths, tho' barred up, will not keep all from going in them.\n\nProv. 13.15.\n\nJer. 44. 16, 17.\n\nThe reason why some do choose to go in _By-ways._ Prov. 15.19.\n\nAnd why so envious _trow?\u00b0_ But, said the Guide, it will do, if taken up and put into a Vessel that is sweet and good;\u00b0 for then the dirt will sink to the bottom, and the water come out by itself more clear. Thus therefore _Christiana_ and her companions were compelled to do. They took it up and put it into an earthen pot, and so let it stand till the dirt was gone to the bottom, and then they drank thereof.\n\nNext he shewed them the two _by-ways_ that were at the foot of the Hill, where _Formality\u00b0_ and Hypocrisy lost themselves. And, said he, these are dangerous paths: Two were here cast away when Christian came by; and although as you see these ways are since stopped up with Chains, Posts, and a Ditch, yet there are that will choose to adventure here, rather than take the pains to go up this Hill.\n\nChrist. The Way of transgressors is hard. 'Tis a wonder that they can get into those ways without danger of breaking their necks.\n\n_Great-heart._ They will venture, yea, if at any time any of the King's servants doth happen to see them, and doth call upon them, and tell them, that they are in the wrong ways, and do bid them beware the danger; then they will railingly\u00b0 return them answer, and say, As for the Word that thou _hast_ spoken unto us in the Name of the King, we will not hearken unto thee; but we will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth out of our own mouths, &c. Nay, if you look a little farther, you shall see that these ways are made cautionary enough, not only by these Posts, and Ditch, and Chain, but also by being hedged up: Yet they will choose to go there.\n\nChrist. They are Idle; they love not to take pains; up-hill Way is unpleasant to them: So it is fulfilled unto them as it is Written, The way of the Slothful Man is a Hedge of Thorns. Yea, they will rather choose to walk upon a Snare, than to go up this Hill, and the rest of this Way to the City.\n\n**trow** Do you think; **a Vessel that is sweet and good** Titus 1:15: \"Unto the pure all things are pure\" (KJV); **Formality** In part one, this character is called \"Formalist\"; **railingly** Angrily.\n\nThen they set forward, and began to go up the Hill, and up the Hill they went; but before they got to the top, _Christiana_ began to pant, and said, I dare say; this is a breathing Hill;\u00b0 no marvel if they that love their Ease more than their Souls, choose to themselves a smoother way. Then said Mercy, I must sit down; also the least\u00b0 of the children began to cry. Come, come, said _Great-heart,_ sit not down here, for a little above is the Prince's Arbour. Then took he the little boy by the hand, and led him up thereto.\n\nWhen they were come to the Arbour, they were very willing to sit down, for they were all in a pelting\u00b0 heat. Then said _Mercy,_ How sweet is Rest to them that labour? And how good is the Prince of Pilgrims to provide such resting places for them? Of this Arbour I have heard much; but I never saw it before: But here let us beware of Sleeping; for as I have heard, for that it cost poor Christian dear.\n\nThen said Mr. _Great-heart_ to the little ones, Come, my pretty boys, how do you do? What think you now of going on Pilgrimage? Sir, said the least, I was almost beat out of heart;\u00b0 but I thank you for lending me a hand at my need; and I remember now what my mother has told me, namely, that the Way to Heaven is as a ladder, and the Way to Hell is as down a hill. But I had rather go up the ladder to Life, than down the hill to Death.\n\nThen said Mercy, But the proverb is, To go down the hill is easy: But _James_ 24 said, (for that was his name) The Day is coming, when in my opinion, going down the Hill will be the hardest of _all._ 'Tis a good boy, said his Master, thou hast given her a right answer. Then Mercy smiled, but the little boy did blush.\n\nThe Hill puts the Pilgrims to it.\n\nThey sit _in_ the Arbour Part _1._ p. 50. Mat. 11. 28.\n\nThe little boy's _answer_ to the Guide, and _also_ to Mercy.\n\nWhich is hardest, up hill or down hill.\n\nThey refresh themselves.\n\n**a breathing Hill** A hill that makes one breathe heavily; **the least** The youngest; **pelting** Sweating; **beat out of heart** Disheartened, exhausted.\n\nChristiana forgets her bottle of Spirits.\n\nMark this.\n\nPart I. p. 53, 54.\n\nChrist. Come, said _Christiana,_ will you eat a bit; a little to sweeten your mouths while you sit here to rest your legs? For I have here a piece of pomegranate, which Mr. Interpreter put into my hand just when I came out of his doors; he gave me also a piece of an honey-comb, and a little bottle of spirits;\u00b0 I thought he gave you something, said Mercy, because he called you aside. Yes, so he did, said the other; but, Mercy, it shall be still as I said it should, when at first we came from home; thou shalt be a sharer in all the good that I have, because thou so willingly didst become my companion. Then she gave to them, and they did eat, both Mercy and the boys. And said _Christiana_ to Mr. _Great-heart,_ Sir, will you do as we? But he answered, You are going on Pilgrimage, and presently I shall return; much good may what you have do to you; at home I eat the same every day. Now, when they had eaten and drank, and had chatted a little longer, their Guide said to them, The day wears away, if you think good, let us prepare to be going. So they got up to go, and the little boys went before; But _Christiana_ forgat to take her bottle of spirits with her; so she sent her little boy back to fetch it. Then said Mercy, I think this is a losing place. Here Christian lost his Roll; and here _Christiana_ left her bottle behind her; Sir, what is the Cause of this? So their Guide made answer, and said, the cause is Sleep, or Forgetfulness; some sleep when they should keep _awake,_ and some forget when they should remember; and this is the very cause, why often at the resting places, some Pilgrims, in some things, come off losers. Pilgrims should watch, and remember what they have already received under their greatest enjoyments; but for want of doing so, ofttimes their rejoicing ends in tears, and their sun-shine in a Cloud; witness the story of Christian at this place.\n\n**spirits** Figural rather than literal; the term \"spirits\" came to be applied to liquor via the experiments of alchemists, who tried to \"spiritualize\" matter; **Stage** \"Platform,\" but also \"point in a journey\"; **plate** Plaque.\n\nWhen they were come to the place where Mistrust and Timorous met Christian to persuade him to go back for fear of the Lions, they perceived as it were a Stage,\u00b0 and before it, towards the road, a broad plate,\u00b0 with a copy of verses written thereon, and underneath, the reason of raising up of that Stage in that place, rendered. The Verses were these:\n\nLet him that sees this Stage, take heed \nUnto his Heart _and_ Tongue: \nLest if he do not, here he speed \nAs some have long _agone._\n\nThe words underneath the verses were, This Stage was built to punish such upon, who, through Timorousness or Mistrust, _shall be afraid_ to go further on Pilgrimage: Also on this Stage, both Mistrust _and_ Timorous were burnt through the tongue with _a_ hot _Iron,\u00b0_ for endeavouring to hinder Christian on his Journey.\n\nThen said Mercy, This is much like to the saying of the Beloved, What _shall be_ given unto thee? Or what _shall_ be done unto thee, thou false tongue? sharp _arrows_ of the Mighty, with coals _of juniper._\n\nSo they went on, till they came within sight of the Lions. Now Mr. Great-heart was a strong man, so he was not afraid of a Lion: But yet, when they were come up to the place where the Lions, were the boys that went before, were glad to cringe behind, for they were afraid of the Lions, so they stept back, and went behind. At this, their Guide smiled, and said; How now, my boys, do you love to go before when no danger doth approach ; and love to come behind so soon as the Lions appear?\n\nNow, as they went up, Mr. Great-heart drew his Sword, with intent to make a Way for the Pilgrims in spite of the Lions. Then there appeared one that, it seems, had taken upon him to back the Lions; and he said to the Pilgrims Guide, What is the cause of your coming hither? Now the name of that man was Grim, (or _Bloody-Man,)_ _26_ because of his slaying of Pilgrims, and he was of the race of the Giants.\n\n_Great-heart._ Then said the Pilgrims Guide, These women and children are going on Pilgrimage, and this is the Way they must go, and go it they shall, in spite of thee and the Lions.\n\nGrim. This is not their way, neither shall they go therein. I am come forth to withstand them, and to that end will back the Lions.\n\nPsal. 120, 3, 4.\n\nPart I. \u03c1. 55.\n\nAn Emblem of those that go on bravely when there is no danger, but shrink when Troubles come.\n\nOf Grim the Giant, _and_ of his backing the Lions.\n\n**burnt** ... **a hot Iron** A common punishment for blasphemers; the persecuted turn persecutors.\n\nJudges 5. 6, 7.\n\nA Fight betwixt Grim _and_ Great-heart.\n\nThe Victory.\n\nThey pass by the Lions.\n\nNow, to say the truth, by reason of the fierceness of the Lions, and of the grim carriage of him that did back them, this Way had of late lain much unoccupied, and was almost all grown over with grass.\n\nChrist. Then said _Christiana,_ though the High-ways have been unoccupied heretofore,\u00b0 and tho' the Travellers have been made in times past to walk through By-paths, it must not be so now I am risen, Now _I am_ risen _a_ Mother _in_ Israel.\n\nGrim. Then he swore by the Lions, but it should,\u00b0 and therefore bid them turn aside, for they should not have passage there.\n\nGreat-heart. But their Guide made first his approach unto Grim, and laid so heavily at him with his Sword, that he forced him to a retreat.\n\nGrim. Then said he, (that attempted to back the Lions) Will you slay me upon mine own ground?\u00b0\n\nGreat-heart. 'Tis the King's high-way\u00b0 that we are in, and in this Way it is that thou hast placed thy Lions; but these women, and these children, tho' weak, shall hold on their Way in spite of thy Lions. And with that he gave him again a down-right blow, and brought him upon his knees. With this blow he also broke his helmet, and with the next he cut off an arm. Then did the Giant roar so hideously, that his voice frighted the women, and yet they were glad to see him lie sprawling upon the ground. Now the Lions were chained, and so of themselves could do nothing. Wherefore, when old Grim, that intended to back them, was dead, Mr. Great-heart said to the Pilgrims, Come now, and follow me, and no hurt shall happen to you from the Lions. They therefore went on, but the women trembled as they passed by them; the boys also looked as if they would die, but they all got by without further hurt.\n\n**heretofore** Up until now; **but it should** That it should be so; **upon mine own ground** Like Giant Despair, Grim insists on his property rights; **the King's high-way** Great-heart stresses the separation of church and state; the civil authority has no power over the conscience.\n\nNow, then, they were within sight of the Porter's Lodge, and they soon came up unto it; but they made the more haste after this to go thither, because 'tis dangerous travelling there in the night. So when they were come to the Gate, the Guide knocked, and the Porter cry'd, Who is there? but as soon as the Guide had said, It is _I,_ he knew his voice, and came down; (for the Guide had oft before that come thither as a Conductor of Pilgrims) when he was come down, he opened the Gate, and seeing the Guide standing just before it, (for he saw not the women, for they were behind him) he said unto him, How now, Mr. Great-heart, what is your business here so late to-night ? I have brought, said he, some Pilgrims hither, where, by my Lord's commandment, they must lodge: I had been here some time ago, had I not been opposed by the Giant that did use to back the Lions; but I, after a long and tedious combat with him, have cut him off, and have brought the Pilgrims hither in safety.\n\nPorter. Will you not go in, and stay till morning?\n\nGreat-heart. No, I will return to my Lord to-night.\n\nChrist. Oh, Sir, I know not how to be willing you should leave us in our Pilgrimage, you have been so faithful and so loving to us, you have fought so stoutly for us, you have been so hearty in counselling of us, that I shall never forget your favour towards us.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy, _O_ that we might have thy company to our Journey's end! How can such poor women as we, hold out in a Way so full of troubles as this Way is, without a Friend and Defender?\n\nJames. Then said James, the youngest of the boys, Pray, Sir, be persuaded to go with us, and help us, because we are so weak, and the Way so dangerous as it is.\n\nGreat-heart. I am at my Lord's commandment: If he shall allot me to be your Guide quite through, I will willingly wait upon you; but here you failed at first; for when he bid me come thus far with you, then you should have begged me of him to have gone quite through\u00b0 with you, and he would have granted your request. However at present I must withdraw, and so, good _Christiana,_ Mercy, and my brave children, Adieu.\n\nThey come to the _Porter's_ Lodge.\n\nGreat-heart _attempts_ to go back.\n\nThe Pilgrims implore his company still.\n\nHelp lost for want _of_ asking _for._\n\n**quite through** All the way.\n\nPart I. p. 55. Christiana makes herself known to the Porter; he tells it to _a_ damsel.\n\nJoy _at_ the noise of the Pilgrims coming.\n\nChristians' Love is kindled _at_ the sight of one _another._\n\nExod. 12. 3-8. John 1.29.\n\nThen the Porter, Mr. Watchful, asked _Christiana_ of her country, and of her kindred, and she said, I came from the City of Destruction; _I am a_ widow woman, _and_ my husband is dead, his name was Christian the Pilgrim. How, said the Porter, was he your husband? Yes, said she, and these are his Children; and this, pointing to Mercy, is one of my town's-women. Then the Porter rang his bell, as at such times he is wont, and there came to the door one of the damsels, whose name was _Humble-mind._ And to her the Porter said, Go tell it within, that _Christiana,_ the Wife of Christian, and her Children are come hither on Pilgrimage. She went in therefore, and told it. But, oh, what a noise for Gladness was there, when the damsel did but drop that word out of her mouth!\n\nSo they came with haste to the Porter, for _Christiana_ stood still at the door. Then some of the most grave said unto her, Come _in,_ Christiana, come in, thou _Wife_ of that good Man; come in, thou blessed woman, come _in,_ with _all_ that _are_ with thee. So she went in, and they followed her that were her children and her companions. Now, when they were gone in, they were had into a very large room, where they were bidden to sit down: So they sat down, and the Chief of the House\u00b0 was called to see and welcome the guests. Then they came in, and understanding who they were, did salute each other with a kiss, and said, Welcome, ye vessels of the Grace of God; Welcome to us your faithful Friends.\n\nNow, because it was somewhat late, and because the Pilgrims were weary with their Journey, and also made faint with the sight of the fight, and of the terrible Lions, therefore they desired, as soon as might be, to prepare to go to Rest. Nay, said those of the Family, refresh yourselves with a morsel of meat: For they had prepared for them a Lamb, with the accustomed Sauce belonging thereto. For the Porter had heard before of their coming, and had told it to them within. So when they had supped, and ended their Prayer with a Psalm, they desired they might go to rest. But let us, said _Christiana,_ if we may be so bold as to choose, be in that chamber that was my Husband's, when he was here; so they had them up thither, and they lay all in a room. When they were at rest, _Christiana_ and Mercy entered into discourse about things that were convenient.\u00b0\n\n**Chief of the House** Pastor of the church.\n\nChrist. Little did I think once, that when my Husband went on Pilgrimage, that I should ever ha'followed him.\n\nMercy. And you as little thought of lying in his bed, and in his chamber to rest, as you do now.\n\nChrist. And much less did I ever think of seeing his face with comfort, and of worshipping the Lord the King with him, and yet now I believe I shall.\n\nMercy. Hark! Don't you hear a noise?\n\nChrist. Yes, 'tis, as I believe, a noise of musick, for Joy that we are here.\n\nMercy. Wonderful! musick in the house, musick in the Heart, and musick also in Heaven, for Joy that we are here.\n\nThus they talked awhile, and then betook themselves to sleep. So in the morning, when they were awake, _Christiana_ said to Mercy,\n\nChrist. What was the matter that you did laugh in your sleep to-night? I suppose you was in a dream.\n\n_Mercy._ So I was, and a sweet dream it was; but are you sure I laughed?\n\nChrist. Yes; you laughed heartily; but prithee, Mercy, tell me thy dream.\n\nMercy. I was a dreamed\u00b0 that I sat all alone in a solitary place, and was bemoaning of the hardness of my heart.\n\nNow I had not sat there long, but methought many were gathered about me to see me, and to hear what it was that I said. So they hearkened, and I went on bemoaning the hard ness of my heart. At this some of them laughed at me, some called me fool, and some began to thrust me about.\u00b0 With that, methought I looked up, and saw one coming with Wings towards me. So he came directly to me, and said, Mercy, What aileth thee? Now when he had heard me make my complaint, he said, Peace be to thee: He also wiped mine eyes with his handkerchief, and clad me in Silver _and_ Gold. He put a Chain about my neck, and Ear-Rings in mine ears, and a beautiful Crown upon my head. Then he took me by the hand, and said, Mercy, Come after me. So he went up, and I followed, till we came at a Golden Gate. Then he knocked, and when they within had opened, the Man went in, and I followed him up to a Throne, upon which one sat; and he said to me, Welcome, Daughter. The place looked bright and twinkling, like the Stars, or rather like the Sun, and I thought that I saw your Husband there; so I awoke from my dream. But did I laugh?\n\nPart 1. p. 63.\n\nChrist's Bosom is for _all_ Pilgrims.\n\nMusick.\n\nMercy did laugh in her sleep.\n\nMercy's dream.\n\n**convenient** Appropriate; **I was a dreamed** Note that Mercy makes herself the object of the sentence: The dream is something that happens to her, rather than something she does.\n\nWhat her dream was.\n\nEzek. 16. 10, 11,12.\n\nJob 33. 14, 15.\n\nMercy glad of her Dream.\n\nChrist. Laugh! ay, and well you might, to see yourself so well. For you must give me leave to tell you, that it was a good dream; and that as you have begun to find the First Part true, so you shall find the Second at last. God speaks once, yea twice, yet Man perceiveth it not, in _a_ Dream, in _a_ Vision of the night, when deep Sleep _falleth_ upon men, in slumbering upon the bed. We need not, when abed, to lie awake to talk with God, he can visit us while we sleep, and cause us then to hear his Voice. Our heart oft-times wakes when we sleep, and God can speak to that, either by words, by proverbs, by signs and similitudes, as well as if one was awake.\n\nMercy. Well, I am glad of my dream, for I hope, e're long, to see it fulfilled, to the making me laugh again.\n\nChrist. I think it is now high time to rise, and to know\u00b0 what we must do.\n\nMercy. Pray, if they invite us to stay a while, let us willingly accept of the proffer.\u00b0 I am the willinger to stay a while here, to grow better acquainted with these maids; methinks _Prudence,_ Piety and Charity, have very comely and sober countenances.\n\n**thrust me about** Push me around; **know** Find out; **proffer** Offer.\n\nChrist. We shall see what they will do. So when they were up and ready, they came down, and they asked one another of their rest, and if it was comfortable or not?\n\nMercy. Very good, said Mercy, it was one of the best night's lodgings that ever I had in my life.\n\nThen said Prudence and Piety, if you will be persuaded to stay here a while, you shall have what the house will afford.\n\nChar. Ay, and that with a very good will, said Charity. So they consented and staid there about a month or above, and became very profitable one to another. And because Prudence would see how _Christiana_ had brought up her children, she asked leave of her to Catechise them: So she gave her free consent. Then she began at the youngest, whose name was James.\n\nPrudence. And she said, Come, James, canst thou tell me who made thee?\n\nJames. God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost.\n\nPrud. Good boy. And canst thou tell who saves thee?\n\nJam. God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost.\n\nPrud. Good boy still. But how doth God the Father save thee?\n\nJam. By his Grace.\n\nPrud. How doth God the Son save thee?\n\nJam. By his Righteousness, Death, and Blood, and Life.\n\nPrud. And how doth God the Holy Ghost save thee?\n\nJam. By his Illumination, by his Renovation, and by his Preservation.\n\nThen said Prudence to _Christiana,_ You are to be commended for thus bringing up your children. I suppose I need not ask the rest these Questions, since the youngest of them can answer them so well. I will therefore now apply myself to the youngest next.\n\nPrud. Then she said, Come, Joseph, (for his name was Joseph) will you let me catechise you?\n\nJoseph. With all my heart.\n\nThey stay here some time.\n\nPrudence desires to Catechise Christiana's children.\n\nJames catechised.\n\nJoseph catechised.\n\nSamuel catechised.\n\nPrud. What is Man?\n\n_Jos._ A reasonable Creature, made so by God, as my brother said.\n\nPrud. What is supposed by this word Saved?\n\n_Jos._ That Man, by Sin, has brought himself into a state of Captivity and Misery.\n\nPrud. What is supposed by his being saved by the Trinity?\n\n_Jos._ That Sin is so great and mighty a Tyrant, that none can pull us out of its clutches, but God; and that God is so good and loving to Man, as to pull him indeed out of this miserable state.\n\nPrud. What is God's design in saving of poor men?\n\n_Jos._ The glorifying of his Name, of his Grace, and Justice, _& c._ and the everlasting Happiness of his Creature.\n\nPrud. Who are they that must be saved?\n\n_Jos._ Those that accept of his Salvation. \u00b0\n\nPrud. Good boy, Joseph, thy mother has taught thee well, and thou hast hearkened to what she has said unto thee.\n\nThen said Prudence to Samuel, who was the eldest but one:\n\nPrud. Come, Samuel, are you willing that I should catechise you also?\n\nSamuel. Yes, forsooth,\u00b0 if you please.\n\nPrud. What is Heaven?\n\nSam. A Place and State\u00b0 most blessed, because God dwelleth there.\n\nPrud. What is Hell?\n\nSam. A Place and State most woful, because it is the dwelling-place of Sin, the Devil, and Death.\n\nPrud. Why wouldst thou go to Heaven?\n\nSam. That I may see God, and serve him without weariness ; that I may see Christ, and love him everlastingly; that I may have that fulness of the Holy Spirit in me, that I can by no means here enjoy.\n\nPrud. A very good boy also, and one that has learned well.\n\n**Those that accept of his Salvation** Joseph's answer is more Lutheran than Calvinist; he does not refer to the doctrine of election; **forsooth** Truly; **A Place and State** Both a physical location and a psychological condition.\n\nThen she addressed herself to the eldest, whose name was Matthew; and she said to him, Come, Matthew, shall I also catechise you?\n\nMatthew. With a very good will.\n\nPrud. I ask then, if there was ever any thing that had a Being antecedent to, or before God?\n\n_Matt._ No, for God is Eternal; nor is there any thing, excepting Himself, that had a being, until the beginning of the first day. For in six days the Lord made Heaven _and_ Earth, the _Sea, and all_ that in them is.\n\nPrud. What do you think of the Bible?\n\n_Matt._ It is the Holy Word of God.\n\nPrud. Is there nothing written therein, but what you understand ?\n\n_Matt._ Yes, a great deal.\n\nPrud. What do you do when you meet with places therein that you do not understand?\n\n_Matt._ I think God is wiser than I. I pray also that he will please to let me know all therein that he knows will be for my good.\n\nPrud. How believe you as touching the Resurrection of the Dead?\n\n_Matt._ I believe they shall rise, the same that was buried; the same in Nature, tho' not in Corruption.\u00b0 And I believe this upon a double account. First, Because God has promised it. Secondly, because he is able to perform it.\n\nThen said Prudence to the boys, You must still hearken to your Mother, for she can learn you more. You must also diligently give ear to what good talk you shall hear from others; for your sakes do they speak good things. Observe also, and that with carefulness, what the Heavens and the Earth do teach you; but especially be much in the meditation of that Book that was the cause of your Father's becoming a Pilgrim.\u00b0\n\nMatthew catechised.\n\nPrudence's conclusion upon the catechising of the boys.\n\n**a great deal** The ambiguity of Scripture is part of its meaning; **Corruption** Both spiritual sin and physical decay; **Observe also ... a Pilgrim** Prudence urges them to study creation empirically\u2014to read the \"Book of the Creatures\" \u2014but to subordinate it to the study of Scripture.\n\nMercy has a _Sweet-heart._\n\nMercy's temper.\n\nMercy enquires of the Maids concerning Mr. Brisk.\n\nTalk betwixt Mercy _and_ Mr. Brisk.\n\nI, for my part, my children, will teach you what I can while you are here, and shall be glad if you will ask me questions that tend to Godly edifying.\n\nNow, by that these Pilgrims had been at this place a week, Mercy had a visiter that pretended some good will unto her, and his name was Mr. _Brisk,\u00b0_ a man of some breeding,\u00b0 and that pretended to Religion, but a man that stuck very close to the World. So he came once or twice, or more, to Mercy, and offered love unto her. Now Mercy was of a fair countenance, and therefore the more alluring.\n\nHer Mind also was, to be always busying of herself in doing, for when she had nothing to do for herself, she would be making of hose and garments for others, and would bestow them upon them that had need. And Mr. Brisk not knowing where, or how she disposed of what she made, seemed to be greatly taken, for that he found her never idle. I will warrant her a good housewife, quoth he to himself.\n\nMercy then revealed the business to the maidens that were of the house, and enquired of them concerning him, for they did know him better than she. So they told her, that he was a very busy\u00b0 young man, and one that pretended to religion; but was, as they feared, a stranger to the Power of that which is Good.\n\nNay then, said Mercy, I will look no more on him; for I purpose never to have a Clog\u00b0 to my Soul.\n\nPrudence then replied, That there needed no great matter of discouragement to be given to him, her continuing so as she had begun to do for the Poor, would quickly cool his courage.\n\nSo, the next time he comes, he finds her at her old work, a making of things for the Poor. Then said he, What, always at it? Yes, said she, either for myself or for others: And what canst thou earn a day, quoth he? I do these things, said she, That _I_ may be rich in good works, laying up _in store a_ good foundation _against_ the time to come, that _I_ may lay hold _on_ Eternal Life. Why, Prithee, what dost thou with them? said he. Cloathe the naked, said she. With that his countenance fell.\u00b0 So he forbore to come at\u00b0 her again. And when he was asked the reason why, he said, that Mercy was _a_ pretty lass, but _troubled_ with _ill conditions.\u00b0_\n\n**Mr. Brisk** Sharrock comments: \"He behaves like a Restoration gallant, and the word suggests gallantry\" (Sharrock, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 404); **some breeding** Mr. Brisk is a gentleman; **busy** Active, plausible. A more successful wooing of an innocent religious girl by a worldly hypocrite features in Bunyan's The Life _and_ Death _of Mr._ Badman (1680); **Clog** Fetter.\n\nWhen he had left her, Prudence said, Did I not tell thee, that Mr. Brisk would soon forsake thee? yea, he will raise up an ill report of thee: For notwithstanding his pretence to Religion, and his seeming love to Mercy, yet Mercy and he are of tempers so different, that I believe they will never come together.\n\nMercy. I might have had husbands before now, tho' I spoke not of it to any; but they were such as did not like my conditions, tho' never did any of them find fault with my person.\u00b0 So they and I could not agree.\n\nPrud. Mercy in our days is little set by, any further than as to its name: The practice, which is set forth\u00b0 by the conditions, there are but few that can abide.\n\nMercy. Well, said Mercy, if nobody will have me, I will die a maid, or my conditions shall be to me as a Husband. For I cannot change my Nature; and to have one that lies cross to\u00b0 me in this, that I purpose never to admit of as long as I live. I had a sister named Bountiful, married to one of these churls; but he and she could never agree; but because my sister was resolved to do as she had begun, that is, to shew kindness to the Poor, therefore her husband first cried her down at the Cross, and then turned her out of his doors.\n\nPrud. And yet he was a Professor,\u00b0 I warrant you.\n\nMercy. Yes, such a one as he was, and of such as he the world is now full; but I am for none of them all.\n\n Tim. 6.17, 18, 19.\n\nHe forsakes her, _and_ why.\n\nMercy in the practice of Mercy rejected, while Mercy in the name of Mercy is liked.\n\nMercy's Resolution.\n\nHow Mercy's sister was served by her husband.\n\n**his countenance fell** Brisk's interest in Mercy was purely economic; **forbore to come at** Refrained from coming to; **conditions** Both \"a disagreeable state of mind\" and \"poor financial circumstances\"; **person** Body; **set forth** Represented ; **lies cross to** Contradicts; **a Professor** A practitioner of religion.\n\nMatthew _falls_ sick.\n\nGripes of Conscience.\n\nThe Physician's _Judgment._\n\nSamuel puts his mother in mind of the Fruit his brother did _eat._\n\nHeb. 10, 1, 2, 3,4.\n\nNow Matthew, the eldest son of _Christiana,_ fell sick, and his sickness was sore upon him, for he was much pained in his bowels, so that he was with it, at times, pulled as t'were both ends together. There dwelt also, not far from thence, one Mr. Skill, an ancient and well-approved Physician. So _Christiana_ desired it, and they sent for him, and he came: When he was entred the room, and had a little observed the boy, he concluded that he was sick of the gripes.\u00b0 Then he said to his mother, What diet has Matthew of late fed upon? Diet, said _Christiana,_ nothing but what is wholsome. The Physician answered, This boy has been tampering with something that lies in his maw\u00b0 undigested, and that will not away without Means.\u00b0 And I tell you he must be purged, or else he will die.\n\nSam. Then said Samuel, Mother, mother, what was that which my brother did gather up and eat, so soon as we were come from the Gate that is at the head of this Way? You know that there was an orchard on the left-hand, on the other side of the Wall, and some of the trees hung over the Wall, and my brother did plash\u00b0 and did eat.\n\nChrist. True, my child, said _Christiana,_ he did take thereof and did eat; naughty boy as he was, I did chide him, and yet he would eat thereof.\n\nSkill. I knew he had eaten something that was not wholsome food, and that food, to wit, that fruit, is even the most hurtful of all. It is the fruit of Beelzebub's orchard. I do marvel that none did warn you of it; many have died thereof.\n\nChrist. Then _Christiana_ began to cry, and she said, O naughty boy, and O careless mother, what shall I do for my Son?\n\nSkill. Come, do not be too much dejected; the boy may do well again, but he must purge and vomit.\n\nChrist. Pray, Sir, try the utmost of your skill with him, whatever it costs.\n\nSkill. Nay, I hope I shall be reasonable.\u00b0 So he made him a purge, but it was too weak;\u00b0 'twas said, it was made of the Blood of a Goat, the Ashes of a Heifer, and with some of the Juice of Hysop, &c. When Mr. Skill had seen that that purge was too weak, he made him one to the purpose: 'Twas made Ex _Carne, &_ Sanguine _Christi,\u00b0_ (you know Physicians give strange medicines to their patients) and it was made up into pills, with a Promise or two, and a proportionate quantity of Salt. Now he was to take them three at a time fasting, in half a quarter of a pint of the tears of Repentance. When this potion was prepared, and brought to the boy, he was loth to take it, tho' torn with the gripes, as if he should be pull'd in pieces, Come, come, said the Physician, you must take it. It goes against my stomach,\u00b0 said the boy. I _must_ have you take it, said his mother. I shall vomit it up again, said the boy. Pray, Sir, said _Christiana_ to Mr. Skill, how does it taste? It has no ill taste, said the doctor; and with that she touched one of the pills with the tip of her tongue. Oh, Matthew, said she, this potion is sweeter than honey. If thou lovest thy Mother, if thou lovest thy Brothers, if thou lovest Mercy, if thou lovest thy Life, take it. So with much ado, after a short prayer for the blessing of God upon it, he took it, and it wrought kindly\u00b0 with him. It caused him to purge, it caused him to sleep, and rest quietly; it put him into a fine heat, and breathing sweat, and did quite rid him of his gripes.\n\n**the gripes** Indigestion; **maw** Throat; **Means** A material cause **reasonable** With regard to both method and price.\n\nSo in a little time he got up, and walked about with a Staff, and would go from room to room, and talk with Prudence, Piety and Charity, of his distemper, and how he was healed.\n\nSo when the boy was healed, _Christiana_ asked Mr. Skill, saying, Sir, what will content you for your pains and care to and of my child? And he said, You must pay the Master of the College of _Physicians,\u00b0_ according to Rules made in that case and provided.\n\nChrist. But, Sir, said she, what is this pill good for else?\n\nPotion prepared.\n\nJoh. 6. 54, 55,\n\n56,57. Mark 9. 49. The Latin I borrow. Heb. 9. 14.\n\nThe boy loth to take the Physick.\n\nZech. 12. 10.\n\nThe Mother tastes it, _and_ persuades him.\n\nA Word of God in the hand of his Faith.\n\nHeb. 13.11,12, 13, 14, 15.\n\n**too weak** The animal sacrifices described in the Old Testament are incapable of purging sin; **Ex Carne, & Sanguine Christi** From the body and blood of Christ (Latin); stomach Fleshly nature; **wrought kindly** Worked naturally; **the Master of the College of Physicians** An unlikely title for Christ; the metaphor is becoming strained.\n\nThis pill an Universal Remedy.\n\nJohn 6. 50.\n\nIn a glass of the tears of Repentance.\n\nOf Physick.\n\nOf the Effects of Physick.\n\nOf Fire, and of the Sun.\n\nSkill. It is an universal pill;\u00b0 'tis good against all the diseases that Pilgrims are incident\u00b0 to; and when it is well prepared, it will keep good, time out of mind.\n\nChrist. Pray, Sir, make me up twelve boxes of them: For if I can get these, I will never take other physick.\n\nSkill. These pills are good to prevent diseases, as well as to cure when one is sick. Yea, I dare say it, and stand to it, that if a man will but use this physick as he should, it will make him live for ever. But good _Christiana,_ thou must give these pills no other _way,\u00b0_ but as I have prescribed: For if you do, they will do no good. So he gave unto _Christiana_ physick for herself, and her boys, and for Mercy, and bid Matthew take heed how he eat any more green plums, and kissed them, and went his way.\n\nIt was told you\u00b0 before, that Prudence bid the boys, that if at any time they would, they should ask her some Questions that might be profitable, and she would say something to them.\n\n_Matt._ Then Matthew who had been sick, asked her, Why for the most part Physick should be bitter to our palates?\n\nPrud. To shew how unwelcome the word of God, and the effects thereof, are to a Carnal Heart.\n\nMatt. Why does Physick, if it does good, purge, and cause that we vomit?\n\nPrud. To shew that the Word, when it works effectually, cleanseth the Heart and Mind. For look what the one doth to the body, the other doth to the soul.\n\n_Matt._ What should we learn by seeing the flame of our fire go upwards?\u00b0 And by seeing the beams and sweet influences of the Sun strike downwards?\n\nPrud. By the going up of the fire, we are taught to ascend to Heaven, by fervent and hot desires. And by the Sun his sending his heat, beams, and sweet influences downwards, we are taught, that the Saviour of the World, tho' high, reaches down with his Grace and Love to us below.\n\n**universal pill** Panacea; **incident** Susceptible; **no other way** The sacrament will not be efficacious unless accompanied by inward repentance; you The reader is addressed directly; **What should we learn ... upwards?** Note that Matthew assumes that the world of appearances has ulterior significance.\n\nMatt. Where have the Clouds their water?\n\nPrud. Out of the Sea.\n\nMatt. What may we learn from that?\n\nPrud. That Ministers should fetch their doctrine from God.\n\n_Matt._ Why do they empty themselves upon the Earth?\n\nPrud. To shew that Ministers should give out what they know of God to the world.\n\nMatt. Why is the Rain-Bow caused by the Sun?\n\nPrud. To shew that the covenant of God's Grace is confirmed to us in Christ.\n\nMatt. Why do the springs come from the Sea to us, through the Earth?\n\nPrud. To shew, that the Grace of God comes to us through the Body of Christ.\n\n_Matt._ Why do some of the springs rise out of the top of high Hills?\n\nPrud. To shew, that the Spirit of Grace shall spring up in some that are great and mighty, as well as in many that are poor and low.\n\n_Matt._ Why doth the fire fasten upon the candle-wick?\n\nPrud. To shew that unless Grace doth kindle upon the heart, there will be no true Light of Life in us.\n\n_Matt._ Why is the wick, and tallow,\u00b0 and all spent, to maintain the light of the candle?\n\nPrud. To shew that Body and Soul, and all should be at the service of, and spend themselves to maintain in good condition, that Grace of God that is in us.\n\n_Matt._ Why doth the _Pelican\u00b0_ pierce her own breast with her bill?\n\nPrud. To nourish her young ones with her blood, and thereby to shew that Christ the Blessed so loveth his young, his People, as to save them from Death by his Blood.\n\nOf the Clouds.\n\nOf the RainBow.\n\nOf the Springs.\n\nOf the Candle.\n\nOf the Pelican.\n\n**tallow** Grease; **the Pelican** A conventional emblem for Christ.\n\nOf the Cock.\n\nThe Weak may sometimes _call_ the Strong to Prayers.\n\nThey provide to be gone on their way.\n\nEve's Apple.\n\nA sight of Sin is _amazing._ Gen.3.6. Rom. 7. 24.\n\n_Matt._ What may one learn by hearing the cock to crow?\n\nPrud. Learn to remember Peter's Sin, and Peter's Repentance. The cock's crowing shews also, that Day is coming on; let then the crowing of the cock put thee in mind of that last and terrible Day of Judgment.\n\nNow about this time their month was out; wherefore they signified to those of the House, that 'twas convenient for them to up and be going. Then said Joseph to his mother, it is convenient that you forget not to send to the house of Mr. _Interpreter, \u00b0_ to pray him to grant that Mr. _Great-heart_ should be sent unto us, that he may be our conductor the rest of our Way. Good boy, said she, I had almost forgot. So she drew up a petition, and prayed Mr. Watchful the Porter, to send it by some fit\u00b0 man, to her good friend Mr. Interpreter; who when it was come, and he had seen the contents of the petition, said to the messenger, Go tell them that I will send him.\n\nWhen the Family where _Christiana_ was, saw that they had a purpose to go forward, they called the whole house together, to give thanks to their King for sending of them such profitable guests as these; which done, they said to _Christiana,_ And shall we not shew thee something, according as our custom is to do to Pilgrims, on which thou may'st meditate, when thou art upon the Way? So they took _Christiana,_ her children, and Mercy into the closet, and shew'd them one of the Apples that Eve did eat of,\u00b0 and that she also did give to her husband; and that for the eating of which, they were both turned out of Paradise, and asked her what she thought that was? Then _Christiana_ said, 'Tis Food or Poison, I know not which. So they opened the matter to her, and she held up her hands and wondered.\n\n**the house of Mr. Interpreter** Great-heart lives at the Interpreter's house: Courage springs from biblical methods of interpretation; **fit** Suitable; **one of the Apples that Eve did eat of** Christiana is shown the biblical correlative of the bad fruit eaten by her son. A series of biblical emblems follow, making Bunyan's point that his allegorical method accords with Scripture; **Jacob's Ladder** In Genesis 28:12 Jacob \"dreamed, and behold a ladder set up on the earth, and the top of it reached to heaven: and behold the angels of God ascending and descending on it\" (KJV).\n\nThen they had her to a place, and shewed her Jacob's _Ladder.\u00b0_ Now at that time there were some Angels ascending upon it. So _Christiana_ look'd and look'd to see the Angels go up, and so did the rest of the company. Then they were going into another place, to shew them something else; but _James_ said to his mother, Pray bid them stay here a little longer, for this is a curious sight. So they turned again, and stood feeding their eyes with this so pleasant _a_ prospect. After this they had them into a place where did hang up a Golden _Anchor,\u00b0_ so they bid _Christiana_ take it down; for, said they, you shall have it with you, for it is of absolute necessity that you should, that you may lay hold of that within the veil, and stand stedfast in case you should meet with turbulent weather: So they were glad thereof. Then they took them, and had them to the Mount upon which _Abraham_ our Father had offered up Isaac his Son, and shewed them the Altar, the Wood, the Fire, and the Knife, for they remain to be seen to this very Day. When they had seen it, they held up their hands, and blest themselves, and said, Oh! What a man for Love to his Master, and for denial to himself was Abraham! After they had shewed them all these things, Prudence took them into the dining-room, where stood a pair of excellent virginals, \u00b0 so she played upon them, and turned what she had shewed them into this excellent Song, saying,\n\nEve's Apple we have shew'd _you; Of that be you aware._\n\nYou have seen Jacob's Ladder too, Upon which Angels _are._\n\nAn Anchor you received have, But let not these suffice,\n\nUntil with Abra'm you have gave Your Best, _a_ Sacrifice.\n\nNow about this time one knocked at the door: So the Porter opened, and behold Mr. Great-heart was there; but when he was come in, what Joy was there! For it came now fresh again into their minds, how but a while ago he had slain Old Grim _(Bloody-man,)_ the Giant, and had delivered them from the Lions.\n\nJacob's Ladder.\n\nA sight of Christ is taking.\n\nGen. 28.12. Golden Anchor. John 1.51. Heb. 6. 19.\n\nOf Abraham offering up Isaac. Gen. 22. 9.\n\nPrudence's Virginals.\n\n**Golden Anchor** Hebrews 6:19: \"Which hope we have as an anchor of the soul, both sure and steadfast, and which entereth into that within the veil\" (KJV); **virginals** Harpsichords.\n\nMr. Great-heart come _again._\n\nHe brings a token from his Lord with him.\n\nRobbery.\n\nChristiana takes her leave of the Porter.\n\nThe Porter's blessing.\n\nThen said Mr. _Great-heart_ to _Christiana,_ and to Mercy, My Lord has sent each of you a bottle of wine,\u00b0 and also some parched corn, together with a couple of pomegranates: He has also sent the boys some figs and raisins, to refresh you in your Way.\n\nThen they addressed themselves to their Journey; and _Prudence_ and Piety went along with them. When they came at the Gate, _Christiana_ asked the Porter, if any of late went by. He said, No, only one some time since, who also told me, that of late there had been a great robbery committed on the King's high-way as you go: But, he saith, the thieves are taken, and will shortly be tried for their lives. Then _Christiana_ and Mercy were afraid; but Matthew said, mother, fear nothing, as long as Mr. _Great-heart_ is to go with us, and to be our conductor.\n\nThen said _Christiana_ to the Porter, Sir, I am much obliged to you for all the kindnesses that you have shewed me since I came hither; and also for that you have been so loving and kind to my children; I know not how to gratify\u00b0 your kindness : Wherefore, pray, as a token of my respects to you, accept of this small mite:\u00b0 So she put a gold angel\u00b0 in his hand, and he made her a low obeysance,\u00b0 and said, Let thy Garments be always white, and let thy head want no ointment. Let Mercy live and not die, and let not her Works be few. And to the boys he said, Do you fly youthful lusts, and follow after Godliness with them that are grave and wise; so shall you put gladness into your mother's heart, and obtain praise of all that are sober-minded: So they thanked the Porter, and departed.\n\n**bottle of wine** Representing courage, as the word \"bottle\" does in modern Cockney; **gratify** Show gratitude for; mite Mark 12:42: \"And there came a certain poor widow, and she threw in two mites, which make a farthing\" (KJV); **angel** A coin; **obeysance** Bow.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, that they went forward until they were come to the brow of the Hill, where Piety bethinking herself,\u00b0 cried out, Alas! I have forgot what I intended to bestow upon _Christiana_ and her companions. I will go back and fetch it; so she ran and fetched it. While she was gone, _Christiana_ thought she heard in a grove a little way off on the right hand, a most curious melodious note, with words much like these:\n\nThro' _all_ my Life thy Favour is So frankly _shew'd_ to me,\n\nThat in thy House for evermore My _dwelling-place shall_ be.\n\nAnd listening still, she thought she heard another answer it, saying,\n\nFor why? The Lord our God is good; His Mercy is for ever sure:\n\nHis Truth _at all_ times firmly stood, And _shall_ from Age to Age endure.\n\nSo _Christiana_ asked Prudence what 'twas that made those curious notes. They are, said she, our Country birds; they sing these notes but seldom, except it be at the Spring, when the flowers appear, and the Sun shines warm, and then you may hear them all day long. I often, said she, go out to hear them; we also oft-times keep them tame in our House. They are very fine company for us when we are melancholy; also they make the woods and groves and solitary places, places desirous\u00b0 to be in.\n\nBy this time Piety was come again; so she said to _Christiana,_ Look here, I have brought thee a _Scheme\u00b0_ of all those things that thou hast seen at our House, upon which thou may'st look when thou findest thyself forgetful, and call those things again to remembrance for thy edification and comfort.\n\nNow they began to go down the Hill into the Valley of _Hu-_ _miliation._ It was a steep hill, and the Way was slippery; but they were very careful, so they got down pretty well. When they were down in the Valley, Piety said to _Christiana,_ this is the place where Christian your Husband met with the foul fiend _Apollyon,_ and where they had that great Fight that they had: I know you cannot but have heard thereof; but be of good courage, as long as you have here Mr. Great-heart to be your Guide and conductor, we hope you will fare the better. So when these two had committed the Pilgrims unto the conduct of their Guide, he went forward and they went after.\n\nSong _2._ 11, 12.\n\nPiety bestoweth something on them _at_ parting.\n\nPart _1_ p. 66.\n\n**bethinking herself** Remembering, but note how Piety's self is objectified; **desirous** Desirable; **Scheme** Outline.\n\nMr. Great-heart _at_ the _Valley_ of Humiliation.\n\nThe Reason why Christian was so beset here.\n\nA Pillar with _an_ Inscription on it.\n\n_Great-heart._ Then said Mr. Great-heart, We need not be so afraid of this Valley, for here is nothing to hurt us, unless we procure it to\u00b0 ourselves. 'is true, Christian did here meet with _Apollyon,_ with whom he had also a sore Combat; but that fray was the fruit of those slips that he got in his going down the Hill: For they that get Slips there, must look for Combats here; and hence it is, that this Valley has got so hard a name.\u00b0 For the common People, when they hear that some frightful thing has befallen such an one in such a place, are of an opinion that that place is haunted with some foul fiend, or evil spirit; when, alas! it is for the fruit of their doing,\u00b0 that such things do befal them there.\n\nThis Valley of Humiliation is of itself as fruitful a place, as any the crow flies over; and I am persuaded, if we could hit upon\u00b0 it, we might find somewhere hereabout something that might give us an account why Christian was so hardly beset\u00b0 in this place.\n\nThen James said to his mother, Lo, yonder stands a Pillar, and it looks as if something was written thereon; let us go and see what it is. So they went and found there written, Let Christian's Slips, before he came hither, _and the_ Battles that he met with in this place, be a warning to those that come _after._ Lo, said their Guide, Did I not tell you that there was something hereabouts that would give intimation of the reason why Christian was so hard beset in this place: Then turning to _Christiana,_ he said, No disparagement to Christian more than to many others whose hap\u00b0 and lot it was. For 'tis easier going up than down this Hill, and that can be said but of few hills in all these parts of the World. But we will leave the good man, he is at rest, he also had a brave Victory over his enemy: Let Him grant that dwelleth above, that we fare no worse when we come to be tryed than he.\n\n**procure it to** Bring it on; **name** \"Name,\" but also \"reputation\"; **the fruit of their doing** Now Great-heart begins to distance Christiana from allegorical understanding, portraying the foul fields as mere projections of the human mind's own fears; **hit upon** Find; **hardly beset** Roughly attacked.\n\nBut we will come again to this Valley of Humiliation. It is the best and most fruitful piece of ground in all those parts. It is a fat ground,\u00b0 and, as you see, consisteth much in meadows ; and if a man was to come here in the summer time, as we do now, if he knew not any thing before thereof, and if he also delighted himself in the sight of his eyes, he might see that, that would be delightful to him. Behold how green this Valley is, also how beautified with Lillies. I have also known many labouring men that have got good estates\u00b0 in this Valley of Humiliation. (For God resisteth the Proud, but gives more, _more\u00b0_ Grace to the humble;) for indeed it is a very fruitful soil, and doth bring forth by handfuls. Some also have wished, that the next\u00b0 way to their Father's House were here, that they might be troubled no more with either hills or mountains to go over; but the Way is the Way, and there's an end.\u00b0\n\nNow as they were going along, and talking, they espied a boy feeding his father's sheep. The boy was in very mean\u00b0 cloaths, but of a very fresh and well-favoured countenance; and as he sat by himself, he sung. Hark, said Mr. Great-heart, to what the Shepherd's boy saith; so they hearkened, and he said,\n\nHe that is down, needs fear no _Fall;_ He that is low, no Pride:\n\nHe that is humble, ever _shall_ Have God to be his Guide.\n\n_I am_ content with what _I_ have, Little be it or much:\n\nAnd, Lord, Contentment still _I_ crave, Because thou savest such.\n\nFulness to such, _a_ Burden is, That go on Pilgrimage:\n\nHere little, _and_ hereafter Bliss, Is best from Age to Age.\n\nThis _Valley_ a brave place.\n\nSong 2. 1. Jam. 4. 6. 1 Pet. 5. 5.\n\nMen thrive in the _Valley_ of Humiliation.\n\nPhil. 4.12,13.\n\n**hap** Chance; **fat ground** Fertile land; **many laboring... estates** The literal poor are the figural rich in the eyes of God; more, more Repetition for emphasis ; **next** Quickest; **there's an end** Both \"that's all there is to it\" and \"it has an end\"; **mean** Humble.\n\nThen said their Guide, Do you hear him? I will dare to say, that this boy lives a merrier life, and wears more of that herb call'd _Heart's-Ease\u00b0_ in his bosom, than he that is clad in silk and velvet; but we will proceed in our discourse.\n\nHeb. 13. 5.\n\nIn this Valley our Lord formerly had his country house, he loved much to be here: He loved also to walk in these meadows, for he found the Air was pleasant: Besides, here a man shall be free from the noise, and from the hurryings of this life: all states\u00b0 are full of noise and confusion, only the Valley of Humiliation is that empty and solitary place. Here a man shall not be so let and hindered in his contemplation, as in other places he is apt to be. This is a Valley that no body walks in, but those that love a Pilgrim's life; and tho' Christian had the hard hap to meet here with _Apollyon,_ and to enter with him a brisk\u00b0 encounter, yet I must tell you, that in former times men have met with Angels here, have found Pearls here, and have in this place found the Words of Life.\n\nChrist, when in the Flesh, had his country house in the _Valley_ of Humiliation.\n\nDid I say our Lord had here in former days his country-house, and that he loved here to walk? I will add, in this place, and to the People that live and trace\u00b0 these grounds, he has left a yearly revenue to be faithfully paid them at certain seasons for their maintenance by the way, and for their farther encouragement to go on their Pilgrimage.\n\nHos. 12.4,5.\n\n**that Herb call'd Heart'-Ease** Viola tricoloris _herba,_ also known as \"Johnny Jump-up\"; **states** Countries, conditions, estates; **no body** \"Nobody\" and also \"no body\"; **brisk** Stiff; **trace** Wander.\n\nSamuel. Now as they went on, Samuel said to Mr. _Great-_ heart: Sir, I perceive that in this Valley, my father and _Apollyon_ had their Battle; but whereabout was the Fight, for I perceive this Valley is large?\n\nMat. 1129.\n\n_Great-heart._ Your father had that Battle with Apollyon, at a place yonder before us, in a narrow passage, just beyond _Forgetful_ Green. And indeed that place is the most dangerous place in all these parts. For if at any time the Pilgrims meet with any brunt,\u00b0 it is when they forget what Favours they have received, and how unworthy they are of them: This is the place also where others have been hard put to it; but more of the place when we are come to it; for I persuade myself, that to this day there remains either some sign of the Battle, or some monument to testify that such a battle there was fought.\n\nForgetful Green.\n\nMercy. Then said Mercy, I think I am as well in this Valley as I have been any where else in all our Journey: The place, methinks, suits with my spirit. I love to be in such places where there is no rattling with coaches, nor rumbling with wheels: Methinks here one may, without much molestation, be thinking what he is, whence he came, what he has done, and to what the King has called him: Here one may think and break at heart, and melt in one's spirit, until one's eyes become like the _Fish-Pools_ of _Heshbon._ They that go rightly through this Valley of Bacha,\u00b0 make it a Well, the rain that God sends down from Heaven upon them that are here also, _filleth_ the Pools. This Valley is that from whence also the King will give to their vineyards, and they that go through it, shall sing, (as Christian did, for all\u00b0 he met with _Apollyon.)_\n\nHumility a sweet Grace.\n\nSong 7. 4. Psal. 84. 5, 6, 7Hots. 2. 15.\n\nGreat-heart. 'Tis true, said their Guide, I have gone through this Valley many a time, and never was better than when here.\n\nAn Experiment of it.\n\nI have also been a conduct to several Pilgrims, and they have confessed the same: To this man will _I look, saith the_ King, even to him that is Poor, and of a contrite Spirit, _and_ that trembles at my Word.\n\n**brunt** Blow; **Valley of Bacha** The images are now almost entirely biblical, rather than iconic; **for all** Despite the fact that.\n\nNow they were come to the place where the afore-mentioned Battle was fought: Then said the Guide to _Christiana,_ her children and Mercy, This is the place, on this ground Christian stood, and up there came _Apollyon_ against him; and look, did not I tell you, here is some of your husband's blood upon these stones to this day: Behold, also, how here and there are yet to be seen upon the place, some of the shivers of _Apollyon's_ broken darts: See also how they did beat the ground with their feet as they fought, to make good their places against each other; how also with their by-blows,\u00b0 they did split the very stones in pieces, verily Christian did here play the man, and shewed himself as stout\u00b0 as could, had he been there, even _Hercules\u00b0_ himself. When Apollyon was beat, he made his retreat to the next valley, that is called, The _Valley_ of the Shadow of Death, unto which we shall come anon.\n\nThe Place where Christian _and_ the Fiend did fight: Some signs of the Battle remain.\n\nLo, yonder also stands a monument, on which is engraven this Battle, and _Christian's_ Victory, to his Fame, throughout all Ages: So, because it stood just on the Way-side before them, they stept to it, and read the writing, which word for word was this:\n\n _Hard-by\u00b0_ here was _a_ Battle fought, Most strange, _and_ yet most true;\n\nChristian _and_ Apollyon fought Each other to subdue.\n\nThe Man so bravely _play'd_ the Man, He made the Fiend to _fly:_\n\nOf which _a_ Monument I stand, The same to testify.\n\nWhen they had passed by this place, they came upon the borders of the Shadow of Death, and this Valley was longer than the other, a place also most strangely haunted with evil things, as many are able to testify: But these women and children went the better through it, because they had Day-light, and because Mr. Great-heart was their conductor.\n\n**shivers** Splinters; **by-blows** Follow-throughs; **stout** Brave; **Hercules** The strongest and most popular hero of pagan Greece is no match for a single Christian; **Hard-by** Nearby.\n\nPart 1. p. 74.\n\nA Monument of the Battle.\n\nA Monument of Christian's Victory.\n\nWhen they were entered upon this Valley, they thought that they heard a groaning, as of dead men; a very great groaning. They thought also they did hear words of Lamentation, spoken as of some in extreme torment. These things made the boys to quake, the women also looked pale and wan; but their Guide bid them be of good comfort.\n\nGroanings heard.\n\nSo they went on a little further, and they thought that they felt the ground begin to shake under them, as if some hollow place was there; they heard also a kind of hissing, as of serpents, but nothing as yet appeared. Then said the boys, Are we not yet at the end of this doleful place? But the Guide also bid them be of good courage, and look well to their feet, lest haply, said he, you be taken in some snare.\n\nThe Ground shakes.\n\nNow James began to be sick, but I think\u00b0 the cause thereof was fear; so his Mother gave him some of that Glass of Spirits that she had given her at the Interpreter's house, and three of the Pills that Mr. Skill had prepared, and the boy began to revive. Thus they went on, till they came to about the middle of the Valley; and then _Christiana_ said, Methinks I see something yonder upon the road before us, a thing of such a shape,33 such as I have not seen. Then said Joseph, Mother, what is it? An ugly thing, child; an ugly thing, said she. But mother, what is it like? said he. 'is like I cannot tell what, said she. And now it was but a little way off: Then said she, It is nigh.\n\nJames sick with Fear.\n\nA Fiend _appears._\n\nWell, said Mr. Great-heart, let them that are most afraid, keep close to me: So the Fiend came on, and the conductor met it; but when it was just come to him, it vanished to all their sights: Then remembered they what had been said some time ago; Resist the Devil, _and_ he will fly from you.\n\nThe Pilgrims _are afraid._\n\nThey went therefore on, as being a little refreshed; but they\n\nGreat-heart's reply.\n\nhad not gone far, before Mercy, looking behind her, saw, as she thought, something 'ost like a Lion, and it came a great padding pace after; and it had a hollow voice of roaring; and at every roar that it gave, it made all the Valley echo, and their hearts to ake, save the heart of him that was their Guide. So it came up, and Mr. _Great-heart_ went behind, and put the Pilgrims all before him. The Lion also came on apace, and Mr. _Great-heart_ addressed himself to give him battle. But when he saw that it was determined, that resistance should be made, he also drew back, and came no further.\n\n**I think** The narrator's uncertainty contributes to the growing naturalism of the narrative.\n\nGreat-heart encourages them.\n\nA Lion.\n\n1Pet. 5. 8, 9.\n\nThen they went on again, and their conductor did go before them, till they came at a place where was cast up a Pit, the whole breadth of the Way, and before they could be prepared to go over that, a great mist and a darkness fell upon them, so that they could not see. Then said the Pilgrims, Alas! Now what shall we do? But their Guide made answer, Fear not, stand still, and see what an end will be put to this also; so they staid there, because their path was marr'd.\u00b0 They then also thought that they did hear more apparently\u00b0 the noise and rushing of the Enemies; the fire also, and the smoke of the Pit, was much easier to be discerned. Then said _Christiana_ to Mercy, Now I see what my poor Husband went through; I have heard much of this place, but I never was here afore now; poor man, he went here all alone in the night; he had night almost quite through the Way; also these Fiends were busy about him, as if they would have torn him in pieces. Many have spoke of it, but none can tell what the Valley of the shadow of Death should mean, untill they come in it themselves. The heart knows its own bitterness, _and a_ stranger _intermeddleth_ not with its joy. To be here, is a fearful thing.\n\nA Pit and darkness.\n\nChristiana now knows what her Husband felt.\n\n_Great-heart._ This is like doing business in great waters, or like going down into the deep; this is like being in the heart of the Sea, and like going down to the bottoms of the mountains : Now it seems as if the Earth, with its bars,\u00b0 were about us for ever. But let them that walk in darkness, _and_ have no light, trust _in_ the name of the LORD, _and_ stay upon \u00b0 their God. For my part, as I have told you already, I have gone often through this Valley, and have been much harder put to it than now I am; and yet you see I am alive. I would not boast, for that I am not mine own Saviour. But I trust we shall have a good deliverance. Come, let us pray for Light to him that can lighten our darkness, and that can rebuke, not only these, but all the Satans\u00b0 in Hell.\n\n**marr'd** Ruined; **apparently** Distinctly; **bars** \"Obstacles,\" but also \"prison bars.\"\n\nThey pray.\n\nSo they cried and prayed, and God sent light and deliverance, for there was now no let in their Way; no not there, where but now they were stopt with a Pit. Yet they were not got through the Valley; so they went on still, and behold great stinks and loathsome smells, to the great annoyance\u00b0 of them. Then said Mercy to _Christiana,_ There is not such pleasant being here as at the Gate, or at the _Interpreter's_ or at the house where we lay last.\n\nO but, said one of the boys, it is not so bad to go through here, as it is to _abide_ here always; and for ought I know, one reason why we must go this way to the House prepared for us, is, that our home might be made the sweeter to us.\n\nOne of the boys reply.\n\nWell said, Samuel, quoth the Guide, thou hast now spoke like a man. Why, if ever I get out here\u00b0 again, said the boy, I think I shall prize light and good way, better than ever I did in all my life. Then said the Guide, We shall be out by and by.\n\nSo on they went, and Joseph said, Cannot we see to the end of this Valley as yet? Then said the Guide, Look to your feet, for you shall presently be among snares: So they looked to their feet, and went on; but they were troubled much with the snares. Now when they were come among the snares, they espied a man cast into the Ditch on the left hand, with his flesh all rent and torn. Then said the Guide, That is one Heedless, that was a going this Way; he has lain there a great while: There was one Takeheed with him, when he was taken and slain; but he escaped their hands. You cannot imagine how many are killed hereabouts, and yet men are so foolishly venturous, as to set out lightly on Pilgrimage, and to come without a Guide. Poor Christian! it was a wonder that he here escaped; but he was beloved of his God: Also he had a good heart of his own,\u00b0 or else he could never ha' done it. Now they drew towards the end of the Way, and just there where _Christian_ had seen the Cave when he went by, out thence came forth Maul a giant.35 This Maul did use to spoil young Pilgrims with Sophistry, and he called _Great-heart_ by his name, and said unto him, How many times have you been forbidden to do these things? Then said Mr. Great-heart, What things? What things? quoth the Giant; you know what things; but I will put an end to your trade. But, pray, said Mr. _Great-_ heart, before we fall to it, let us understand wherefore we must fight. (Now the women and children stood trembling, and knew not what to do.) Quoth the Giant, You rob the country, and rob it with the worst of thefts.\u00b0 These are but generals, said Mr. Great-heart; come to particulars, man.\n\nHeedless is slain, _and_ Takeheed preserved.\n\n**stay upon** Wait for; **Satans** Enemies. Bunyan's use of the plural draws attention to Satan's emblematic nature; **annoyance** Disgust; **out here** Out of here.\n\nPart 1. p. 79. Maul a Giant\n\nHe quarrels with Great-heart.\n\nThen said the Giant, Thou practisest the craft of a _Kidnapper,_ thou gatherest up women and children, and carriest them into a strange country, to the weakning of my Master's kingdom. But now _Great-heart_ replyed, I am a servant of the God of Heaven; my business is to persuade Sinners to _Repentance:_ I am commanded to do my endeavour to turn men, women, and children, from Darkness to Light, and from the Power of Satan to God; and if this be indeed the ground of thy quarrel, let us fall to it as soon as thou wilt.\n\nGod's Ministers counted _as_ Kidnappers.\n\nThe Giant _and_ Mr. Great-heart must fight.\n\nThen the Giant came up, and Mr. Great-heart went to meet him; and as he went, he drew his Sword, but the Giant had a club. So without more ado they fell to it, and at the first blow the Giant struck Mr. Great-heart down upon one of his knees; with that the women and children cried out: So Mr. _Great-_ heart recovering himself laid about him in full lusty manner, and gave the Giant a wound in his arm; thus he fought for the space of an hour, to that height of heat, that the breath came out of the Giant's nostrils, as the heat doth out of a boiling cauldron.\n\nWeak folks Prayers do sometimes help Strong folks Cries.\n\n**a good heart of his own** And therefore did not need an external Great-heart to guide him; **the worst of thefts** That is, of souls.\n\nThen they sat down to rest them, but Mr. _Great-heart_ betook him to prayer; also the women and children did nothing but sigh and cry all the time that the battle did last.\n\nWhen they had rested them, and taken breath, they both fell to it again, and Mr. _Great-heart_ with a full blow fetch'd the Giant down to the ground: Nay, hold, and let me recover, quoth he. So Mr. Great-heart fairly\u00b0 let him get up: So to it they went again, and the Giant missed but little of all-to-breaking\u00b0 Mr. _Great-heart's_ skull with his club.\n\nThe Giant struck down.\n\nMr. Great-heart seeing that, runs to him in the full heat of his spirit, and pierced him under the fifth rib; with that the Giant began to faint, and could hold up his club no longer. Then Mr. Great-heart seconded his blow, and smit\u00b0 the head of the Giant from his shoulders. Then the women and children rejoiced, and Mr. Great-heart also praised God, for the deliverance he had wrought.\n\nHe is slain, _and_ his head disposed _of._\n\nWhen this was done, they amongst them erected a Pillar, and fastened the Giant's head thereon, and wrote underneath in letters that passengers might read:\n\n _He that did wear this Head, was one That Pilgrims did misuse;_\n\n_He stopt their Way, he spared none, But did them all abuse_ :\n\n_Until that I, Great-heart arose, The Pilgrims Guide to be_ ;\n\n_Until that I, did him oppose, That was their Enemy_.\n\nNow I saw that they went to the ascent that was a little way off cast up to be a prospect for Pilgrims, (that was the place from whence Christian had the first sight of Faithful his brother.) Wherefore here they sat down, and rested, they also here did eat and drink, and make merry; for that they had gotten deliverance from this so dangerous an enemy. As they sat thus and did eat, _Christiana_ ask'd the Guide, If _he_ had caught no hurt in the Battle? Then said Mr. Great-heart, No, save a little on my flesh; yet that also shall be so far from being to my detriment, that it is at present a proof of my love to my Master and you, and shall be a means, by Grace, to increase my reward at last.\n\nPart 1. p. 80.\n\n**fetch'd** Knocked; **fairly** Sportingly; **all-to-breaking** All but breaking; **smit** Smote.\n\nBut was you not afraid, good Sir, when you see him come out with his Club?\n\nIt is my duty, said he, to distrust mine own ability, that I may have reliance on Him that is stronger than all. But what did you think, when he fetch'd you down to the ground at the first blow? Why, I thought, quoth he, that so my Master himself was served, and yet he it was that conquered at the last.\n\n2 Cor. 4. Discourse of the Fights.\n\n_Matt._ When you all have thought what you please, I think God has been wonderful good unto us, both in bringing us out of this Valley, and in delivering us out of the hand of this Enemy; for my part, I see no reason why we should distrust our God any more, since he has now, and in such a place as this, given us such testimony of his love as this.\n\nMatthew here _admires_ God's Goodness.\n\nThen they got up, and went forward: Now a little before them stood an oak, and under it when they came to it, they found an old Pilgrim fast asleep; they knew that he was a Pilgrim by his Clothes, and his Staff, and his Girdle.\n\nOld Honest asleep under the _Oak._\n\nSo the Guide, Mr. Great-heart, awaked him, and the old gentleman, as he lift up his eyes, cried out, What's the matter? Who are you? And what is your business here?\n\nGreat-heart. Come, man, be not so hot, here is none but Friends: Yet the old man gets up, and stands upon his guard, and will know of them what they were. Then said the Guide, my name is Great-heart, I am the guide of these Pilgrims, which are going to the C\u0153lestial Country.\n\nOne Saint _sometimes_ takes _another_ for his Enemy.\n\nHonest. Then said Mr. Honest, I cry you mercy;\u00b0 I fear'd that you had been of the company of those that some time ago did rob _Little-Faith_ of his money; but now I look better about me, I perceive you are honester people.\u00b0\n\n**quoth** Said; **I cry you mercy** I beg your pardon (but note that Honest is literally addressing Mercy).\n\nTalk between Great-heart _and_ he.\n\n_Great-heart._ Why what would, or could you ha' done, to ha' help'd yourself, if we indeed had been of that company?\n\nHon. Done! Why, I would have fought as long as breath had been in me; and had I so done, I am sure you could never have given me the worst on't; for a Christian can never be overcome, unless he shall yield of himself.\n\n_Great-heart._ Well said, father Honest, quoth the Guide; for by this I know thou art a cock of the right kind,\u00b0 for thou hast said the truth.\n\nHon. And by this also I know that thou knowest what true Pilgrimage is; for all others do think, that we are the soonest overcome of any.\n\n_Great-heart._ Well, now we are so happily met, pray let me crave your name, and the name of the place you came from?\n\nHon. My name I cannot,\u00b0 but I came from the town of _Stupidity;_ it lieth about four degrees beyond the City of _Destruction._\n\nWhence Mr. Honest came.\n\n_Great-heart._ Oh! Are you that country-man then? I deem I have half a guess of you,\u00b0 your name is old Honesty, is it not? So the old Gentleman blush'd, and said, Not Honesty in the abstract,\u00b0 but Honest is my name, and I wish that my nature shall agree to what I am called.\u00b0\n\n_Hon._ But, Sir, said the old gentleman, how could you guess that I am such a man, since I came from such a place?\n\nGreat-heart. I had heard of you before, by my Master; for he knows all things that are done on the Earth: But I have often wondered that any should come from your place, for your town is worse than is the City of Destruction itself.\n\n_Stupified_ Ones _are_ worse than those merely _Carnal._\n\n**you are honester people** Hinting that Honest is a projection of the pilgrims' own honesty; **a cock of the right kind** A good fighter, an honest man; **My name I cannot** Honest is too honest to describe himself as \"honest\"; **I deem I have half a guess of you** I reckon I know who you are; **in the abstract** The shift from abstract noun to adjective shows how the characters gradually grow independent of their allegorical referents as the journey nears its end; **I wish ... called** In contrast to the bad characters, who often deny any connection between their name and their nature.\n\n_Hon._ Yes, we lie more off from the Sun, and so are more cold and senseless; but was a man in a mountain of Ice, yet if the Sun of Righteousness will arise upon him, his frozen heart shall feel a thaw; and thus it hath been with me.\n\nGreat-heart. I believe it, Father Honest, I believe it; for I know the thing is true.\n\nThen the old gentleman saluted all the Pilgrims with a holy kiss of Charity, and asked them of their names, and how they had fared since they set out on their Pilgrimage.\n\nChrist. Then said _Christiana,_ My name I suppose you have heard of; good Christian was my husband, and these four were his children. But can you think how the old gentleman was taken,\u00b0 when she told him who she was! He skipped, he smiled, and blessed them with a thousand good wishes, saying :\n\nOld Honest and Christiana talk.\n\nHon. I have heard much of your husband, and of his travels and wars, which he underwent in his days. Be it spoken to your comfort, the name of your husband rings all over these parts of the world; his Faith, his Courage, his Enduring, and his Sincerity under all,\u00b0 has made his name famous. Then he turned him to the boys, and asked them of their names, which they told him: And then said he unto them, Matthew, be thou like _Matthew\u00b0_ the publican, not in Vice but in Virtue. Samuel, said he, be thou like Samuel the prophet, a man of Faith and Prayer. Joseph, said he, be thou like Joseph in Potiphar's house, Chaste, and one that flies from temptation. And James, be thou like James the Just, and like James the brother of our Lord. Then they told him of Mercy, and how she had left her town and her kindred to come along with _Christiana,_ and with her sons. At that the old honest man said, Mercy is thy name: By Mercy shalt thou be sustain'd,\u00b0 and carried through all those difficulties that shall assault thee in thy Way, till thou shalt come thither, where thou shalt look the Fountain of _Mercy\u00b0_ in the face with comfort.\n\nHe _also_ talks with the boys; Old Mr. Honest's blessing on them. Mat.10. 3. Psal. 99. 6. Gen. 39. Acts 1.14. [1. 13.]\n\nHe blesseth Mercy.\n\n**taken** Delighted; **under all** Under all circumstances; **be thou like Matthew** In a further movement away from iconic to biblical images, the boys are now explicitly likened to their biblical namesakes; **Mercy is thy name ... sustain'd** The quality of mercy is now distinguished from the individual who bears its name; Mercy is no longer an allegorical personification of mercy, but an independent character.\n\nAll this while the Guide, Mr. Great-heart, was very much pleased, and smiled upon his companion.\n\nNow, as they walked along together, the Guide asked the old gentleman, If he did not know one Mr. _Fearing,\u00b0_ that came on Pilgrimage out of his parts?\n\nTalk of one Mr. Fearing.\n\n_Hon._ Yes, very well, said he. He was a man that had the Root of the matter in him,\u00b0 but he was one of the most troublesome Pilgrims that I ever met with in all my days.\n\nGreat-heart. I perceive you knew him, for you have given a very right character\u00b0 of him.\n\nHon. Knew him! I was a great companion of his; I was with him most an end;\u00b0 when he first began to think of what would come upon us hereafter, I was with him.\n\n_Great-heart._ I was his Guide from my Master's house to the gate of the Coelestial City.\n\nHon. Then you knew him to be a troublesome one.\n\n_Great-heart._ I did so; but I could very well bear it; for men of my calling\u00b0 are oftentimes intrusted with the conduct of such as he was.\n\n_Hon._ Well then, pray let us hear a little of him, and how he managed himself under your conduct.\n\nGreat-heart. Why, he was always afraid that he should come short of whither he had a desire to go. Every thing frightned him that he heard any body speak of, that had but the least appearance of opposition in it. I hear that he lay roaring at the Slough of Despond, for above a month together; nor durst he, for all he saw several go over before him, venture, tho' they many of them offered to lend him their hand. He would _not go_ back _again_ neither. The Coelestial City, he said he should die if he came not to it, and yet was dejected at every difficulty, and stumbled at every straw that any body cast in his Way. Well, after he had lain at the Slough of Despond a great while, as I have told you, one Sun-shine morning, I do not know how, he ventured, and so got over: But when he was over, he would scarce believe it. He had, I think, a Slough of _Despond_ in his mind,\u00b0 a Slough that he carry'd every where with him, or else he could never have been as he was. So he came up to the Gate, you know what I mean, that stands at the head of this Way, and there also he stood a good while before he would adventure\u00b0 to knock. When the Gate was opened, he would give back and give place to others, and say, that he was not worthy: For all he got before some to the Gate, yet many of them went in before him. There the poor man would stand shaking and shrinking; I dare say it would have pitied one's heart to have seen him: Nor would he go back _again._ At last he took the hammer that hang'd on the Gate in his hand, and gave a small rap or two; then one opened to him, but he shrunk back as before. He that open'd, stept out after him, and said, Thou trembling one, what wantest thou? With that he fell to the ground. He that spoke to him wonder' d to see him so faint. So he said to him, Peace to thee, up, for I have set open the Door to thee, come in, for thou art blest. With that he gat up, and went in trembling; and when that he was in, he was ashamed to shew his face. Well, after he had been entertained there a while, as you know how the manner is, he was bid go on his Way, and also told the Way he should take. So he came till he came to our house, but as he behaved himself at the Gate, so he did at my master the _Interpreter's_ door. He lay thereabout in the cold a good while, before he would adventure to call. Yet he would not go back. And the nights were long and cold then. Nay, he had a Note of _Necessity\u00b0_ in his bosom to my Master to receive him, and grant him the comfort of his House, and also to allow him a stout and valiant conduct, because he was himself so _chicken-_ hearted a man; and yet for all that, he was afraid to call at the door. So he lay up and down thereabouts, till, poor man, he was almost starv'd; yea, so great was his dejection, that tho' he saw several others for knocking got in, yet he was afraid to venture. At last I think, I looked out of the window, and perceiving a man to be up and down about the door, I went out to him, and asked what he was; but poor man the water stood in his eyes: So I perceived what he wanted. I went therefore in, and told it in the House, and we shewed the thing to our Lord: So he sent me out again, to entreat him to come in; but I dare say, I had hard work to do it. At last he came in, and I will say that for my Lord, he carry'd it wonderful lovingly to him. There were but a few good bits at the table, but some of it was laid upon his trencher.\u00b0 Then he presented the Note, and my Lord looked thereon, and said, his desire should be granted. So when he had been there a good while, he seemed to get some heart, and to be a little more comfortable. For my Master, you must know, is one of very tender bowels, especially to them that are afraid; wherefore he carried it so towards him, as might tend most to his encouragement. Well, when he had had a sight of the things of the place, and was ready to take his Journey to go to the City, my Lord, as he did to Christian before, gave him a bottle of Spirits, and some comfortable things to eat. Thus we set forward, and I went before him, but the man was but of few words, only he would sigh aloud.\n\nMr. Fearing's troublesome Pilgrimage.\n\nHis behaviour _at_ the Slough of Despond.\n\n**the Fountain of Mercy** Christ, Mercy's end and origin; **Mr. Fearing** Rather than an abstract noun, Bunyan uses the present participle of a verb; **the Root of the matter** in him Job 19:28: \"Why persecute we him, seeing the root of the matter is found in me?\" (KHV); **a very right character** A very accurate description; **most an end** In the utmost extremity; **men of my calling** Pastors.\n\nHis behaviour _at_ the Gate.\n\nHis behaviour _at_ the Interpreter's door.\n\n**a Slough of Despond in his mind** The allegorical is translated into the psychological ; **adventure** Dare. The word, or the equivalent \"venture,\" is used repeatedly in the discussion of Fearing; **gat** Got; **a Note of Necessity** Certificate of election.\n\nWhen we were come to where the three fellows were hanged, he said, that he doubted\u00b0 that that would be his end also: Only he seemed glad when he saw the Cross and the Sepulchre. There I confess he desired to stay a little to look; and he seemed for a while after to be a little cheary. When we came at the Hill _Difficulty_ he made no stick at that, nor did he much fear the Lions: For you must know, that his trouble was not _about_ such things _as_ those, his fear was about his acceptance at last.\n\nHow he was entertained there.\n\nHe is a little encouraged at the Interpreter's house.\n\nHe was greatly _afraid_ when he saw the Gibbet, _cheary_ when he saw the Cross.\n\n**trencher** Plate; **doubted** Feared.\n\nDumpish _at_ the House Beautiful.\n\nHe went down into, _and_ was very pleasant in the _Valley_ of Humiliation.\n\nLam. 3. 27, 28, 29.\n\nMuch perplexed in the _Valley_ of the Shadow of Death.\n\nI got him in at the House Beautiful, I think before he was willing; also when he was in, I brought him acquainted with the damsels that were of the place, but he was ashamed to make himself much for company; he desired much to be alone, yet he always loved good talk, and often would get behind the Screen to hear it: He also loved much to see _ancient_ things, and to be pondering them in his mind. He told me afterward, that he loved to be in those two houses from which he came last, to wit, at the Gate, and that of the Interpreter, but that he durst not be so bold to ask.\n\nWhen we went also from the House Beautiful, down the Hill, into the Valley of Humiliation, he went down as well as ever I saw a man in my life, for he cared not how mean\u00b0 he was, so he might be happy at last. Yea, I think there was a kind of Sympathy betwixt that Valley and him:\u00b0 For I never saw him better in all his Pilgrimage than when he was in that Valley.\n\nHere he would lie down, embrace the ground, and kiss the very flowers that grew in this Valley. He would now be up every morning by break of day, tracing\u00b0 and walking to and fro in this Valley.\n\nBut when he was come to the entrance of the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I thought I should have lost my man; not for that he had any inclination to go back, that he always abhorred, but he was ready to die for Fear. O, the Hobgoblins will have me, the Hobgoblins will have me, cried he; and I could not beat him out on't.\u00b0 He made such a noise, and such an out-cry here, that had they but heard him, 'twas enough to encourage them to come and fall upon us.\n\nBut this I took very great notice of, that this Valley was as quiet\u00b0 while he went through it, as ever I knew it before or since. I suppose those Enemies here had now a special check\u00b0 from our Lord, and a command not to meddle until Mr. _Fearing_ was passed over it.\n\n**mean** Humble; **Sympathy betwixt that Valley and him** Bunyan continues to reveal his rhetorical tricks; the Valley is explicitly declared a sympathetic landscape; **tracing** Roaming; **beat him out on't** Get it out of his head; **quiet** The enemies are all in Fearing's mind; **check** Prohibition.\n\nIt would be too tedious to tell you of all; we will therefore only mention a passage or two more. When he was come at _Vanity-Fair,_ I thought he would have fought with all the men in the fair; I feared there we should both have been knock'd o' the head,\u00b0 so hot was he against their Fooleries; upon the inchanted ground he was also very wakeful. But when he was come at the River, where was no bridge, there again he was in a heavy case:\u00b0 Now, now, he said, he should be drowned for ever, and so never see that Face with comfort, that he had come so many miles to behold.\n\nAnd here also I took notice of what was very remarkable; The water of that river was lower at this time, than ever I saw it in all my life; so he went over at last, not much above wetshod. \u00b0 When he was going up to the Gate, Mr. _Great-heart_ began to take his leave\u00b0 of him, and to wish him a good reception above, so he said, I _shall,_ I _shall:_ Then parted we asunder, and I saw him no more.\n\n_Hon._ Then it seems he was well at last.\n\nGreat-heart. Yes, yes, I never had doubt about him, he was a man of a choice spirit, only he was always kept very low, and that made his life so burdensome to himself, and so troublesome to others. He was above many, tender of \u00b0 Sin ; he was so afraid of doing injuries to others, that he often would deny himself of that which was lawful, because he would not offend.\n\n_Hon._ But what should be the reason that such a good man should be all his days so much in the dark?\n\nHis behaviour _at_ Vanity-Fair.\n\nHis Boldness _at last._\n\nPsal. 88. Rom. 14. 21. 1 Cor. 8.13.\n\nReasons why good men are so in the Dark.\n\n**When he was come ... knock'd o' the head** Fearing is not fearful of worldly opposition, and he finds his most hated opponents in the Fair; **heavy case** Sad mood, bad situation; **wet-shod** Just getting his shoes wet. Once again, the threat is illusory; **Mr. Great-heart began to take his leave** As Owens notes, \"Bunyan seems to forget that Great-heart is the narrator here\" (Owens, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 317); **tender of** Sensitive to; **bass** Low, heavy note; **sackbut** Trumpet, but used in the Scriptures for a stringed instrument.\n\nMatt. 11. 16, 17,18.\n\nRev. 8. 14. 2, 3.\n\nA Close _about_ him.\n\nChristiana's Sentence.\n\nGreat-heart. There are two sorts of reasons for it; one is, The wise God will have it so, some must pipe, and some must weep: Now Mr. Fearing was one that played upon this _bass.\u00b0_ He and his fellows sound the _sackbut,\u00b0_ whose notes are more doleful than the notes of other musick are; though indeed some say, the bass is the ground\u00b0 of musick: And for my part, I care not at all for that profession, that begins not in heaviness of mind. The first string that the musician usually touches, is the bass, when he intends to put all in tune; God also plays upon this string first, when he sets the soul in tune for himself. Only here was the imperfection of Mr. Fearing, he could play upon no other musick but this, till towards his latter end.\n\nI make bold to talk thus Metaphorically,\u00b0 for the ripening of the wits of young readers, and because in the book of the Revelations,\u00b0 the Saved are compared to a company of musicians that play upon their Trumpets _and_ Harps, and sing their songs before the Throne.\n\n_Hon._ He was a very zealous man, as one may see by what relation you have given of him; difficulties, Lions, or Vanity-Fair, he feared not at all; 'twas only Sin, Death, and Hell, that was to him a terror; because he had some doubts about his interest in\u00b0 that Coelestial Country.\n\n_Great-heart._ You say right: Those were the things that were his troublers, and they, as you have well observed, arose from the weakness of his mind thereabout, not from weakness of spirit as to the practical part of a Pilgrim's Life. I dare believe, that as the proverb is, He could have bit _a_ Fire-brand, had it stood _in_ his Way: But the things with which he was oppressed, no man ever yet could shake off with ease.\n\nChrist. Then said _Christiana,_ This relation of Mr. Fearing has done me good: I thought nobody had been like me; but I see there was some semblance 'twixt this good man and I, only we differ in two things. His troubles were so great, they brake\u00b0 out, but mine I kept within. His also lay so hard upon him, they made him that he could not knock at the houses provided for entertainment; but my trouble was always such, as made me knock the louder.\n\n**ground** Foundation; **Metaphorically** Bunyan makes his method increasingly clear; **Revelations** Once again Bunyan cites biblical authority for his figures; **interest in** Right to; **brake** Broke.\n\nMercy. If I might also speak my mind, I must say, that something of him has also dwelt in me. For I have ever been more afraid of the Lake, and the loss of a place in Paradise, than I have been of the loss of other things. O, thought I, may I have the happiness to have a habitation there, 'tis enough, though I part with all the World to win it.\n\nMatt. Then said _Matthew, Fear\u00b0_ was one thing that made me think that I was far from having that within me that accompanies Salvation; but if it was so with such a good man as he, why may it not also go well with me?\n\nJames. No fears, no Grace, said James; though there is not always Grace where there is the fear of Hell, yet to be sure there is no Grace where there is no fear of God.\n\n_Great-heart._ Well said, James, thou hast hit the mark; for the fear of God is the beginning of Wisdom;\u00b0 and to be sure they that want the beginning, have neither middle nor end. But we will here conclude our discourse of Mr. Fearing, after we have sent after him this farewel.\n\nWell, Master Fearing, thou didst fear \nThy God, _and_ wast _afraid_ \nOf doing _any_ thing, while here, \nThat would have thee _betray'd._ \nAnd didst thou fear the Lake _and_ Pit? \nWould others did so too! \nFor, _as for_ them that want _thy_ wit, \nThey do themselves undo.\n\nNow I saw, that they still went on in their talk. For after Mr. Great-heart had made an end with Mr. Fearing, Mr. _Honest_ began to tell them of another, but his name was Mr. Self- _will.\"_ He pretended himself to be a Pilgrim, said Mr. Honest; but I persuade myself, he never came in at the Gate that stands at the head of the Way.\n\nMercy's Sentence.\n\nMatthew's _Sentence._\n\nJames's Sentence.\n\nTheir Farewell _about him._\n\nOf Mr. Self-will.\n\n**Fear** Matthew no longer refers to the symbol Mr. Fearing, but to the quality he represents, the \"something of him\" that Christiana has found in herself; **the fear of God is the beginning of Wisdom** Psalm 111:10, Proverbs 9:10; **Mr. Self-will** An antinomian.\n\nOld Honest had talked with him.\n\nSelf-will's Opinion.\n\n_Great-heart._ Had you ever any talk with him about it?\n\nHon. Yes, more than once or twice; but he would always be like himself, _self-willed._ _37_ He neither cared for man, nor Argument, nor yet Example; what his mind prompted him to, that he would do, and nothing else could he be got\u00b0 to.\n\nGreat-heart. Pray what principles did he hold? for I suppose you can tell.\n\n_Hon._ He held, that a man might follow the Vices as well as the Virtues\u00b0 of the Pilgrims; and that if he did both, he should be certainly saved.\n\n_Great-heart._ How? If he had said, 'tis possible for the best to be guilty of the vices, as well as to partake of the vertues of Pilgrims, he could not much have been blamed; for indeed we are exempted from no Vice absolutely, but on condition that we Watch and Strive: But this I perceive is not the thing; but if I understand you right, your meaning is, that he was of that opinion, that it was allowable so to be?\n\n_Hon._ Ai, ai, so I mean, and so he believed and practised.\n\nGreat-heart. But what grounds had he for his so saying?\n\n_Hon._ Why, he said he had the Scripture for his warrant.\n\n_Great-heart._ Prithee, Mr. Honest, present us with a few particulars.\n\n_Hon._ So I will. He said: To have to do with other mens wives, had been practised by David, God's beloved, and therefore he could do it. He said: To have more women than one, was a thing that Solomon practised, and therefore he could do it. He said, that Sarah and the godly midwives of Egypt lied, and so did save Rahab, and therefore he could do it. He said, that the disciples went at the bidding of their Master, and took away the owner's _Ass,_ and therefore he could do so too. He said, that Jacob got the inheritance of his father, in a way of\u00b0 Guile and dissimulation, and therefore he could do so too.\n\n**got** Persuaded; **Vices as well as the Virtues** The Ranter belief that the elect cannot sin; **in a way of** By means of. The Ranter has understood the Scriptures literally.\n\n_Great-heart._ High base!\u00b0 indeed. And are you sure he was of this opinion?\n\n_Hon._ I have heard him plead for it, bring Scripture for it, bring arguments for it, _& c._\n\n_Great-heart._ An opinion that is not fit to be with any allowance\u00b0 in the World.\n\nHon. You must understand me rightly: He did not say that _any_ man might do this; but, that those that had the Virtues of those\u00b0 that did such things, might also do the same.\n\n_Great-heart._ But what more false than such a conclusion? For this is as much as to say, that because good men heretofore have sinned of Infirmity, therefore he had allowance to do it of a presumptuous mind: Or if because a child, by the blast of the wind, or for that it stumbled at a stone, fell down and so defiled itself in mire, therefore he might wilfully lie down and wallow like a boar therein. Who could ha' thought that any one could so far ha' been blinded by the power of Lust? But what is written must be true: They stumble _at_ the Word, being disobedient, whereunto _also_ they were _appointed._\n\nHis supposing that such may have the godly man's Virtues, who addict themselves to their Vices, is also a delusion as strong as the other. ('Tis just as if the dog should say, I have, or may have the qualities of the child, because I lick up its stinking excrements.) To eat up the Sin of God's People, is no sign of one that is possessed with their Virtues. Nor can I believe, that one that is of this opinion, can at present have Faith or Love in him. But I know you have made strong objections against him, prithee what can he say for himself?\n\nHon. Why, he says, to do this by way of Opinion, seems abundance\u00b0 more honest than to do it, and yet hold contrary to it in opinion.\n\n1 Peter 2. 8.\n\nHos. 4. 8.\n\n**High base** Extremely degenerate; to be with any allowance \"To be given any credence,\" but perhaps also \"to be allowed.\" Bunyan did not favor complete religious toleration; **those that had the Virtues of those** The saints who had the virtues of the biblical examples as well as their vices; **defiled** Dirtied; **abundance** Abundantly.\n\n_Great-heart._ A very wicked answer; for though to let loose the bridle to lusts, while our opinions are against such things, is bad; yet, to sin, and plead a Toleration\u00b0 so to do, is worse; the one stumbles beholders accidentally, the other pleads\u00b0 them into the snare.\n\n_Hon._ There are many of this man's mind, that have not this man's mouth, and that makes going on Pilgrimage of so little esteem as it is.\n\n_Great-heart._ You have said the truth, and it is to be lamented: But he that feareth the King of Paradise, shall come out of \u00b0 them all.\n\nChrist. There are strange opinions in the world. I know one that said, 'twas time enough to repent when they came to die.\n\nGreat-heart. Such are not over wise: That man would ha' been loth,\u00b0 might he have had a week to run twenty mile in his life, to have deferred that Journey to the last hour of that week.\n\n_Hon._ You say right, and yet the generality of them that count themselves Pilgrims, do indeed do thus. I am, as you see, an old man, and have been a traveller in this Road many a day; and I have taken notice of many things.\n\nI have seen some that have set out as if they would drive all the world afore them, who yet have in few days died as they in the Wilderness, and so never gat sight of the Promised Land.\n\nI have seen some that have promised nothing at first setting out to be Pilgrims, and that one would ha' thought could not have lived a day, that have yet proved very good Pilgrims.\n\nI have seen some that have run hastily forward, that again have, after a little time, run as fast just back again.\n\nI have seen some that have spoke very well of a Pilgrim's Life at first, that after a while have spoken as much against it.\n\nI have heard some, when they first set out for Paradise, say positively, there is such a place, who when they have been almost there, have come back again, and said there is none.\n\n**Toleration** Permission; **pleads** Persuades; **come out** of Both \"be delivered from\" and \"stand out from\"; **loth** Unwilling.\n\nI have heard some vaunt\u00b0 what they would do in case they should be opposed that have even at a false alarm fled Faith, the Pilgrim's Way, and all.\n\nNow as they were thus in their Way, there came one running to meet them, and said, Gentlemen, and you of the weaker sort,\u00b0 if you love life, shift for\u00b0 yourselves, for the Robbers are before you.\n\nGreat-heart. Then said Mr. Great-heart, they be the three that set upon _Little-Faith_ heretofore. Well, said he, we are ready for them; so they went on their Way: Now they looked at every turning when they should ha' met with the villains: But whether they heard of Mr. Great-heart, or whether they had some other game, they came not up to the Pilgrims.\n\nChrist. _Christiana_ then wished for an Inn for herself and her children, because they were weary. Then said Mr. Honest, There is one a little before us, where a very honourable disciple, one Gaius,\u00b0 dwells. So they all concluded to turn in thither, and the rather, because the old gentleman gave him so good a report. So when they came to the door, they went in, not knocking, for folks use not to knock at the door of an Inn. Then they called for the Master of the House, and he came to them: So they asked if they might lie there that night?\n\nGaius. Yes, Gentlemen, if you be true men,\u00b0 for my house is for none but Pilgrims. Then was _Christiana,_ Mercy, and the boys, the more glad, for that the Innkeeper was a lover of Pilgrims. So they called for rooms, and he shewed them one for _Christiana_ and her children, and Mercy, and another for Mr. Great-heart and the old gentleman.\n\nGreat-heart. Then said Mr. Great-heart, good _Gaius,_ What hast thou for supper? for these Pilgrims have come far to-day, and are weary.\n\nGaius. It is late, said Gaius, so we cannot conveniently go out to seek food; but such as we have you shall be welcome to, if that will content.\n\nFresh News of trouble.\n\nPart 1. p. 143. Great-heart's Resolution.\n\nChristiana wisheth for _an_ Inn.\n\nRom. xvi. 23. Gaius.\n\nThey enter into his House.\n\nGaius entertains _them, and_ how.\n\n**vaunt** Boast; **the weaker sort** Women and children; **shift for** Look after; Gaius Described by Paul as \"mine host, and of the whole church\" (Romans 16:23; KJV); **if you be true men** Few of the pilgrims are literally men, in the sense of adult males.\n\nGaius his Cook.\n\nTalk between Gaius _and_ his Guests.\n\nMark this.\n\nActs 11. 26. Of Christian's Ancestors.\n\nActs 7. 59, 60.\n\nchap. 12. 8.\n\nGreat-heart. We will be content with what thou hast in the house, forasmuch as I have proved\u00b0 thee; thou art never destitute of that which is convenient.\n\nThen he went down and spake to the cook, whose name was, Taste-that-which-is-Good, to get ready Supper for so many Pilgrims. This done, he comes up again, saying, Come, my good friends, you are welcome to me, and I am glad that I have a house to entertain you; and while supper is making ready, if you please, let us entertain one another with some good Discourse: So they all said, content.\n\nGaius. Then said Gaius, Whose wife is this aged matron? and whose daughter is this young damsel?\n\n_Great-heart._ The woman is the wife of one Christian, a Pilgrim of former times; and these are his four children. The maid is one of her acquaintance; one that she hath persuaded to come with her on Pilgrimage. The boys take all after their father, and covet to tread in his steps: Yea, if they do but see any place where the old Pilgrim hath lain, or any print of his foot, it ministereth joy to their hearts, and they covet to lie or tread in the same.\n\nGaius. Then said _Gaius,_ Is this Christian's wife, and are these Christian's children? I knew your husband's father, yea, also his father's Father. Many have been good of this stock, their ancestors dwelt first at _Antioch.\u00b0 Christian's_ progenitors (I suppose you have heard your husband talk of them) were very worthy men. They have, above any that I know, shewed themselves men of great virtue and courage, for the Lord of the Pilgrims, his ways, and them that loved him. I have heard of many of your husband's relations that have stood all trials for the sake of the Truth. _Stephen,\u00b0_ that was one of the first of the Family from whence your husband sprang, was knocked o' th' head with stones. James, another of this generation, was slain with the edge of the sword. To say nothing of Paul and Peter,39 men anciently of the family from whence your husband came: There was _Ignatius,_ who was cast to the Lions: _Romanus,_ whose flesh was cut by pieces from his bones; and Polycarp, that played the man in the fire. There was he\u00b0 that was hanged up in a basket in the Sun, for the wasps to eat; and he\u00b0 who they put into a sack, and cast him into the Sea to be drowned. 'Twould be impossible, utterly to count up all of that family that have suffered injuries and death, for the love of a Pilgrim's life. Nor can I but be glad, to see that thy husband has left behind him four such boys as these. I hope they will bear up their Father's name, and tread in their Father's steps, and come to their Father's end.\n\n**proved** Tested; **Antioch** \"The disciples were called Christians first in Antioch\" (Acts 11:26; KJV); **Stephen** The first Christian martyr.\n\n_Great-heart._ Indeed, Sir, they are likely\u00b0 lads; they seem to choose heartily their father's ways.\n\n_Gaius._ That is it that I said, wherefore _Christian's_ family is like still to spread abroad upon the face of the ground, and yet to be numerous upon the face of the earth: Wherefore, let _Christiana_ look out some damsels for her sons, to whom they may be betrothed, &c. that the name of their father, and the house of his progenitors may never be forgotten in the world.\n\n_Hon._ 'Tis pity this family should fall and be extinct.\n\n_Gaius._ Fall it cannot, but be diminished it may; but let _Christiana_ take my advice, and that's the way to uphold it.\n\nAnd _Christiana,_ said this Inn-keeper, I am glad to see thee and thy friend Mercy together here, a lovely couple. And may I advise, take Mercy into a nearer relation to thee: If she will, let her be given to _Matthew_ thy eldest son; 'tis the way to preserve you a posterity in the earth. So this match was concluded, and in process of time they were married: But more of that hereafter.\n\nAdvice to Christiana _about_ her Boys.\n\nGen. 3.\n\n**he** Marcus, fourth-century bishop of Arethusa, whose grisly martyrdom is described by Foxe; he Various martyrs were killed by drowning; **likely** Promising; **their reproach** Gaius rehearses the favorite arguments of seventeenth-century feminist works, such as Aemelia Lanyer's \"Salve Deus Rex Judeorum\" (1611; Hail, God, King of the Jews).\n\nGal. 4.\n\nWhy women of old so much desired children.\n\nLuke 2. chap. 8. 2, 3.\n\nchap. 7. 37, 50. John 11. 2. chap. 12.3. Luke 23. 27. Mat. 27. 55, 56,61.\n\nLuke 24. 22, 23.\n\nSupper ready.\n\n_What_ to be gathered from _laying_ of the Board with the Cloth _and_ Trenchers.\n\nLevit. 7. 32, 33, 34. ch. 10. 14,15. Psalm 25. 1. Heb. 13.15. Deut. 32. 4. Judg. 9. 13. John 15. 1.\n\n_Gaius_ also proceeded, and said, I will now speak on the behalf of Women, to take away their reproach.\u00b0 For as Death and the Curse came into the world by a woman, so also did Life and Health: God sent forth his Son, made of _a_ woman. Yea, to shew how much those that came after, did abhor the act of their Mother, this sex in the old Testament coveted children, if happily this or that woman might be the Mother of the Saviour of the World. I will say again, that when the Saviour was come, women rejoyced in him, before either man or angel. I read not, that ever any man did give unto Christ so much as one groat, but the women followed him, and ministered to him of their substance. 'Twas a woman that washed his feet with tears, and a woman that anointed his body to the burial. They were women that wept when he was going to the Cross; and women that followed him from the cross, and that sat by his sepulchre when he was buried: They were women that were first with him at his Resurrection-morn; and women that brought tidings first to his disciples, that he was risen from the dead: Women therefore are highly favoured, and shew by these things, that they are sharers with us in the Grace of Life.\n\nNow the cook sent up to signify that Supper was almost ready, and sent one to lay the cloth, the trenchers, and to set the salt and bread in order.\n\nThen said _Matthew,_ The sight of this cloth, and of this fore-runner of a supper, begetteth in me a greater appetite to my food than I had before.\n\n_Gaius._ So let all ministring doctrines to thee in this life, beget _in_ thee a greater desire to sit at the Supper of the great King in his Kingdom; for all preaching, books and ordinances here, are but as the laying of the trenchers, and as setting of salt upon the board, when compared with the Feast that our Lord will make for us when we come to his House.\n\nSo Supper came up, and first a heave-shoulder, and a wave-breast were set on the table before them; to shew that they must begin their meal with Prayer and Praise to God. The _heave-shoulder_ David lifted his Heart up to God with, and with the wave-breast, where his Heart lay, with that he used to lean upon his harp, when he played. These two dishes were very fresh and good, and they all eat heartily-well thereof.\n\nThe next they brought up, was a bottle of wine, red as blood. So _Gaius_ said to them, Drink freely, this is the juice of the true Vine,\u00b0 that makes glad the heart of God and man. So they drank and were merry.\n\nThe next was a dish of milk well crumbed: But _Gaius_ said, Let the boys have that, that they may grow thereby.\n\nThen they brought up in course a dish of _butter_ and honey. Then said _Gaius,_ Eat freely of this, for this is good to chear up, and strengthen your judgments and understandings ; this was our Lord's dish when he was a child: Butter _and_ honey _shall_ he _eat,_ that he may know to refuse the Evil, _and_ choose the Good.\n\nThen they brought them up a dish of apples, and they were very good tasted fruit. Then said _Matthew,_ may we eat apples, since they were such, by and with which, the Serpent beguiled our first Mother?\n\nThen said _Gaius,_\n\n_Apples were they with which we were beguiled_ , \n_Yet Sin, not Apples, \u00b0 hath our Souls defiled;_ \n_Apples forbid, if eat, corrupt the blood_ : \n_To eat such, when commanded, does us good_ ; \n_Drink of his Flagons then, thou Church, his Dove,_ \n_And eat his Apples, who are sick of Love_.\n\nThen said Matthew, _I_ made the Scruple, \u00b0 because _I a_ while since was sick with eating of fruit.\n\nGaius. Forbidden fruit will make you sick, but not what our Lord has tolerated.\n\nWhile they were thus talking, they were presented with another dish, and 'twas a dish of Nuts. Then said some at the table, Nuts spoil tender teeth, 'specially the teeth of the children : Which when _Gaius_ heard, he said:\n\nDeut. 32. 14. Judg.9.13. John 15. 1.\n\n1 Pet. 2. 1, 2. A Dish of Milk.\n\nOf Honey and Butter.\n\nIsa. 7.15.\n\nA Dish of Apples.\n\nSong 6. 61. A Dish of Nuts.\n\n**red as blood** The communion wine that represents the blood of Christ; **the true Vine** John 15:1: \"I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman\" (KJV); **Sin, not apples** Matthew is instructed that the symbolic reading supercedes the literal; **Scruple** Caveat.\n\nA Riddle put forth by Old Honest.\n\nGaius opens it.\n\nJoseph wonders.\n\nProv. 11. 24. chap. 13. 7.\n\nHard Texts are Nuts, \u00b0 _(I_ will not call them Cheaters) \nWhose Shells do keep their Kernels from the Eaters. \nOpe then the shells, _and_ you _shall_ have the Meat, \nThey here _are_ brought, for you to crack _and_ eat.\n\nThen were they very merry, and sat at the table a long time, talking of many things. Then said the old gentleman, My good landlord, while ye are here cracking your Nuts, if you please, do you open\u00b0 this Riddle.\n\nA man there was, _tho' some_ did count him mad, The more he cast _away,_ the more he had.\n\nThen they all gave good heed, wondering what good Gaius would say; so he sat still a while, and then thus replyed:\n\nHe that bestows his Goods upon the Poor, _Shall_ have _as_ much _again, and_ ten times more.\n\nThen said Joseph, I dare say, Sir, I did not think you could ha' found it out.\n\nOh! said Gaius, I have been trained up in this way a great while: Nothing teaches like experience; I have learned of my Lord to be kind, and have found by experience, that I have gained thereby. There is that scattereth, yet _increaseth;_ and there is that _with-holdeth_ more than is meet, but it _tendeth to_ Poverty: There is that maketh himself Rich, yet hath nothing; there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great Riches.\n\nThen Samuel whispered to _Christiana_ his mother, and said, Mother, this is a very good man's house, let us stay here a good while, and let my brother _Matthew_ be married here to Mercy, before we go any further.\n\nThe which Gaius the host over-hearing, said, With _a_ very good will, my child.\n\n**Hard Texts are Nuts** Gaius repeats Bunyan's case against those who criticized his allegorical method; **open** Solve.\n\nSo they stayed there more than a month, and Mercy was given to _Matthew_ to wife.\n\nWhile they stayed here, Mercy, as her custom was, would be making coats and garments to give to the poor, by which she brought a very good report\u00b0 upon the Pilgrims.\n\nBut to return again to our Story: After supper, the lads desired a bed, for that they were weary with travelling: Then _Gaius_ called to shew them their chamber; but said Mercy, I will have them to bed. So she had them to bed, and they slept well, but the rest sat up all night: For _Gaius_ and they were suchsuitable\u00b0 company, that they could not tell how to part. Then after much talk of their Lord, themselves, and their Journey, old Mr. Honest, he that put forth the riddle to _Gaius,_ began to nod. Then said _Great-heart,_ What, Sir, you begin to be drowsy; come, rub up,\u00b0 now here is a Riddle for you. Then said Mr. Honest, Let's hear it.\n\nThen said Mr. _Great-heart,_\n\nHe that will kill, must first be overcome: Who live _abroad_ would, first must die _at_ home.\n\nHa! said Mr. Honest, it is a hard one, hard to expound, and harder to practise. But, come, landlord, said he, I will, if you please, leave my part to you, do you expound it, and I will hear what you say.\n\nNo, said _Gaius,_ 'twas put to you, and it is expected you should answer it.\n\nThen said the old Gentleman,\n\n _He first by Grace must conquer'd be, That Sin would mortify_ :\n\n_And who, that lives, would convince me, Unto himself must di_ e.\n\nIt is right, said Gaius, good Doctrine and Experience teaches this. For first, untill Grace displays itself, and over- comes the soul with its glory, it is altogether without heart\u00b0 to oppose Sin; besides, if Sin is Satan's cords, by which the soul lies bound, how should it make resistance, before it is loosed from that Infirmity?\n\nMatthew _and_ Mercy _are_ married.\n\nThe Boys go to bed, the rest sit up.\n\nOld Honest nods.\n\nA Riddle.\n\nThe Riddle opened.\n\n**report** Reputation; **suitable** Sympathetic; **rub up** Wake up.\n\nA Question worth the minding.\n\nA _Comparison._\n\nA Mistake.\n\nAnother question.\n\nSecondly, Nor will any, that knows either reason or Grace, believe that such a man can be a living monument of Grace, that is a slave to his own Corruptions.\n\nAnd now it comes in my mind, I will tell you a story worth the hearing. There were two men that went on Pilgrimage, the one began when he was young, the other when he was old: The young man had strong corruptions\u00b0 to grapple with, the old man's were decayed with the decays of nature:\u00b0 The young man trod his steps as even as did the old one, and was every way as light as he: Who now, or which of them had their Graces shining clearest, since both seemed to be alike?\n\n_Hon._ The young man's, doubtless. For that which heads it\u00b0 against the greatest opposition, gives best demonstration that it is strongest; specially when it also holdeth pace with that that meets not with half so much; as to be sure old age does not.\n\nBesides, I have observed, that old men have blessed themselves with this mistake; namely, taking the decays of nature for a gracious conquest over corruptions, and so have been apt to beguile themselves. Indeed old men that are gracious, are best able to give Advice to them that are young, because they have seen most of the emptiness of things: But yet, for an old and a young to set out both together, the young one has the advantage of the fairest discovery of a work of Grace within him, though the old man's corruptions are naturally the weakest.\n\nThus they sat talking till break of day. Now when the family was up, _Christiana_ bid her son James that he should read a chapter; so he read 53d of Isaiah: When he had done, Mr. Honest asked why it was said, that the Saviour is said to come out of _a_ dry ground, _and also_ that he had no Form nor _Comeliness_ _in him_ _42_\n\n**without heart** Both \"pointless\" and \"insincere\"; **corruptions** Fleshly temptations ; **decays of nature** The declining sexual desire of old age; **heads it** Makes headway.\n\n_Great-heart._ Then said Mr. Great-heart; To the first I answer ; Because the Church of the Jews, of which Christ came, had then lost almost all the sap, and Spirit of religion. To the second I say, the words are spoken in the person of the Unbelievers, who because they want that Eye that can see into our Prince's heart, therefore they judge of him by the meanness of his outside.\n\nJust like those, that know not that precious stones are covered over with a homely crust; who when they have found one, because they know not what they have found, cast it again away, as men do a common stone.\n\nWell, said _Gaius,_ now you are here, and since, as I know, Mr. Great-heart is good at his Weapons, if you please, after we have refreshed ourselves, we will walk into the fields, to see if we can do any good. About a mile from hence, there is one Slay-good, a giant, that doth much annoy the King's Highway in these parts: And I know whereabout his haunt is, he is master of a number of thieves; 'Twould be well if we could clear these parts of him.\u00b0\n\nSo they consented and went, Mr. Great-heart with his Sword, Helmet, and Shield; and the rest with Spears and Staves.\n\nWhen they came to the place where he was, they found him with one _Feeble-mind_ in his hands, whom his servants had brought unto him, having taken him in the Way; now the Giant was rifling him,\u00b0 with a purpose, after that, to pick his bones; for he was of the nature of Flesh-eaters.\u00b0\n\nWell, so soon as he saw Mr. _Great-heart_ and his friends at the mouth of his Cave, with their Weapons, he demanded what they wanted.\n\nGiant Slaygood _assaulted and_ slain.\n\nHe is found with one Feeble-mind in his hand.\n\n**'Twould be well... of him** For the first time, the pilgrims take the offensive, actively seeking out their opponents; **rifling him** Going through his pockets; **Flesh-eaters** Cannibals.\n\nFeeble-mind rescued from the Giant.\n\nHow Feeble-mind came to be _a_ Pilgrim.\n\n_Great-heart._ We want thee; for we are come to revenge the Quarrel of the many that thou hast slain of the Pilgrims, when thou hast dragged them out of the King's High-way; wherefore come out of thy Cave. So he armed himself and came out, and to a battle they went, and fought for above an hour, and then stood still to take wind.\n\nSlay. Then said the Giant, Why are you here on my ground?\n\nGreat-heart. To revenge the blood of Pilgrims, as I also told thee before; so they went to it again, and the giant made Mr. Great-heart give back; but he came up again, and in the greatness of his mind he let fly with such stoutness at the giant's head and sides, that he made him let his weapon fall out of his hand; so he smote him, and slew him, and cut off his Head, and brought it away to the Inn. He also took _Feeble-_ mind the Pilgrim, and brought him with him to his lodgings. When they were come home, they shewed his head to the Family, and set it up as they had done others before, for a terror to those that shall attempt to do as he, hereafter.\n\nThen they asked Mr. Feeble-mind, how he fell into his hands?\n\n_Feeble-mind._ Then said the poor man, I am a sickly man, as you see, and because Death did usually once a day knock at my door, I thought I should never be well at home: So I betook myself to a Pilgrim's life; and have travelled hither from the town of Uncertain, where I and my father were born. I am a man of no strength at all of body, nor yet of mind, but would, if I could, though I can but crawl, spend my life in the Pilgrim's Way. When I came at the Gate that is at the head of the Way, the Lord of that place did entertain me freely; neither objected he against my weakly looks, nor against _my feeble_ mind;\u00b0 but gave me such things that were necessary for my Journey, and bid me hope to the end. When I came to the House of the Interpreter, I received much kindness there; and because the Hill of Difficulty was judged too hard for me, I was carried up that by one of his Servants. Indeed I have found much relief from Pilgrims, though none was willing to go so softly as I am forced to do: Yet still as they came on, they bid me be of good cheer, and said, that it was the will of their Lord, that comfort should be given to the feeble-minded, and so went on their own pace. When I was come to Assault-Lane, then this Giant met with me, and bid me prepare for an _Encounter:_ But alas! feeble one that I was, I had more need of a _Cordial:\u00b0_ So he came up and took me: I conceited\u00b0 he should not kill me; also when he had got me into his Den,\u00b0 since I went not with him willingly, I believed I should come out alive again: For I have heard, that not any Pilgrim that is taken captive by violent hands, if he keeps heart-whole towards his Master, is, by the Laws of Providence, to die by the hand of the Enemy. Robbed I look'd to\u00b0 be and robbed to be sure I am; but I am as you see escaped with life, for the which I thank my King as Author, and you as the means. Other brunts I also look for, but this I have resolved on, to wit, to run when I can, to _go\u00b0_ when I cannot run, and to creep\u00b0 when I cannot go. As to the main, I thank him that loves me, I am fixed;\u00b0 my Way is before me, my mind is beyond the River that has no bridge, tho' I am, as you see, but of a feeble mind.\n\n**my feeble mind** An attribute of this figure, not his essence;\n\n_Hon._ Then said old Mr. Honest, Have not you some time ago, been acquainted with one Mr. Fearing a Pilgrim.\n\nFeeble. Acquainted with him, Yes; he came from the town of Stupidity, which lieth four degrees Northward of the City of Destruction, and as many off, of where I was born; yet we were well acquainted, for indeed he was mine uncle, my father's brother; he and I have been much of a temper,\u00b0 he was a little shorter than I, but yet we were much of a complexion.\n\n_Hon._ I perceive you know him, and I am apt to believe also, that you were related one to another; for you have his whitely\u00b0 look, a cast like his with your eye, and your speech is much alike.\n\nFeeble. Most have said so, that have known us both; and besides, what I have read in him,\u00b0 I have for the most part found in myself.\n\n1 Thes. 5. 4.\n\nMark this.\n\nMark this.\n\nMr. Fearing Mr. Feeble-mind's Uncle.\n\nFeeble-mind has some of Mr. Fearing's features.\n\n**Cordial** Medicine; **conceited** Understood; **Den** Bunyan's word for \"prison\"; **look'd to** Expected to; **go** Walk; creep Crawl; fixed Both \"mended\" and \"set in my purpose\"; **of a temper** Alike; **whitely** Pale; **what I have read in him** Feeble-Mind has been reading The Pilgrim's Progress.\n\nGaius comforts him.\n\nNotice to be taken of _Providence._\n\nTidings how one Not-right was slain by _a_ thunder-bolt, _and_ Mr. Feeble-mind's comment upon it.\n\n_Gaius._ Come, Sir, said good Gaius, be of good cheer, you are welcome to me, and to my house, and what thou hast a mind to, call for freely; and what thou would'st have my servants do for thee, they will do it with a ready mind.\n\nThen said Mr. _Feeble-mind,_ This is an unexpected favour, and as the Sun shining out of a very dark cloud: Did Giant Slay-good intend me this Favour when he stopped me, and resolved to let me go no further? Did he intend, that after he had rifled my pocket, I should go to Gaius mine host! Yet so it is. \u00b0\n\nNow, just as Mr. _Feeble-mind_ and _Gaius_ were thus in talk, there comes one running, and called at the door, and told, that about a mile and a half off, there was one Mr. Not-right a Pilgrim struck dead upon the place where he was, with a _Thunder-bolt._\n\nFeeble. Alas! said Mr. Feeble-mind, is he slain? He overtook me some days before I came so far as hither, and would be my company-keeper: He also was with me when Slay-good the Giant took me, but he was nimble of his heels, and escaped: But it seems, he escaped to Die, and I was took to Live.\n\n _What, one would think, doth seek to slay outright_ , \n_Oft-times delivers from the saddest plight_. \n_That very Providence, whose Face is Death_ , \n_Doth oft-times to the lowly, Life bequeath_ : \n_I was taken, he did escape and flee_ ; \n_Hands crost, give Death to him, and Life to me_.\n\nNow about this time, _Matthew_ and Mercy were married; also Gaius gave his daughter _Phebe\u00b0_ to James, Matthew's brother, to wife; after which time, they yet staid above ten days at Gaius's house; spending their time, and the Seasons, like as Pilgrims use to do.\n\nWhen they were to depart, Gaius made them a feast, and they did eat and drink, and were merry. Now the hour was come that they must be gone; wherefore Mr. Great-heart called for a reckoning.\u00b0 But _Gaius_ told him, that at his house it was not the custom for Pilgrims to pay for their entertainment. He boarded them by the year, but looked for his pay from the good _Samaritan,\u00b0_ who had promised him, at his return, whatsoever charge he was at with them, faithfully to repay him. Then said Mr. _Great-heart_ to him,\n\n**Yet so it is** Even the wicked fulfill God's providence; **Phebe** Greek for \"shining.\"\n\nThe Pilgrims prepare to go forward.\n\nLuke 10. 33, 34,35.\n\nGreat-heart. Beloved, thou dost faithfully, whatsoever thou dost, to the Brethren and to Strangers,\u00b0 which have borne witness of thy Charity before the Church, whom if thou (yet) bring forward on their Journey, after a Godly sort,\u00b0 thou shalt do well.\n\nHow they greet one _another at_ parting. 3 John 5. 6.\n\nThen _Gaius_ took his leave of them all, and of his children, and particularly of Mr. _Feeble-mind._ He also gave him something to drink by the Way.\n\nGaius's last kindness to Feeble-mind.\n\nNow Mr. Feeble-mind, when they were going out of the door, made as if he intended to linger. The which when Mr. Great-heart espied, he said, Come, Mr. Feeble-mind, pray do you go along with us, I will be your conductor, and you shall fare as the rest.\n\nFeeble-mind for going behind.\n\nFeeble. Alas! I want a suitable companion; you are all lusty and strong, but I, as you see, am weak; I choose therefore rather to come behind, lest by reason of my many Infirmities, I should be both a burden to myself and to you. I am, as I said, a man of a weak and a feeble mind, and shall be offended and made weak at that which others can bear. I shall like no Laughing: I shall like no gay Attire: I shall like no unprofitable Questions. Nay, I am so weak a man, as to be offended with that which others have a liberty to do. I do not know all the truth: I am a very ignorant Christian man: Sometimes, if I hear some rejoice in the Lord, it troubles me, because I cannot do so too. It is with me, as it is with a weak man among the strong, or as with a sick man among the healthy, or as a lamp despised, (he that is ready to slip with his feet, is as a lamp despised in the thought of him that is at ease:) so that I know not what to do.\n\nHis Excuse for it.\n\nJob 12. 5.\n\n**reckoning** Bill; **the good Samaritan** In Luke 10, Jesus tells the parable of a Samaritan who helps a stranger; **to the Brethren and to Strangers** An echo of 3 John 1:5, where the words are also addressed to Gaius; **sort** Manner.\n\nGreat-heart's commission. 1 Thes. 5. 15. Rom. 14. 1 Cor. 8. chap 9.22.\n\nGreat-heart. But brother, said Mr. _Great-heart,_ I have it in Commission to comfort the feeble-minded, and to support the weak. You must needs go along with us; we will wait for you, we will lend you our help; we will deny ourselves of some things both _Opinionative_ and _Practical,\u00b0_ for your sake: We will not enter into doubtful disputations before you; we will be made all things to you, rather than you shall be left behind.\n\nA Christian _spirit._\n\nNow all this while they were at Gaius's door; and behold, as they were thus in the heat of their discourse, Mr. _Ready-to-_ halt came by, with his Crutches in his hand, and he also was going on Pilgrimage.\n\nPsalm 38.17. Promises.\n\nFeeble. Then said Mr. _Feeble-mind_ to him, Man! How earnest thou hither? I was but just now complaining that I had not a suitable companion, but thou art according to my wish. Welcome, welcome, good Mr. Ready-to-halt, I hope thee and I may be some help.\n\nReady-to-halt. I shall be glad of thy company, said the other; and good Mr. Feeble-mind, rather than we will part, since we are thus happily met, I will lend thee one of my crutches.\n\nFeeble-mind glad to see Ready-to-halt come by.\n\nFeeble. Nay, said he, though I thank thee for thy good-will, I am not inclined to halt\u00b0 afore I am lame. Howbeit, I think, when occasion is, it may help me against a dog.\n\n_Ready-to-halt._ If either myself, or my crutches can do thee a pleasure, we are both at thy command, good Mr. _Feeble-mind._\n\nThus therefore they went on; Mr. _Great-heart_ and Mr. Honest went before, _Christiana_ and her children went next, and Mr. _Feeble-mind_ and Mr. _Ready-to-halt_ came behind with his crutches. Then said Mr. Honest,\n\n_Hon._ Pray, Sir, now we are upon the Road, tell us some profitable things of some that have gone on Pilgrimage before us.\n\nNew talk.\n\n_Great-heart._ With a good will: I suppose you have heard how Christian of old did meet with _Apollyon_ in the Valley of Humiliation, and also what hard work he had to go through the Valley of the Shadow of Death. Also I think you cannot but have heard how Faithful was put to it with Madam Wanton, with Adam the First, with one Discontent and Shame; four as deceitful villains, as a man can meet with upon the Road.\n\n**both Opinionative and Practical** The pilgrims will not drive Feeble-mind away with opinionated discourse or excessively strict behavior; **halt** Limp.\n\nPart I. pp. 66, 73, 82-88.\n\n_Hon._ Yes, I have heard of all this; but indeed good Faithful was hardest put to it with Shame; he was an unwearied one.\n\nGreat-heart. Ay, for as the Pilgrim well said, he of all men had the wrong name.\n\n_Hon._ But pray, Sir, where was it that Christian and Faithful met Talkative? That same was also a notable one.\n\nGreat-heart. He was a confident Fool, yet many follow his ways.\n\n_Hon._ He had like to ha'\u00b0 beguiled Faithful.\n\n_Great-heart._ Ay, but Christian put him into a way quickly to find him out. Thus they went on till they came at the place where Evangelist met with Christian and Faithful, and prophesied to them what should befall them at Vanity-Fair.\n\nPart 1. p. 101.\n\nGreat-heart. Then said their guide, Hereabouts did _Christian_ and Faithful meet with Evangelist, who prophesied to them of what troubles they should meet with at _Vanity-Fair._\n\n_Hon._ Say you so! I dare say it was a hard chapter that then he did read unto them.\n\n_Great-heart._ 'Twas so, but he gave them encouragement withal. But what do we talk of them, they were a couple of lion-like men; they had set their faces like flints. Don't you remember how undaunted they were when they stood before the Judge?\n\nPart 1. p. 107.\n\n_Hon._ Well, Faithful bravely suffered.\n\nGreat-heart. So he did, and as brave things came on't; for Hopeful and some others, as the story relates it, were converted by his death.\n\nHon. Well, but pray go on; for you are well acquainted with things.\n\n**had like to ha'** Both \"would have liked to have\" and \"was likely to.\"\n\n_Great-heart._ Above all that Christian met with after he had passed through Vanity-Fair, one By-Ends was the arch\u00b0 one.\n\n_Hon._ By-Ends, what was he?\n\nPart I. p. 115.\n\n_Great-heart._ A very arch\u00b0 fellow, a down-right Hypocrite; one that would be religious which way ever the world went; but so cunning, that he would be sure neither to lose nor suffer for it.\n\nHe had his mode of religion for every fresh occasion, and his wife was as good at it as he. He would turn and change from opinion to opinion; yea, and plead for so doing too. But so far as I could learn, he came to an ill end with his ByEnds; \u00b0 nor did I ever hear that any of his children were ever of any esteem with any that truly feared God.\n\nNow by this time they were come within sight of the town of Vanity, where Vanity-Fair is kept. So when they saw that they were so near the town, they consulted with one another how they should pass through the town, and some said one thing, and some another. At last Mr. Great-heart said, I have, as you may understand, often been a Conductor of Pilgrims through this town; now I am acquainted with one Mr. _Mnason\u00b0_ a _Cyprusian_ by nation, an old disciple, at whose house we may lodge. If you think good, said he, we will turn in there?\n\nThey come within sight of Vanity-Fair. [Ps. 21. 16.? IST EDIT.]\n\nThey enter into one Mr. Mnason's to lodge.\n\nContent, said Old Honest; content, said _Christiana;_ content, said Mr. Feeble-mind; and so they said all. Now, you must think, it was even-tide\u00b0 by that\u00b0 they got to the outside of the town; but Mr. _Great-heart_ knew the way to the old man's house. So thither they came; and he called at the door, and the old man within knew his tongue so soon as ever he heard it; so he opened, and they all came in. Then said _Mnason,_ their host, How far have ye come to-day? So they said, from the house of _Gaius_ our friend. I promise you, said he, you have gone a good stitch,\u00b0 you may well be a weary; sit down. So they sat down.\n\n**arch** Worst; **very arch** Utterly despicable; **with his By-Ends** The allegorical qualities are, once again, distinguished from the character himself; **Mr. Mnason** Acts 21:16 refers to \"one Mnason of Cyprus, an old disciple with whom we should lodge\" (KJV); **even-tide** Evening; **by that** By that time; **stitch** Distance.\n\n_Great-heart._ Then said their Guide, Come, what cheer, Sirs, I dare say you are welcome to my friend.\n\n_Mnason._ I also, said Mr. _Mnason,_ do bid you welcome; and whatever you want, do but say, and we will do what we can to get it for you.\n\nThey _are_ glad of entertainment.\n\nHonest. Our great want, a while since, was Harbour\u00b0 and good Company, and now I hope we have both.\n\n_Mnason._ For harbour, you see what it is; but for good company, that will appear in the trial.\n\n_Great-heart._ Well, said Mr. _Great-heart,_ will you have the Pilgrims up into their lodging?\n\n_Mnason._ I will, said Mr. _Mnason._ So he had them to their respective places; and also shewed them a very fair dining-room, where they might be, and sup together until time was come to go to rest.\n\nNow when they were set in their places, and were a little cheary after their Journey, Mr. Honest asked his landlord, if there were any store of good people in the town?\n\nMnason. We have a few, for indeed they are but a few when compared with them on the other side.\u00b0\n\nHonest. But how shall we do to see some of them? For the sight of good men to them that are going on Pilgrimage, is like to the appearing of the Moon and Stars to them that are sailing upon the Seas.\n\nThey desire to see some of the good people in the Town.\n\n_Mnason._ Then Mr. _Mnason_ stamped with his foot, and his daughter Grace came up: So he said unto her, Grace, go you, tell my friends, Mr. Contrite, Mr. _Holy-man,_ Mr. Love-saint, Mr. Dare-not-lie, and Mr. Penitent, that I have a friend or two at my house that have a mind this evening to see them.\n\nSo Grace went to call them, and they came; and after salutation made, they sat down together at the table.\n\nSome sent for.\n\nThen said Mr. _Mnason,_ their landlord, My neighbours, I have, as you see, a company of Strangers come to my house; they are Pilgrims: They come from afar, and are going to Mount _Sion._ But who, quoth he, do you think this is? point- ing with his finger to _Christiana:_ It is _Christiana,_ the wife of Christian, that famous Pilgrim, who with Faithful his brother, were so shamefully handled in our town.\u00b0 At that they stood amazed, saying, We little thought to see _Christiana,_ when Grace came to call us, wherefore this is a very comfortable\u00b0 surprize. Then they asked her of her welfare, and if these young men were her husband's sons. And when she had told them they were; they said, the King whom you love and serve, make you as your father, and bring you where he is in peace.\n\n**Harbour** A resting place; **the other side** The rigid social polarization in Vanity reminds us that England had just been through a civil war.\n\n_Hon._ Then Mr. Honest (when they were all sat down) asked Mr. Contrite and the rest, in what posture\u00b0 their town was at present.\n\nSome talk betwixt Mr. Honest _and_ Mr. Contrite.\n\nContrite. You may be sure we are full of hurry in Fair-time. 'Tis hard keeping our hearts and spirits in any good order, when we are in a cumbered\u00b0 condition. He that lives in such a place as this is, and that has to do with such as we have, has need of an _Item\u00b0_ to caution him to take heed every moment of the day.\n\nThe fruit of Watchfulness.\n\nHonest. But how are your neighbours now for quietness?\n\nContrite. They are much more moderate now than formerly. You know how Christian and Faithful were used at our town: But of late, I say, they have been far more moderate. I think the blood of _Faithful_ lieth with load upon them\u00b0 till now; for since they burned him, they have been ashamed to burn any more; in those days we were afraid to walk the streets, but now we can shew our heads. Then the name of a professor was odious; now, specially in some parts of our town, (for you know our town is large) Religion is counted honourable.\n\nPersecution not so hot _at_ Vanity-Fair _as_ formerly.\n\nThen said Mr. Contrite to them, Pray how fareth it with you in your Pilgrimage? How stands the country affected towards you?\n\n**in our town** Mnason and his friends were conspicuous by their absence from Vanity in part one; **comfortable** Pleasant; **posture** Political and religious stance; **cumbered** Burdened. Compare Bunyan's Christ A Complete Savior (1692): \"Worldly cumber is a devilish thing\" (Works, vol. 1, p. 206); **Item** Written reminder; **lieth with load upon them** Makes them feel guilty.\n\nHon. It happens to us, as it happeneth to wayfaring men; sometimes our Way is clean, sometimes foul; sometimes up hill, sometimes down hill; we are seldom at a certainty:\u00b0 The wind is not always on our backs, nor is every one a Friend that we meet with in the Way. We have met with some notable rubs\u00b0 already; and what are yet behind\u00b0 we know not; but for the most part we find it true, that has been talked of of old: A good man must suffer trouble.\n\nContrite. You talk of rubs, what rubs have you met withal?\n\n_Hon._ Nay, ask Mr. Great-heart, our Guide, for he can give the best account of that.\n\nGreat-heart. We have been beset three or four times already : First, _Christiana_ and her children were beset with two ruffians, that they feared would take away their lives. We were beset with giant _Bloody-man,_ giant Maul, and giant _Slaygood:_ Indeed we did rather beset the last, than were beset of him; and thus it was: After we had been some time at the house of Gaius, mine host, _and_ of the whole Church, we were minded upon a time to take our weapons with us, and so go see if we could light upon any of those that were Enemies to Pilgrims; (for we heard that there was a notable one thereabouts.) Now Gaius knew his haunt better than I, because he dwelt thereabout; so we looked and looked, till at last we discerned the mouth of his Cave; then were we glad, and plucked up our spirits. So we approached up to his den, and lo, when we came there, he had dragged, by mere\u00b0 force, into his net, this poor man, Mr. Feeble-mind, and was about to bring him to his end. But when he saw us, supposing, as we thought, he had had another prey; he left the poor man in his hole, and came out. So we fell to it full sore,\u00b0 and he lustily laid about him; but, in conclusion, he was brought down to the ground, and his head cut off, and set up by the Way-side, for a Terror to such as should after practise such Ungodliness. That\u00b0 I tell you the truth, here is the man himself to affirm it, who was as a lamb taken out of the mouth of the lion.\n\n**We are seldom at a certainty** Refers to the fluctuations in Charles II's policy toward dissenters; **rubs** Blows; **behind** Ahead, in terms of time, but behind in the sense of \"hidden\"; **mere** Sheer; **full sore** Very fiercely; **That** To prove that.\n\nFeeble-mind. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind, I found this true, to my cost and comfort; to my cost, when he threaten'd to pick my bones every moment; and to my comfort, when I saw Mr. Great-heart and his friends, with their weapons, approach so near for my deliverance.\n\n_Holy-man._ Then said Mr. _Holy-man,_ there are two things that they have need to be possessed with that go on Pilgrimage, Courage, and an Unspotted\u00b0 Life. If they have not courage, they can never hold on their Way; and if their lives be loose, they will make the very name of a Pilgrim stink.\n\nMr. Holy-man's speech.\n\n_Love-saint._ Then said Mr. Love-saint; I hope this caution is not needful amongst you. But truly there are many that go upon the road, that rather declare themselves Strangers to Pilgrimage, than Strangers _and_ Pilgrims _in_ the Earth.\n\nMr. Love-saint's speech.\n\nDare-not-lie. Then said Mr. Dare-not-lie, It is true, they neither have the Pilgrim's _weed,\u00b0_ nor the Pilgrim's Courage; they go not uprightly, but all _awry_ with their feet; one shoe goeth inward, another outward, and their hosen out\u00b0 behind; here a rag, and there a rent,\u00b0 to the disparagement of their Lord.\n\nMr. Dare-not-lie _his_ speech.\n\nPenitent. These things, said Mr. Penitent, they ought to be troubled for; nor are the Pilgrims like to have that Grace upon them and their Pilgrims _Progress,\u00b0_ as they desire, untill the Way is clear'd of such spots and blemishes.\n\nMr. Penitent his speech.\n\nThus they sat talking and spending the time, untill supper was set upon the table. Unto which they went, and refreshed their weary bodies; so they went to rest. Now they staid in the Fair a great while, at the house of Mr. _Mnason,_ who, in process of time, gave his daughter Grace unto Samuel, _Christian's_ son, to wife, and his daughter _Martha_ to Joseph.\n\nThe time, as I said, that they lay here, was long, (for it was not now as in former times.) Wherefore the Pilgrims grew acquainted with many of the good People of the town, and did them what service they could. Mercy, as she was wont, laboured much for the Poor, (wherefore their bellies and backs blessed her,) and she was there an ornament to her profession. And, to say the truth for Grace, _Phebe,_ and _Martha,_ they were all of a very good nature, and did much good in their places. They were also all of them very fruitful, so that _Christian's_ name, as was said before, was like to live in the world.\n\n**Unspotted** Immaculate; **weed** Clothing; **hosen out** Stockings torn; **rent** Tear; **their Pilgrims Progress** Self- referential; these false pilgrims will lack the grace needed to interpret The _Pilgrim's_ Progress correctly.\nWhile they lay here, there came a Monster\u00b0 out of the woods, and slew many of the people of the town. It would also carry away their children, and teach them to suck its whelps.\u00b0 Now no man in the town durst so much as face this Monster; but all men fled when they heard of the noise of his coming.\n\nA Monster.\n\nThe Monster was like unto no one beast upon the earth: Its body was like a Dragon, and it had seven heads and ten horns. It made great havock of children, _and_ yet it was governed by a woman.\u00b0 This Monster propounded conditions to men; and such men as loved their Lives more than their Souls, accepted of those conditions. So they came under.\u00b0\n\nRev. 17. 3. His Shape. His Nature.\n\nNow this Mr. Great-heart, together with these that came to visit the Pilgrims at Mr. _Mnason's_ house, enter'd into a covenant to go and engage\u00b0 this beast, if perhaps they might deliver the people of this town from the paw and mouths of this so devouring a Serpent.\n\nThen did Mr. Great-heart, Mr. _Contrite,_ Mr. _Holy-man,_ Mr. Dare-not-lie, and Mr. Penitent, with their weapons, go forth to meet him. Now the Monster at first was very rampant, and looked upon these enemies with great disdain; but they so belabour' d him, being sturdy men at arms, that they made him make a retreat: So they came home to Mr. _Mnason's_ house again.\n\nHow he is engaged.\n\nThe Monster, you must know, had his certain Seasons to come out in, and to make his attempts upon the children of the people of the town: Also these seasons did these valiant Worthies watch him in, and did continually assault him; insomuch, that in process of time he became not only wounded, but lame; also he had not made the havock of the townsmen's children, as formerly he has done. And it is verily believed by some, that this beast will certainly die of his wounds.\u00b0\n\n**a Monster** The Antichrist; **to suck its whelps** Nurture (suckle) its offspring; **a woman** The Whore of Babylon; **came under** Fell under the sway of Antichrist ; **engage** Fight.\n\nThis therefore made Mr. _Great-heart_ and his fellows of great Fame in this town; so that many of the people that wanted their taste of things,\u00b0 yet had a reverend esteem and respect for them. Upon this account therefore it was, that these Pilgrims got not much hurt here. True, there were some of the baser sort, that could see no more than a mole, nor understand more than a beast; these had no reverence for these men, nor took they notice of their valour and adventures.\n\nWell, the time grew on that the Pilgrims must go on their Way, wherefore they prepared for their Journey. They sent for their friends, they conferred with them, they had some time set apart therein to commit each other to the Protection of their Prince. There were again, that brought them of such things as they had, that were fit for the weak and the strong, for the women and the men, and so laded them with such things as were necessary.\n\nActs 28. 10.\n\nThen they set forwards on their Way, and their friends accompanying them so far as was convenient, they again committed each other to the protection of their King, and departed.\n\nThey therefore that were of the Pilgrims company, went on, and Mr. Great-heart went before them; now the women and children being weakly, they were forced to go as they could bear; by this means Mr. Ready-to-halt and Mr. _Feeble-_ mind had more to sympathize with their condition.\u00b0\n\n**die of his wounds** The final defeat of Antichrist presages the Apocalypse, to which Bunyan looks forward as his text nears its conclusion; **wanted their taste of things** Lacked their interpretation of religion; **sympathize with their condition** It is not specifically feminine weakness, but human weakness in general, **that** Bunyan depicts here; Ready-to-Halt and Feeble-mind are in the same condition as the rest.\n\nWhen they were gone from the townsmen, and when their friends had bid them farewel, they quickly came to the place where Faithful was put to death: Therefore they made a stand, and thanked him that had enabled him to bear his Cross so well; and the rather, because they now found that they had a benefit by such a manly Suffering as his was.\n\nThey went on therefore after this, a good way further, talking of Christian and Faithful, and how Hopeful joined himself to Christian, after that Faithful was dead.\n\nNow, they were come up with the hill Lucre, where the _Silver-_ Mine was, which took Demas off from his Pilgrimage, and into which, as some think, By-ends fell and perished; wherefore they considered that. But when they were come to the old Monument that stood over-against the hill Lucre, to wit, to the Pillar of Salt, that stood also within view of Sodom, and its stinking lake; they marvelled, as did Christian before, that men of that knowledge and ripeness of wit as they were, should be so blinded as to turn aside here. Only they considered again, that nature is not affected with the harms that others have met with, specially if that thing, upon which they look, has an attracting virtue\u00b0 upon the foolish eye.\n\nPart 1. p. 123.\n\nI saw now that they went on till they came at the River that was on this side of the Delectable Mountains.\n\nPart I. page 127.\n\nTo the River where the fine Trees grow on both sides; and whose leaves, if taken inwardly,\u00b0 are good against surfeits, where the meadows are green all the year long, and where they might lie down safely.\n\nPsalm 23.\n\nBy this River side, in the meadow, there were cotes and folds for sheep, a house built for the nourishing and bringing up of those lambs, the babes of those women that go on Pilgrimage. Also there was here One that was entrusted with them, who could have compassion, and that could gather these lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and that could gently lead those that were with young. Now to the care of this Man, _Christiana_ admonished her four Daugh- ters to commit their little ones, that by these waters they might be housed, harboured, succoured, and nourished, and that none of them might be lacking _in_ time to come. This man, if any of them go astray, or be lost, he will bring them again; he will also bind up that which was broken, and will strengthen them that are sick. Here they will never want meat and drink and cloathing; here they will be kept from thieves and robbers; for this man will die before one of those committed to his Trust shall be lost. Besides, here they shall be sure to have good nurture and _admonition,_ and shall be taught to walk in right Paths, and that you know is a Favour of no small account. Also here, as you see, are delicate _waters,_ pleasant meadows, dainty flowers, variety of trees, and such as bear wholsome fruit; fruit not like that that Matthew eat of, that fell over the wall, out of Beelzebub's garden; but fruit that procureth Health where there is none, and that continueth and increaseth where it is.\n\nHeb. 5. 2. Isa. 40. 11.\n\n**virtue** Power; **inwardly** Spiritually, metaphorically.\n\nJer. 23. 4. Ex. 34.11,12, 13,14,15, 16.\n\nJohn 10. 16.\n\nSo they were content to commit their little ones to him; and that which was also an encouragement to them so to do, was, for that all this was to be at the charge of the King, and so was an Hospital to young children and orphans.\n\nNow they went on; and when they were come to _By-Path_ meadow, to the stile over which Christian went with his fellow Hopeful, when they were taken by Giant Despair, and put into Doubting Castle; they sat down, and consulted what was best to be done; to wit, now they were so strong, and had got such a man as Mr. _Great-heart_ for their conductor, whether they had not best to make an attempt upon the Giant, demolish his Castle, and if there were any Pilgrims in it, to set them at liberty, before they went any further. So one said one thing, and another said the contrary. One questioned, if it was lawful to go upon _unconsecrated_ ground; another said they might, provided their end was good; but Mr. _Great-heart_ said, though that assertion offered last, cannot be universally true, yet I have a commandment to resist Sin, to overcome Evil, to fight the good fight of Faith: And I pray, with whom should I fight this good fight, if not with Giant Despair? I will therefore attempt the taking away of his life, and the demolishing of Doubting Castle. Then, said he, who will go with me? Then said old Honest, I will; and so will we too, said _Christian's_ four sons, Matthew, Samuel, James, and Joseph, for they were young men and strong.\n\nThey being come to By-Path _stile,_ have _a_ mind to have _a_ pluck with Giant Despair. Part 1. p. 127-137.\n\n1 John 2.13, 14.\n\nSo they left the women in the Road, and with them Mr. _Feeble-mind_ and Mr. Ready-to-halt, with his crutches, to be their guard, until they came back; for in that place the Giant Despair dwelt so near, they keeping in the Road, _a_ little child might lead them.\n\nIsa. 11. 6.\n\nSo Mr. Great-heart, old Honest, and the four young men, went to go up to Doubting-Castle, to look for Giant Despair. When they came at the Castle-Gate, they knocked for entrance with an unusual noise. At that the old Giant comes to the gate, and Diffidence his wife follows: Then said he, Who and what is he, that is so hardy, as after this manner to molest the Giant Despair? Mr. _Great-heart_ replyed, It is I, _Great-_ heart, one of the King of the Coelestial Country's conductors of Pilgrims to their place: And I demand of thee, that thou open thy gates for my entrance; prepare thyself also to fight, for I am come to take away thy head, and to demolish _Doubting-_ Castle.\n\nNow Giant Despair, because he was a Giant, thought no man could overcome him; and again, thought he, since heretofore I have made a conquest of Angels,\u00b0 shall _Great-_ heart make me afraid? So he harnessed\u00b0 himself, and went out: He had a cap of steel upon his head, a breast-plate of fire girded to him, and he came out in iron shoes, with a great club in his hand. Then these six men made up to him, and beset him behind and before: Also when Diffidence the Giantess came up to help him, old Mr. Honest cut her down at one blow. Then they fought for their lives, and Giant Despair was brought down to the ground, but was very loth to die: He struggled hard, and had, as they say, as many lives as a cat; but Great-heart was his death, for he left him not till he had severed his head from his shoulders.\n\nDespair has overcome Angels.\n\nDespair is loth to die.\n\n**I have made... Angels** Satan and his followers, the fallen angels, are in despair ; **harnessed** Equipped.\n\nThen they fell to demolishing Doubting-Castle, and that you know might with ease be done, since Giant Despair was dead. They were seven days in destroying of that, and in it of Pilgrims they found one Mr. Despondency, almost starved to death, and one _Much-afraid_ his daughter; these two they saved alive. But it would ha' made you ha' wondered, to have seen the dead bodies that lay here and there in the castle-yard, and how full of dead men's bones the dungeon was.\n\nWhen Mr. Great-heart and his companions had performed this exploit, they took Mr. Despondency, and his daughter _Much-afraid_ into their protection, for they were honest people, though they were prisoners in _Doubting-Castle_ to that tyrant Giant Despair. They therefore, I say, took with them the head of the Giant, (for his body they had buried under a heap of stones) and down to the road, and to their companions they came, and shewed them what they had done. Now when _Feeble-mind_ and Ready-to-halt saw that it was the head of Giant Despair indeed, they were very jocund\u00b0 and merry. Now _Christiana,_ if need was, could play upon the _viol,\u00b0_ and her daughter Mercy upon the _lute:\u00b0_ So since they were so merry disposed, she played them a lesson,\u00b0 and _Ready-to-halt_ would dance. So he took Despondency's daughter _Much-afraid_ by the hand, and to dancing they went in the road. True, he could not dance without one crutch in his hand; but I promise you, he footed it well; also the girl was to be commended, for she answered the musick handsomely.\n\nDoubting-Castle demolished.\n\nThey have musick and dancing for joy.\n\nAs for Mr. Despondency, the musick was not much to him, he was for feeding rather than dancing, for that he was almost starved. So _Christiana_ gave him some of her bottle of Spirits, for present relief, and then prepared him something to eat, and in little time the old gentleman came to himself, and began to be finely revived.\n\nNow I saw in my dream, when all these things were finished, Mr. Great-heart took the head of Giant Despair, and set it upon a pole by the High-way-side, right over against the Pillar that Christian erected for a caution to Pilgrims that came after, to take heed of entring into his grounds.\n\n**jocund** Jolly; **viol** Viola; **lute** Stringed instrument, **emblematic** of poetry; **lesson** Piece.\n\nA Monument _of_ Deliverance.\n\nThen he writ under it upon a marble-stone, these verses following:\n\n _This is the Head of him, whose Name only_ \n_In former times did Pilgrims terrify_. \n_His Castle's down, and Diffidence his wife_ \n_Brave Master Great-heart has bereft of life_. \n_Despondency, his daughter Much-afraid,_ \n_Great-heart, for them also the Man has play'd_. \n_Who hereof doubts, if he'll but cast his eye_ , \n_Up hither, may his scruples satisfy_. \n_This head also, when doubting cripples dance,_ \n_Doth shew from Fears they have Deliverance._\n\nWhen these men had thus bravely shewed themselves against Doubting Castle, and had slain Giant Despair, they went forward, and went on till they came to the Delectable mountains, where Christian and Hopeful refreshed themselves with the varieties of the place. They also acquainted themselves with the Shepherds there, who welcomed them, as they had done Christian before, unto the Delectable mountains.\n\nThe Guide's Speech to the Shepherds.\n\nNow the Shepherds seeing so great a train follow Mr. Great-heart, (for with him they were well acquainted;) they said unto him, Good sir, you have got a goodly company here; pray where did you find all these? Then Mr. Great-heart replyed,\n\n _First, here's Christiana and her train_ , \n_Her Sons, and her Sons wives, who, like the wain_ , \u00b0 \n_Keep by the Pole, and do by Compass steer_ , \n_From Sin to Grace, else they had not been here_ :\n\n**wain** The group of stars also known as \"the big dipper\"; it was also sometimes called \"King Charles's Wain.\" A wain was a heavy wagon used on farms.\n\n_Next here's old Honest come on Pilgrimage, \nReady-to-halt too, who I dare engage, \u00b0 \nTrue hearted is, and so is Feeble-mind, \nWho willing was, not to be left behind. \nDespondency, good man, is coming after, \nAnd so also is Much-afraid his daughter, \nMay we have entertainment here, or must \nWe further go? Let's know whereon to trust?_\n\nTHOUGH DOUBTING-CASTLE BE DEMOLISHED, \nAND THE GIANT DESPAIR HATH LOST HIS HEAD, \nSIN CAN REBUILD THE CASTLE, MAKE'T REMAIN, \nAND MAKE DESPAIR THE GIANT LIVE AGAIN.\n\nThen said the Shepherds; This is a comfortable Company; you are welcome to us, for we have for the feeble, as for the strong; our Prince has an eye to what is done to the least of these. Therefore Infirmity must not be a block to our entertainment. So they had them to the Palace door, and then said unto them, Come in Mr. _Feeble-mind,_ come in Mr. _Ready-to-_ halt, come in Mr. Despondency, and Mrs. _Much-afraid,_ his daughter. These, Mr. Great-heart, said the Shepherds to the Guide, we call in by name, for that they are most subject to draw back;\u00b0 but as for you, and the rest that are strong, we leave you to your wonted liberty. Then said Mr. Great-heart, This day I see that Grace doth shine in your faces, and that you are my Lord's Shepherds indeed; for that you have not pushed these diseased neither with side nor shoulder, but have rather strewed their way into the Palace with flowers, as you should.\n\nTheir entertainment.\n\nMat. 25. 40.\n\nA description of false Shepherds. Ezek. 34. 21.\n\nSo the feeble and weak went in, and Mr. Great-heart and the rest did follow. When they were also set down, the Shepherds said to those of the weakest sort, What is it that you would have? For, said they, all things must be managed here to the supporting of the weak, as well as the warning of the unruly.\n\nSo they made them a feast of things easy of digestion, and that were pleasant to the palate, and nourishing: The which when they had received, they went to their rest, each one respectively unto his proper place. When morning was come, because the mountains were high, and the day clear; and because it was the custom of the Shepherds to shew to the Pilgrims, before their departure, some rarities; therefore, after they were ready, and had refreshed themselves, the Shepherds took them out into the fields, and shewed them first what they had shewed to Christian before.\n\n**engage** Affirm; **subject to draw back** Both \"prone to draw back\" and \"subjected to drawbacks\"; the pilgrims are both subjects and objects.\n\nThen they had them to some new places. The first was Mount-Marvel, where they looked, and behold a man at a distance, that tumbled the hills _about_ with words. Then they asked the Shepherds what that should mean? So they told them, that that man was the son of one Mr. _Great-grace,\u00b0_ of whom you read in the First Part of the records of the Pilgrim's Progress. And he is set there to teach Pilgrims how to believe down, or to tumble out of their ways, what difficulties they should meet with; by Faith. Then said Mr. Great-heart, I know him, he is a man above many.\n\n_Mount-_ Marvel.\n\nPart 1. p. 135.\n\nMark 11. 23, 24.\n\nThen they had them to another place, called Mount _Innocent;_ and there they saw a man cloathed all in white; and two men, Prejudice and _Ill-will,_ continually casting dirt upon him. Now behold the dirt, whatsoever they cast at him, would in little time fall off again, and his garment would look as clear as if no dirt had been cast thereat.\n\nMount Innocent.\n\nThen said the Pilgrims, What means this? The Shepherds answered; this man is named Godly-man, and the garment is to shew the innocency of his life. Now those that throw dirt at him, are such as hate his _well-doing;_ but, as you see, the dirt will not stick upon his cloaths, so it shall be with him that liveth truly innocently in the world. Whoever they be that would make such men dirty, they labour all in vain; for God, by that a little time is spent, will cause that their Innocence shall break forth as the light, and their righteousness as the noon-day.\n\nMount Charity.\n\nThen they took them, and had them to Mount Charity, where they shewed them a man that had a bundle of cloth lying before him, out of which he cut coats and garments for the poor that stood about him; yet his bundle, or roll of cloth, was never the less.\n\n**Mr. Great-grace** Faith is produced by grace.\n\nThen said they, What should this be? This is, said the Shepherds, to shew you, that he that has a heart to give of his labour to the poor, shall never want where-withal. He that watereth, shall be watered himself. And the cake that the widow gave to the prophet, did not cause that she had ever the less in her barrel. \u00b0\n\nThey had them also to a place, where they saw one Fool, and one _Want-wit,_ washing of an _Ethiopian,_ _51_ with intention to make him white; but the more they washed him, the blacker he was. They then asked the Shepherds, what that should mean? So they told them, saying, thus shall it be with the vile person; all means used to get such an one a good name, shall in conclusion tend but to make him more abominable. Thus it was with the _Pharisees,_ _52_ and so shall it be with all Hypocrites.\n\nThe Work of one Fool, _and_ one Want-wit.\n\nThen said Mercy, the wife of _Matthew,_ to _Christiana_ her mother, I would, if it might be, see the hole in the Hill; or that commonly called the By-way to Hell. So her mother brake her mind to the Shepherds. Then they went to the door; it was in the side of an hill, and they opened it, and bid Mercy hearken awhile. So she hearkened, and heard one saying, Cursed be my father for holding of my feet back from the way of Peace _and_ Life; and another said, O that I had been torn in pieces, before I had, to save my life, lost my soul; and another said, If I were to live again, how would I deny myself rather than come to this place. Then there was, as if the very Earth had groaned and quaked under the feet of this young woman for fear; so she looked white, and came trembling away, saying, Blessed be he and she, that is delivered from this place.\n\nPart 1. p. 139. Mercy has a mind to see the hole in the Hill.\n\nNow when the Shepherds had shewed them all these things, then they had them back to the palace, and entertained them with what the house would afford: But Mercy being a young and breeding\u00b0 woman, longed for something that she saw there, but was ashamed to ask. Her mother-in-law then asked her what she ailed, for she looked as one not well. Then said Mercy, There is a Looking-Glass hangs up in the dining-room, off of which I cannot take my mind; if therefore I have it not, I think I shall miscarry. Then said her mother, I will mention thy wants to the Shepherds, and they will not deny it thee. But she said, I am ashamed that these men should know that I longed. Nay, my daughter, said she, it is no shame, but a vertue, to long for such a thing as that; so Mercy said, Then mother, if you please, ask the Shepherds, if they are willing to sell it.\n\nMercy _longeth,_ and for what.\n\n**her barrel** In 1 Kings 17 a widow gives cake to the prophet Elijah, and her barrel is miraculously replenished; **breeding** Pregnant.\n\nNow the Glass was one of a thousand. It would present a man, one way with his own feature exactly; and turn it but another way, and it would shew one the very face and similitude\u00b0 of the Prince of Pilgrims himself. Yea, I have talked with them that can tell, and they have said, that they have seen the very Crown of Thorns upon his head, by looking in that Glass; they have therein also seen the holes in his hands, in his feet, and his side. Yea, such an excellency is there in that Glass, that it will shew him to one, where they have a mind to see him; whether living or dead, whether in Earth or Heaven; whether in a state of Humiliation, or in his Exaltation; whether coming to Suffer, or coming to Reign.\n\nIt was the Word of God. James 1. 23.\n\n1 Cor. 13. 12. 2 Cor. 3. 18.\n\n_Christiana_ therefore went to the Shepherds apart, (Now the names of the Shepherds are Knowledge, Experience, Watchful, and Sincere) and said unto them, there is one of my daughters a breeding woman; that, I think doth long for something that she hath seen in this house, and she thinks she shall miscarry, if she should by you be denied.\n\nPart 1. p. 138.\n\nExperience. Call her, call her, she shall assuredly have what we can help her to. So they called her, and said to her, Mercy, what is that thing thou wouldst have? Then she blushed and said, The great Glass that hangs up in the dining-room : So Sincere ran and fetched it, and with a joyful consent it was given her. Then she bowed her head, and gave thanks, and said, By this, I know that I have obtained favour in your eyes.\n\n**the very face and similitude** Both the actual face and signs of the face.\n\nShe doth not lose her longing.\n\nThey also gave to the other young women such things as they desired, and to their husbands great commendations, for that they joined with Mr. Great-heart, to the slaying of Giant Despair, and the demolishing of _Doubting-Castle._\n\nAbout _Christiana's_ neck the Shepherds put a bracelet, and so they did about the necks of her four daughters; also they put ear-rings in their ears, and jewels on their foreheads.\n\nHow the Shepherds _adorn_ the Pilgrims.\n\nWhen they were minded to go hence, they let them go in peace, but gave not to them those certain Cautions which before were given to Christian and his companion. The reason was, for that these had _Great-heart_ to be their Guide, who was one that was well acquainted with things, and so could give them their cautions more seasonably;\u00b0 to wit, even then when the danger was nigh the approaching.\u00b0\n\nPart 1. p. 141.\n\nWhat cautions Christian and his companion had received of the Shepherds, they had also lost by that the time was come that they had need to put them in practice. Wherefore, here was the advantage that this company had over the other.\n\nPart 1. p. 151.\n\nFrom hence they went on singing, and they said,\n\n _Behold, how fitly are the Stages set! For their Relief that Pilgrims are become_ ,\n\n_And how they us receive without one let, That make the other Life the mark and Home_.\n\nWhat Novelties they have, to us they give, \nThat we, _tho' Pilgrims,_ joyful lives may live. \u00b0 \nThey do upon us too, such Things bestow, \nThat skew we Pilgrims are, where-e'er we go.\n\nWhen they were gone from the Shepherds, they quickly came to the place where Christian met with one _Turn-away,_ that dwelt in the town of Apostacy. Wherefore of him Mr. Great-heart, their Guide, did now put them in mind, saying, This is the place where Christian met with one Turn-away, who carried with him the character of his rebellion at his back.\u00b0 And this I have to say concerning this man, he would hearken to no counsel, but once afalling, persuasion could not stop him.\n\nPart 1. p. 143.\n\n**seasonably** At the right time; **nigh the approaching** About to approach; **that we ... may live** In marked contrast to the life of struggle endured by the pilgrim in part one.\n\nWhen he came to the place where the Cross and Sepulchre was, he did meet with one that did bid him look there, but he gnashed with his teeth, and stamped, and said, he was resolved to go back to his own town. Before he came to the Gate, he met with Evangelist, who offered to lay hands on him, to turn him into the way again. But this _Turn-away_ resisted him, and having done much despite unto him, he got away over the Wall, and so escaped his hand.\n\nHow one Turn-away managed his apostacy. Heb.10.26, 27,28,29.\n\nThen they went on, and just at the place where _Little-faith_ formerly was robbed, there stood a man with his sword drawn, and his face all bloody. Then said Mr. _Great-heart,_ What art thou? The man made answer, saying, I am one whose name is _Valiant-for- truth._ I am a Pilgrim, and am going to the Coelestial City. Now, as I was in my Way, there were three men did beset me, and propounded unto me these three things: 1. Whether I would become one of them? 2. Or go back from whence I came? 3. Or die upon the Place? To the first I answered, I had been a true\u00b0 man a long season, and therefore it could not be expected that I now should cast in my lot with thieves. Then they demanded what I would say to the second. So I told them that the place from whence I came, had I not found incommodity\u00b0 there, I had not forsaken it at all; but finding it altogether unsuitable to me, and very unprofitable for me, I forsook it for this Way. Then they asked me what I said to the third. And I told them, my Life cost more dear far than that I should lightly give it away. Besides, you have nothing to do thus to put\u00b0 things to my choice; wherefore at your peril be it, if you meddle. Then these three, to wit, Wild-head, Inconsiderate, and Pragmatick,\u00b0 drew upon me, and I also drew\u00b0 upon them.\n\n**who carried ... at his back** See page 143. Turn-away is a rare pilgrim who carries a sign announcing his allegorical meaning, as in a book of emblems; true Both \"honest\" and \"real\"; **incommodity** Inconvenience, unpleasantness ; **you have nothing to do thus to put** You have no business putting.\n\nOne Valiant-for-truth beset with Thieves.\n\nProv. 1. 10, 11, 13, 14.\n\nSo we fell to it, one against three, for the space of above three hours. They have left upon me, as you see, some of the marks of their valour, and have also carried away with them some of mine. They are but just now gone: I suppose they might, as the saying is, hear your horse dash,\u00b0 and so they betook them to flight.\n\nHow he behaved himself, and put them to flight.\n\nGreat-heart. But here was great odds, three against one.\n\nValiant. 'Tis true; but little and more are nothing to him that has the Truth on his side: Though an Host should encamp against me, said one,\u00b0 my heart shall not fear: Though War should rise against me, in this will I be confident, &c. Besides, said he, I have read in some records, that one man has fought an army: And how many did Sampson slay with the jaw-bone of an ass?\u00b0\n\nGreat-heart wonders at his valour.\n\nPs. 27. 3.\n\nGreat-heart. Then said the Guide, Why did you not cry out, that some might ha' came in for your succour?*\n\nYaliant. So I did to my King, who I knew could hear, and afford invisible Help, and that was sufficient for me.\u00b0 \u00b0\n\nGreat-heart. Then said Great-heart to Mr. valiant fortruth, Thou hast worthily behaved thyself; let me see thy Sword; so he shewed it him.\n\nWhen he had taken it in his hand, and looked thereon a while, he said, Ha! It is a right Jerusalem blade.\"\n\nIs. 2. 3.\n\nValiant. It is so. Let a man have one of these blades, with a hand to wield it, and skill to use it, and he may venture upon an Angel with it. He need not fear its holding, if he can but tell how to lay on. Its edges will never blunt. It will cut flesh,, and bones, and soul, and spirit and all.\n\nEphes. 6. ia, 13,14.15. i6, i7. Herb. 4. 12.\n\n**Pragmatick** Dictatorial busybody; drew That is, drew their swords; **hear your horse dash** Hear you approach; one David, reputed author of the Psalms, invoked here for his defiance of physical odds in slaying Goliath; **And how many ... an ass** One thousand (Judges 15:15-16); **succour** Aid; **invisible Help ... sufficient for me** A material character named \"Help\" is no longer necessary; **Jerusalem blade** Ephesians 6:17: \"The sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God.\"\n\nGreat-heart. But you fought a great while, I wonder you was not weary.\n\nValiant. I fought till my Sword did cleave to my hand,\u00b0 when they were joined together, as if a sword grew out of my arm; and when the blood ran through my fingers, then I fought with most courage.\n\n2 Sam. 23. 10. The Word.\n\nThe Faith. Blood.\n\nGreat-heart. Thou hast done well, thou hast resisted unto blood, striving against Sin; thou shalt abide by us, come in, and go out with us, for we are thy companions.\n\nThen they took him and washed his wounds, and gave him of what they had to refresh him; and so they went together. Now as they went on, because Mr. Great-heart was delighted in him (for he loved one greatly, that he found to be a man of his hands) and because there was with his company them that were feeble and weak: Therefore he questioned with him about many things; as first, what Country-man he was?\n\nValiant. I am of Dark-Land for there I was born, and there my father and mother are still.\n\nGreat-heart. Dark-Land, said the Guide, doth not that lie upon the same coast with the City of Destruction?\n\nHow Mr. Valiant came to go on Pilgrimage.\n\nvaliant. Yes, it doth. Now that which caused me to come on Pilgrimage, was this; we had one Mr. Tell-true\u00b0 came into our parts, and he told it about what Christian had done, that went from the City of Destruction: Namely, how he had forsaken his wife and children, and had betaken himself to a Pilgrim's life. It was also confidently reported, how he had killed a Serpent,\u00b0 that did come out to resist him in his Journey; and how he got through to whither he intended.\u00b0 It was also told, what welcome he had at all his Lord's lodgings, specially when he came to the Gates of the Coelestial City: For there, said the man, he was received with sound of Trumpet, by a company of shining ones. He told it also, how all the bells in the city did ring for joy at his reception, and what golden garments he was cloathed with; with many other things that now I shall forbear to relate. In a word, that man\u00b0 so told the story of Christian and his Travels, that my heart fell into a burning haste, to be gone after him; nor could father or mother stay\u00b0 me; so I got from them, and am come thus far on my Way.\n\n**till my Sword did cleave to my hand** Till the Word of God entered into my mind; **a man of his hands** A fighting man; **Mr. Tell-true** Note how this preacher lacks any ecclesiastical title; a Serpent Possibly Apollyon but, since Christian does not in fact kill him, probably an emblem of evil in general; **he got through to whither he intended** Both \"he reached his intended destination\" and \"he conveyed his intended meaning.\"\n\nGreat-heart. You came in at the Gate, did you not?\n\nValiant. Yes, yes; for the same man\u00b0 also told us, that all would be nothing, if we did not begin to enter this Way at the Gate.\n\nHe begins right.\n\nGreat-heart. Look you, said the Guide to Christiana, the Pilgrimage of your husband, and what he has gotten thereby, is spread abroad far and near.\n\nChristian's name famous.\n\nvaliant. Why, is this Christian's wife?\n\nGreat-heart. Yes, that it is; and these are also her four sons.\n\nValiant. What! and going on Pilgrimage too?\n\nGreat-heart. Yes verily, they are following after.\n\nValiant. It glads\u00b0 me at heart! good man! How joyful will he be, when he shall see them that would not go with him, yet to enter after him, in at the Gates into the City?\n\nHe is much rejoiced to see Christian's wife.\n\nGreat-heart. Without doubt it will be a comfort to him; for next to the joy of seeing himself there, it will be a joy to meet there his wife and his children.\n\nValiant. But now you are upon that, pray let me hear your opinion about it. Some make a Question, whether we shall know one another when we are there?\u00b0\n\nGreat-heart. Do they think they shall know themselves then? or that they shall rejoice to see themselves in that Bliss, and if they think they shall know and do these, why not know others, and rejoice in their welfare also?\n\nAgain, since relations are our second self, though that state\u00b0 will be dissolved there, yet why may it not be rationally concluded, that we shall be more glad to see them there, than to see they are wanting?\n\n**that man** Mr. Tell-true seems to represent the author of The Pilgrim's Progress; **stay** Delay; the same man Now Tell-true blends into Evangelist, as well as Bunyan; **glads** Gladdens; **Some make ... we are there?** The question of whether the saved would recognize each other in heaven was a favorite topic of controversy; **that state** The condition of fleshly, \"blood relations.\"\n\nvaliant. Well, I perceive whereabouts you are as to this. Have you any more things to ask me about my beginning to come on Pilgrimage?\n\nGreat-heart. Yes; Was your father and mother willing that you should become a Pilgrim?\n\nValiant. Oh no. They used all means imaginable to persuade me to stay at home.\n\nGreat-heart. Why what could they say against it?\n\nValiant. They said, it was an idle life; and if I myself were not inclined to sloth and laziness, I would never countenance a Pilgrim's condition.\n\nThe great stumblingblocks that by his friends were laid in his way.\n\nGreat-heart. And what did they say else?\n\nValiant. Why, they told me that it was a dangerous Way, yea, the most dangerous Way in the world, said they, is that which the Pilgrims go.\n\nGreat-heart. Did they shew wherein this Way is so dangerous ?\n\nValiant. Yes; and that in many particulars.\n\nGreat-heart. Name some of them.\n\nThe first stumbling block.\n\nVariant. They told me of the Slough of Despond, where Christian was well-nigh smothered. They told me, that there were archers standing ready in Beelzebub-Castle, to shoot them that should knock at the Wicket gate for entrance. They told me also of the Wood, and dark Mountains, of the Hill Difficulty; of the Lions, and also of the three Giants, Bloodyman, Maul, and Slay-good: They said moreover, that there was a foul Fiend haunted the Valley of Humiliation; and that Christian was by them almost bereft of life. Besides, said they, you must go over the Valley of the Shadow of Death, where the Hobgoblins are, where the Light is Darkness, where the Way is full of snares, pits, traps, and gins. They told me also of Giant Despair, of Doubting-Castle, and of the ruin that the Pilgrims met with there. Further, they said, I must go over the Enchanted ground, which was dangerous: And that, after all this, I should find a River, over which I should find no bridge; and that that River did lie betwixt me and the Coelestial Country.\n\nGreat-heart. And was this all?\n\nvaliant. No; they also told me, that this Way was full of deceivers, and of persons that laid await there to turn good men out of the path.\n\nThe second.\n\nGreat-heart. But how did they make that out?\n\nYaliant. They told me, that Mr. Worldly-wise-man did lie there in wait to deceive.\n\nThe third.\n\nThey also said, that there was Formality and Hypocrisy continually on the road. They said also, that By-ends, Talkative, or Demas, would go near to gather me up: that the Flatterer would catch me in his net; or that, with green-headed' Ignorance, I would presume to go on to the Gate, from whence he always was sent back to the hole that was in the side of the Hill, and made to go the by-way to Hell.\n\nGreat-heart. I promise you, this was enough to discourage; but did they make an end here?\n\nValiant. No, stay They told me also of many that had tried that Way of old, and that had gone a great way therein, to see if they could find something of the Glory there, that so many had so much talked of from time to time; and how they came back again, and befooled themselves for setting a foot out of doors in that path, to the satisfaction of all the Country. And they named several that did so, as Obstinate and Pliable, Mistrust and Timorous, Turn-away and old Atheist,\u00b0 with several more; who, they said, had some of them gone far to see if they could find, but not one of them found so much advantage by going, as amounted to the weight of a feather. \u00b0\n\nThe fourth.\n\nGreat-heart. Said they any thing more to discourage you?\n\nValiant. Yes, they told me of one Mr. Fearing, who was a Pilgrim; and how he found this Way so solitary, that he never had a comfortable hour therein: Also that Mr. Despondency had like to\u00b0 have been starved therein: Yea, and also which I had almost forgot Christian himself, about whom there has been such a noise, after all his ventures for a Coelestial Crown, was certainly drowned in the black River, and never went a foot further; however, it was smothered up.\u00b0\n\n**green-headed** Naive; **stay** Wait; **old Atheist** Atheism long predates Christianity ; **the weight of a feather** Note the quantitative terms of evaluation; **had like to** Was likely to.\n\nGreat-heart. And did none of these things discourage you?\n\nVariant. No, they seemed but as so many Nothings to me.\n\nGreat-heart. How came that about?\n\nValiant. Why, I still believed what Mr. Tell-true had said, and that carried me beyond them all.\n\nHow he got over these stumblingblocks.\n\nGreat-heart. Then this was your Victory, even your Faith.\n\nValiant. It was so, I believed, and therefore came out, got into the Way, fought all that set themselves against me, and by believing, am come to this place:\n\nWho would true Valour see, Let him come hither;\n\nOne here will constant be, Come wind, come weather:\n\nThere's no Discouragement Shall make him once relent, His first avow'd intent To be a Pilgrim.\n\nWhoso beset him round With dismal stories,\n\nDo but themselves confound, His Strength the more is.\n\nNo Lion can him fright; He'll with a Giantfight, But he will have a right To be a Pilgrim.\n\nHobgoblin, nor foul Fiend Can daunt his spirit;\n\nHe knows, he at the End Shall Life inherit.\n\nThen Fancies, fly away, He'll fear not what men say, He'll labour Night and Day To be a Pilgrim.\n\n**smothered up** That is, the townsfolk believe that the news of Christian's demise was covered up.\n\nBy this time they were got to the enchanted Ground, where the air naturally tended to make one drowsy: And that place was all grown over with briars and thorns, excepting here and there, where was an enchanted Arbour, upon which if a man sits, or in which if a man sleeps, 'tis a question, say some, whether ever they shall rise or wake again in this world. Over this Forest therefore they went, both one and another, and Mr. Great-heart went before, for that he was the Guide, and Mr. Valiant-for- truth, he came behind, being there a Guard, for fear, lest peradventure\u00b0 some Fiend, or Dragon, or Giant, or Thief, should fall upon their rear, and so do mischief. They went on here, each man with his Sword drawn in his hand, for they knew it was a dangerous place. Also they cheered up one another, as well as they could; Feeble-mind, Mr. Greatheart commanded should come up after him, and Mr. Despondency was under the eye of Mr. Valiant.\n\nPart 1. p. 154.\n\nNow they had not gone far, but a great Mist and Darkness fell upon them all; so that they could scarce, for a great while, see the one the other: Wherefore they were forced, for some time, to feel for one another, by words;\u00b0 for they walked not by Sight.\n\nBut any one must think, that here was but sorry going for the best of them all; but how much worse for the women and children, who both of feet and heart were but tender. Yet so it was, that through the encouraging words of he that led in the front, and of him that brought them up behind, they made a pretty good shift to wag* along.\n\n**peradventure** By chance; **feel... by words** Once again, words become physical forces.\n\nThe Way also was here very wearisome, through dirt and slabbiness.\u00b0 Nor was there on all this Ground, so much as one Inn, or Victualling-house,\u00b0 therein to refresh the feebler sort. Here therefore was grunting, and puffins, and sighing: While one tumbleth over a bush, another sticks fast in the dirt; and the children, some of them, lost their shoes in the mire: While one cries out, I am down; and another, Ho, where are you? And a third, The bushes have got such fast hold on me, I think I cannot get away from them.\n\nThen they came at an Arbour, warm, and promising much refreshing to the Pilgrims: For it was finely wrought above-head, beautified with greens,\u00b0 furnished with benches and settles. \u00b0 It also had in it a soft couch, whereon the weary might lean. This, you must think, all things considered, was tempting ; for the Pilgrims already began to be foiled with the badness of the Way; but there was not one of them that made so much as a motion to stop there. Yea, for ought I could perceive, they continually gave so good heed to the advice of their Guide, and he did so faithfully tell them of dangers, and of the nature of dangers when they were at them, that usually when they were nearest to them, they did most pluck up their Spirits, and hearten one another to deny the Flesh. This Arbour was call'd, The Slothful's friend, on purpose to allure, if it might be, some of the Pilgrims there, to take up their Rest, when weary.\n\nAn Arbour on the Enchanted Ground.\n\nThe name of the Arbour.\n\nI saw then in my dream, that they went on in this their solitary ground, till they came to a place at which a man is apt to lose his Way. Now, though when it was light, their Guide could well enough tell how to miss those ways that led wrong, yet in the dark he was put to a stand:\u00b0 But he had in his pocket a map\u00b0 of all ways leading to or from the Coelestial City; wherefore he struck a light, (for he never goes also without his tinder-box) and takes a view of his Book or map, which bids him be careful in that place, to turn to the Right-hand-way. And had he not here been careful to look in his map, they had all in probability been smothered in the mud; for just a little before them, and that at the end of the cleanest Way too, was a Pit, none knows how deep, full of nothing but mud; there made on purpose to destroy the Pilgrims in.\n\n**shift to wag** Effort to trot; **slabbiness** Muddiness; **Victualling-house** Pub selling food; **greens** Greenery; **settles** Seats; **put to a stand** Forced to pause; **a map** The Bible.\n\nThe Way is difficult to find.\n\nThen thought I with myself,\u00b0 who, that goeth on Pilgrimage, but would have one of these maps about him, that he may look when he is at a stand, which is the Way he must take.\n\nThe Guide has a Map of all ways leading to or from the City.\n\nGod's Book.\n\nThey went on then in this enchanted Ground, till they came to where there was another Arbour, and it was built by the High-way-side. And in that Arbour there lay two men, whose names were Heedless and Too-bold. These two went thus far on Pilgrimage; but here, being wearied with their Journey, they sat down to rest themselves, and so fell fast asleep. When the Pilgrims saw them, they stood still, and shook their heads; for they knew that the Sleepers\u00b0 were in a pitiful case.\" Then they consulted what to do, whether to go on, and leave them in their sleep, or step to them, and try to awake them. So they concluded to go to them, and wake them; that is, if they could; but with this caution, namely to take heed that themselves did not sit down nor embrace the offered benefit of that Arbour.\n\nAn arbour, and two asleep therein.\n\nSo they went in, and spake to the men, and called each by his name, (for the Guide it seems did know them) but there was no voice, nor answer. Then the Guide did shake them, and do what he could to disturb them. Then said one of them, I will pay you when I take my Money. At which the Guide shook his head. I will fight so long as I can hold my Sword in my hand, \u00b0 said the other. At that, one of the children laughed.\n\nThe Pilgrims try to wake them.\n\n**thought I with myself** The narrator's thoughts are distinguished from his self; **Sleepers** Note that according to the dream motif, the narrator is himself recounting experiences he had while asleep; case Condition; **I will fight ... my Sword in my hand** The sleepers are dreaming of money and violence, as opposed to the edifying dream enjoyed by the narrator.\n\nThen said Christiana, What is the meaning of this? The Guide said, They talk in their sleep; if you strike them, beat them, or whatever else you do to them, they will answer you after this fashion; or as one of them said in old time, when the waves of the Sea did beat upon him, and he slept as one upon the mast of a ship; When I awake, I will seek it again. You know, when men talk in their sleep, they say any thing, but their words are not governed either by Faith or Reason. There is an incoherency in their words now, as there was before betwixt their going on Pilgrimage, and sitting down here. This then is the mischief on't, when heedless ones go on Pilgrimage, 'tis twenty to one but they are served thus. For this Enchanted Ground is one of the last refuges that the Enemy to Pilgrims has; wherefore it is, as you see, placed almost at the end of the Way,* and so it standeth against us with the more advantage. For when, thinks the Enemy, will these Fools be so desirous to sit down, as when they are weary? and when so like to be weary, as when almost at their Journey's end? Therefore it is, I say, that the Enchanted Ground is placed so nigh to the Land Beulah, and so near the end of their race. Wherefore, let Pilgrims look to themselves, lest it happen to them, as it has done to these, that, as you see, are fallen asleep, and none can wake them.\n\nTheir endeavouris fruitless.\n\nProv. 23. 34, 35.\n\nThen the Pilgrims desired with trembling to go forward, only they prayed their Guide to strike a light, that they might go the rest of their Way by the help of the light of a Lantern. So he strook a light, and they went by the help of that through the rest of this Way, though the darkness was very great.\n\nThe Light of the Word. 2 Pet. 1. 19.\n\nBut the children began to be sorely weary, and they cried out unto him that loveth Pilgrims, to make their Way more comfortable. So by that they had gone a little further, a wind arose, that drove away the fog, so the air became more clear.\n\nThe Children cry for weariness.\n\nYet they were not off (by much) of the Enchanted Ground, only now they could see one another better, and the Way wherein they should walk.\n\n**almost at the end of the Way** The temptation to sleep is greatest near the end of life; the sleepers may be suffering from senile dementia.\n\nNow, when they were almost at the end of this ground, they perceived that a little before them was a solemn noise, of one that was much concerned. So they went on, and looked before them, and behold they saw, as they thought, a man upon his knees, with hands and eyes lift up, and speaking, as they thought, earnestly to one that was above; they drew nigh, but could not tell what he said; so they went softly till he had done. When he had done, he got up, and began to run towards the Coelestial City. Then Mr. Great-heart called after him, saying, soho,* friend, let us have your company, if you go, as I suppose you do, to the Coelestial City. So the man stopped, and they came up to him. But so soon as Mr. Honest saw him, he said I know this man. Then said Mr. Yaliant forTruth, Prithee,\u00b0 who is it? 'Tis one, said he, that comes from whereabouts I dwelt, his name is Standfast; he is certainly a right good Pilgrim.\n\nStandfast upon his knees in the Enchanted Ground.\n\nThe story of Standfast.\n\nSo they came up one to another, and presently Standfast said to old Honest, Ho, Father Honest, are you there? Ay, said he, that I am, as sure as you are there. Right glad I am, said Mr. Standfast, that I have found you on this Road. And as glad am I, said the other, that I espied you upon your knees. Then Mr. Standfast blushed, and said; But why, did you see me? Yes, that I did, quoth the other, and with my heart was glad at the sight. Why, what did you think, said Standfast? Think, said old Honest, what should I think? I thought we had an honest man upon the road, and therefore should have his company by and by. If you thought not amiss, how happy am I? But if I be not as I should, I alone must bear it. That is true, said the other; but your fear doth further confirm me, that things are right betwixt the Prince of Pilgrims and your soul: For he saith, Blessed is the man that feareth always.\n\nTalk betwixt him and Mr. Honest.\n\nValiant. Well, but brother, I pray thee tell us what was it that was the cause of thy being upon thy knees even now? Was it for that some special Mercy laid obligations upon thee, or how?\n\nThey found him at Prayer.\n\n**soho** Originally a hunting cry, here a greeting; **Prithee** Please.\n\nStandfast. Why, we are, as you see, upon the Enchanted Ground; and as I was coming along, I was musing with myself of what a dangerous Road the Road in this place was, and how many that had come even thus far on Pilgrimage, had here been stopt, and been destroyed. I thought also of the manner of the death, with which this place destroyeth men. Those that die here, die of no violent distemper;\u00b0 the death which such die, is not grievous to them. For he that goeth away in a Sleep begins that Journey with desire and pleasure. Yea, such acquiesce in the Will of that disease.\n\nWhat it was that fetch d him upon his knees.\n\nHon. Then Mr. Honest interrupting of him, said, Did you see the two men asleep in the arbour?\n\nStandfast. Ay, ay, I saw Heedless and Too-bold there; and for ought I know, there they will lie till they rot. But let me go on with my tale: As I was thus musing, as I said, there was one in very pleasant attire, but old, that presented herself unto me, and offered me three things, to wit, her body, her purse, and her bed. Now the truth is, I was both weary and sleepy: I am also as poor as a owlet,\u00b0 and that perhaps the witch knew. Well, I repulsed her once and twice, but she put by\u00b0 my repulses, and smiled. Then I began to be angry, but she mattered' that nothing at all. Then she made offers again, and said, if I would be ruled by her, she would make me great and happy. For, said she, I am the mistress of the World, and men are made happy by me. Then I asked her name, and she told me it was Madam Bubble. This set me further from her; but she still followed me with enticements. Then I betook me, as you see, to my knees, and with hands lift up, and cries, I prayed to him that had said he would help. So just as you came up, the gentlewoman\" went her way. Then I continued to give thanks for this my great deliverance; for I verily believe she intended no good, but rather sought to make stop of me\u00b0 in my Journey.\n\nProv. 10. 7.\n\nMadam Bubble: Or this vain World.\n\nHon. Without doubt her designs were bad. But stay, now you talk of her, methinks I either have seen her, or have read some story of her.\n\n**distemper** Disease; **howlet** Owlet, a proverbial figure for poverty; put by Disregarded; **mattered** Cared about; **gentlewoman** Madame Bubble is of a high social class; **make stop of me** Make me stop.\n\nStandfast. Perhaps you have done both.\n\nHon. Madam Bubble! is she not a tall, comely dame, something of a swarthy complexion?\n\nStandfast. Right, you hit it, she is just such an one.\n\nHon. Doth she not speak very smoothly, and give you a smile at the end of a sentence?\n\nStandfast. You fall right upon it again, for these are her very actions.\n\nHon. Doth she not wear a great purse by her side, and is not her hand often in it, fingering her money,\u00b0 as if that was her heart's delight?\n\nStandfast. 'Tis just so; had she stood by all this while, you could not more amply have set her forth before me, nor have better described her features.\n\nHon. Then he that drew her picture was a good liner, \u00b0 and he that wrote of her said true.\n\nThe World.\n\nJam. 4. 4. 1 John 2.15.\n\nGreat-heart. This woman is a Witch, and it is by virtue of her sorceries,\u00b0 that this ground is enchanted: Whoever doth lay their head down in her lap, had as good lay it down upon that block over which the axe doth hang; and whoever lays their eyes upon her beauty, are counted the Enemies of God. This is she that maintaineth in their splendor, all those that are the enemies of Pilgrims. Yea, this is she that has bought off\u00b0 many a man from a Pilgrim's life. She is a great gossipper; she is always, both she and her daughters, at one Pilgrim's heels or other, now commending, and then preferring the excellencies of this life. She is a bold and impudent slut; she will talk with any man. She always laugheth poor Pilgrims to scorn, but highly commends the rich.\u00b0 If there be one cunning to get Money in a place, she will speak well of him from house to house; she loveth banqueting and feasting mainly well; she is always at one full table or another. She has given it out in some places, that she is a Goddess, and therefore some do Worship her.\u00b0 She has her times, and open places of cheating; and she will say, and avow it, that none can shew a Good' comparable to hers. She promiseth to dwell with children's children,\u00b0 if they will but love and make much of her. She will cast out of her purse gold, like dust, in some places, and to some persons. She loves to be sought after, spoken well of, and to lie in the bosoms of men. She is never weary of commending her commodities,\u00b0 and she loves them most that think best of her. She will promise to some crowns and kingdoms, if they will but take her advice; yet many has she brought to the halter, and ten thousand times more to Hell.\n\n**fingering her money** Money is an efficacious sign, comparable to those used in witchcraft; **limner** Sketcher; **sorceries** Spells; **bought off** Bribed; **the rich** That is, \"rich people,\" not \"rich pilgrims\": Bunyan assumes that pilgrims are by definition poor.\n\nStandfast. Oh! said Standfast, what a Mercy is it that I did resist her; for whither might she hav' drawn me?\n\nGreat-heart. Whither! nay, none but God knows whither. But in general, to be sure she would hav' drawn thee into many foolish and hurtful Lusts, which drown men in Destruction and Perdition.\n\n1 Tim. 6. 9.\n\n'Twas she that set Absalom against his Father, and Jeroboam against his Master. 'Twas she that persuaded Judas to sell his Lord; and that prevailed with Demas to forsake the Godly Pilgrim's life; none can tell of the mischief that she doth. She makes variance\u00b0 betwixt rulers and subjects, betwixt parents and children, 'twixt neighbour and neighbour, 'twixt a man and his wife, 'twixt a man and himself, 'twixt flesh and the heart.\n\nWherefore, good Master Standfast, be as your name is, and when you have done all, stand.\n\nAt this discourse, there was among the Pilgrims, a mixture of joy and trembling, but at length they brake out and sang:\n\nWhat danger is the Pilgrim in? How many are his Foes?\n\nHow many ways there are to Sin, No living mortal knows.\n\nSome in the ditch shy are, yet can Lie tumbling on the mire.\n\nSome, though they shun the frying-pan, Do leap into the fire.\n\n**some do Worship her** Idolatry, like money and magic, involves putting one's faith in an efficacious sign; **Good** Both \"benefit\" and \"commodity\"; **with children's children** Who will inherit their grandparents' money; **commending her commodities** Commodification is the last significant temptation we hear of in The Pilgrim's Progress, just as it is the final temptation described in Grace Abounding; **variance** Differences; the socially corrosive effect of money was one reason behind the English civil war.\n\nAfter this, I beheld until they were come unto the land of Beulah, where the Sun shineth night and day. Here, because they were weary, they betook themselves a while to rest. And because this country was common for Pilgrims, and because the orchards and vineyards that were here, belonged to the King of the Coelestial Country, therefore they were licensed to make bold with any of his things. But a little while soon refreshed them here; for the bells did so ring, and the trumpets continually sound so melodiously, that they could not sleep, and yet they received as much refreshing, as if they had slept their sleep never so soundly. Here also all the noise of them that walked the streets, was, More Pilgrims are come to town. And another would answer, saying, And so many, went over the Water, and were let in at the Golden Gates to day. They would cry again, There is now a Legion of shining ones just come to town; by which, we know, that there are more Pilgrims upon the road; for here they come to wait for them, and to comfort them after all their sorrow. Then the Pilgrims got up, and walked to and fro: But how were their ears now filled with heavenly noises and their eyes delighted with Coelestial Visions? In this land they heard nothing, saw nothing, felt nothing, smelt nothing, tasted nothing, that was of fensive to their stomach or mind; only when they tasted of the water of the River, over which they were to go, they thought that tasted a little bitterish to the palate, but it proved sweeter when 'twas down.\n\nPart I. p. 172.\n\nDeath bitter to the Flesh, but sweet to the Soul.\n\nIn this place there was a Record kept of the names of them that had been Pilgrims of old, and a history of all the famous Acts that they had done. It was here also much discoursed, how the River to some had had its flowings, and what ebbings it has had while others have gone over. It has been in a manner dry for some, while it has overflowed its banks for others.\n\nDeath hath its ebbings and flowings like the Tide.\n\nIn this place, the Children of the town would go into the King's Gardens, and gather nosegays* for the Pilgrims, and bring them to them with much affection. Here also grew camphire, with spikenard, and saffron, calamus, and cinnamon, with all its trees of frankincense, myrrh, and aloes, with all chief spices. With these the Pilgrims' chambers were perfumed while they staid here; and with these were their bodies anointed, to prepare them to go over the River, when the time appointed was come.\n\nNow while they lay here, and waited for the good hour, there was a noise in the town, that there was a post come from the Coelestial City, with matter of great importance to one Christiana, the wife of Christian the Pilgrim. So enquiry was made for her, and the house was found out where she was, so the post presented her with a letter: The contents whereof were, Hail good woman! I bring thee tidings, that the Master calleth for thee, and expecteth that thou shouldest stand in his Presence, in clothes of Immortality, within this ten days.\n\nA messenger of Death sent to Christiana.\n\nHis message.\n\nWhen he had read this letter to her, he gave her therewith a true token that he was a true messenger, and was come to bid her make haste to be gone. The token was, an Arrow with a point sharpened with Love, let easily into her heart, which by degrees wrought so effectually with her, that at the time appointed she must be gone.\n\nHow welcome is Death to them that are willing to die.\n\nWhen Christiana saw that her time was come, and that she was the first of this company that was to go over, she called for Mr. Great-heart her Guide, and told him how matters were. So he told her, he was heartily glad of the news, and could have been glad, had the post come for him. Then she bid that he should give advice how all things should be prepared for her Journey.\n\n**nosegays** Garlands carried by bridesmaids; **camphire ... spices** As Keeble notes, these are \"Biblical spices, all mentioned in the Song of Solomon, whose love poetry was held to express Christ's love for his church\" (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 284).\n\nSo he told her, saying, thus and thus it must be, and we that survive, will accompany you to the River-side.\n\nHer speech to her Guide.\n\nThen she called for her children, and gave them her Blessing, and told them, that she yet read with comfort, the Mark that was set in their foreheads, and was glad to see them with her there, and that they had kept their garments so white. Lastly, she bequeathed to the Poor that little she had, and commanded her sons and her daughters to be ready against* the messenger should come for them.\n\nTo her Children.\n\nWhen she had spoken these words to her Guide, and to her children, she called for Mr. Valiant for-Truth, and said unto him, Sir, you have in all places shewed yourself true-hearted, be faithful unto Death, and my King will give a Crown of Life. I would also intreat you to have an eye to my children; and if at any time you see them faint, speak comfortably to them. For my daughters, my Sons' wives, they have been faithful, and a fulfilling of the Promise upon them will be their end. But she gave Mr. Standfast a ring.\n\nTo Mr. Valiant.\n\nTo Mr. Standfast.\n\nThen she called for old Mr. Honest, and said of him, Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no Guile. Then said he, I wish you a fair day, when you set out for Mount Sion, and shall be glad to see that you go over the River dry-shod.\u00b0 But she answered, come wet, come dry, I long to be gone; for however the weather is in my Journey, I shall have time enough when I come there, to sit down and rest me, and dry me.\n\nTo Old Honest.\n\nThen came in that good man Mr. Ready-to-halt, to see her. So she said to him, thy travel hither has been with difficulty; but that will make thy Rest the sweeter. But watch and be ready; for at an hour when you think not, the messenger may come.\n\nTo Mr. Ready-to-halt.\n\nTo Despondency, and his Daughter.\n\nAfter him came in Mr. Despondency, and his daughter Much-afraid; to whom she said, you ought, with Thankfulness, for ever, to remember your deliverance from the hand of Giant Despair, and out of Doubting-Castle. The effect of that mercy, is that you are brought with safety hither. Be ye watchful, and cast away Fear; be sober, and hope to the end.\n\n**against** For when; **dry-shod** With dry feet, but Honest means that he hopes she will have a painless death.\n\nThen she said to Mr. Feeble-mind, Thou wast delivered from the mouth of Giant Slay-good, that thou mightest live in the Light of the Living for ever, and see the King with comfort : Only I advise thee to repent thee of thy aptness to fear and doubt of his Goodness, before he sends for thee; lest thou shouldest, when he comes, be forced to stand before him for that fault, with blushing.\n\nTo Feeble-mind.\n\nNow the day drew on, that Christiana must be gone. So the Road was full of people, to see her take her Journey But behold all the banks beyond the River were full of horses and chariots, which were come down from above, to accompany her to the City Gate. So she came forth, and entred the River, with a beckon of farewell, to those that followed her to the River-side. The last word she was heard to say, here, was I come, Lord, to be with thee, and bless thee.\n\nHer last day, and manner of departure.\n\nSo her children and friends returned to their place, for that those that waited for Christiana had carried her out of their sight. So she went and called, and entred in at the Gate with all the ceremonies of Joy, that her husband Christian had done before her.\n\nAt her departure her children wept, but Mr. Great-heart and Mr. Valiant play'd upon the well-tuned cymbal and harp for Joy. So all departed to their respective places.\n\nIn process of time, there came a post to the town again, and his business was with Mr. Ready-to-halt. So he enquired him out, and said to him, I am come to thee in the name of him whom thou hast Loved and followed, tho' upon Crutches: And my message is to tell thee, that he expects thee at his table to sup with him in his Kingdom, the next day after Easter; wherefore prepare thyself for thy Journey.\n\nMr. Ready-to-halt summoned.\n\nThen he also gave him a token that he was a true messenger, saying, I have broken thy golden bowl, and loosed thy silver cord.\n\nEccles. 12. 6.\n\nAfter this, Mr. Ready-to-halt called for his fellow Pilgrims, and told them, saying, I am sent for, and God shall surely visit you also. So he desired Mr. Valiant to make his Will. And because he had nothing to bequeath to them that should survive him, but his crutches, and his good wishes, therefore thus he said: These crutches I bequeath to my son, that shall tread in my steps, with an hundred warm wishes, that he may prove better than I have done.\n\nPromises His Will.\n\nThen he thanked Mr. Great-heart for his conduct and kindness, and so addressed himself to his Journey When he came at the brink of the River, he said, Now I shall have no more need of these crutches, since yonder are Chariots and Horses for me to ride on: The last words he was heard to say, was, Welcome Life. So he went his Way.\n\nHis last Words.\n\nAfter this, Mr. Feeble-mind had tidings brought him, that the post sounded his horn at his chamber-door. Then he came in, and told him, saying, I am come to tell thee that thy Master has need of thee; and that in very little time thou must behold his Face in Brightness: And take this as a token of the truth of my message: Those that look out at the windows, shall be darkned.\n\nFeeble-mind summoned.\n\nThen Mr. Feeble-mind called for his friends, and told them what errand had been brought unto him, and what token he had received of the truth of the message. Then he said, Since I have nothing to bequeath to any, to what purpose should I make a will? As for my feeble Mind, that I will leave behind me,\u00b0 for that I have no need of that in the place whither I go; nor is it worth bestowing upon the poorest Pilgrims: Wherefore, when I am gone, I desire, that you, Mr. Valiant, would bury it in a dunghill. This done, and the day being come in which he was to depart, he entered the River as the rest: His last words were, Hold out, Faith and Patience. So he went over to the other side.\n\nHe makes no will.\n\nHis last Words.\n\nWhen days had many of them passed away, Mr. Despondency was sent for; for a post was come, and brought this message to him: Trembling man, these are to summon thee to be ready with thy King by the next Lord's Day, to shout for Joy, for thy deliverance from all thy doubtings.\n\n**that I will leave behind me** Feeble-mind abandons his alienated, allegorical earthly identity as he enters the celestial city.\n\nMr. Despondency' s summons.\n\nAnd, said the messenger, that my message is true, take this for a proof. So he gave him the grasshopper to be a burden unto him. Now Mr. Despondency's daughter, whose name was Much-afraid, said, when she heard what was done, that she would go with her father. Then Mr. Despondency said to his friends; myself and my daughter, you know what we have been, and how troublesomely we have behaved ourselves in every company. My will, and my daughter's is, that our Desponds and slavish fears be by no man ever received, from the day of our departure, for ever: For I know, that after my death, they will offer themselves to others. For, to be plain with you, they are ghosts,\u00b0 the which we entertained when we first began to be Pilgrims, and could never shake them off after: And they will walk about, and seek entertainment of the Pilgrims; but for our sakes, shut ye the doors upon them.\n\nEccles. 12. 5. His Daughter goes too.\n\nHis Will.\n\nWhen the time was come for them to depart, they went to the brink of the River. The last words of Mr. Despondency, were, Farewel night, Welcome day. His daughter went through the River singing, but none could understand what she said. 61\n\nHis last Words.\n\nThen it came to pass a while after, that there was a post in the town, that enquired for Mr. Honest. So he came to his house, where he was, and delivered to his hands these lines: Thou art commanded to be ready against this day seven-night, to present thyself before thy Lord, at his Father's house. And for a token that my message is true, All thy daughters of Musick shall be brought low. Then Mr. Honest called for his friends, and said unto them, I die, but shall make no will. As for my Honesty, it shall go with me; let him that comes after, be told of this. When the day that he was to be gone was come, he addressed himself to go over the River. Now the River at that time over-flow'd the banks in some places; but Mr. Honest in his life-time had spoken to one Good-Conscience to meet him there, the which he also did, and lent him his hand, and so helped him over. The last words of Mr. Honest were, Grace Reigns: So he left the World.\n\n**ghosts** Images, idols.\n\nGood-Conscience helps Mr. Honest over the River.\n\nMr. Honest summoned.\n\nHe makes no Will.\n\nAfter this; it was noised abroad, that Mr. Valiant-far-Truth was taken with a summons by the same post as the other; and had this for a token that the summons was true, That his pitcher was broken at the fountain. When he understood it, he called for his friends, and told them of it. Then, said he, I am going to my Father's, and tho' with great difficulty I am got hither, yet now I do not repent me of all the trouble I have been at to arrive where I am. My Sword I give to him that shall succeed me in my Pilgrimage, and my Courage and Skill to him that can get it. My marks and scars I carry with me, to be a witness for me, that I have fought His battles, who now will be my Rewarder. When the day that he must go hence was come, many accompany'd him to the River-side, into which as he went, he said, Death, where is thy Sting? And as he went down deeper, he said, Grave, where is thy Victory?' So he passed over, and all the Trumpets sounded for him on the other side.\n\nMr. Valiant summoned.\n\nEccles. 12. 6.\n\nHis Will.\n\nHis last words.\n\nThen there came forth a summons for Mr. Standfast; (this Mr. Standfast was he that the rest of the Pilgrims found upon his knees in the Enchanted ground; ) for the post brought it him open in his hands. The contents whereof were, That he must prepare for a change of life, for his Master was not willing that he should be so far from him any longer. At this Mr. Standfast was put into a muse: Nay, saith the Messenger, you need not doubt of the truth of my message; for here is a token of the truth thereof: Thy wheel is broken at the cistern. Then he called to him Mr. Great-heart, who was their Guide, and said unto him, Sir, although it was not my hap to be much in your good company in the days of my Pilgrimage, yet, since the time I knew you, you have been profitable to me. When I came from home, I left behind me a wife, and five small children; let me intreat you, at your return, (for I know that you will go and return to your Master's house, in hopes that you may yet be a conductor to more of the Holy Pilgrims) that you send to my family, and let them be acquainted with all that hath, and shall happen unto me. Tell them moreover of my happy arrival to this place, and of the present late\u00b0 blessed condition that I am in. Tell them also of Christian and Christiana his wife, and how she and her children came after her husband. Tell them also, of what a happy end she made, and whither she is gone. I have little or nothing to send to my family, except it be Prayers and Tears for them; of which it will suffice if you acquaint them, if peradventure they may prevail.\n\n**Death ... Victory** 1 Corinthians 15:55: \"0 death, where is thy string? 0 grave, where is thy victory?\" (KJV)\n\nMr. Standfast is summoned.\n\nEccl. 12. 6. He calls for Mr. Great-heart.\n\nHis speech to him.\n\nHis errand to his family.\n\nWhen Mr. Standfast had thus set things in order, and the time being come for him to haste him away, he also went down to the River. Now there was a great calm at that time in the River; wherefore Mr. Standfast, when he was about half way in, stood a while, and talked to his companions that had waited upon him thither: And he said,\n\nThis River has been a terror to many, yea, the thoughts of it also have often frighted me; but now methinks I stand easy, my foot is fixed upon that upon which the feet of the Priests that bare the Ark of the Covenant stood, while Israel went over this Jordan. The waters indeed are to the palate bitter, and to the stomach cold; yet the thoughts of what I am going to, and of the conduct that waits for me on the other side, doth lie as a glowing coal at my heart.\n\nHis last Words. Jos. 3.17.\n\nI see myself now at the end of my Journey; my toilsome days are ended. I am going now to see that Head that was crowned with thorns, and that Face that was spit upon for me.\n\nI have formerly lived by hear-say and Faith; but now I go where I shall live by Sight, and shall be with him in whose company I delight myself.\n\n**late** Both \"recent\" and \"final.\"\n\nI have loved to hear my Lord spoken of; and where-ever I have seen the print of his shoe in the earth, there I have coveted to set my foot too.\n\nHis Name has been to me as a civet-box;\u00b0 yea, sweeter than all perfumes. His Voice to me has been most sweet; and his Countenance I have more desired than they that have most desired the light of the Sun. His Word I did use to gather for my food, and for antidotes against my faintings. He has held me, and I have kept me from mine iniquities; yea, my steps hath he strengthened in his Way.\n\nNow, while he was thus in discourse, his countenance changed, his strong man' bowed under him; and after he had said, Take me, for I come unto Thee, he ceased to be seen of them.\n\nBut Glorious it was to see, how the open Region was filled with Horses and Chariots, with Trumpeters and Pipers, with Singers and Players on stringed instruments, to welcome the PILGRIMS as they went up, and followed one another in at the Beautiful Gate of the City.\n\nAs for Christian's children, the four boys that Christiana brought with her, with their wives and children, I did not stay where I was till they were gone over. Also since I came away, I heard one say, that they were yet alive, and so would be for the increase of the Church\u00b0 in that place where they were, for a time.\n\nShall it be my lot to go that way again, I may give those that desire it, an account of what I here am silent about; mean time, I bid my Reader Adieu.\n\nTHE END.\n\n**civet-box** Package containing fragrances; **strong man** Physical strength; **the increase of the church** Bunyan guarantees the physical survival of the saints through Christiana's descendants.\n**Endnotes**\n\nUnless otherwise specified, references to Keeble, Owens, and Sharrock are to their editions of The Pilgrim's Progress. In the endnotes and footnotes, all references to text from the Bible are to the King James version.\n\n# **Part One**\n\n (p. 5) I writing of the Way: Sharrock argues that \"the book referred to is probably The Heavenly Footman\" (John Bunyan, p. 387; see \"For Further Reading\"), and Owens agrees that \"the work referred to here is almost certainly Bunyan's The Heavenly Footman\" (Owens, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 291). Certainly this line is reminiscent of the opening of that work, which was published posthumously in 1692: \"If thou wouldst so run as to obtain the kingdom of heaven, then be sure that thou get into the way that leadeth thither. For it is a vain thing to think that ever thou shalt have the prize, though thou runneth never so fast, unless thou art in the way that leads to it\" (The Works of John Bunyan, edited by George Offor, vol. 3, p. 383). But Bunyan might also refer to Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, which depicts many of Christian's allegorical encounters in psychological terms. Joan Webber comments that this work \"goes very far toward making allegories of [Bunyan] and his congregation\" (The Eloquent \"I,\" p. 22), and Offor believes that Bunyan means \"most probably his own spiritual experience\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 7).\n\n (p. 5) Race of Saints: This is the first of many Pauline images, from the Bible, 1 Corinthians 9:24: \"Know ye not that they which run in a race run all, but one receiveth the prize? So run, that ye may obtain.\" As Bunyan's use of the term \"saints\" implies, this verse was often cited in support of Calvinist predestination.\n\n (p. 5) Fell suddenly into an Allegory: Stanley Fish observes that, for Bunyan, \"the source of danger and of potential error is to be located in the world as it usually appears\" (Self-consuming Artifacts, p. 237). Luxon perceptively expands: \"Virtually the entire plot of Bunyan's allegory is gener ated by a string of occasions in which the pilgrim characters temporarily forget the allegorical status of their experiences in this world. Mistaking this-worldly experience for reality, they fall, as it were, back into the allegory and take it for the real thing\" (Literal Figures, p. 160).\n\n (p. 5) to divert my self in doing this, \/ From worser thoughts: Greaves claims that in early 1668 Bunyan was worried by changes in Charles II's policy toward dissenters: \"The 'worser thoughts' that prompted Bunyan to write The Pilgrim's Progress probably were triggered by reports that the King had yielded to parliamentary calls for a repressive policy, leading Bunyan to conclude that he might never be freed\" (Glimpses of Glory, p. 217).\n\n (p. 7) Dark Clouds bring Waters: Bunyan's words are \"dark\" in the sense of \"obscure,\" but they will produce rain and so bring to fruition the ideas that grow in the fertile soil of the reader's mind. Bunyan may also be thinking of baptismal water.\n\n (p. 7) If that a Pearl may in a Toad's head dwell: Valuable \"toadstones\" were believed to grow in the heads of toads. See Shakespear's As You Like It (act It 2, scene 1): \"Sweet are the uses of adversity, \/ Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, \/ Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.\"\n\n (p. 8) That this your Book will stand when soundly try'd: Here, as at many other points in the book, Bunyan parodies legalistic reasoning by introducing a trial motif. His entire theology is based on the superseding of the law of the Old Testament by the grace of the New.\n\n (p. 8) Metaphors make us blind: The danger is that Bunyan's use of iconic imagery may produce idols in the mind, obscuring our access to truth and thus making us \"blind\" in the sense of \"ignorant of religion.\"\n\n (p. 8) Types, Shadows and Metaphors: A \"type\" is an object, person, or event, described literally in the Old Testament, but also \"spiritualized\" as an image prefiguring its \"antitype\" in the New. Samson, for example, was a \"type\" of which Christ was the \"antitype.\" \"Shadows\" means \"images.\" Roger Pooley cites Samuel Parker's A Discourse of Ecclesiastical Politie ( 1670): \"And herein lies the most material difference between the sober Christians of the Church of England, and our modern sectaries, that we express the Precepts and Duties of the Gospel in plain and intelligent terms, whilst they trifle them away by childish Metaphors and Allegories, and will not talk of Religion but in barbarous and uncouth similitudes\" (Keeble, ed., John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, p. 94).\n\n (p. 9) And find There darker lines.... there are worse lines too: The complainer's \"real\" life is, properly examined, just as full of obscure, hidden meaning as Bunyan's allegory. Already Bunyan is suggesting that the alienated, iconic world he depicts is more \"real\" than the world of experience.\n\n (p. 9) Sound words I know, Timothy is to use: In 1 Timothy 1:4, Paul advises his correspondent: \"Neither give heed to fables and endless genealogies, which minister questions, rather than godly edifying which is in faith.\"\n\n (p. 10) abuse: That is, use an illegitimate image or figure. George Puttenham's English Poesie (1589) uses \"abuse\" to translate the Greek catachresis, which is when \"for lacke of naturall and proper terme or worde we take another, neither naturall nor proper and do untruly applie it to the thing which we would seeme to expresse\" (quoted in Hawkes, Idols of the Marketplace, p. 79). It was often used to refer to idolatry, as in one of John Donne's sermons: \"If the true use of pictures be preached unto them, there is no danger of an abuse\" (p. 81).\n\n (p. 10) I find that men ... will write \/ Dialogue-wise: The dialogue, typically between teacher and pupil, was a favorite genre of religious texts. Arthur Dent's The Plaine Man's Pathway ( 1601 ), a prominent influence on Bunyan, is in dialogue form, for example, and Bunyan uses dialogue himself in The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680). Here Bunyan points out that this unimpeachably religious form also uses fictional characters.\n\n (p. 10) let Truth be free \/ To make her salleys upon Thee, and Me: Compare Milton's Areopagitica ( 1644): \"So Truth be in the field, we do injuriously by licensing and prohibiting, to misdoubt her strength. Let her and Falsehood grapple; who ever knew Truth put to the worse, in a free and open encounter ?\" (Complete English Poems, Of Education, Areopagitica, p. 746).\n\n (p. 11) This Book is writ in such a Dialect: Since it represents a fallen, alienated world, allegory will appeal to fallen, alienated men. Compare Bunyan's \"Prison Meditations\" (1665): \"Hark yet again, you carnal men, \/ And hear what I shall say \/ In your own dialect, and then \/ I'll you no longer stay\" (Works, vol. 1, p. 66).\n\n (p. 13) a Book: The Book is the Bible. The words of Holy Scripture often become physical forces in Bunyan's writing. Hill notes: \"In Grace Abounding texts are hurled at Bunyan's head like thunderbolts of God\" (The World Turned Upside Down, p. 95). In that book, Bunyan mentions: \"I have sometimes seen more in a line of the Bible than I could well tell how to stand under\" (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and A Relation of the Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan, 1987, p. 83).\n\n (p. 14) but they began to be hardened: In Exodus 7:3 God \"hardens\" Pharaoh's heart to prevent him from seeing the meaning behind the visible \"signs\" God sends, and this prevents Pharaoh from freeing the Israelites from slavery. The connection between literalism and cruelty features largely in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, where Shylock cruelly insists on the letter of the law, and in A Relation of the Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan, where the obsessive literalism of Justice Chester reflects his hardness of heart in his dialogue with Bunyan's wife: \u00b0 'But it is recorded, woman, it is recorded,' said Justice Chester; as if it must be of necessity true, because it was recorded. With which words he often endeavoured to stop her mouth, having no other argument to convince her, but 'it is recorded, it is recorded'\" (Works, vol. 1, p. 60). See also Bunyan's On the Fear of God: \"Take heed of hardening thy heart at any time, against convictions or judgments. I bid you before to beware of a hard heart; now I bid you beware of hardening your soft heart\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 487).\n\n (p. 14) a Man named Evangelist: This character has a small but vital role in part one; part two gives much greater emphasis to the need for spiritual guidance. In Bunyan's life, this part was played by John Gifford, pastor of the Bedford church that Bunyan joined after his conversion.\n\n (p. 15) Wicket Gate: A wicket gate is a small gate, usually part of a larger door. The passage to heaven is represented as a \"strait gate\" in Luke 13:24. Some critics believe the gate represents Christ, but in his pamphlet The Strait Gate (1676) Bunyan argues that this is not so: \"The master of the house is not the door\" (The Works of John Bunyan, edited by George Offor, vol. 1, p. 366).\n\n (p. 15) his Wife and Children: In Grace Abounding Bunyan recalls his surprise \"when I found professors much distressed and cast down when they met with outward losses, as of husband, wife, child, etc. Lord, thought I, what a do is here about such little things as these!\" (p. 24). However, he also remembers that parting from his family to go into prison was \"as the pulling the flesh from the bones\" (p. 80). Davies comments, regarding Christian's desertion of his family: \"Only if we read this action gracefully, understanding Christian's desertion of his family within the compass of an allegorical ode that takes advantage of literal-metaphorical hesitations in making the unseen visible, can we accept such apparently unchristian behavior unproblematically\" (Graceful Reading, p. 277).\n\n (p. 17) wiser in their own eyes than seven men that can render a Reason: Works of Restoration philosophy such as John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) use \"reason\" as an antidote to the religious faith of \"enthusiasts\" like Bunyan: \"If the boundaries be not set between faith and reason, no enthusiasm or extravagancy in religion can be contradicted\" (1867 edition, p. 589).\n\n (p. 18) I can better conceive of them with my Mind, than speak of them with my Tongue: Compare Milton's Paradise Lost (1667), where the archangel Raphael also uses iconic imagery to express the unspeakable: \"what surmounts the reach \/ Of human sense I shall delineate so, \/ By likening spiritual to corporeal forms, \/ As may express them best\" (book 5, lines 571-574).\n\n (p. 20) The name of the Slough was Despond: The name means \"depression.\" Offor cites Bunyan's The Jerusalem Sinner Saved ( 1688): \"Satan casts the professor into the mire.... He bedaubeth us with his own foam, and then tempts us to believe that the bedaubing comes from ourselves\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 92).\n\n (p. 20) a man came to him, whose name was Help: Regarding this episode, Carolynn Van Dyke observes: \"Bunyan's point is precisely that Christian escapes from a disabling experience into an allegorical understanding of it in terms of Christian doctrine\" (The Fiction of Truth, p. 171).\n\n (p. 22) The gentleman's name that met him, was Mr. Worldly Wiseman: This character is often identified specifically as Edward Fowler (see Introduction). Greaves objects: \"But unlike Fowler Worldly Wiseman is not a minister. Instead he must represent those gentry who readily conformed at the Restoration, finding in Latitudinarianism an antidote to the sharply defined religious principles that had contributed to the upheavals of the 1640's and 1650's\" (p. 258). According to Sharrock, \"This figure may be specially intended to satirize the Latitudinarian party in the Church of England\" (John Bunyan, p. 388). Keeble finds a more general \"type of the complacent believer who rests securely in his high opinion of his own moral behavior without ever having experienced the desperate need for grace represented in the Slough of Despond\" (Keeble, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 266). Offor cites the gloss from W. Mason's edition (1778), which connects Wiseman's legalism with antinomian libertinism: \"Self-righteousness is as contrary to the faith of Christ as indulging the lusts of the flesh\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 94).\n\n (p. 25) Yes, very well: Since it stands for the fleshly law, Mount Sinai is clearly visible to Christian's senses. Compare his response here to page 15, where Evangelist asks if he sees the \"Shining Light,\" which represents the Word of God, and he replies, \"I think I do.\"\n\n (p. 25) Christian was afraid to venture further, lest the Hill should fall on his head: In Grace Abounding, Bunyan recalls how, tormented by guilt over his worldly pleasure in bell-ringing, he was forced to flee the church \"for fear it should fall upon my head\" (p. 14).\n\n (p. 29) Strive to enter in at the Strait Gate: \"Strait\" means \"narrow.\" Christian is learning the allegorical nature of the \"strait gate\"; it represents the small number of the predestined elect. As Bunyan explains in The Strait Gate (1676): \"The straitness of this gate is not to be understood carnally, but mystically. You are not to understand it, as if the entrance into heaven was some little pinching wicket; no, the straitness of the gate is quite another thing\" (Works, vol. 1, p. 366).\n\n (p. 35) the house of the Interpreter: The Holy Spirit is manifested in the faculty of interpretation. Offor cites a note from T. Scott's edition (1797): \"With great propriety Bunyan places the house of the Interpreter beyond the strait gate; for the knowledge of Divine things, that precedes conversion to God by faith in Christ, is very scanty, compared with the diligent Christian's subsequent attainments\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 98). Keeble observes: \"The instruction of the new convert by the inner light of the Holy Spirit ... takes the form of a series of emblems, some of which had appeared in such earlier collections as Francis Quarles's Emblems (1635)\" (p. 268). Greaves, on the other hand, suggests that the Interpreter is \"modeled on Bunyan's pastoral experience\" (p. 232).\n\n (p. 38) The name of the oldest was Passion, of the other Patience: Offor cites George Cheever's Lectures on the Pilgrim's Progress and on the Life and Times of John Bunyan ( 1846): \"Passion stands for the men of this world, Patience of that which is to come\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 99).\n\n (p. 39) Then I perceive it is not best to covet things: Paul twice equates \"covetousness\" with idolatry: in Colossians 3:5 and in Ephesians 5:5. In Christian Behaviour (1663), Bunyan explains: \"It engageth the very heart of man in it, to mind earthly things.... Thus it changeth the object on which the heart should be set, and setteth it on that which it should not\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 567). In the same text, like many of his contemporaries, he identifies \"covetousness\" with what we would call the \"market\" (see Introduction).\n\n (p. 41) a man in an Iron Cage: Keeble identifies this figure as \"John Child, who conformed to the Church of England in 1660, was visited after his lapse by Baptists who may have included Bunyan, and who in 1684 committed suicide\" (p. 268). It may also allude to Francis Spira, an Italian Protestant who returned to Catholicism and was punished with agonizing remorse and despair. In Grace Abounding Bunyan says of Spira: \"Every groan of that man ... his tears, his prayers, his gnashing of teeth, his wringing of hands, his twining and twisting, languishing and pining away under the mighty hand of God that was on him, was as knives and daggers in my soul\" (p. 41).\n\n (p. 42) 1 am now a man of Despair, and am shut up in it, as in this Iron Cage: Note that the man is aware that the cage is only a symbol for his despair. Because he is unable to distinguish symbols from reality, however, it has the same effect as a literal prison. The man's situation is in every respect the reverse of Bunyan's.\n\n (p. 42) But now every one of those things also bite me, and gnaw me, like a burning Worm: A conventional image for conscience, as in Mark 9:46, where Jesus refers to Hell as a place for the punishment of sinners \"where their worm dieth not, and their fire is not quenched:'\n\n (p. 43) and some sought to hide themselves under the mountains: Recall Christian's fear that Mount Sinai would fall on his head, when he was still under the law. Legalists will be buried under mountains on Judgment Day.\n\n (p. 44) gird up his loins: This common biblical phrase means, literally, \"tie his clothes about his middle\" and, figuratively, \"prepare himself for action.\" In biblical societies, where people dressed in flowing robes, the first would be a prerequisite for the second.\n\n (p. 45) the third also set a Mark on his forehead, and gave him a Roll: Assurances of elect status and so of salvation. But Davies finds that the roll \"seems intimately bound up not with election but with faith in the scriptural promises of deliverance\" (Graceful Reading, p. 44). In other words, it signifies the Lutheran principle of justification by faith alone rather than the Calvinist doctrine of predestination.\n\n (p. 46) The name of the one was Formalist, and the name of the other Hypocrisy: U. Milo Kaufmann identifies three distinct species of hypocrite in seventeenth-century religious discourse: the \"privie\" hypocrite, who deceives only himself; the \"grosse\" hypocrite, who deceives only others; and the \"formal\" hypocrite, who deceives both himself and others (Keeble, ed., John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, p. 174). See Thomas Traherne's \"Right Apprehension\": \"His gold and he \/ Do well agree, \/ For he's a formal hypocrite \/ Like that unfruitful though on th'outside bright\" (lines 77-80).\n\n (p. 47) a thousand years: According to Keeble, this is \"the length of time Roman Catholicism had, in Puritan eyes, obscured the doctrine of justification by faith through its insistence on the merit of works and had substituted for inner Christian commitment a formal religion of external observance and ceremony such as the established Church of England continued to promote by its determination to enforce conformity to its liturgy\" (p. 269).\n\n (p. 47) we are also in the Way: Fish observes that Formalist and Hypocrisy misinterpret the \"way\" as a literal, physical place, thus \"betraying an inability to think symbolically\" (p. 228).\n\n (p. 47) I walk by the Rule of my Master, you walk by the rude working of your your fancies: This is an assertion of the guiding value of scripture, rather than the \"inner light\" followed by the Quakers, or the \"divine spark\" of reason to which Latitudinarians often appealed.\n\n (p. 51) a couple of Lions: Offor identifies the lions as \"civil despotism and ecclesiastical tyranny\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 106). Sharrock opines that \"the lions represent persecution, civil and ecclesiastical, of Nonconformists under the Clarendon Code\" (Sharrock, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress, p. 391). Greaves observes that \"the lions evoke the Foxian accounts of martyrs torn apart by wild beasts\" (p. 245).\n\n (p. 54) there was a very stately palace before him, the name of which was Beautiful: The palace Beautiful represents the congregation or church. John R. Knott points out: \"The three major places in which [Christian] receives instruction\u2014the Interpreter's House, the Palace Beautiful, and the Delectable Mountains\u2014mark stages in his understanding of Scripture and his ability to relate his experience to it\" (in Keeble, ed., John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, p. 166).\n\n (p. 57) she ran to the door and called out Prudence, Piety, and Charity: Sharrock notes: \"The fact that the principle keepers of the House Beautiful are women reminds us of the important role played by women in the Bedford congregation\" (p. 391).\n\n (p. 61 ) I have a Wife and four small Children: So did Bunyan when he first entered prison in 1660. But Offor notes that this conversation was added to the second edition of 1678, and concludes that \"if he referred to his own family, it was to his second wife\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 108).\n\n (p. 61) Then Christian wept: Compare Bunyan's reflections on the consequences of his impending imprisonment for his family in Grace Abounding: \"I ... have often brought to mind the many hardships, miseries, and wants that my poor family was like to meet with, should I be taken from them, especially my poor blind child, who lay nearer my heart than all I had besides; 0 the thought of the hardship I thought my blind one might go under, would break my heart to pieces\" (p. 80).\n\n (p. 65) the Sword also with which their Lord will kill the Man of Sin: The Man of Sin is the Antichrist. Protestants identified Antichrist with the Pope, but for Bunyan he is a more generalized source of illusion, as he explains in Of Antichrist and His Ruin ( 1692): \"Antichrist is the adversary of Christ; an adversary really, a friend pretendedly: So then, Antichrist is one that is against Christ; one that is for Christ, and one that is contrary to him: And this is that mystery of iniquity\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 45).\n\n (p. 65) we will... show you the Delectable Mountains: Offor cites the note from Scott's edition: \"The Delectable Mountains, as seen at a distance, represent those distinct views of the privileges and consolations, attainable in this life, with which believers are sometimes favoured\" (Works, vol. 3, p.110).\n\n (p. 65) Emanuel's Land: \"Emmanuel\" is Hebrew for \"God is with us. Owens suggests: \"It is perhaps significant that Emmanuel was a favorite name for Christ among the millenarian group known as Fifth Monarchists\" (p. 298).\n\n (p. 66) So theyvent on together, reiterating their former discourses: As Greaves explains: \"Bunyan's periodic recapitulation of previous action ... serves a catechetical function, and during the course of the allegory Christian develops from catechumen to catechizer\" (Glimpses of Glory, p. 222).\n\n (p. 66) His name is Apollyon: The name is Greek for \"destroyer\"; see Revelation 9:11. Owens notes: \"As well as symbolizing the power of the devil, Apollyon also represents the oppressive power of the state\" (p. 298). In Grace Abounding, Bunyan recalls: \"Sometimes I have thought I should see the devil, nay, thought I have felt him, behind me, pull my clothes\" (p. 29).\n\n (pp. 74-75) That Ditch is it, into which the blind have led the blind.... a very dangerous Quag: Offor cites Mason: \"The ditch on the right hand is error in principle, into which the blind, as to spiritual truth, fall. The ditch on the left hand means outward sin and wickedness\" (Works, vol. 3, p.114). Sharrock notes: \"It has been suggested that the ditch represents reliance on works, while the 'quag' is that antinomianism that considers that the gift of grace absolves from the moral law\" (p. 392). Christian's stumbling between the two echoes Bunyan's vacillation between legalism and license (see Introduction).\n\n (p. 79) grown so crazy and stiff in his joints: In Sharrock's opinion, \"This reference to the weakness of Papal power could hardly have been written after the Declaration of Indulgence in 1672 had occasioned renewed Protestant fear of Catholic influence\" (p. 393). But Bunyan may have been thinking in the longer term: See Of Antichrist and His Ruin ( 1692), where he refers to the Papacy: \"Do but look back and compare Antichrist four or five hundred years ago, with Antichrist as he is now, and you shall see what work the Lord Jesus has begun to make with him\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 48).\n\n (p. 80) Then did Christian vain-gloriously smile: Fish comments: \"If the last is first, the first is Faithful, who is never more ahead of Faithful than when he is overrun by him.... If the unfolding of the scene disallows Christian's claims to be first, it also disallows the mimetic claims of the spatial image in which he and the reader momentarily believe\" (pp. 226-227).\n\n (p. 81) he is a turncoat!: Cowardly soldiers or servants would turn their coats inside out so that their allegiance could not be discerned. In the 1660s the term referred to dissenters who had conformed after the Restoration, such as Bunyan's Latitudinarian opponent Edward Fowler (see Introduction).\n\n (p. 84) saw one coming after me. This is Moses, representing the law. Davies notes, with regard to Faithful's conversion, \"What is emphasized is not a Calvinist predestination but a basic need to recognize the impossibility of fulfilling the law\" (p. 231). Bunyan is more of a Lutheran than a Calvinist.\n\n (p. 85) For that the Valley was altogether without Honour: Bernard de Mandeville makes this argument with apparent seriousness in An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour (1732): \"Honour is diametrically opposite to Christianity\" (1971 ed., p. 89).\n\n (p. 86) all Natural Science: Sharrock points out: \"Shame appeals to intellectual snobbery in a highly topical manner: the new physical science was very popular (e.g. at court) in the Restoration period\" (p. 393), and Owens calls this \"a topical remark, since the Royal Society had received its charter in 1662\" (p. 300). The Baconian empiricism espoused by such institutions rapidly undercut the intellectual foundations of Christianity; here, Bunyan identifies natural science as the ideology of the ruling class.\n\n (p. 88) a man whose name was Talkative: Luxon notes of this episode: \"Christian and Faithful first bring Talkative into being as a personified projection of their own error, then they proceed to exteriorize and condemn him as a false pilgrim, an other\" (p. 176). Hill observes that \"Bunyan thought Ranters talked too much\" (The World Turned Upside Down, p. 201). Bunyan says the same of the Quakers, whom he associated with the Ranters, in Some Gospel Truths Opened (1656): \"Who are the men who at this day are so deluded by the quakers, and other pernicious doctrines; but those who thought it enough to be talkers of the gospel, and grace of God, without seeking and giving all diligence to make it sure unto themselves?\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 133).\n\n (p. 91) so will he talk when he is on the ale-bench: This indicates that Talkative may be a Ranter rather than a Quaker. In A Vindication of Some Gospel Truths Opened (1657), Bunyan accused the Ranters of making their doctrines \"threadbare at an alehouse\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 183).\n\n (p. 95)You lie at the Catch: \"Lie in wait to catch out in conversation\" (Sharrock, p. 394). Offor cites Bunyan's Jerusalem Sinner Saved (1688): \"This is doing things with a high hand against the Lord our God, and a taking Him, as it were, at the catch!\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 124; emphasis in original).\n\n (p. 98) you had ought else but Notion: Bunyan discusses \"notionists\" in Some Gospel Truths Opened (1656), in connection with other groups he considered antinomian, like the Ranters and Quakers. He describes them as covert legalists, warning against those \"who slip into high notions, and rest there; taking that for true faith which is not. I shall desire thee seriously to consider this one character of a NOTIONIST. Such an one, whether he perceives it or not, is puffed up in his fleshly mind\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 133).\n\n (p. 101 ) you must through many Tribulations enter into the Kingdom of Heaven: Evangelist continues his prophecy of persecution. According to Offor, this speech \"peculiarly relates to the miseries endured by Nonconformist ministers in the reign of Charles II\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 126).\n\n (p. 101) Vanity-Fair: Hill observes: \"There has been some dispute as to whether Vanity Fair represents the Church of Rome or the money power. I do not see why we have to choose: Bunyan could perfectly well have intended both\" (A Tinker and a Poor Man, p. 225). I take the town of Vanity to represent the world, and the Fair to stand for the market.\n\n (p. 102) houses, lands ... precious stones, and what not: Note that Bunyan omits the essential differences between the commodities; they are all made equivalent for the purposes of exchange. Greaves shows the influence of Max Weber's thesis that Protestantism created an ideological climate favorable to capitalism when he comments that in Vanity Fair, \"Bunyan ignored an obvious place to incorporate a defense of nonconformity on the grounds that it was conducive to economic development\" (p. 225). But in fact, as R. H. Tawney has argued in Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, Weber underestimates the opposition to capitalism among radical Protestants, and Bunyan is a good example.\n\n (p. 104) bedlams: Madmen. Compare the account of Bunyan's old enemy, the Quaker George Fox, of his visit to Lichfield: \"As soon as I was got within the town the word of the Lord came to me again, to cry, 'Woe unto the bloody city of Lichfield!' So I went up and down the streets, crying with a loud voice, 'Woe to the bloody city of Lichfield!' It being market-day, I went into the market-place, and to and fro in several parts of it, and made stands, crying as before, 'Woe to the bloody city of Lichfield!' And no one laid hands on me, but as I went crying through the streets, there seemed to me to be a channel of blood running down the streets, and the market-place appeared like a pool of blood\" (Carey, Eyewitness to History, pp. 185-186).\n\n (p. 105) Turn away mine eyes from beholding Vanity: Offor cites Ivimey's edition of 1824: \"Holy Hunt of Hitchin, as he was called, a friend of Bunyan's, passing the market-place where mountebanks were performing, one cried after him, 'Look there, Mr. Hunt!' Turning his head another way, he replied, 'Turn away mine eyes from beholding vanity\"' (Works, vol. 3, p. 128).\n\n (p. 106) partakers of their misfortunes: Offor cites the Narrative of Proceedings against Nonconformists ( 1670): \"In 1670, the town porters of Bedford being commanded to assist in a brutal attack upon the Nonconformists, ran away, saying, 'They would be hanged, drawn, and quartered, before they would assist in that work'; for which cause the justices committed two of them ... to the jail\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 129).\n\n (p. 107) they had made Commotions and Divisions in the Town, and had won a Party: Dissenters remained a potent political force in England for more than two centuries, especially within the Whig Party, later the Liberals, and eventually in the British Labor Party, which is traditionally said to owe \"more to Methodism than to Marx.\"\n\n (p. 108) there came in three witnesses, to wit, Envy, Superstition, and Pickthank: Sharrock (p. 394) glosses this as \"flatterer\" and cites Shakespeare's The First Part of Henry IV (act 3, scene 2): \"smiling pickthanks and base newsmongers.\" More generally, it means one who tries to extort gratitude, or thanks, from another.\n\n (p. 112) whoever would not fall down and worship his Golden Image: Nebuchadnezzer, who imprisoned the Israelites in Babylon, was a conventional figure for the alienation caused by idolizing worldly wealth and power. In Grace Abounding, Bunyan mentions: \"I should often also think on Nebuchanezzar, of whom it is said, He had given him all the kingdoms of the earth (Dan. 5:18, 19). Yet, thought I, if this great man had all his portion in this world, one hour in hell fire would make him forget all. Which consideration was a great help to me\" (p. 21 ). A franker statement of Nietzschean ressentiment (ill feeling) would be hard to find.\n\n (p. 114) Christian for that time escaped them: The implausible ease of Christian's escape reminds us to avoid the temptation of reading naturalistically. Bunyan felt he had \"escaped\" from prison with similar ease, albeit in a purely metaphorical sense.\n\n (p. 116) That is not my name, but indeed it is a nick-name that is given me by some that cannot abide me: By-Ends makes the now familiar mistake of the bad characters; he fails to understand that he is an allegorical figure so that his name constitutes his essence. But some readers repeat his error. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, for instance, claimed that in The Pilgrim's Progress \"we go on with his characters as real persons, who had been nicknamed by their neighbors\" (Biographia Literaria, in Collected Works, edited by Kathleen Coburn, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969-; vol. 7, 1987, p. 103).\n\n (p. 117) in the county of Coveting, in the north: Sharrock finds here \"the old joke about Scottish close-fistedness\" (p. 395), but the \"north\" is associated with witchcraft and evil in European folklore, and the \"king of the north\" is an enemy of Israel in Daniel 11.\n\n (p. 118) cozenage: The word means \"fraud.\" Compare Bunyan's indictment of market economics in The Life and Death of Mr. Badman ( 1680): \"If it be lawful for me to sell my commodity ... as dear as I can, then there can be no sin in my trading, how unreasonably soever I manage my calling, whether by lying, swearing, cursing, cheating, for all this is but to sell my commodity as dear as I can\" (p. 113).\n\n (p. 118) Let us be wise as Serpents: Echoing Jesus' injunction to the disciples in Matthew 10:16-\"Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise as serpents, and harmless as doves\"\u2014but the phrase acquires a sinister connotation in the mouth of Hold-the-World.\n\n (p.119) a good man shall lay up Gold as Dust: Hold-the-World displays his literalism; the phrase from Job 22:24 (\"Then shalt thou lay up gold as dust, and the gold of Ophir as the stones of the brooks\") is of course meant figuratively. Greaves notes: \"In the figure of Hold-the-World Bunyan satirized those ... who sought an accord between the capitalist spirit and religion\" (p. 255).\n\n (p. 120) his desire after that benefice makes him ... a better man: Money-love's argument parallels that of the political economists. They argued that the pursuit of economic self-interest provided a motive to self-improvement that would benefit society as a whole. Their descendants make a similar case today.\n\n (p. 123) Silver-Mine: This is both figural and literal; the precious metals from American mines had monetarized the European economy, producing such avaricious characters as By-Ends.\n\n (p. 124) son of Abraham: But By-Ends does not specify whether he descends from Isaac (the son of the free woman, hence the gospel) or Ishmael (the son of the bondwoman, hence the law).\n\n (p. 128) here is the easiestgoing: Offor cites Mason: \"The transition into the by-path is easy, for it lies close to the right way; only you must get over a stile, that is, you must quit Christ's imputed righteousness, and trust in your own inherent righteousness; and then you are in By-path meadow directly\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 138).\n\n (p. 131) walking up and down in his fields: Owens find that this image \"suggests the power of the landowning gentry\" (p. xxxvi), and James Turner points out: \"The units of topographical space (heights and depths, lands, fields, hills, houses, and roads) are inseparable in Bunyan's imagination from the social means of their control, from lordships, tenure and sale, trespass actions and enclosure claims\" (in Newey, ed., The Pilgrim's Progress: Critical and Historical Views, p. 97). Certainly Despair's ownership of the land is heavily stressed, but Bunyan also alludes to Satan's description of himself \"going to and fro in the earth, and ... walking up and down in it\" (Job 1:7). And theologically, Bunyan is instructing us that self righteousness leads to despair. As with Vanity Fair, there is no need to choose between these interpretations; Bunyan considered class oppression to be an earthly manifestation of Satan's power.\n\n (p. 131) a very dark Dungeon: In Vanity Fair the pilgrims were publicly exhibited in a cage; here the misery of their imprisonment comes from their being kept hidden away.\n\n (p. 132) bitter Lamentations: Greaves mentions: \"Several critics have recognized that Bunyan's treatment of despair in the allegory goes beyond the typical puritan understanding and reflects mental illness\" (p. 233).\n\n (p. 132) fits : Despair is erratic. If we anachronistically apply our medical terminology to Bunyan it would seem, from this account and from the details he gives of his depression in Grace Abounding, that he was \"bi-polar\" or \"manic depressive.\"\n\n (p. 135) Promise: In Grace Abounding, Bunyan recalls that he was rescued from the depths of despair by the \"promise\" contained in John 6:37 (\"And him that cometh to me I will in no wise cast out\"): \"I should in these days, often in my greatest agonies, even flounce towards the promise, as the horses do towards sound ground that yet stick in the mire\" (p. 63). According to John R. Knott, \"The suddenness with which Bunyan remembers ... suggests the miraculous intervention of grace\" (Keeble, ed., John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, p. 168). As in Vanity Fair, the ease with which Christian escapes also suggests the illusory nature of physical prisons.\n\n (p. 135) a pillar: Offor cites Bunyan's Of the House of the Forest of Lebanon (1692): \"The church in the wilderness ... is full of pillars\u2014apostles, prophets, and martyrs of Jesus. There are hung up also the shields that the old warriors used, and on the walls are painted the brave achievements they have done\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 110).\n\n (p. 137) Safe for those for whom it is to be safe: Stuart Sim finds a statement of predestination here: \"There is an entire theological position encapsulated in that line, one unmistakably based on the Calvinist doctrines of election and justification by faith, that is central to Bunyan's narrative practice\" (in Laurence et al., eds., John Bunyan and His England, 1628-88, p. 149).\n\n (p. 138) Hymeneus and Philetus: In 2 Timothy 2:17-18, Paul criticizes these figures for \"saying that the resurrection is past already\" The dead bodies show that this is a self-fulfilling prophecy.\n\n (p. 140) such as sell their Birth-right with Esau: Esau sold his rights as Isaac's first-born to his brother Jacob for a \"mess of pottage\" in Genesis 25:30-34. The most fearful and persistent temptation faced by Bunyan in Grace Abounding is the desire to \"sell\" Christ (see Introduction). He eventually acquiesces, causing himself to be tortured by \"the aforementioned scripture, concerning Esau's selling of his birthright,\" although he eventually concludes that his closest biblical counterpart is Judas.\n\n (p. 140) that Lie and dissemble, with Ananias and Sapphira his wife: This is another instance of \"selling\" Christ for money. In Acts 5, this couple violates the early Christians' practice of communism: \"But a certain man named Ananias, with Sapphira his wife, sold a possession, \/ And kept back part of the price, his wife also being privy to it, and brought a certain part, and laid it at the apostles' feet. \/ But Peter said, Ananias, why hath Satan filled thine heart to lie to the Holy Ghost, and to keep back part of the price of the land?\"\n\n (p. 141 ) So I awoke from my Dream: Keeble notes that this is \"usually taken to signify Bunyan's release from prison and hence to imply the remainder of part one was written when he was at liberty\" (p. 275). This is also Sharrock's conclusion, but he notes that \"some critics have thought the break between the two dreams artistically justifiable on the grounds that Christian has decisively overcome his despair\" (p. 396). Others, such as Greaves, suggest that Bunyan refers to a temporary release in 1669-1670, and that part one was completed following his re-incarceration.\n\n (p. 141 ) As other good people do: As Vincent Newey comments, \"The reader cannot but see something of himself in Ignorance\" (Keeble, ed., John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, p. 213).\n\n (p. 142) be content to follow the Religion of your country, and I will follow the Religion of mine: Hill points out that \"Bunyan contributed nothing to the theory of toleration\" (A Tinker and a Poor Man, p. 340). In Grace Abounding he ascribes to \"the tempter\" the thought \"that the Turks had as good scriptures to prove their Mahomet the Saviour, as we have to prove our Jesus is.... Every one doth think his own religion rightest, both Jews, and Moors, and Pagans; and how if all our faith, and Christ, and Scriptures, should be but a think-so too?\" (p. 27).\n\n (p. 143) for he was loth to lose his Money: Luxon notes: \"Had he not been 'loth to lose his Money,' that is to say, were he unconcerned about the things of this world, the thieves would be no threat; they would not even exist\" (p. 193).\n\n (p. 144) his Jewels ... his spending-money: Offor cites Mason: \"By his jewels, we may understand those radical graces of the Spirit\u2014faith, hope, and love. By his spending-money, the sealing and earnest of the Spirit in his heart\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 147). Later, he cites Bunyan's Grace Abounding. \"Now I could look from myself to [Christ], and should reckon that all those graces of God that now were green in me, were yet but like those cracked groats and four pence-halfpennies, that rich men carry in their purses, when their GOLD is in their trunks at home. Oh! I saw that my gold was in my trunk at home, in Christ my Lord and Saviour\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 148). Keeble believes that \"the stolen money represents his assurance of election\" (p. 275). Given Bunyan's association of money with the law, however, it seems more likely that Little-faith's \"money\" represents his \"works\" and that his \"jewels\" stand for his faith. Money is a mere sign representing an arbitrary and irrational, merely human form of value, whereas jewels are naturally valuable because of their inherent qualities.\n\n (p. 146) themselves outright to boot. To be carnal was to alienate, or \"sell,\" one's self. In Romans 7:14, Paul declares, \"I am carnal, sold under sin.\" A slave is legally an object, and carnality was a form of slavery, as Paul's allegory of the bondwoman indicates (see Introduction).\n\n (p. 148) some do say of him: The qualification indicates that Bunyan favored Paul for this role. Like Luther, he agreed with Paul's insistence, over Peter's opposition, that Christians need not follow the Judaic law.\n\n (p. 150) Leviathan: This sea monster is mentioned at several points in the Bible. It symbolizes Satan in Isaiah 27:1: \"In that day the Lord with his sore and great and strong sword shall punish leviathan the piercing serpent, even leviathan that crooked serpent; and he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea.\" Political theorist Thomas Hobbes used it as a symbol of state power in his Leviathan (1642).\n\n (p. 150) since the Lion and the Bear have not as yet devoured me, I hope God will also deliver us from the next uncircumcised Philistine: David says this of Goliath in 1 Samuel 17:36: \"Thy servant slew both the lion and the bear: and this uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, seeing he hath defied the armies of the living God.\"\n\n (p. 150) a man black of Flesh, but covered with a very light Robe: Here Bunyan describes the Lutheran \"white devil\" of self-righteousness, though Sharrock finds a more composite figure: \"It looks as if the idea of false pastors with winning words has been combined with the notion of the devil as a flatterer, and popular superstition believed that the devil appeared as a black man\" (p. 396).\n\n (p. 155) the Good of my Soul: Kaufmann accurately calls the following account of Hopeful's conversion \"Grace Abounding in miniature\" (1'he Pilgrim's Progress and Traditions in Puritan Meditation, p. 228).\n\n (p. 157) Debt. The metaphor of sin as debt was very common; Christ redeemed our debt, while Satan would exact interest on it. This figure was alluded to constantly during debates over the ethical status of usury.\n\n (p.161 ) He is Mediator between God and us: See Galatians 3:19-20: \"Wherefore then serveth the law? It was added because of transgressions, till the seed should come to whom the promise was made; and it was ordained of angels in the hand of a mediator. Now a mediator is not a mediator of one, but God is one.\"\n\n (p. 161) This was a Revelation of Christ to your soul indeed; But tell me particularly what effect this had upon your spirit?: Offor cites Scott: \"Christ did not appear to Hopeful's senses, but to his understanding; and the words spoken are no other than texts of Scripture taken in their genuine meaning\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 156).\n\n (p. 165) Thus Faith maketh not Christ a justifier of thy person, but of thy actions: The Quakers actually espouse the idea of work's righteousness, though they are ignorant of this. Compare Bunyan's The Strait Gate (1676): \"The poor ignorant world miss of heaven ... because they lean upon their own good meanings, and thinkings, and doings\" (Works, vol. 1, p. 384).\n\n (p. 166) This conceit would loosen the reins of our Lust: Keeble observes: \"Ignorance cogently points to antinomianism, the complete separation of the moral life from the scheme of salvation, as the apparent consequence of Calvinism's stress on the imputation of Christ's righteousness to the predetermined elect\" (p. 276). In Grace Abounding, Bunyan recalls that in his youth he \"let loose the reins to my lust\" (p. 8).\n\n (p. 172) Beulah: The word \"Beulah\" means, literally, \"married,\" used in Isaiah 62:4 to describe the union of God with His people: \"Neither shall thy land any more be termed Desolate: but thou shalt be called Hephzibah, and thy land Beulah: for the Lord delighteth in thee, and thy land shall be married.\" According to Greaves, this land \"represents psychological well-being and spiritual contentment\" (p. 240).\n\n (p. 174) there met them two Men: Offor (Works, vol. 3, p. 162) notes the specifically human nature of these beings. He suggests that these may be \"glorified inhabitants of the Celestial City,\" and observes that John is addressed from heaven by a \"fellowservant\" (Revelation 22:9).\n\n (p. 180) then the Pilgrims gave in unto them each man his Certificate: The certificate is usually held to refer to their election, though Davies disagrees: \"The 'Certificate' Christian and Hopeful tender at the Celestial Gate is not of their election ... but of their faith in the efficacy of salvation by grace alone\" (p. 238). Of course, the elect would enjoy such a faith in any case, but the distinction is not unimportant; it is the difference between Calvinist and Lutheran theology.\n\n (p. 181 ) he fumbled in his bosom for one, and found none: Either he was not one of the predestined elect, or he did not grasp the doctrine of justification by faith alone. Luxon believes that Ignorance \"is damned precisely because he never believed sufficiently in the invisible things.... Like the Jew of Protestant typology he lived and breathed in the unreal world of temporal things, always mistaking them for the invisible reality of the promises. He is the personification of the true pilgrims' fleshly existence\" (p. 181).\n\n# **Part Two**\n\n (p. 187) Christiana: While the fact of her gender is certainly significant, Christiana's primary role is to symbolize the church (see Introduction). Kaufrnann argues: \"While in the first part Bunyan is concerned to disturb the comfortable, ensuring a close examination of the reader's own calling, in the second part his concern is plainly to comfort the disturbed\" (in Keeble, ed., John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus, p. 178).\n\n (p. 187) his Wife and Children are: The first part of The Pilgrim's Progress had been a huge popular success, appearing in three editions during its first year. See Bunyan's Christian Behaviour (1663): \"One of God's ends in instituting marriage is that, under such a figure, Christ and His church should be set forth\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 558).\n\n (p. 190) above their Gold: See Grace Abounding: \"Thus I continued for a time all on a flame to be converted to Jesus Christ, and did also see at that day such glory in a converted state, that I could not be contented without a share therein. Gold! Could it have been gotten for gold, what could I have given for it! Had I a whole world, it had all gone ten thousand times over, for this, that my soul might have been in a converted state\" (p. 22).\n\n (p. 190) stripling: Youth. See The Heavenly Footman (1692): \"You that are old professors, take you heed that the young striplings of Jesus, that began to strip but the other day, do not outrun you\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 393).\n\n (p. 192) Besides, what my first Pilgrim left conceal'd ... Sweet Christiana opens with her Key: According to Offor: \"After the author had heard the criticisms of friends and foes upon the First Part, he adopts this second narrative to be a key explaining many things which appeared dark in Christian's journey\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 170).\n\n (p. 198) unbecoming behaviour towards her husband: Davies observes: \"The burden Christiana bears at the beginning of Part II teeters dangerously upon the brink of not being guilt over sin at all: it seems to be a more specifically gendered anxiety over being an unworthy spouse\" (p. 337).\n\n (pp. 198-199) rent the caul of her heart: See Hosea 13:8: \"I ... will rend the caul of their heart.\" Owens notes: \"A caul is any membrane enclosing organs of the body, in particular the heart, and the fetus before birth\" (p. 310). In the Bible, the term is most frequently used in relation to the liver.\n\n (p. 200) Secret: Offor cites Scott \"The intimations of Secret represent the teachings of the Holy Spirit, by which the sinner understands the real meaning of the Sacred Scriptures as to the way of salvation\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 174). According to Keeble, \"The character represents divine knowledge of, and concern about, men's innermost longings and anxieties, and underlines the essentially private nature of the saints' experience of grace as they are let into the secret of God's mercy\" (p. 278). More generally, it reminds us of the imperative to search out the hidden meanings behind appearances.\n\n (p. 206) Madam Wanton's: Here it is made more clear than in part one that she is the \"madam\" of a brothel. This figure stands for the sin of \"concupiscence\" \u2014that is, fleshly lust pursued as an end in itself, rather than as a means to the end of spiritual love\u2014which was closely connected with covetousness in the puritan imagination. \"Wanton\" means \"wayward,\" especially in the sexual sense; a modern cognate would be \"horny.\" Compare John Milton's hymn \"On the Morning of Christ's Nativity\" (1629), where the term is applied to \"Nature:\" \"It was no season then for her \/ To wanton with the sun, her lusty paramour\" (lines 35-36).\n\n (p. 206) for all the gold in the Spanish Mines: The flood of gold from America had monetarized the European economy during the past two centuries, destroying traditional values and enhancing the alienation of human beings from God's creation.\n\n (p. 207) all things in common: Mercy's servitude to Christiana does not involve any diminution of her status; like the early Christians, Bunyan's pilgrims practice communism.\n\n (p. 207) her own Salvation: \"Her own\" can refer to either Mercy or Christiana ; Mercy achieves her salvation through empathy with Christiana's. Keeble comments: \"[Mercy's] affection for Christiana is given precedency. Friendship between women can no less serve as a means of grace than the love for a husband which draws Christiana\" (in Laurence et al., eds., pp. 135-136).\n\n (p. 208) worse than formerdy: According to Sharrock, \"There is implied satire here on the strict Baptists of London, with whom Bunyan had conducted a controversy in 1672-3. It is suggested that their strict conditions for church membership would have driven believers away\" (p. 401). But the deterioration of the slough may also reflect a more general degeneration in society.\n\n (p. 209) Mr. Sagacity: Keeble calls Mr. Sagacity a \"false start. Bunyan soon realizes he is redundant, and Mr. Sagacity leaves him 'to Dream out my Dream by myself.' This gets rid of Mr. Sagacity, but it is ... inconsistent: since Bunyan's dream hitherto has not been of Christiana and her family but of Mr. Sagacity telling him about them, Mr. Sagacity is his dream\" (p. 278). For Davies, however, the narrational shift from Mr. Sagacity to the dreamer is more artful and indicates the importance of the wicket gate, through which Christiana is about to pass. It might also suggest the dreamer's growing comprehension of the story's significance, so that he no longer needs a guide. Perhaps we are to understand that human wisdom is unnecessary once the pilgrims have begun to view the world in allegorical terms.\n\n (p. 211) I am come for that unto which I was never invited, as my friend Christiana was: Keeble comments: \"Bunyan's point is that, although Mercy fears she has not, like Christiana, received a call, her coming itself witnesses to a vocation whether or no she be conscious of spiritual regeneration\" (p. 279). Sharrock observes: \"Mercy has not received a definite call like Christiana ; she goes on pilgrimage out of friendship to the latter: she is to be saved not by her deeds, but by displaying a truly Christian sensibility. Her character illustrates how much more subtle Bunyan's understanding of grace had become since he wrote the first part, which is confined to the dramatic either\/or aspect of religious conversion\" (p. 400).\n\n (p. 217) being ye knew that ye were but weak women: Sharrock notes in another context that Bunyan means to commend women in part two, not to criticize them: \"Women played an important role in the Bedford church; in the first list of members they were in a considerable majority, and in 1683 there was a demand for separate prayer-meetings for women, which was rejected: Bunyan may have felt that recognition of the female contribution was required to offset this rebuff\" (p. 405).\n\n (p. 221 ) no way but downwards: Compare John Milton's depiction of Mammon (money) in Paradise Lost (1667): \"Even in heaven his looks and thoughts \/ Were always downward bent; admiring more \/ The riches of heaven's pavement, trodden gold, \/ Than aught divine or holy else enjoyed \/ In vision beatific\" (book 1, lines 679-683).\n\n (p. 222) a very great Spider: See Proverbs 30:28: \"The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces.\" In the A Book for Boys and Girls; or, Temporal Things Spritualized (1686; later titled Divine Emblems; or, Temporal Things Spiritualized), which has verses attached to its pictures, Bunyan guides the reader through the same process of interpretation that Mercy and Christiana are about to follow. The spider tells the sinner: \"Since I an ugly ven'mous creature be, \/ There is some semblance 'twixt vile man and me\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 753). Davies explains: \"The emblem, the women's preliminary misunderstanding of it, and the subsequent revelation of its \"true\" meaning enact in miniature the overall conversion movement from ignorance, fear, and sinful self-reproach to faith and a forgiving acceptance that Bunyan's theology consistently promotes\" (p. 331 ).\n\n (p. 228) thou are a Ruth: The biblical book of Ruth describes how she, a Moabite, left her native land to live with her Israelite husband, out of regard for her mother-in-law, Naomi, as Mercy has gone on pilgrimage out of love for Christiana.\n\n (p. 229) Bath: This is a reference to baptism by total immersion. Sharrock notes: \"There is no treatment of baptism in the first part and Bunyan may have been under pressure from fellow Baptists; his own Bedford church was Open Communion and practiced adult baptism not as a necessary condition but as an optional sign of church membership\" (p. 402).\n\n (p. 230) Great-heart: Greaves explains that Great-heart \"is Bunyan the minister, and by extension every committed dissenting pastor. Great-heart is not a role model for believers, or even male ones, but for ministers of gathered churches, and his function in the allegory is to underscore the importance of looking to such men for spiritual leadership\" (p. 501).\n\n (p. 237) let them hang: John R. Knott observes: \"Mercy's uncharitable sentiments seem surprising, even unintentionally ironic, to a modern reader, but they reflect an uncompromising attitude toward unregenerate sinners and temptations to sin that runs through The Pilgrim's Progress\" (in Gay et al., eds., Awakening Words, p. 52). But the apparent cruelty of Mercy's statements evaporates if we read the executed figures as allegorical depictions of qualities within her own mind, rather than taking them literally, as referring to independent characters.\n\n (p. 237) be a Sign: This emphasizes Mercy's burgeoning comprehension of the allegorical nature of the world. As Bunyan predicted in the part two's preparatory verse, this volume instructs the reader about how to read part one.\n\n (p. 239) James: The boys are not given allegorical titles, but realistic, biblical names. This is the beginning of the process whereby various characters shed the constraints of their allegorical definitions as they approach the holy city.\n\n (p. 241) Lions: Sharrock notes: \"The lions which were asleep when Faithful passed are now awake: this reflects the renewed period of persecution in 1681-4\" (p. 403). Whereas in part one the two lions stood for the civil and ecclesiastical powers, here they represent the latter only.\n\n (p. 241 ) Now the name of that man was Grim, (or Bloody-Man): According to Keeble, \"the civil authority responsible for the persecution of nonconformists with renewed vigor during the 'Tory Revenge' of the early 1680s following the defeat of the Whigs in the Exclusion Crisis.\"\n\n (p. 242) downright Here the word means \"forceful.\" John Knott observes of Great-heart's various combats: \"The violence and bloodiness of the victories ... suggest a delight in prospect of vengeance for the oppression of the true church\" (Gay et al., eds., p. 58).\n\n (p. 242) Now the Lions were chained, and so of themselves could do nothing: The Anglican Church is powerless against dissenters unless backed by the power of the state. Note that, if Grim represents the state, Great-heart's slaughter of him comes close to advocating political revolution.\n\n (p. 243) such poor women: Opinions differ about the pilgrims' need for a guide in part two. Aileen Ross claims: \"Once Christiana's authority has been handed over to the male characters, notably Mr. Great-heart, and the women made thoroughly aware of their weak status, any adventure becomes a male prerogative\" (in Gay et al., eds., p. 162). However, Melissa D. Aaron finds that Bunyan \"postulates an alternative Puritan society in the second part.... He creates an extended family structure where 'the last shall be first.' Humility becomes the critical value, and the model for humility is female\" (Gay et al., eds., p. 169).\n\n (p. 251) cried her down at the Cross: As Owens notes: \"This refers to the practice in the seventeenth century by which a man could take his wife to the local market cross (sometimes leading her by a symbolic halter) and sell her to the highest bidder\" (p. 314). The practice continued well into the nineteenth century; it is described in Thomas Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge ( 1886).\n\n (p. 253) pills: Compare Bunyan's Seasonable Counsel (1684): \"Alas! we have need of those bitter pills, at which we so wince and shuck: and it will be well if at last we be purged as we should thereby\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 693).\n\n (p. 256) Learn to remember Peter's Sin: That is, when he denied knowing Jesus three times before cock-crow. Bunyan is fond of this example, and generally ambivalent about Saint Peter, who opposed Saint Paul and who reputedly became the first pope. 3. (p. 265) such a shape: Compare John Milton describing Death in Paradise Lost (1667): \"The other shape, I If shape it might be called that shape had none\" (book 2, lines 666-667). The line number is clearly significant, for in the biblical book of Revelation, 666 is the \"number of the beast [Antichrist].\"\n\n (p. 266) something 'most like a Lion: Both \"almost like a lion\" and \"resembling a lion more closely than anything else.\"See 1 Peter 5:8: \"Be sober, be vigilant; because your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh about, seeking whom he may devour.\" 5. (p. 268) Maul a giant: According to Sharrock: \"The Roman Catholic Church. The reference to his spoiling the pilgrims with sophistry suggests the activity of the Jesuits, that to 'my master's kingdom' raises the question of the foreign allegiance of Catholics, a common charge in the age of the Popish Plot\" (p. 404). Greaves concurs: \"The linkage between Giants Pope and Maul effectively associates the repressive policies of the Tory-Anglicans with Catholicism\"\" (p. 512). But Owens disagrees: \"The charge of sophistry was certainly leveled at the Jesuits, but there is little else to suggest that Bunyan had a specific reference in mind. It seems just as likely that Maul (a maul being a heavy hammer) represents a more general enemy of pilgrims. In The Jerusalem Sinner Saved ( 1688), the temptation to doubt one's salvation is described as Satan's 'Maul, his Club, his Master-piece'\" (p. 316).\n\n (p. 277) pipe: Sing happily. William Blake, who loved Bunyan and illustrated The Pilgrim's Progress, may have had this line in mind in his \"Introduction\" to the Songs of Innocence ( 1789): \" 'Pipe a song about a lamb!' \/ So I piped with merry chear. \/ 'Piper, pipe that song again.' \/ So I piped: he wept to hear\" (lines 5-8).\n\n (p. 280) but he would always be like himself, self-willed: Honest stresses the propriety of the name. Compare Bunyan's The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), in which the title character is theoretically capable of acting honestly, but \"had he done so, he had not done like himself, like Mr. Badman\" (p. 89, emphasis in original).\n\n (p. 284) Whose wife is this aged matron?: Christiana has not been so described before; we gather that she has aged during the journey, as we later find that her sons have grown to manhood. This is another example of the increased naturalism in part two. 9. (pp. 284-285) Paul and Peter: In Paul's epistle to the Galatians, and in Luther's Commentary on Galatians, the quarrel between Peter and Paul embodies the conflict between works and faith. Paul was Bunyan's biblical model, but here he reconciles the two apostles in their shared martyrdom.\n\n (p. 285) There was Ignatius, who was cast to the Lions: Romanus, whose flesh was cut by pieces from his bones; and Polycarp, that played the man in the fire : The deaths of the early Christians Ignatius, Romanus, and Polycarp were familiar to Bunyan from Foxe's Acts and Monuments (1563). Keeble notes that they are \"the only non-biblical historical figures mentioned in PP\" (p. 282).\n\n (p. 286) first a heave-shoulder, and a wave-breast were set on the table before them: Leviticus 10:14: \"And the wave breast and heave shoulder shall ye eat in a clean place; thou, and thy sons, and thy daughters with thee.\" Bunyan does not refer to the literal ceremonial of the Jewish law, but to their spiritual antitypes. The heave-shoulder and the wave-breast are parts of the sacrificial animal.\n\n (pp. 290-291) that the Saviour is said to come out of a dry ground, and also that he had no Form nor Comeliness in him: Isaiah 53 contains a series of prophecies concerning the advent of Christ, as in 53:2: \"For he shall grow up before him as a tender plant, and as a root out of a dry ground: he hath no form nor comeliness; and when we shall see him, there is no beauty that we should desire him.\"\n\n (p. 291) Because the Church of the Jews ... had then lost almost all the sap, and Spirit of religion: Compare George Herbert's \"The Jews \"( 1633): \"Poore nation, whose sweet sap, and juice \/ Our cyens have purloin'd, and left you dry\" (lines 1-2).\n\n (p. 298) plead for: Here the phrase means \"rationalize.' The Latitudinarians argued that their lack of principle was itself a principle. Compare Bunyan's description of Edward Fowler as \"a glorious latitudinarian, that can, as to religion, turn and twist like an eel on the angle; or rather like the weather-cock that stands on the steeple\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 281).\n\n (p. 300) They are much more moderate now than formerly: Sharrock notes: \"Presumably since the Declaration of Indulgence to Nonconformists in 1672; this statement does not allow for the recurrence of persecution in the last years of Charles II's reign and may therefore have been written before that period\" (p. 406).\n\n (p. 302) a great while: Their behavior is in striking contrast to Christian's in part one. As Melissa D. Aaron claims, \"These new pilgrims, consisting of women, children, and feeble men, are able to live in Vanity Fair for years without being tainted by it in any way. They have in effect set up a new society\" (in Gay et al., eds., p. 177).\n\n (p. 305) Also there was here One ... and that could gently lead those that were with young: Isaiah 40:11: \"He shall feed his flock like a shepherd: he shall gather the lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that are with young.\"\n\n (p. 306) demolish his Castle: Keeble comments: \"The allegory appears unsound at this point.... It is difficult to understand how [Great-heart] could ensure other believers should not be subject to the temptation to despair\" (p. 283). But perhaps the fact that the pilgrims are able to demolish Doubting Castle suggests the imminence of Apocalypse, and even hints at social revolution.\n\n (p. 311) These ... we call in by name ... but as for you, and the rest that are strong, we leave you to your wonted liberty: At this stage, the weaker characters must still be identified by their allegorical names, to remind them of their alienated status and prevent them from retreating. The stronger pilgrims, however, are now ready to enjoy \"liberty\" from their allegorical confinements.\n\n (p. 312) The first was Mount-Marvel, where they looked, and behold a man at a distance, that tumbled the hills about with words: Mark 11:23: \"For verily I say unto you, That whosoever shall say unto this mountain, Be thou removed, and be thou cast into the sea; and shall not doubt in his heart, but shall believe that those things which he saith shall come to pass; he shall have whatsoever he saith.\" The mountain is an emblem of faith, and as Keeble notes, the tumbling man is \"a literal presentation of the test from Mark cited in the margin\" (p. 283). As so often in Bunyan, a biblical text becomes a physical force.\n\n (p. 313) one Fool, and one Want-wit, washing of an Ethiopian: The impossibility of washing an Ethiopian white was proverbial. The specific reference here is to Moses' Ethiopian wife. In A Book for Boys and Girls ( 1686), Bunyan explains: \"Moses was a type of Moses' law, \/ His wife likewise of one that never saw \/ Another way unto eternal life\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 757).\n\n (p. 313) Thus it was with the Pharisees: Compare Bunyan's The Pharisee and the Publican ( 1685): \"The Pharisee goes on boldly, fears nothing, but trusteth in himself that his state is good; he hath his mouth full of many fine things, whereby he strokes himself over the head, and calls himself one of God's white boys\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 215).\n\n (p. 314) Looking-Glass: Mercy is referring to the Word of God. Compare A Book for Boys and Girls ( 1686): \"Unto this glass we may compare the Word, \/ For that to man advantage doth afford \/ (Has he a mind to know himself and state), \/ To see what will be his eternal fate\" (Works, vol. 3, p. 759).\n\n (p. 316) I am one whose name is Valiant-for-truth: He represents the church militant, the practical, political power of the godly. He is the last significant pilgrim to enter the narrative, because the earthly rule of the saints presages the Day of Judgment. For the same reason, George Herbert makes \"The Church Militant\" the final poem in The Temple (1633).\n\n (p. 320) They said, it was an idle life: This seems to argue against Max Weber's thesis that \"the Protestant ethic\" was considered conducive to industry in the accumulation of worldly goods. Valiant-for-truth's parents assume he is choosing a life of idleness and poverty.\n\n (p. 328) and that perhaps the witch knew: Witchcraft was very common in seventeenth-century England, and Bunyan himself was accused of this crime. It involved the magical manipulation of signs to practical effects, and it was widely believed to be carried out in alliance with the devil. Here, the workings of the market economy are equated with the efficacious rituals of witchcraft.\n\n (p. 328) Madame Bubble: This woman is a conventional figure for the world, suggesting ephemerality. In Some Gospel Truths Opened (1656), Bunyan cites Luke 12:20 and Proverbs 7:7 as referring to \"the world, held forth by the similitude of a woman with the attire of a harlot\" (Works, vol. 2, p. 165).\n\n (p. 330) 'Twas she thatsetAbsalom against his Father, and Jeroboam against his Master: In the Old Testament, Absalom rebelled against his father, King David, and Jeroboam turned away from God to idolatry, for reasons of worldly ambition. In the New Testament, Judas betrayed Jesus, and Demas abandoned Paul, out of similar motives. The former are types of the latter, who are in turn types of Madame Bubble, who is herself an emblem of the market.\n\n (p. 332) he gave her therewith a true token: In addition to their summonses, each pilgrim receives a \"token\" of its authenticity. Except for Christiana's, these are texts from the biblical book of Ecclesiastes, the main message of which is the \"vanity\" of earthly life.\n\n (p. 336) So he gave him the grasshopper: Ecclesiastes 12:5: \"Also when they shall be afraid of that which is high, and fears shall be in the way, and the almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail: because man goeth to his long home, and the mourners go about the streets.\"\n**Inspired by The Pilgrim's Progress**\n\n# **Literature**\n\nFor centuries second only to the Bible in popularity, The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come ( 1678) is one of the most influential books in the English language. In its own day, Bunyan's allegory inspired numerous imitations and adaptations. Six years after its release, Bunyan published his own sequel, The Pilgrim's Progress: The Second Part (1684), which relates the attempt of Christian's wife and sons to reunite with him. In this second volume Bunyan eases the ardent psychological and spiritual investigation of The Pilgrim's Progress in favor of increased realism and comedy. As in this edition, both parts of The Pilgrim's Progress are commonly combined to represent Bunyan's full work.\n\nTwo years before the second installment of Bunyan's tale appeared, a spurious sequel made its way into public view: Thomas Sherman's The Second Part of the Pilgrim's Progress (1682). The first verse adaptation of The Pilgrim's Progress appeared soon afterward, at the hand of \"S. M.,\" under the title The Heavenly Passenger (1687). Another versification, by Ager Scholae, appeared ten years later, the second of many that would appear over the centuries. Not all the imitations were loving tributes. In the eighteenth century, English poet and dramatist John Gay, primarily known for The Beggar's Opera ( 1728) penned The What D'Ye Call It: A Tragi-Comi-Pastoral Farce ( 1715)-a title reflecting Shakespeare's Hamlet, specifically Polonius's description of the actor's wide-ranging set of skills: \"The best actors in the world, either for tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragicalcomical-historical-pastoral ...\" (act 2, scene 2). The What D'Ye Call It includes an irreverent parody of Bunyan's allegory in which a condemned man comically blubbers over the title page of the eighth edition of The Pilgrim's Progress. The following is from the opening scene in the second act of Gay's farce:\n\n[A condemned man is offered a prayer book and, urged to make use of it, he cries out:] ]\n\nI will! I will! \nLend me thy handkercher. 'The pilgrim's pro-' [reads and weeps] \n(I cannot see for tears) 'pro-progress': Oh! \n'The Pilgrim's Progress, eight edi-ti-on: \nLon-don print-ed-for-Ni-cho-las Bod-ding-ton: \nWith new ad-di-tions never made before': \n-Oh! 'tis so moving, I can read no more. \n[drops the book]\n\nAlmost fifty years later, John Mitchell published yet another imitation of Bunyan's work called The Female Pilgrim: or, the Travels of Hephzibah, under the Similitude of a Dream (1762).\n\nEarly novelists were influenced by Bunyan's allegory. In the first pages of Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman ( 1759-1767), the narrator, in the process of predicting his own widespread fame, succinctly summarizes the popularity of Bunyan's work. He writes: \"As my life and opinions are likely to make some noise in the world, and, if I conjecture right, will take in all ranks, professions, and denominations of men whatever, be no less read than the Pilgrim's Progress itself\u2014and in the end, prove the very thing which Montaigne dreaded his Essays should turn out, that is, a book for a parlour-window-I find it necessary to consult every one a little in his turn.\"\n\nOne of England's most eminent eighteenth-century poets, William Cowper, who, among other things, translated Homer's Iliad into English blank verse, deeply admired Bunyan's allegory. As a young student at private school, Cowper suffered at the hands of bullies, a daily torment to which he gave vent in his poem Tirocinium, or, a Review of Schools (1784). A vehement satire, Tirocinium also includes an appreciation of The Pilgrim's Progress:\n\n0 thou, whom, borne on Fancy's eager wing, \nBack to the season of life's happy spring, \nI pleased remember, and, while Memory yet \nHolds fast her office here, can ne'er forget; \nIngenious dreamer, in whose well-told tale \nSweet fiction and sweet truth alike prevail; \nWhose humorous vein, strong sense, and simple style \nMay teach the gayest, make the gravest smile; \nWitty, and well employ'd, and, like thy Lord, \nSpeaking in parables his slighted Word; \nI name thee not, lest so despised a name \nShould move a sneer at thy deserved fame; \nYet e'en in transitory life's late day, \nThat mingles all my brown with sober gray, \nRevere the man whose Pilgrim marks the road, \nAnd guides the Progress of the soul to God.\n\nIn 1830 Robert Southey's comprehensive biography of Bunyan generated major interest in the writer and his works. One of the period's most popular writers, Charles Dickens, was greatly affected by having read Bunyan in his youth. He subtitled his novel Oliver Twist (1838) \"The Parish Boy's Progress:\" Attempting to demonstrate the notion that poverty leads to crime, the novel depicts the orphan Oliver's travails in the London underworld, where he encounters a gallery of characters who serve as allegories for various vices. Nell, the main character of Dickens's The Old Curiosity Shop ( 1841 ), takes a journey toward the afterlife that is specifically modeled on that of Christian.\n\nFor the title of his renowned satire of society and manners, Dickens's rival William Makepeace Thackeray borrowed the name \"Vanity Fair\" from The Pilgrim's Progress. Serialized monthly between January 1847 and July 1848, Thackeray's Vanity Fair: A Novel without a Hero chronicles the witty and upwardly mobile Becky Sharp and her friend, the unworldly Amelia Sedley. Bunyan's \"Vanity Fair\" is an ancient, year-round carnival on the outskirts of the town of Vanity Fair that attempts to lure men away from Heaven. In Thackeray's work, Vanity Fair is society itself, along with all its attending frivolities, venal feuds, and a notable lack of heroism of any kind\u2014in the end, one colossal distraction.\n\nAmong Americans, writer Nathaniel Hawthorne was deeply influenced by Bunyan. His short story \"The Celestial Railroad\" (1843) is a satirical allegory criticizing those who call themselves as Christians but ignore the duty and hard work required by biblical Christianity. Accompanied by Mr. Smooth-it-away, the narrator of the story takes the same path as Christian from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. The narrator discovers, though, that he need not travel by foot: He can take the Celestial Railroad instead. At the end of the story, Mr. Smooth-it-away and the so-called Celestial City are revealed to be evil in disguise\u2014the narrator's just dessert for circumventing the route of Bunyan's Christian. Indeed, The Pilgrim's Progress pervades Hawthorne's entire oeuvre. The characters in his best-known work, The Scarlet Letter (1850), have strong allegorical traits, drawn in a technique suggestive of Bunyan. Hawthorne's The Blithedale Romance (1852), based on the author's experience with the failed utopian community Brook Farm, evokes Bunyan directly. The narrator calls the founder of the fictional Blithedale \"an exemplification of the most awful truth in Bunyan's book of such, from the very gate of heaven there is a by-way to the pit!\"\n\nLouisa May Alcott's Little Women (1868) makes abundant use of The Pilgrim's Progress in terms of structure and content. The preface, which adapts the apology that introduces the second part of The Pilgrim's Progress, bids: \"Go then, my little Book, and show to all \/ That entertain and bid thee welcome shall, \/ What thou dost keep close shut up in thy breast.\" The first chapter, \"Playing Pilgrims,\" has the mother of the four March girls ask, \"Do you remember how you used to play Pilgrim's Progress when you were little things? Nothing delighted you more than to have me tie my piece bags on your backs for burdens, give you hats and sticks and rolls of paper, and let you travel through the house from the cellar, which was the City of Destruction, up, up, to the housetop, where you had all the lovely things you could collect to make a Celestial City.\" Several chapters in Little Women reflect person and place names in Bunyan's allegory \"Beth Finds the Palace Beautiful,\" \"Amy's Valley of Humiliation,\" \"Jo Meets Apollyon,\" \"Meg Goes to Vanity Fair,\" and \"The Valley of the Shadow.\" Following a modest early career in writing, Alcott hoped to obtain as large an audience as possible for Little Women, which she wrote at the commission of her publisher. It is no coincidence, then, that she chose The Pilgrim's Progress as the model for her work: Alcott's own lifetime coincided with the period of Bunyan's greatest popularity in America. Like The Pilgrim's Progress and many other works associated with it, Little Women was enormously popular upon its initial publication and continues to be read widely.\n\nAlcott's philosophical opposite, the humorist Mark Twain, peppers several of his works with references to The Pilgrim's Progress. Most notably, Twain's travelogue The Innocents Abroad; or, the New Pilgrim's Progress (1869) likens the author's steamship journey through Europe, Egypt, and Palestine to Christian's search for Heaven. The publication of The Innocents Abroad, which employs history, statistics, irascible argument, and inimitable wit to lambaste tourists too dependent upon their guidebooks, heralded Twain's most productive, mature, and popular period. In Twain's masterpiece Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ( 1884), the eponymous character describes the contents of a library, remembering, \"There was some books too, piled up perfectly exact, on each corner of the table. One was a big family Bible, full of pictures. One was 'Pilgrim's Progress,' about a man that left his family it didn't say why I read considerable in it now and then. The statements was interesting, but tough.\"\n\nStage adaptations of The Pilgrim's Progress appeared in 1894 and 1920; the 1920 version, The Play of Pilgrim's Progress, based on the first part of Bunyan's allegory, was written by C. R. Haines. Play-wright George Bernard Shaw reviewed the 1894 play by G. G. Collingham. He opens the review, entitled \"Better than Shakespeare,\" by remarking, \"When I saw a stage version of 'The Pilgrim's Progress' announced for production, I shook my head, knowing that Bunyan is far too great a dramatist for our theater.\" Commenting remarkably little on the actual play, Shaw does not miss the opportunity to take a jab at one of his favorite targets, William Shakespeare. He writes, \"All that you miss in Shakespeare you find in Bunyan, to whom the true heroic came obviously and naturally. The world was to him a more terrible place than it was to Shakespeare.\"\n\nThe Pilgrim's Progress remained relevant to many twentieth-century readers. E. M. Forster's short story \"The Celestial Omnibus\" (1911) is a spirited and fantastic defense of literature. A young English boy, pure of heart, notices a sign near his home that points into an alley and reads, \"To Heaven.\" His parents tell him the sign was a prank played by a derelict named Shelley, an allusion to atheist Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. The boy enters the alley and catches the Celestial Omnibus, which takes him to a magical world inhabited by the characters in Dickens and Homer, where, as Keats writes, he \"visit[s] dolphin deep in coral seas.\" Astounded, the boy invites an older neighbor to visit with him; the neighbor, who pretends to love literature, is a philistine at heart. The city rejects the man, and he falls through the clouds to his death.\n\nDuring World War I, The Pilgrim's Progress was important to many Britons who desperately needed hope in the face of disaster. Rudyard Kipling's poem \"The Holy War\" (1917) praises Bunyan for the spiritual guidance he gives those affected by the terrible events of combat. The last stanza reads:\n\nA pedlar from a hovel, \nThe lowest of the low, \nThe Father of the Novel, \nSalvation's first Defoe, \nEight blinded generations \nEre Armageddon came, \nHe showed us how to meet it, \nAnd Bunyan was his name!\n\nBetween the two world wars, modernist authors viewed Bunyan with a more critical eye. James Joyce, in the \"Oxen of the Sun\" chapter of Ulysses (1922), parodies the moral-allegorical style of Bunyan, as well as that of Defoe, Gibbon, and Charles Lamb, among others. In The Enormous Room (1922), poet E. E. Cummings makes significant use of Bunyan's work in both structure and technique, yet he reevaluates the earlier author's wholesale faith in a higher authority. The Enormous Room, based on Cummings's wrongful imprisonment in a French detention center during World War I, conveys a deep-seated mistrust of government, bureaucracy, and the establishment.\n\n# **Visual Art**\n\nWilliam Hogarth adapted the idea of The Pilgrim's Progress in two series of engravings that made him one of the best-known artists in eighteenth-century England. The first series, The Harlot's Progress (1731-1732), which shows the rise and fall of a young country-girlcum-prostitute named Moll Hackabout, was inspired by Bunyan's work as well as others, including Daniel Defoe's tale of disgrace and redemption, Moll Flanders (1722). As Kipling's poem \"The Holy War\" indicates, Bunyan was often cited as a precursor to Defoe in terms of storytelling.\n\nThe first engraving shows Moll's arrival in the city and her acquaintance with the seemingly kind Mother Elizabeth Needham, the madam of a brothel. Moll retains an admirable amount of control over her life in the second engraving, despite the fact that she has already become a prostitute. The picture shows Moll living in the apartment of a rich older man; the drama consists of her successful attempt to usher her handsome young lover out of the apartment before the older gentleman returns. Moll's downfall begins in the third panel. Her new apartment is unkempt and inexpensively furnished, and Moll shows signs of venereal disease. The fourth painting finds her in prison, the fifth on her deathbed, and the sixth in a coffin, her toddler son dressed in mourning on the floor beside it. Hogarth followed this popular series with A Rake's Progress (1735), a less sympathetic portrayal of a young man who squanders two fortunes : his father's and his wife's.\n\n# **Music**\n\nDuring World War I, British composer Sir Edward Elgar began a symphonic drama based on The Pilgrim's Progress that he never completed. American composer and critic Edgar Stillman Kelley, known for his symphonies Gulliver ( 1913-1937), based on Swift's Gulliver's Travels, and New England (1913), adapted Bunyan's work in his oratorio The Pilgrim's Progress (1918).\n\nBritish composer Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote an opera of The Pilgrim's Progress, which he finished in 1951. Williams's works include A London Symphony (1914; revised 1934), A Pastoral Symphony (1921), and the Sixth Symphony (1947). His music combines the pastoral with a striking sense of the visual, and The Pilgrim's Progress-an amalgam of many works he had released throughout the years\u2014provides a deeply religious, contemplative listening experience. Williams's wife, Ursula Vaughan Williams, derived the poetic libretto from Bunyan's original. The Pilgrim's Progress, which took Williams forty years to write, became his chief work, the one that established him as a paramount composer of his generation, but one that could never be widely popular due to its explicit morality.\n\n# **Mu ckraki ng**\n\nAt the turn of the twentieth century, industrialization was transforming urban America at an astounding rate; meanwhile, the nation's social conscience began to crystallize. The determinations of that conscience were delivered to the public by a remarkable group of journalists, among them Lincoln Steffens, Ida Tarbell, Brand Whitlock, Jacob Riis, David Graham Phillips, Ray Stannard Baker, Samuel Hopkins Adams, and Upton Sinclair. Their carefully documented findings exposed the monopoly and corruption lurking in the big business trusts and shed light on the atrocious working conditions at the heart of the system. The scandal produced by such provocative writing spurred imitators to publish sensationalistic articles deliberately calibrated to arouse public outcry. In response U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt publicly condemned irresponsible journalism. Quoting from Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Roosevelt likened the journalist to the Man with the Muck Rake\u2014\"the man who could look no way but downward, with the muck rake in his hand; who was offered a celestial crown for his muck rake, but who would neither look up nor regard the crown he was offered, but continued to rake to himself the filth of the floor.\" The term \"muckraking\" soon came into use to describe writers who attempt to expose corruption. Sinclair's The Jungle ( 1906) became the paradigm of the muckraking genre, as it led directly to social change: The Food and Drug Act went into effect just months after the novel's private publication. Later muckrakers include figures as diverse as Rachel Carson, Jane Jacobs, Angela Davis, Gloria Steinem, Eric Schlosser, and Michael Moore.\n**Comments _&_ Questions**\n\nIn this section, we aim to provide the reader with an array of perspectives on the text, as well as questions that challenge those perspectives. The commentary has been culled from sources as diverse as reviews contemporaneous with the work, letters written by the author, literary criticism of later generations, and appreciations written throughout the work's history. Following the commentary, a series of questions seeks to filter John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress through a variety of points of view and bring about a richer understanding of this enduring work.\n\n# **Comments**\n\nJONATHAN SWIFT\n\nSome gentlemen, abounding in their university erudition, are apt to fill their sermons with philosophical terms, and notions of the metaphysical or abstracted kind; which generally have one advantage, to be equally understood by the wise, the vulgar, and the preacher himself. I have been better entertained, and more informed by a few pages in the Pilgrim's Progress, than by a long discourse upon the will and the intellect, and simple or complex ideas. Others again are fond of dilating on matter and motion, talk of the fortuitous concourse of atoms, of theories, and phenomena; directly to reconcile their former tenets with every new system of administration.\n\n-from A Letter to a Young Clergyman, Lately Entered into Holy Orders (1720)\n\nBENJAMIN FRANKLIN\n\nIn crossing the bay, we met with a squall that tore our rotten sails to \npieces, prevented our getting into the Kill, and drove us upon Long \nIsland. In our way, a drunken Dutchman, who was a passenger too, \nfell overboard; when he was sinking, I reached through the water to \nhis shock pate, and drew him up, so that we got him in again. His \nducking sobered him a little, and he went to sleep, taking first out of \nhis pocket a book, which he desir'd I would dry for him. It proved to \nbe my old favorite author, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, in Dutch, \nfinely printed on good paper, with copper cuts, a dress better than I \nhad ever seen it wear in its own language. I have since found that it \nhas been translated into most of the languages of Europe, and suppose \nit has been more generally read than any other book, except \nperhaps the Bible. Honest John was the first that I know of who \nmix'd narration and dialogue; a method of writing very engaging to \nthe reader, who in the most interesting parts finds himself, as it were, \nbrought into the company and present at the discourse. De Foe in \nhis Crusoe, his Moll Flanders, Religious Courtship, Family Instructor, \nand other pieces, has imitated it with success; and Richardson has \ndone the same, in his Pamela, etc.\n\n-from his Autobiography (1771)\n\nSAMUEL JOHNSON\n\nPilgrim's Progress has great merit, both for invention, imagination, and the conduct of the story; and it has had the best evidence of its merit, the general and continued approbation of mankind. Few books, I believe, have had a more extensive sale. It is remarkable, that it begins very much like the poem of Dante; yet there was no translation of Dante when Bunyan wrote. There is reason to think that he had read Spenser.\n\n-from James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791)\n\nSIR WALTER SCOTT\n\nThe distinctions between the first and second part of The Pilgrim's \nProgress are such as circumstances render appropriate; and as John \nBunyan's strong mother wit enabled him to seize upon correctly. \nChristian, for example, a man, and a bold one, is represented as en- \nduring his fatigues, trials, and combats, by his own stout courage, \nunder the blessing of heaven: but to express that species of inspired \nheroism by which women are supported in the path of duty, \nnotwithstanding the natural feebleness and timidity of their nature, \nChristiana and Mercy obtain from the interpreter their guide, called \nGreat-heart, by whose strength and valour their lack of both is supplied \n, and the dangers and distresses of the way repelled and overcome...\n\nIn whatever shape presented, John Bunyan's parable must be dear to many, as to us, from the recollection that in youth they were endued with permission to peruse it at times when all studies of a nature merely entertaining were prohibited. We remember with interest the passages where, in our childhood, we stumbled betwixt the literal story and metaphorical explanation; and can even recall to mind a more simple and early period, when Grim and Slaygood, and even he\n\nWhose castle's Doubting, and whose name's Despair,\n\nwere to us as literal Anakim as those destroyed by Giant-killing Jack. Those who can recollect the early development of their own ideas on such subjects, will many of them at the same time remember the reading of this work as the first task which gave exercise to the mind, before taste, grown too fastidious for enjoyment, taught them to be more disgusted with a single error than delighted with a hundred beauties.\n\n-from the Quarterly Review (1830)\n\nTHOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY\n\nThe characteristic peculiarity of the Pilgrim's Progress is that it is the \nonly work of its kind which possesses a strong human interest. \nOther allegories only amuse the fancy. The allegory of Bunyan has \nbeen read by many thousands with tears.\n\n-from the Edinburgh Review (1830)\n\nSAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE\n\nI know of no book, the Bible excepted, as above all comparison, \nwhich I, according to my judgment and experience, could so safely \nrecommend as teaching and enforcing the whole saving truth according \nto the mind that was in Christ Jesus, as the Pilgrim's Progress. \nIt is, in my conviction, incomparably the best Summa Theologiae \nEvangelicae ever produced by a writer not miraculously inspired.\n\n-from The Literary Remains of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, vol. 3 (1838)\n\nHENRY DAVID THOREAU\n\nI think that Pilgrim's Progress is the best sermon which has been \npreached from [The New Testament]; almost all other sermons that \nI have heard, or heard of, have been but poor imitations of this.\n\n-from A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849)\n\nROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON\n\nPilgrim's Progress [is] a book that breathes of every beautiful and valuable emotion.\n\n-from the British Weekly (May 13, 1867)\n\nGEORGE ELIOT\n\nI am reading old Bunyan again after the long lapse of years, and am profoundly struck with the true genius manifested in the simple, vigorous, rhythmic style.\n\n-from George Eliot's Life as Related in Her Letters and Journals ( 1885)\n\nANDREW LANG\n\nPeople have wondered why he fancied himself such a sinner? He \nconfesses to having been a liar and a blasphemer. If I may guess, I \nfancy that this was merely the literary genius of Bunyan seeking for \nexpression. His lies, I would go bail, were tremendous romances, \nwild fictions told for fun, never lies of cowardice or for gain. As to \nhis blasphemies, he had an extraordinary power of language, and \nthat was how he gave it play. \"Fancy swearing\" was his only literary \nsafety-valve, in those early days, when he played cat on Elstow \nGreen....\n\nBunyan is everybody's author. The very Catholics have their own edition of the Pilgrim: they have cut out Giant Pope, but have been too good-natured to insert Giant Protestant in his place. Unheralded, unannounced, though not uncriticised (they accused the Tinker of being a plagiarist, of course), Bunyan outshone the Court wits, the learned, the poets of the Restoration, and even the great theologians.\n\n-from Essays in Little (1891)\n\nRICHARD GARNETT\n\nJohn Bunyan, the one man who has attained to write a successful \nprose allegory on a large scale, and to infuse true emotion into an \nexercise of ingenuity, and who probably owed less to study and \ntraining than any other of the great authors of the modern world, \nwas born at Elstow, a village in the neighbourhood of Bedford, in \nNovember, 1628. He is usually described as a 'tinker,' but, as he was \nnot an itinerant, 'brazier' would be a more correct appellation....\n\nIt is unnecessary to dwell at any great length upon the characteristics \nof so famous and universally known a book as Pilgrim's \nProgress. Though professedly a vision, and treating of spiritual \nthings, it ranks with Robinson Crusoe and Gulliver's Travels as one of \nthe great realistic books of the English language. All three are examples \nof the possibility of rendering scenes wholly imaginary, and in \nfact impossible, truer to the apprehension than experience itself by \nthe narrator's own air of absolute conviction, and by unswerving fidelity \nto truth of detail. In Bunyan's case the triumph is the more remarkable \n, as his personages are not even imaginary men and \nwomen, but mere embodiments of moral or theological qualities. \nYet Faithful and Hopeful are as real as Crusoe and Friday. Before he \nbegan to write he must have realized what he wished to describe \nwith a vividness only conceivable by regarding it as an outward expression \nof his own spiritual experience. He had himself been Christian \nand Faithful and the captive in Doubting Castle; he had gazed \non Vanity Fair, and passed through the Valley of the Shadow of \nDeath.\n\n-from The Age of Dryden ( 1895)\n\nGEORGE BERNARD SHAW\n\nTwo and a half centuries ago our greatest English dramatizer of life, \nJohn Bunyan, ended one of his stories with the remark that there is \na way to hell even from the gates of heaven, and so led us to the \nequally true proposition that there is a way to heaven even from the \ngates of hell.\n\n-from his preface to Three Plays for Puritains ( 1900)\n\nWILLIAM JAMES\n\nBunyan became a minister of the gospel, and in spite of his neurotic constitution, and of the twelve years he lay in prison for his nonconformity, his life was turned to active use. He was a peacemaker and doer of good, and the immortal Allegory which he wrote has brought the very spirit of religious patience home to English hearts.\n\nBut neither Bunyan or Tolstoy could become what we have called healthy-minded. They had drunk too deeply of the cup of bitterness ever to forget its taste, and their redemption is into a universe two stories deep. Each of them realized a good which broke the effective edge of his sadness; yet the sadness was preserved as a minor ingredient in the heart of the faith by which it was overcome....\n\nThe \"hue of resolution\" is there, but the full flood of ecstatic liberation seems never to have poured over poor John Bunyan's soul.\n\n-from The Yarieties of Religious Experience ( 1902)\n\nSAMUEL BUTLER\n\nThe Pilgrim's Progress consists mainly of a series of infamous libels upon life and things; it is a blasphemy against certain fundamental ideas of right and wrong which our consciences most instinctively approve....\n\nWhat a pity it is that Christian never met Mr. Common-Sense \nwith his daughter, Good-Humour, and her affianced husband, Mr. \nHate-Cant; but if he ever saw them in the distance he steered clear \nof them, probably as feeling that they would be more dangerous \nthan Giant Despair, Vanity Fair and Apollyon all together\u2014for they \nwould have stuck to him if he had let them get in with him....\n\nBunyan, we may be sure, took all that he preached in its most literal interpretation; he could never have made his book so interesting had he not done so. The interest of it depends almost entirely on the unquestionable good faith of the writer and the strength of the impulse that compelled him to speak that which was within him. He was not writing a book which he might sell, he was speaking what was borne in upon him from heaven. The message he uttered was, to my thinking, both low and false, but it was truth of truths to Bunyan....\n\nAnything worse than The Pilgrim's Progress in the matter of defiance of literary canons can hardly be conceived. The allegory halts continually; it professes to be spiritual, but nothing can be more carnal than the golden splendour of the eternal city; the view of life and the world generally is flat blasphemy against the order of things with which we are surrounded. Yet, like the Odyssey, which flatly defies sense and criticism (no, it doesn't; still, it defies them a good deal), no one can doubt that it must rank among the very greatest books that have ever been written. How Odyssean it is in its sincerity and downrightness, as well as in the marvellous beauty of its language, its freedom from all taint of the schools and, not least, in complete victory of genuine internal zeal over a scheme initially so faulty as to appear hopeless.\n\n-from The Note-Books of Samuel Butler ( 1912)\n\nGEORGE SAINTSBURY\n\nAs for Bunyan, here as everywhere, he stands quite by himself. I \nthink he had read a good deal more than some persons of worship \nfancy; but there is little doubt that the common idea as to the Bible \nfurnishing him with his only formal models is correct enough. And \nby special genius he had managed to combine Biblical music with \nthe style of the most ordinary, yet never in the least vulgar, vernacular \nafter a fashion which seems to me almost more marvellous than \nBrowne's weaving of the Biblical magic into his own splendour, or \nTaylor's decking texts with his prettiest trills and flourishes.\n\n-from A History of English Prose Rhythm ( 1912)\n\nALDOUS HUXI,EY\n\nMost vices ... demand considerable self sacrifices. There is no greater mistake than to suppose that a vicious life is a life of uninterrupted pleasure. It is a life almost as wearisome and painful\u2014if strenuously led\u2014as Christian's in The Pilgrim's Progress.\n\n-from Along the Road: Notes and Essays of a Tourist (1925)\n\nMAX WEBER\n\nThe old mediaeval (even ancient) idea of God's book-keeping is carried by Bunyan to the characteristically tasteless extreme of comparing the relation of a sinner to his God with that of customer and shopkeeper. One who has once got into debt may well, by the product of his virtuous acts, succeed in paying off the accumulated interest but never the principal.\n\n-from The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, as translated by Talcott Parsons (1930)\n\nC. S. LEWIS\n\nThere are books which, while didactic in intention, are read with delight \nby people who do not want their teaching and may not believe \nthat they have anything to teach\u2014works like Lucretius' De Rerum \nNatura or Burton's Anatomy. This is the class to which The Pilgrim's \nProgress belongs.\n\n-from Selected Literary Essays (1969)\n\n# **Questions**\n\n1. Can one obtain from The Pilgrim's Progress the satisfaction one usually expects from the reading of narrative fiction? Is this early example of the genre too far removed from our contemporary novels? Is its allegorical message too much in the way for you to enjoy the underlying story?\n\n2. Do you think it is healthy or good sense to argue that the world we apprehend through our senses and experience is unreal\u2014a mere appearance, an epiphenomenon-and that to see it as real is a sin? Taking this idea further, is it sensible to say that true reality is spiritual?\n\n3. Commentators often note that in spite of its allegorical dimension, The Pilgrim's Progress is often realistic, with characters just like our neighbors but with labels attached. Find a passage in which this realism is particularly vivid. Also, find a passage in which attempts at realism fail.\n\n4. As an argument for John Bunyan's religious views, is The Pilgrim's Progress convincing?\n**For Further Reading**\n\n# **Editions of The Pilgrim's Progress**\n\nKeeble, N. H., ed. The Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.\n\nOwens, W. R., ed. The Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.\n\nSharrock, Roger, ed. The Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan. Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1965.\n\n# **Other Primary Texts**\n\nBunyan, John. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and A Relation of the Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan. 1666. Edited by W. R. Owens. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987.\n\n____ The Works of John Bunyan. 3 vols. Edited by George Offor. London: Blackie and Son, 1856.\n\n____. The Life and Death of Mr. Badman. 1680. Edited by James F. Forrest and Roger Sharrock. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.\n\nCarey, John, ed. Eyewitness to History. New York: Avon Books, 1987.\n\nLocke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. 1689. London : William Tegg, 1867.\n\nLuther, Martin. Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians. 1535. In Selections from His Writings, edited by John Dillenberger. New York: Anchor Books, 1962.\n\nMandeville, Bernard de. An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christianity in War. 1732. London: Frank Cass, 1971.\n\nMilton, John. Paradise Lost. 1667. Edited by David Hawkes. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2004.\n\n____. Complete English Poems, Of Education, Areopagitica. Edited by Gordon Campbell. London: J. M. Dent, 1993.\n\nThompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working-class. Harmondsworth : Penguin, 1968.\n\n# **Criticism and Biography**\n\nBatson, E. Beatrice. John Bunyan: Allegory and Imagination. London: Croom Helm, 1984.\n\nBeal, Rebecca. \"Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners: Bunyan's Pauline Epistle.\" Studies in English Literature 21 (1981), pp. 147-160.\n\nBenjamin, Walter. The Origin of German Tragic _Drama._ Translated by John Osbourne. London: NLB, 1977.\n\nDavies, Michael. Graceful Reading: Theology and Narrative in the Works of John Bunyan. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.\n\nFish, Stanley E. _Self-consuming_ Artifacts: The Experience of _Seventeenth-century_ Literature. Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1972.\n\nGay, David, James G. Randall, and Arlette Zinck, eds. Awakening Words: John Bunyan _and_ the Language of Community. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2000.\n\nGoldman, Peter. \"Living Words: Iconoclasm and Beyond in Bunyan:\" New Literary History 33 (2002), pp. 461-489.\n\nGordon, Scott Paul. The Power of the Passive Self in English Literature, _1640-1770._ Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.\n\nGreaves, Richard L. _Glimpses of Glory: John Bunyan and English Dissent_ Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.\n\nHaskin, Dayton. \"The Burden of Interpretation in The Pilgrim's Progress.\" Studies in Philology 79 (1982), pp. 256-278.\n\nHawkes, David. Idols of the Marketplace: Idolatry _and_ Commodity Fetishism in English Literature, _1580-1680._ New York: Palgrave, 2001.\n\nHill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down: _Radical_ Ideas during the English Revolution. New York: Viking Press, 1972.\n\n____. A Tinker _and_ a Poor Man: John Bunyan _and_ His Church, _1628-1688._ New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.\n\n____ The English Bible _and_ the Seventeenth-century Revolution. New York: Penguin, 1993.\n\nKaufinann, U. Milo. The Pilgrim's Progress _and_ Traditions in Puritan Meditation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1966.\n\nKeeble, N. H., ed. _John Bunyan: Conventicle and Parnassus: Tercentenary Essays._ Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.\n\n____, ed. John Bunyan: Reading Dissenting Writing. Oxford and New York: Peter Lang, 2002.\n\nLaurence, Anne, W. R. Owens, and Stuart Sim, eds. John _Bunyan and_ His England, _1628-88._ London: Hambledon Press, 1990.\n\nLukacs, Georg. The Theory of the _Novel._ 1920. Translated by Anna Bostock. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971.\n\nLuxon, Thomas H. _Literal Figures: Puritan Allegory and the Reformation Crisis in Representation._ Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.\n\nMullett, Michael A. John Bunyan in Context. Keele, UK: Keele University Press, 1996.\n\nNewey, Vincent, ed. The Pilgrim's Progress: _Critical and Historical_ Views. Totowa, NL Barnes and Noble, 1980.\n\nSharrock, Roger. John Bunyan. New York: Hutchinson's Universal Library, 1954.\n\nShell, Marc. Money, Language _and_ Thought: Literary _and_ Philosophic Economies from the Medieval to the Modern _Era._ Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.\n\nSim, Stuart. Negotiations with Paradox: Narrative Practice _and_ Narrative Form in Bunyan _and_ Defoe. Savage, MD: Barnes and Noble, 1990.\n\nSpargo, Tamsin. The Writing of John Bunyan. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.\n\nVan Dyke, Carolynn. The Fiction of Truth: Structures of Meaning in Narrate _and_ Dramatic Allegory. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985.\n\nWebber, Joan. The Eloquent _\"I\":_ Style _and_ Self in Seventeenth-century Prose. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.\n**TIMELESS WORKS. NEW SCHOLARSHIP. EXTRAORDINARY VALUE.**\n\nBARNES Bt NOBLE CLASSICS\n\nIf you are an educator and would like to receive an \nExamination or Desk Copy of a Barnes & Noble Classic edition, \nplease refer to Academic Resources on our website at \nWWW BN.COM\/CLASSICS \nor contact us at \nB&NCLASSICS@BN.COM.\n\nAll prices are subject to change.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}