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+{"metadata":{"id":"0403b6cbac8033cb58f4379ffe0658ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee47c450-b934-497f-a1e7-6d16eb933390/retrieve"},"pageCount":43,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) conducted an assessment of institutional dimensions of adaptation to climate change in Makueni county, Kenya. A mixed methods approach was used that included semi-structured interviews with key informants, focus group discussions with a variety of demographic and other stakeholders groups, multi-stakeholder workshops and participatory scoring techniques. Analysis was based on framework developed by ILRI, and included assessment out at two levels: assessment of overall institutional system operating within a particular landscape and assessment of one or more particular governance mechanisms. The landscape level site for the research was identified primarily on a watershed basis but also being determined by the areas of operation of both KAMUKIMA Community Forest Association (CFA) and Ngutwa Nduenguu Water Resource Users Association (WRUA), particularly where these two organization's territories overlap. The site traverses locations of Kilala, Wote, Ukia, Nziu and Unoa in Wote district."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The most pressing challenges for adaptation to climate change in the study area boil down to four main issues which respondents consistently emphasized, and, in a scoring exercise in our first workshop with them, prioritized. Three of these relate to natural resources, were closely interconnected, and had at least some connection to watershed management and upstream-downstream interactions: availability of water, soil erosion and illegal resource use."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"It was determined that KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA were critical governance mechanisms for these issues. They were each assessed according to five criteria: legitimacy, direction, performance, accountability, and fairness. An assessment of the CFA by respondents in the research suggested that it is strongest on legitimacy and direction and weakest on accountability. Participants assessed the WRUA as being strongest on legitimacy, direction and fairness and weakest on accountability."},{"index":4,"size":312,"text":"Assessment of the overall institutional system that is relevant to this landscape and its main challenges for climate change adaptation similarly identified accountability as a critical challenge. This can be understood in terms of capacity. Neither representatives within the local organizations-WRUA, CFA, buffer zone groups, etc.-nor community members at large sufficiently understand their rights or ways in which they could demand for accountability from those in leadership positions. Another challenge relates to institutional and organizational linkages. NGOs such as PAFRI and CESPAD have been promoting collaboration among WRUAs and between WRUAs and CFAs, and the development of a joint management plan by KAMUKIMA and Ngutwa Nduenguu is an important step. Such linkages are important in providing synergies and complementarity. However, both the CFA and the WRUA lack the necessary resources to implement the best practices in responding the issues and challenges of climate change and resource management. The required linkages to institutions that have resources, such as at county level, are very weak. There is a nominal recognition among officers in the county government that they need to work with and rely on communitylevel organizations such as WRUAs in order to have an impact on the ground; however, no signs of such connections being institutionalized were observed. This disconnect is a critical weakness, because it is at county level where the capacity to mobilize physical and financial resources is relatively higher and where authority for land use planning lies. This study's assessment is that many of the components needed for an effective institutional system for the middle Kaiti landscape are in place and have the potential to manage natural resources and to deliver sustainable benefits to the community, ensure the integrity of the landscape, enable the community to adapt to changing climate and enhance food security. This is a case, perhaps, of the whole being less than the sum of the parts."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Climate change affects agriculture and food production in complex ways. It affects food production directly through changes in agro-ecological conditions and indirectly by affecting growth and distribution of incomes, and thus demand for agricultural produce. Climate change will, itself, affect food yields around the world unevenly. Although some regions, mostly at mid-to-high altitude, could experience gains, many, especially sub-Saharan Africa, are likely to be adversely affected with impairment of both nutrition and incomes (Parry et al. 2007). Rural communities in Africa in particular are faced with far-reaching changes in terms not only of climate change but also population growth, economic changes, and the erosion of traditional practices and institutions. The challenge of adapting to these changes is great, with vitally important implications for livelihood and food security. A fundamental aspect of the capacity to adapt to such changes is the performance and structure of institutions, and, more generally, governance (Adger et al. 2004). Fostering effective natural resource management and governance, for example, is critical to building capacity for climate change adaptation."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"The institutional environment for climate change adaptation includes not only formal government organizations and institutions, but also traditional institutions and decision-making procedures, a variety of other formal and informal organizations, and the networks and patterns of communication that connect them all. Cultural values, local norms and practices, and various sorts of formal and informal policies and procedures are also important. These factors interact in complex governance environments, where formal and informal dimensions of governance within and between sectors and levels of decision-making affect each other and ultimately the capacity of individuals, households and communities to adapt to climate change. One element in this complexity, for example, is the distribution of authority among sectoral agencies and different levels of government, each having their own systems for further structuring where, how, and by whom decisions are made. Thus decisions around management of the natural resources which farmers rely on can be split between local governments, several different national government agencies for forests, water and wildlife, and community-based organizations such as Community Forest Associations (CFAs), Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs), and others. From the perspective a household's livelihood, or from the perspective of an ecosystem, such divisions are, of course, artificial. Sharing of information, coordination of decision-making, and the interplay among institutions are all, therefore, central to the effectiveness of an overall institutional system."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"In the research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is working to enhance local institutional capacity for supporting climate change adaptation. One way in which it is doing this is by working with local communities and other partners and stake¬holders to assess those aspects of their institutional environment most relevant to the change and adaptation issues that they are facing."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"The ILRI institutional assessment work has focused on institutional and governance issues affecting the adaptation of farmers and pastoralists to climate change, with a particular emphasis on governance at the landscape level. One of the sites where the methodological framework for institutional assessments has been applied was in the vicinity of Iuani in Makueni county, Kenya. This report presents the findings at that assessment."}]},{"head":"Methodology Analytical framework","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"The research approach was based on a methodology developed by ILRI for assessment of institutional and governance dimensions of climate change adaptation (Robinson et al. 2014). The framework drew on past research on environmental governance, in particular work by Gupta et al. (2010) and Graham et al. (2013). In the analytical framework adopted by the methodology, governance is not treated as synonymous with government. Rather, the governance is understood to be a set of social functions relating to collective decision-making, the resolution of trade-offs, shaping how power can be exercised, setting collective direction within a community or society, and building community. It can be carried out by governments but also by other kinds of organizations and by norms, values, networks and formal and informal institutions of various kinds. The assessments are carried out at two levels: assessments of overall institutional systems operating within a particular landscape and assessments of one or more particular governance mechanisms. Governance mechanisms are the organizations, institutions and processes which deliver governance. An institutional system is a set of governance mechanisms that function together, along with values, networks, and power relationships, within a social environment. Some aspects of institutional systems may be consciously designed, but often much of any institutional system is emergent."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The methodology is made up of five analytical tasks: initial system analysis, identification of the underlying governance issues and mechanisms of the top priority adaptation issues, identification of the most relevant policies and policy issues affecting governance and adaptation, assessment of the institutional system, and assessment of the identified governance mechanisms. The activities that were carried out for this assessment are summarized in Table 1. In this way, the initial stages of the research served to identify a landscape which corresponded to people's adaptation issues and challenges, the relevant organizations and institutions for dealing with these issues and challenges, and the key interconnections among all of these. The key considerations in delineating the relevant landscape in this case are discussed in the Description of middle Kaiti watershed section below."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Field research was conducted from August 2013 to June 2014. A mixed methods approach was used that included semi-structured interviews with key informants, focus group discussions with a variety of demographic and other stakeholders groups, multi-stakeholder workshops and participatory scoring techniques. A plan was developed detailing the activities for each stage in the institutional assessment process. The first step was to identify and classify or analyse stakeholders. Stakeholder analysis enabled the research team to know who are the most important people or groups of people, those that are relevant to the work intended to be done and those that influence social processes in a society. The research team visited the community in Wote area for a reconnaissance assessment, mainly to identify communities or institutions that shared a common natural resource as a source of livelihood, and faced similar challenges within a given landscape, where the assessment could feasibly be conducted. (See Appendix 1 for a summary of organizations working in the area.) These visits included identification and interviewing of potential key informants to see where these criteria would be met. A number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community based organizations (CBOs) working in the area were visited and classified based on their formation and objectives/work."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Once the initial site selection was done, 8 focus group discussions were held with participants from locations within the area. These initial focus group sessions were used to identify issues and challenges for climate change adaption and to further the stakeholder analysis. Some of the focus groups were comprised of members of particular buffer zone groups (KAMUKIMA CFA's are of operation is divided into 15 buffer zones). There were also focus groups made up of women and youth as separate groups. Two researchers facilitated the discussions on each occasion, one acting as a note-taker. On a few occasions the research team had a dedicated observer but in most of the interviews, the notetaker doubled as an observer. A workshop was then held, with participants drawn mainly from members of KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA, but also including other stakeholders. At that workshop, participatory scoring techniques were used to prioritize key issues for climate change adaptation."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Assessment of two particular governance mechanisms-KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA-was carried out primarily at a second multi-stakeholder workshop using participatory scoring. Workshop participants were divided into stakeholder groups to each independently score the CFA or WRUA."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"Assessment of the overall institutional system was based primarily on interviews key informant. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that a wide variety of perspectives were included, and interviewees included personnel from national and county government agencies, Members of the county Assembly, personnel from NGOs, representatives of KAMUKIMA CFA, Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA and other community groups, and others. Audio recordings of interviews and focus groups were transcribed and analysed using NVivo 10 software according to sixteen dimensions of governance as specified in the assessment methodology. Two researchers each independently scored the institutional system for each of the sixteen dimensions. The scores were then compared. For 9 of the 16 criteria, the two researchers independently arrived at the same score. For the others, the scores were discussed and a consensus reached."}]},{"head":"Description of middle Kaiti watershed","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"As described above, initial site selection was purposive, based on factors such as the existence of natural resourcelivelihood challenges and of local level efforts to address these challenges in some way, and the willingness of local stakeholders to engage in the assessment. During initial reconnaissance visits, the research team found that CFAs could be an effective entry point to the issues and for engaging with communities. There are three CFAs in Makueni county. Two of them, however-MAKURI and Nzaui/Kathonzweni-exist as little more than organization names, having nominal management committees but are not active. KAMUKIMA CFA, on the other hand, is quite active. Its members share a common natural resource: forests on hilltops. KAMUKIMA CFA's territory is composed of the Katende, Mutula, Kilala and Mataa forest blocks. The communities around these hilltop forests are involved in activities that depend on or threaten the existence of the natural resource and which in the end have an impact on their capacity to cope or adapt to climate change. The CFA has 8 registered user groups including charcoal producers associations, water user associations, firewood collection and groups, the Chemwea water project, herbalists, grazers association, resin gum harvester association and bee keepers. The CFA is also subdivided into 15 Buffer Zone groups representing the villages adjacent to the forest. These are structured as self-help groups."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"The demarcation of the landscape level study area was further refined in an iterative way as analysis of climate change adaptation issues and stakeholder groups, and an initial institutional scan were carried out (Task One in the assessment methodology). This included focus group discussions to further characterize the CFA and identify key adaptation issues in the area. 1 This process made it clear that all of the main challenges for climate change adaptation had at least some connection to watershed management and upstream-downstream interactions. Another important organization that was identified was the Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA. The WRUA's area of operation covers a 115 square kilometre portion of the watershed of Kaiti River, which traverses the Makueni county from west to east."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"The hilly landscape of middle Kaiti."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"1. Identification and prioritization of climate change adaptation issues is discussed in greater detail in the Institutional and climate change adaptation issues at middle Kaiti section below."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Hills, including those where KAMUKIMA CFA operates, form the catchment zones for the watershed. Hence, the landscape level site for the research finally demarcated primarily on a watershed basis but also being determined by the areas of operation of both KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA, particularly where these two organization's territories overlap. The site traverses locations of Kilala, Wote, Ukia, Nziu and Unoa in Wote district."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"The landscape is mostly a valley terrain with hills to the southwest and the northeast (where KAMUKIMA operates) with two major seasonal rivers: Kaiti and its tributary the Muinga River. The two main natural resources available at the valley bottom are the water and the sand on the river basin. The upper, hilltop part of the landscape is endowed with many species of wildlife including small wild mammals, reptiles and birds and has many shrines and camping sites. People practice small scale mixed, crop/livestock farming."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Institutional and climate change adaptation issues at middle Kaiti CCA issues at the study site"},{"index":8,"size":124,"text":"After initial reconnaissance including a handful of meetings with selected government and NGO personnel and CFA representatives, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted to collect information on key adaptation challenges and issues. For the focus group discussions eight (8) buffer zones were sampled from the fifteen (15) that make up KAMUKIMA CFA. Respondent selection was stratified by buffer zones and then choosing the participants for the focus groups based on gender, level of education and perceived level of participation in CFA activities. In cases where the random sample did not have a representation by women, we purposefully selected a female representative. In the community, youth are culturally restricted from saying some issues before older men. This necessitated interviewing the youth separately."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"The guide prepared for the focus group discussions included questions exploring people's knowledge of changes in weather patterns and activities associated with those changes. Some of the climate change issues identified include the following:"},{"index":10,"size":91,"text":"• Lack of water-Every focus group mentioned lack of water as the key climate change issue. Most of the respondents said there used to be water in the rivers/creeks and wells. The area used to have both seasonal and permanent rivers. The situation has changed in the recent past with most of the rivers that were permanent now becoming seasonal. They attribute the change to many reasons including the change of land use practices. About 20% of the respondents did not identify any connection between lack of water with anthropogenic activities."},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"• Soil erosion-In recent times, people have experienced huge amounts of soil erosion on their land, particularly those on the hills sides. The erosion is by wind during the dry seasons and storm water whenever it rains. This has left most of their land poor in nutrients and therefore low crop yields. Gully erosion is also a problem."},{"index":12,"size":32,"text":"• Unreliable rainfall-The respondents provided an historical timeline in rainfall variations. Before 1980, the rainfall was regular and predictable, but since the 1980s, the rains have diminished with prolonged periods of drought."},{"index":13,"size":40,"text":"Respondents state that it is hard to predict the rainfall in the area nowadays. This makes it hard for the farmers to plan their agricultural production programs, with most of them losing total investments whenever they fail to predict properly."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"• Illegal resource use-Participants identified the illegal use of resources and the inability to enforce rules around natural resource harvesting-particularly illegal felling of trees and sand harvesting-as important problems contributing to resource degradation."},{"index":15,"size":47,"text":"• Forest fires-Forest fires have become more common during the dry seasons. Most are usually accidental but once they start, they cause huge losses. Reforestation efforts that have been going on in the area to mitigate the negative impacts of weather variation are frustrated by these fires."},{"index":16,"size":14,"text":"• Pests, diseases, and post-harvest storage-These were mentioned by some of the focus groups."},{"index":17,"size":42,"text":"• Infrastructure and market access-The poor state of infrastructure, especially roads, constrains market opportunities and hinders people's ability to cope. This is a big challenge higher up in the hills in that when rains are heavy the roads can become completely impassable."},{"index":18,"size":56,"text":"• Social consequences-The problems have, in turn, caused social problems including stress and suspected impacts on mental health. The livelihoods of many households have been destroyed by among other calamities, the forest fires. Young men who are supposed to be productive in the community have resorted to drugs or are depressed because of lack of livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Underlying governance issues","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"From key informant interviews and focus group discussions, a number of issues affecting the community's ability to adapt to change and to address the above-mentioned challenges were identified. When respondents identified some particular challenge for adaptation, they were asked why they have not been able to address the problem. The responses often touched on governance. The following is a summary of the issues identified:"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"• Lack of or low learning capacity-Most community members said they may not be aware what their limitations to adapting to climate/weather variations are. Key informants stated that most people have a low level of formal education and low ability to use technological innovations for adaptation. For example in Iuani, the buffer zone representatives said 'our biggest problem is water. If we have sand dams, we may not need to sell sand, we will preserve the river bed. But now, we do not know how to construct the sand dams.'"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Failure of responsible government institutions to provide the required state support."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Illegal and unsustainable resource extraction-The main natural resource in the area is the forest on the hills. The community members have access to the forest for purposes of timber harvesting."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"• Lack of sub-catchment management plans-When the landscape is poorly planned, utilization of resources is random and disorganized. The respondents said the community members would not use their land properly since there was no properly spelt out management plan. As a result, there was excessive erosion and forest degradation in the area."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Poor leadership at local and national levels."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"• Lack of transfer of traditional ecological knowledge-Traditionally people knew a lot about the trends of weather patterns and what needed to be done on every season. They had traditional skills and knowledge the flowed informally from generation to generation. Such knowledge helped people reduce their vulnerability to risks related to adverse weather. Such knowledge is not in the community any more. With the advent of modern, formal education, traditional ecological knowledge disappeared."},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"• Lack of effective authority for regulation-Most of the respondents said they know what the remedy to some environmental degradation would be but they do not have the power to set and enforce regulations."}]},{"head":"Verification and prioritization-First workshop","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"At the first multi-stakeholder workshop, issues identified in focus groups and key informant interviews were written on cards and clustered by workshop participants in a participatory manner. The six main clusters were then prioritized by workshop participants through a voting exercise according to how important and pressing they judge each issue to be. During the voting process participants were advised to vote based on their knowledge and understanding of issues. Each participant was given 3 votes to distribute among the issues according to how important they viewed those issues. The results are summarized in Table 3. The most important issues were then discussed in breakout groups. These activities also served the purpose of validation, as the workshop discussions mostly confirmed what had been discussed in focus group discussions."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Participants in the breakout groups also engaged in analysis of the issues through the construction of influence diagrams (Figure 1). Institutional and governance dimensions of the top four prioritized adaptation issues were also discussed (Table 4).  Based on these results and information gathered from the preliminary stage of the research, two main governance mechanisms were identified for the assessment:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• KAMUKIMA Community Forest Association"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Ngutwa Nduenguu Water Resource User Association."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Other relevant governance mechanisms included the Forest Management Plan, the Kaiti Watershed Integrated Management Plan Sub Catchment Management Plan and the county Spatial Planning procedures."}]},{"head":"Assessment of selected governance mechanisms","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"At the second multi-stakeholder workshop, participants were divided into breakout groups according to their organizational affiliation to assess KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA according to five criteria: legitimacy, direction, performance, accountability and fairness. A simple scoring criteria was devised and agreed upon by the participants. The scores ranged from negative two (-2) to positive two (+2). Members of KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA each did self-assessments while the other participants not belonging to either of these two organizations-mostly government and NGO personnel-assessed both. Each of the five criteria are discussed below based on discussions at the workshop, but also enriched by comments made during focus group discussions and key informant interviews that were conducted prior to the workshop."}]},{"head":"Legitimacy","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The researchers sought to know if KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA were widely understood and accepted by the stakeholders/community members and if they appropriately address people's needs while respecting the local cultural norms."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The CFAs are established based on the Kenya Forestry Act 2005, which gives communities an opportunity to take part in the management of the state owned resources, the forest. Members of the CFA and the community around them demonstrated their knowledge of the existence and functions of the organization. They are actively involved in the routine activities of the CFA. The youth in the CFA areas know about the CFA but are not actively involved."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"The women and the men understand the operations of the CFA and can positively identify with it. They know that the activities of the organization are responding to the environmental degradation issues that affect their livelihoods directly. The organization has a sound legal foundation. It was established as per a government policy on forest management. The CFA, by its nature and formation, gives room for all the members to participate in decision making processes. However, women and youth have limited contribution in making decisions affecting the running of the CFA and hence management of the resources. They have a legal recognition at the forestry department and are also registered as a local CBO."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"On the other hand, the Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA is an organization that was formed and registered and the Water Act (2002, amended in 2012) and is well recognized, and appreciated by the members. The WRUA is an association mandated to serve the interests of water resource users in a subcatchment/subbasin area as per rules stipulated in the act and enforced by the subcatchment area Management Board. The rules for the management of the WRUA are set by the Water Resource Regulatory Authority or the Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA). This gives the Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA a clear definition of purpose and an appropriate legal standing. Members of the WRUA are continuously involved in activities of the WRUA including meeting to deliberate on processes and major milestones."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"The leadership is composed of a committee that is democratically elected. People in the area and government authorities in addition to WRMA and the Ministry of Water and Irrigation recognize the WRUA and their work in the area. All the members and leaders who were interviewed understand the WRUA as a vehicle for responding to the adverse effects of changing environmental conditions."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"For both the WRUA and the CFA, it was clear from the discussions that the organization has the required legitimacy to operate in the area but it was hard to evaluate some elements including the process of electing leaders. The cultural barriers seem to be in play hence leading to the election or selection of some people who are thought to be opinion leaders even when they do not have the required skills. Neither organization has had any major transition in leaders."}]},{"head":"Direction","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":348,"text":"The CFA has a forest management plan that spells out the roles of the organization for its members. In the management plan, the roles of the CFA include enhancing the ability of people to realize their potential to adapt to changing climate or cope with the adverse conditions as a result of climate change. While the management of the organization has been trained on how to run the activities of the CFA in a way that can support their members, only a few understand or follow the guidelines provided in the management plan. Most of the leaders interviewed seem to have forgotten the details of the plan and therefore do not positively identify with it. This would mean they may have tried practicing or operationalizing the training. More than 50% of the people interviewed seemed to know what is required of the CFA in supporting the members but highly doubted if the CFA is actually doing the same. The older men respondents seemed to agree they can trust the CFA leadership to deliver benefits including training on how to adapt to changing environment. Older women have respect and trust the CFA leaders and feel they know how to guide them to the right direction. The youth agree with the principle of the CFA but do not agree with the style of leadership. They feel the leaders do not use the right strategies and it would be better if they were included in the leadership. Three of the five middle-aged key informants (men) said they have confidence in the management structure but doubted the ability of some of the committee members. They propose a faster adoption of appropriate technology including energy stoves, making and use of briquettes, generation of biogas among other climate smart interventions. The Kenya Forest Service, a government body that is mandated with conserving forests feel the CFA is a good link between them and the community where forest resources exist. In many occasions, the forest conservator referred to the CFA as their eyes on the ground and that they are there to complement their work."},{"index":2,"size":253,"text":"Since inception the WRUA has been operating on the direction provided by the water regulatory authority and the community aspirations to achieve sustainable water supply for their livestock and irrigation. The Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) facilitated the capacity building of the WRUA in areas of identifying the key issues and solutions to challenges associated with their water resources. For the last three years, the WRUA has been trying to bring the community together in order to use a common strategy to reduce threats to their water resources. They have assisted the members to learn how they can tackle common problems like planting trees on their land adjacent to river basin to protect it from erosion. A common goal of minimizing or stopping unsustainable sand harvesting from the river basin has been in place and WRUA members seem to respect that. However, the challenges facing the WRUA suggest that more needs to be done to strengthen the focus of the WRUA. Community members suggest more training to enhance their understanding of various modern strategies on mitigation and adaptation to climate change. While training has been provided, particularly on the running of an organization, most committee members may not have the required capacity to learn. It may be necessary to sensitize the members on what the requirements of the committee may be before they can conduct an election. There should be regular annual general meetings to allow for election of fresh members or re-election of those that proof capable of meeting the leadership goals."}]},{"head":"Performance","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"The performance of both the CFA and WRUA as governance mechanisms was assessed. The CFA, since its formation has achieved various kinds of support including the community members' training on tree planting on their land, planting of fruit trees (agroforestry), beekeeping and making of rascal and regular terraces on their hilly land. Upon its formation, the CFA with support from an NGO operating in the area acquired funding to conduct training for the members on tree planting, tree nursery preparation, bee keeping and fruit growing. The tree nurseries were for fruit and forest trees. So far, there is evidence of afforestation on every member's land. Eco-enterprises including beekeeping and honey production and marketing are also ongoing on a few farmers' farms. Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA has been able to mobilize community members to form the organization, register it and has encouraged people to carry out minimal activities aimed at protecting the water catchment area. The WRUA has been funded by the Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) to conduct capacity training activities for the members. Individual members have been encouraged to use the various interventions on their own lands."}]},{"head":"Accountability","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Accountability generally refers to public process of evaluation and record-keeping through which members can make corporations/organizations and governments answerable to them."},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"While legislation and regulations lay out some guidelines for ensuring accountability within CFAs, at our study site, the understanding and capacity of the members for creating effective accountability procedures is low. The community members have not been empowered to participate in any detailed process to ensure the tools and process for reporting takes care of their interests. Although the leaders interviewed said they have records, most of them did not seem to know where they are kept. The leaders feel they are operating in a transparent manner but some members say they are not aware of how some things are done. They have not been accessing the records if at all they exist. The leaders do not have detailed records of finance related transactions. Meeting minutes are not kept all the time and whenever they are taken, they may not be accessed in the next meeting. The leaders feel they have been implementing activities impartially. Some members feel more should be done to ensure impartiality in the CFA's activities. Since the activities are done on individual land, partiality may not be practiced."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The CFA does not have a lot of financial resources. Whatever little funds they get from donor agencies, are usually for a specific activity, such as travel and are spent without formal accounting. The CFA is supposed to mobilize resources from members and outside agencies including government. It is hard to establish whether this is happening since there are no records and most reports are verbal. There are no records for a grant that the CFA received from Community Development Trust in 2008. The project activities closed down in 2008 when the funding ended. Ideally, there should have been records and reports for the project."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"The Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA demonstrates a good degree of accountability to the members and to the WRMA. The members, including women and youth understand their rights and participate in activities and processes that enhance exercising their rights in an open and equitable manner. The members have received training from PAFRI on how to participate in and what to expect from the WRUA processes. There are regular meetings between the WRUA officials and the member groups. From these meetings, minutes are taken and can be accessed whenever needed."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Most of the leaders of the WRUA are fairly educated and more youthful. They understand basic principles of running an organization like this and they understand they are accountable to the members and society. The WRUA has not had much financial resources to report on or to account for as they have been in operation for only two years."}]},{"head":"Fairness","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":247,"text":"Fairness is achieved when a community or social process treats all the stakeholders in the same manner. It is often complex to assess fair treatment especially where people are receiving services only as opposed to where goods are involved. Rural and indigenous communities have a way of ensuring impartial treatment of subjects. Much of this is in play in the communities in Makueni. The KAMUKIMA CFA is designed to operate in a way that will ensure equal benefits to all members. The executive committee ensured equal distribution of services and resources so far. For example, beehives were given equally to all buffer zones. Since communication is mostly by word of mouth, information is sent to all members in all the buffer zones. However, some community members feel they are not treated equally. Community members have been appropriately mobilized to take part in the activities of the CFA. This is not very successful as some members are not contributing appropriately to most of the required social costs. Scouting or supporting Kenya Forest Service (KFS) rangers in tackling issues like illegal harvesting of forest products and putting off forest fires when they happen are some of the activities that require community input. Most of the community members do not have the inspiration to participate since they do not associate their input with any benefits they receive. A cross section of the members still think that should be a state/government function and if they participate, they should be directly compensated."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA, just like the CFA has provisions for equitable distribution of benefits and costs amongst members. The fact that most of the activities taking place are on individuals' farms enhances the achievement of equal distribution of ecosystem benefits. The funds that have been received so far were meant to mobilize and capacitybuild the members. All organization members received the training as required. Members also contribute their time whenever there is a group activity taking place. This young organization has potential for achieving high level of fair distribution of benefits and costs, which will enhance the people's ability to cope with climate variability."}]},{"head":"Overview","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A summary of the scoring done at the second workshop is presented in Tables 5 and 6."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"The participants recorded comments as well. The remarks show that the overall governance at this landscape level is weak in most of the criteria. The most common recommendations across the groups include institution of a proper accountability system, provision of appropriate training, provision of funds to conduct activities and training or capacity building of the members.   Based on our delineation of the landscape being studied (see Methods section above), we identified the various organizations, institutions and other elements making up the institutional system that corresponds to that landscape and the issues of concern. This was found to include KAMUKIMA CFA, Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA, Members of the county Assembly, and the National Government Administrative Office (formerly Provincial Administration). Departments and agencies of the national and county governments and NGOs also play important roles. Based on the interconnected natural resource management issues which respondents identified as top priority challenges for climate change adaptation, this study devoted particular attention to the WRUA, the CFA and the county land use planning process which were just getting underway."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"The institutional system was assessed according to eight main dimensions: the ability to generate resources, room for autonomous change, variety, promotion and development of leadership, learning capacity, institutional linkages, fair governance, and effective decision-making. Overall, the assessment aimed at understanding ways in which the institutional system promotes, or hinders, the enhancement of capacity for adaptation to climate change. In the following sections we provide a detailed assessment of the institutional system according to the 8 main criteria and 16 subcriteria."}]},{"head":"Learning capacity Deliberation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Whether the institutional systems allows adequate space for dialogue, deliberation and analysis Within the WRUA and the CFA, there are opportunities for deliberation and dialogue both at the level of the executives and also among the representatives of the user groups or buffer zone associations which make up the respective organizations. At higher levels, the forums and networks which have recently been formed have created numerous opportunities for deliberation, particularly among WRUAs and between CFAs and WRUAs. PAFRI and CESPAD, in collaboration with WRMA and other agencies, have put a great deal of emphasis bringing the CFAs and WRUAs together to discuss problems, share ideas and concerns, and gradually work toward coordinated action. How well these opportunities for deliberation and collective analysis and problem solving extend down to the grassroots level is less clear. The people who participate through the user groups and buffer zone associations in the activities and decision-making of the WRUA and CFA, respectively, are activists and leaders. Comments from our respondents suggested that more work is needed to involve community members at large in the deliberation and planning that are part of WRUA and CFA activities."}]},{"head":"Trust","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Presence of institutional patterns that promote mutual respect and trust","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"In the recent past, there was some lurking mistrust between the CFA and the WRUA, according to some respondents more so here than elsewhere in Makueni. The collaborative discussions and joint planning activities, however, have been gradually building up trust between them and also with organizations such as PAFRI. They are now working together constructively. Relations between the WRUA and WRMA are also positive. However, trust between the community-based organizations and other government agencies and their personnel is still not strong. For example, opinions about the capacity of WRUAs and CFAs among government technical staff vary, but on the whole express a low opinion of the capacity of these organizations. This lingering mistrust goes the other way as well. The relationship between KFS and the CFAs is a case in point: the slowness of KFS to empower the CFAs for management of forest resources has deepened community mistrust of KFS."}]},{"head":"Trust","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"So I must say the initial meetings were not that easy, because I realized some people in WRUA didn't understand what CFAs are, some people in CFAs didn't understand what WRUAs are, then they were blaming each other, some were saying the people in CFA are the ones who destroyed the catchment."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"-An NGO leader"},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The communication [between the CFA and the WRUA] has been quite okay. We had a workshop together and made a PIC-Project Implementation Committee-which is drafting the management plan for the WRUA and CFA …. CFA used to work alone and WRUA alone but this time round now is when we want to work together because, WRUA cannot work without CFA."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"-An executive of KAMUKIMA CFA"}]},{"head":"Use of diverse types and sources of knowledge","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Whether the institutional system makes use of diverse types and sources of knowledge","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Most of the respondents who commented on this issue suggested that different types of knowledge are available, but suggested that the linkages for sharing that knowledge do not seem to be in place. Respondents involved in community-based organizations for natural resources management (the CFA and the WRUAs) mentioned the need for research and technical knowledge, and that they seem not to get access to the right knowledgeable people. Other respondents commented how in the past decisions have been made without consultation, including without consultation with the appropriate technical persons in government technical departments. Under the new constitution, with more important decisions now being made in the county Assemblies, this consultation and information flow seem still to be weak."}]},{"head":"Institutional memory","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Institutional provision of monitoring and evaluation processes of policy experiences","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"At the county level, there are procedures for monitoring and evaluating the policy processes. In the previous provincial/national government, development plans included a logical framework spelling out objectives, activities and outcomes that could be monitored or evaluated. That system has been inherited by the new county governments with more powers given to the Members of the county Assembly (MCAs) in making decisions and monitoring the implementation. At the community level however, the CFA and the WRUA have not demonstrated an elaborate system of planning and implementation that can be monitored or evaluated without consulting the leaders. There are no project planning documents or logical framework that can be independently audited to establish what has been happening. The capacity building and facilitation work that PAFRI is carrying out is helping to put in place a system that enhances institutional memory. For example, the integrated resource management plan which links the operations of the WRUA with those of the CFA and the county government will allow for evaluation of policy interventions."}]},{"head":"Variety","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"If the institutional system facilitates the involvement of diverse perspectives and pursuit of diverse solutions."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The institutional system in the landscape allows for different perspectives of opinion to be tried in trying to deal with issues affecting the community. A number of NGOs offering different services and products have been allowed to work in the community over time. However, issues touching on water and forest resources are regulated by the WRMA and KFS respectively. The CFA allows for the individual members to try different interventions on their lands without interference. Women groups in the CFA region have been trying a number of new innovations in upgrading their local chicken and dairy breeds to increase productivity and food security. In trying to mitigate land degradation, tree planting and establishment of nurseries is advocated for by the CFA leaders. However, the members are free to try different species of fruit trees on their land."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"The WRUA has room for trying new and diverse strategies in enhancing member livelihoods in the face of climate variations."}]},{"head":"Variety","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"For example, if they say that they would like to have beehives in the forest and they don't have the knowledge neither trained, they don't have the clothes, the smokers, you expect them by the time they are harvesting their honey to cause problem with an outbreak of fire and that causes an alarm, therefore we cannot allow that."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"-Chairman of CFA"}]},{"head":"Room for autonomous change","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Whether actors are given scope for experimentation","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Based on the nature of the system, stakeholder organizations have little control over the actions of individuals. Individuals have a free hand in trying new ideas and innovations on their own but there are instances where the organizations give guidance on the new innovations or ideas that need to be adopted."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The CFA structure allows for the buffer zones and the individual members to experiment on their farms but the CFA does not have similar autonomy to try out new ideas without consulting the government institution responsible, the KFS."}]},{"head":"Leadership","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The institutional system fosters the emergence of leaders and champions, of different types, within its various communities, sectors and stakeholder groups."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"A few different organizations-WRMA and PAFRI, for instance-have done capacity building for local leaders, which has been helpful. Generally, however, while new initiatives from emerging local leaders seem not to be opposed, neither do the key organizations go out of their way to foster emerging leadership. The local leaders such as in the CBOs for community-based resource management, tend to be drawn from local elite, with little attempt to incorporate and support potential leaders from other segments of the community."}]},{"head":"Institutional linkages","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"The presence of appropriate linkages among organizations and institutions Some important institutional linkages exist within the organizations in the system but communication is not very effective among the stakeholders. For example the WRUA members understand little about what the CFA members are doing. In the past, they have blamed each other for failure to implement actions that would have benefited the community. With the new county system, coupled with the efforts to integrate activities by PAFRI, the situation is improving. For example, there is an understanding and agreement that river catchment includes forest land and rivers and therefore the different statutory provisions guiding the use of the forest and water resources require harmonization. The CFA and WRUA have good linkages with the NGO PAFRI, KFS, and WRMA. There seems not to be a strong link between KFS and WRMA and the NGOs. Other NGOs and development agencies working in the area such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Heifer International and Anglican Development Services have very weak linkages with the CFAs and WRUA in Kaiti watershed."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"While, in the recent past, there has been some mistrust particularly between the CFA and the WRUA, through various recent initiatives information sharing and coordination amongst WRUAs and CFAs have been improving."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"With the exception of linkages between KFS and the CFA and between WRMA and the WRUAs, institutional and organizational linkages between county and national government stakeholders on the one hand and these communitybased structures on the other remain very weak. While some respondents in county government expressed the importance of CFAs and WRUAs, there is little that has been done thus far to include them in the county's planning processes or in the implementation of the plans."}]},{"head":"Institutional linkages","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"On the side of collaboration between the major stake holders i.e. WRUAs, NEMA, Provincial administration, NGOs, CFAs and KFS at the time we are collaborating very well on the issue of tree poaching because we are within"}]},{"head":"-KFS conservator","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resources Authority","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Provision of accepted or legitimate forms of power that provides the institutional system with authority to act; whether or not institutional rules are embedded in constitutional laws. Includes 'political resources': support for the institutional system from the political realm."},{"index":2,"size":277,"text":"The institutional system has limited authority or legitimate forms of power required to provide it with the authority to act. Part of this is a result, particularly in the case of the relationship between KFS and CFAs, of an unwillingness to cede authority to lower levels. The CFA has an agreement in place with KFS but KFS has been slow to implement it. Certain activities require action on the land, and this necessitates seeking buy-in from the landowners-their members. The CFA and the WRUA aim at implementing interventions on individuals' land, as there are few common property resources. However, the CFAs and WRUAs have a legal recognition. They are both established by acts of parliament and are appropriately registered. Their ability to raise financial resources for the implementation of their mandate is very limited. The system has been able to mobilize human resources to undertake activities at the community (WRUA/CFA) level. Both the WRUA and CFA have been able to link themselves up with agencies with special skills for capacity building like PAFRI. However, they have not been able to mobilize human resources for long term activities, even from their own people with such skills. Locally, the organizations do not have skills to fund raise and therefore depend on consultants, particularly on occasions where the donor is providing finances to pay for consultant time. The county government (and its predecessor the provincial/central government) has some limited ability to mobilize and access funds. Under the previous constitution, the local CBOs did not appropriately benefit from the financial and human resources provided by the government. In the current system there is a general feeling that things may be better."}]},{"head":"Human resources","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The institutional system is able to mobilize expertise, knowledge and human labour"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"The communities have not been able to appropriately mobilize and utilize the required technical human resources."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"The lack of a reward system that can attract and retain human expertise is a big hindrance. Young people from the area who get educated and trained at higher levels of learning get jobs elsewhere and are not willing to come work for the community mainly due to lack of finances and opportunities for personal growth. The system is however endowed with the required human labour to implement adaptation interventions. The community members are always willing to provide labour sometimes for free or at a very low wage. For example, the CFA members have volunteered as scouts to police the community forest, put off forest fires and do anti-poaching patrols for free. The WRUA members also provide free labour on sand dam construction or building of shallow wells that benefit the community."}]},{"head":"Financial resources","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The institutional system is able to mobilize financial resources to support policy measures and financial incentives"},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"The organizations in the system have varied levels of ability to raise the required finances for their work. The county government is able to raise a budget for natural resources development in the county. The county government system through the MCAs can incorporate the activities of the CFAs and WRUAs in their budget through the participatory annual budget processes. However, this has not been appropriately coordinated, mainly due to the fact that the system is new. The CFA and WRUA lack the ability to raise funds from sources other than the government."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"They require support to enhance the building of the technical skills required for raising funds, management and accounting for it."}]},{"head":"Fair governance Legitimacy","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Whether there is public support for the institutional system"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The degree of legitimacy was a big challenge in the early days of the CFA and WRUA, but they have steadily been gaining acceptance by community members at large. The sense of ownership of these organizations and their plans, however, remains weak."}]},{"head":"Equity","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Whether or not institutional system is inclusive and its rules are fair"},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"For the key organizations and institutions within the system, the structures and procedural rules are fair. In devising the rules for use of natural resources there seems to have been a deliberate effort to have appropriate representation in the organizations management committees. Women are included in the committees. The CFA has not managed to include the youth in their committees. The youth feel the older men have sidelined them while the older men claim the youth are just lazy and do not want to take responsibilities. On the whole, there is little effort by those in leadership position to uplift the level of understanding of those without such capacity, to know their rights and hence take part in the decision-making process. Greater effort must be made to proactively improve inclusivity: youth, women and the poorest are still not well represented."}]},{"head":"Accountability","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Whether or not institutional patterns provide accountability procedures"},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":"The county government and the Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA are fairly new. The CFA has been in operation for a few years but it was not easy to assess accountability for resources they have accessed so far. While the leadership say they keep records of all the events and transactions, the members do not confess being in a position to query or audit anything. There are regular meetings by committee members but the minutes do not get presented to the members regularly. Most members have a low capacity to understand all the necessary procedures of holding the leadership accountable for their actions and resources. The WRUA on the other hand has a fairly educated membership and leadership, and have accessible records. A challenge in this area seems to be the capacity for accountabilitycommunity mem¬bers neither understand their rights well, nor the responsibilities of their representatives in the CFA or WRUA, nor how to hold them accountable. The challenge of accountability appears to be one primarily of the capacity to hold representatives and the relevant organizations accountable. Neither community members nor the representatives themselves have strong ideas of what community members' rights in relation to the organizations are, or the kinds of procedures to institute which could ensure accountability. The only obvious moment for accountability is when representatives for these bodies are periodically selected."}]},{"head":"Financial resources","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"One reason why we have really had no great impact is because of lack of resources, we do almost on voluntary basis… -Chief, Iuani"}]},{"head":"Responsiveness","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Whether or not institutional patterns show response to society","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Institutional linkages up to county level, together with the fact that the Governor and MCAs are directly elected, have created a certain degree of responsiveness. However, at community and landscape levels, as the institutional system is very new, there has been little experience upon which the responsiveness of the system at those levels can be assessed. It is clear that responsiveness is hampered by lack of funds. It is still early to assess the responsiveness of the system to people's needs but generally is not strong. The KFS have their officers (rangers) on the ground but it is reported some problems requiring their interventions have not been appropriately coordinated. The CFA members have had to battle a few instances of forest fires alone. The KFS say they are not well resourced to respond as required to community needs like putting out forest fires and dealing with illegal harvesting of forest (timber and non-timber) resources."}]},{"head":"Effective decision-making","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Efficiency and effectiveness of decision-making processes themselves"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The institutional system sets clear scope, goals and objectives for actors, is efficient (does not spend disproportionate time and resources producing decisions, and fits the social-ecological system (is adapted to spatial, temporal and other characteristics of the social and ecological environment)."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"The existence of shared visions and a clear scope, goals and objectives for key decision-making bodies within the institutional system is somewhat lacking, in part because of the weakness of institutional linkages. While the situation has been changing, the key players are often working at cross purposes and shared direction has not been established. The community members, the community based organizations, the county government and other development agencies have structures for decision making, mainly community meetings (Barrazas) and seminars. Some deliberation and consensus building with community members take place but mostly, the organization management or government representatives inform the people on what has been decided. The WRUA and the CFA provide good ground for deliberation at the community level. At the higher level, collaborative decision making takes place where the organizations have been assisted to network. There is a platform and goodwill for collaboration in planning processes but at present the organizations are not communicating appropriately."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"At the community level, members have been mobilized and trained to undertake sustainable activities. Evidence from the KAMUKIMA CFA show that some of the activities and eco-enterprises have not only uplifted community livelihoods but also in the processes of restoring derelict landscapes. The members of the WRUA have initiated activities aimed at restoring the degraded river banks and increasing availability of water during the long dry spells. Decision-making processes within the landscape seem to be relatively efficient, although are constrained by insufficient experience and capacity and lack of access to technical knowledge."}]},{"head":"Overview","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Two researchers each independently scored the institutional system for the 16 governance criteria, after which the resulting scores were discussed. From the independent scoring, the researchers arrived at identical scores for nine out of the sixteen criteria. The scores were discussed and for the other scores a consensus was reached. The table below provides the agreed score and a summary of the comments."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The criteria which scored weakest were accountability, responsiveness, ability to generate resources, learning capacity and leadership. The degree of legitimacy was a big challenge in the early days of the CFA and WRUA, but they have steadily been gaining acceptance by community members at large. The sense of ownership of these organizations and their plans, however, remains weak 13. Are institutional rules within the IS fair?"}]},{"head":"+1","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"For the key organizations and institutions within the system, the structures and procedural rules are fair. However, greater effort must be made to proactively improve inclusivity: youth, women and the poorest at not well represented 14. Do the various components of the IS respond to the concerns, needs, and aspirations of society?"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"-1 Institutional linkages up to county level, and the fact that the Governor and MCAs are directly elected has created a certain degree of responsiveness. However, at community and landscape levels, as the institutional system is very new, there has been little experience upon which the responsiveness of the system at those levels can be assessed. "}]},{"head":"+1","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The weaknesses of vertical institutional linkages has constrained the ability of the institutional system to establish a clear vision and direction for community members and stakeholders at higher levels to buy into. However, with recent efforts to facilitate collaboration at landscape and watershed scales, there is a strong degree of fit with social and biophysical conditions. For example, the coming together of the CFA, WRUA and KFS to develop an Integrated Resource Management Plan facilitated by PAFRI is a move in the right direction. Decision-making processes within the landscape seem to be relatively efficient, although are constrained by insufficient experience and capacity and lack of access to technical knowledge  "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The most pressing challenges for adaptation to climate change in the study area boil down to four main issues which respondents consistently emphasized, and, in a scoring exercise in our first workshop with them, prioritized. Three of these relate to natural resources and were closely interconnected: availability of water, soil erosion and illegal resource use. Challenges in availability of water result both from unsustainable land management practices and the changing weather conditions, with rainfall becoming more unpredictable. There is rampant land degradation in the area which threatens the integrity of the agro-ecosystem and the livelihoods of the people. This degradation has been precipitated by unsustainable activities by the local community to meet requirements of food security and development."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Capacity for adapting to these challenges is weak. There is generally a low level of formal education among the community members and traditional ecological knowledge is not adhered to as may be appropriate. There are a few farmers who have adopted technologies that are sustainable in enhancing food security. These isolated successes give hope to this vulnerable community and threatened landscape. However, the challenges are great."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The management of the upper catchment is an important concern here as this affects erosion and availability of water for everyone downhill and downstream. KAMUKIMA CFA is making progress in this regard but still struggles."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA has a direct mandate for watershed management, but will need to partner with the CFA in order to be effective. Management of forests, however, is only one dimension of these challenges; another relates to the soils on people's farms in a highly fragmented landscape. With every generation, farms are subdivided, further constraining the opportunities for investment in conservation measures. Overall, few if any of the challenges can be addressed primarily at farm or village level. Rather, the interconnections among all these issues across space, and among the organizations and institutions with the mandate to address them, are strong and together define a landscape level 'problemshed' for which at least some level of collaborative planning and institutional coordination will be needed. Our assessment examined the emergent institutional system for this landscape, which we have been referring to as 'middle Kaiti', and two of the key governance mechanisms within that system: KAMUKIMA CFA and Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA."},{"index":5,"size":288,"text":"Increasingly, the need for institutional arrangements that reflect the fact that landscapes are interconnected and that ecological functions go beyond social boundaries is being recognized. Organizations such as PAFRI and CESPAD have been promoting collaboration among WRUAs and between WRUAs and CFAs, and the development of a joint management plan by KAMUKIMA and Ngutwa Nduenguu is an important step. Such linkages are important in providing synergies and complementarity. However, WRUAs and CFAs are not the only components of the institutional system. Both the CFA and the WRUA lack the necessary resources to implement the best practices in responding the issues and challenges of climate change and resource management. The required linkages to institutions that have resources, such as at county level, are very weak. Linkages are also required processes such as land use planning which is in the docket of the county government. At the time of the research, the progress of the county government toward being able to implement activities on the ground was still moving very slowly. There is a nominal recognition among officers in the county government that they need to work with and rely on communitylevel organizations such as WRUAs in order to have an impact on the ground; we saw no signs, however, of such connections being institutionalized. This disconnect is a critical weakness, because it is at county level where the capacity to mobilize physical and financial resources is relatively higher and where authority for land use planning lies. The lack of clarity around who has authority for what, which emerged with the 2010 Constitution, still persists and is another element of this disconnect. Taken together, the capacity of the institutional system is greatly constrained by the lack of appropriate, institutionalized linkages."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"Another crucial issue which began to unfold during the course of the field research and after was the disarray within Makueni county government. There was conflict between the county government and many of the MCAs. This conflict escalated to the point that, at the time of writing, steps are underway to dissolve the county Government. This will delay further any possibilities for addressing the above-mentioned weaknesses."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Within the institutional system, fair governance, while apparently improving, still faces critical challenges."},{"index":8,"size":166,"text":"Representation, inclusivity and participation by all social groups have been insufficient. Downward accountability at county level occurs only through election of Governor and MCAs every five years. Accountability is also somewhat weak at community and landscape level. We do not refer here to corruption. Rather, these weaknesses can be understood in terms of capacity. Neither representatives within the local organizations-WRUA, CFA, buffer zone groups, etc.-nor community members at large sufficiently understand their rights or ways in which they could demand for accountability from those in leadership positions. While the institutions show intentions of doing this, there is still a weakness in demonstrating accountability especially at levels where financial resources have been involved. The CFA and the WRUA did not have adequate records system for any financial transactions. This in turn weakens their legitimacy and their ability to be trusted organizations that can steer the communities in sustainably managing the landscape. For instance, sense of ownership of the CFA and WRUA and their management plans is weak."},{"index":9,"size":231,"text":"Although the overall institutional system is viewed positively, important areas including legitimacy, learning capacity, resources, fair governance and leadership are weak implying a low capacity to cope with changes and adapt to changing climate at the landscape level. Our assessment is that many of the components needed for an effective institutional system for the middle Kaiti landscape are in place and have the potential to manage natural resources and to deliver sustainable benefits to the community, ensure the integrity of the landscape, enable the community to adapt to changing climate and enhance food security. This is a case, perhaps, of the whole being less than the sum of the parts. The weaknesses which we have highlighted are critical ones, and appropriate steps are required to address those weaknesses and meet existing challenges. The necessary linkages to the county government and other national institutions need to be strengthened. The new county government has a potential of strengthening the capacity of the local organizations especially through involving them in the land use planning process. PAFRI's efforts to build capacity, facilitate collaboration, stimulate emergence of local leaders, and establish accountability measures within the organizations should be supported. The processes of bringing WRUAs, CFAs and other key actors together should be strengthened through the provision of more sustainable funding from the government and by having such collaboration institutionalized in the county government processes and structures. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Influence diagrams from the first multi-stakeholder workshop. "},{"text":" effective? Does it achieve its objectives?Is the mechanism efficient? Does it achieve those objectives in a cost-effective way?Is the mechanism responsive to stakeholder needs and opinions? responsibilities and lines of accountability clearly defined in relation to the mechanism? Does the mechanism function in a way that is transparent to stakeholders? Do stakeholders understand their rights with regard the mechanism, and are they empowered to assert those rights? "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Institutional system-Summary of scores. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Conceptual tasks and main methods/activities usedTable 2 Summary of methods used Table 3 Prioritization of adaptation issues Table 4 Governance issues associated with the prioritized adaptation issues Table 5 Summary of participants' assessment of KAMUKIMA CFA Table 6 Summary of participants' assessment of Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA Table 7 Institutional assessment-Summary v Institutional assessment of adaptation to climate change in the middle Kaiti watershed, Makueni county, Kenya  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Conceptual tasks and main methods/activities used 1C and 2 were carried out in an iterative way such that identification of stakeholders helped to determine the priority issues for adaptation to climate and other changes, which in turn suggested what the critical governance issues were. This all in turn helped to determine what level of analysis with what geographic extent would be more appropriate. Task  Methods/activities TaskMethods/activities 1. Initial system 1A. Decide on level of analysis Identified key stakeholders, initial meetings and key-informant interviews 1. Initial system1A. Decide on level of analysis Identified key stakeholders, initial meetings and key-informant interviews analysis 1B. Stakeholder analysis Key informant interviews and focus group discussions to characterize the analysis1B. Stakeholder analysisKey informant interviews and focus group discussions to characterize the   stakeholders stakeholders  1C. Identify and prioritize Focus group discussions, first multi-stakeholder workshop 1C. Identify and prioritizeFocus group discussions, first multi-stakeholder workshop  change adaptation issues  change adaptation issues 2. Identify governance issues and mechanisms First multi-stakeholder workshop, initial analysis by researchers 2. Identify governance issues and mechanismsFirst multi-stakeholder workshop, initial analysis by researchers 3. Identify relevant policies and policy issues First multi-stakeholder workshops, initial analysis by researchers 3. Identify relevant policies and policy issuesFirst multi-stakeholder workshops, initial analysis by researchers 4. Assessment of governance mechanisms Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, participatory scoring in 4. Assessment of governance mechanismsFocus group discussions, key informant interviews, participatory scoring in   second multi-stakeholder workshop second multi-stakeholder workshop 5. Assessment of the institutional system Key informant interviews, independent scoring by researchers, 5. Assessment of the institutional systemKey informant interviews, independent scoring by researchers,   harmonization of scores harmonization of scores  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Summary of methods used Method Method  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Prioritization of adaptation issues Adaptation issue Total votes Percentage Adaptation issueTotal votesPercentage Infrastructure and market access 22 votes 20% Infrastructure and market access22 votes20% Water availability 33 votes 30% Water availability33 votes30% Illegal resource use 22 votes 20% Illegal resource use22 votes20% Post-harvest storage 0 votes  Post-harvest storage0 votes Pests and diseases 2 votes 1.8% Pests and diseases2 votes1.8% Soil erosion 31 votes 28% Soil erosion31 votes28%  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Governance issues associated with the prioritized adaptation issues Adaptation issue Governance issues Adaptation issueGovernance issues Infrastructure and market access Corruption Infrastructure and market access Corruption  Lack of control of public utilities Lack of control of public utilities  Lack Capital Lack Capital Water availability Poor leadership Water availabilityPoor leadership  Corruption Corruption  Controls on harvesting Controls on harvesting  Resource mobilization Resource mobilization Illegal resource use Poor use of resources Illegal resource usePoor use of resources  Enforcement of rules on harvesting Enforcement of rules on harvesting Soil erosion Policy on title and inheritance of land Soil erosionPolicy on title and inheritance of land  Land use policy generally Land use policy generally  Subdivision of land Subdivision of land  Capacity of government technical officers Capacity of government technical officers  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Summary of participants' assessment of KAMUKIMA CFA  Scores given by breakout groups Scores given by breakout groups Criteria Group 1 (NGO and Group 4 (CFA CriteriaGroup 1 (NGO andGroup 4 (CFA  government personnel) members) government personnel)members) Legitimacy   Legitimacy Is the institution understood and accepted by people? N/A 1 +2 Is the institution understood and accepted by people?N/A 1+2 Does the institution have legal foundation? N/A +2 Does the institution have legal foundation?N/A+2 Do people know that the institution exists? N/A +2 Do people know that the institution exists?N/A+2 Direction   Direction Are roles and functions clear and well understood? N/A +2 Are roles and functions clear and well understood?N/A+2 Does the group provide direction to the members? N/A +2 Does the group provide direction to the members?N/A+2 Performance   Performance Is the mechanism effective? Does it achieve its objectives? +1 +1 Is the mechanism effective? Does it achieve its objectives?+1+1 Is the mechanism efficient? Does it achieve those objectives in a cost- +1 0 Is the mechanism efficient? Does it achieve those objectives in a cost-+10 effective way? +1 +2 effective way?+1+2 Is the mechanism responsive to stakeholder needs and opinions?   Is the mechanism responsive to stakeholder needs and opinions? Accountability   Accountability Are roles, responsibilities and lines of accountability clearly defined in relation to the mechanism? -1 0 +1 +2 Are roles, responsibilities and lines of accountability clearly defined in relation to the mechanism?-1 0+1 +2 Does the mechanism function in a way that is transparent to 0 0 Does the mechanism function in a way that is transparent to00 stakeholders?   stakeholders? Do stakeholders understand their rights with regard the mechanism,   Do stakeholders understand their rights with regard the mechanism, and are they empowered to assert those rights?   and are they empowered to assert those rights? Fairness   Fairness Is institution implemented impartially? 0 +1 Is institution implemented impartially?0+1 Does it favour one particular group in the community? +1 +1 Does it favour one particular group in the community?+1+1  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Summary of participants' assessment of Ngutwa Nduenguu WRUA  Scores given by breakout groups Scores given by breakout groups Criteria Group 1 (NGO and government personnel) Group 2 (WRUA members) Group 3 (WRUA members) CriteriaGroup 1 (NGO and government personnel)Group 2 (WRUA members)Group 3 (WRUA members) Legitimacy    Legitimacy Is the institution understood and accepted by people?    Is the institution understood and accepted by people? Does the institution have legal foundation?    Does the institution have legal foundation? Do people know that the institution exists?    Do people know that the institution exists?  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Institutional assessment-Summary slowly being replaced with new linkages. But clear improvement is being made, especially through the efforts of PAFRI. Linkages at landscape level (e.g., between the CFA and WRUA) and at the larger watershed level (e.g., among WRUAs along the Kaiti), while still new, are very promising. However, linkages downward to community members at large, and upward, especially to county government are insufficient. There is a danger that if the disconnect between decision-making at the county and decision-making within and among community-based organs such as the WRUAs and CFAs remains, that county level decision-making will undermine progress being made at community and landscape levels    Assessment Assessment Criteria  Score Comments CriteriaScoreComments   (-2 to 2)  (-2 to 2) Variety 1. Does the IS1 system facilitates +1 The institutional system allows for different perspectives Variety1. Does the IS1 system facilitates+1The institutional system allows for different perspectives  the involvement of diverse  to be considered in trying to deal with issues affecting the the involvement of diverseto be considered in trying to deal with issues affecting the  perspectives and the pursuit of  community. Innovations in organizational patterns are being perspectives and the pursuit ofcommunity. Innovations in organizational patterns are being  diverse solutions?  embraced by most stakeholders. However, there is no clarity diverse solutions?embraced by most stakeholders. However, there is no clarity    on sharing or cooperation among key stakeholders on sharing or cooperation among key stakeholders Learning 2. Does the IS promote trust +1 Recent collaboration among the CFA, the WRUA, and Learning2. Does the IS promote trust+1Recent collaboration among the CFA, the WRUA, and capacity among various communities and  other stakeholders have gone a long way to build up trust. capacityamong various communities andother stakeholders have gone a long way to build up trust.  stakeholder groups?  In the forestry sector, however (among KFS, the CFA and stakeholder groups?In the forestry sector, however (among KFS, the CFA and    communities), mistrust continues to run strong. E.g. the recent communities), mistrust continues to run strong. E.g. the recent    tree planting exercise by county government did not involve tree planting exercise by county government did not involve    CFA members CFA members  3. Does the IS allow adequate 0 Recently created forums and collaborative planning processes, 3. Does the IS allow adequate0Recently created forums and collaborative planning processes,  space for dialogue, deliberation and  such as the one which brought together the CFA and space for dialogue, deliberation andsuch as the one which brought together the CFA and  analysis?  WRUA for joint resource management planning, have greatly analysis?WRUA for joint resource management planning, have greatly    improved opportunities for deliberation. However, much improved opportunities for deliberation. However, much    more remains to be done, particularly to involve community more remains to be done, particularly to involve community    members at large in deliberative processes around resource members at large in deliberative processes around resource    management management  4. Does the IS makes use of diverse -1 Diverse sources of knowledge exist but are not mobilized. 4. Does the IS makes use of diverse-1Diverse sources of knowledge exist but are not mobilized.  types and sources of knowledge?  Community level and CFA/WRUA level decision makers types and sources of knowledge?Community level and CFA/WRUA level decision makers    tend not to get access to technical knowledge such as from tend not to get access to technical knowledge such as from    government specialists government specialists  5. Does the IS promote learning -1 While there are some stakeholders at higher levels who are 5. Does the IS promote learning-1While there are some stakeholders at higher levels who are  from past experiences?  explicitly attempting to critically analyse past experience and from past experiences?explicitly attempting to critically analyse past experience and    revise accordingly patterns of organization and decision- revise accordingly patterns of organization and decision-    making (e.g., the NGO PAFRI), reflection, monitoring, making (e.g., the NGO PAFRI), reflection, monitoring,    evaluation, etc. have not been institutionalized or become part evaluation, etc. have not been institutionalized or become part    of the decision-making culture within the institutional system of the decision-making culture within the institutional system Room for 6. Does the IS give communities +1 For the most part, organizations at community level seem to Room for6. Does the IS give communities+1For the most part, organizations at community level seem to autonomous and organizations scope for  have the autonomy to set their own direction. The primary autonomousand organizations scope forhave the autonomy to set their own direction. The primary change experimentation?  exception seems to be in regards to the relationship between changeexperimentation?exception seems to be in regards to the relationship between    KFS and the CFA, with former still attempting to exercise a KFS and the CFA, with former still attempting to exercise a    strict degree of control over the scope of the CFAs decisions strict degree of control over the scope of the CFAs decisions    and activities and activities Leadership 7. Does the IS promote the -1 Capacity building for local leaders has been helpful. New Leadership7. Does the IS promote the-1Capacity building for local leaders has been helpful. New  emergence of leadership within its  initiatives from emerging local leaders seem not to be emergence of leadership within itsinitiatives from emerging local leaders seem not to be  various communities, sectors and  opposed, but neither do the key organizations go out of their various communities, sectors andopposed, but neither do the key organizations go out of their  stakeholder groups?  way to foster emerging leadership. The local leaders such as in stakeholder groups?way to foster emerging leadership. The local leaders such as in    the CBOs for community-based resource management tend the CBOs for community-based resource management tend    to be drawn from local elite, with little attempt to incorporate to be drawn from local elite, with little attempt to incorporate    and support potential leaders from other segments of the and support potential leaders from other segments of the    community community  "},{"text":" The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works to improve food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for better and more sustainable use of livestock. ILRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium, a global research partnership of 15 centres working with many partners for a food-secure future. ILRI has two main campuses in East Africa and other hubs in East, West and Southern Africa and South, Southeast and East Asia. ilri.org CGIAR is a global agricultural research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 research centres that are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. cgiar.org    Relevance Relevance   Relevance Relevance Organization Organization Area Area Knowledge Knowledge to focal issues of to focal issues of Capacity Capacity Alliances Alliances Organization OrganizationArea AreaKnowledge Knowledgeto focal issues of to focal issues ofCapacity CapacityAlliances Alliances    the study the study   the study the study KAMUKIMA Red Cross Works on the hills of Kitondo, Katende, Works in the lower and Central Makueni Deep traditional Knowledge High Low Not clear, N/A Members, KFS, Community KAMUKIMA Red CrossWorks on the hills of Kitondo, Katende, Works in the lower and Central MakueniDeep traditional KnowledgeHigh LowNot clear, N/AMembers, KFS, Community CFA Kilala, Mutula and Mataa. They are (Wote) ecological and on emergence  needed WRUA (to a members, CFAKilala, Mutula and Mataa. They are (Wote)ecological and on emergenceneededWRUA (to a members,  a community based organization social economic response strategies  assessment little extent), donors a community based organizationsocial economic response strategiesassessmentlittle extent), donors conserving forest resources including water and soil. Very active membership. Provides irrigation equipment and capacity building of the farmer groups Appendix 1: Summary of organizations knowledge of the area An established organization structure MAKULI CFA Work around Makuli forest. The forest Knows their area N/A Provides relief in Makueni county and middle Kaiti has been completely degraded and well Not a membership organization PAFRI Little actual networks conserving forest resources including water and soil. Very active membership. Provides irrigation equipment and capacity building of the farmer groups Appendix 1: Summary of organizations knowledge of the area An established organization structure MAKULI CFA Work around Makuli forest. The forest Knows their area N/A Provides relief in Makueni county and middle Kaiti has been completely degraded and well Not a membership organizationPAFRI Little actual networks ABD membership is now theoretical Used to provide agribusiness-market Micro-Finance Low N/A N/A ABDmembership is now theoretical Used to provide agribusiness-marketMicro-FinanceLowN/AN/A Ngutwa Works in a section of the Kaiti linkages, Micro-finance linkages to farmer Good and detailed knowledge, High Poorly WRMA, county NgutwaWorks in a section of the Kaiti linkages, Micro-finance linkages to farmerGood and detailed knowledge,HighPoorlyWRMA, county Organization Nduenguu WRUA Africa Harvest Biotechnology Foundation NEMA Kaiti Riparian Resource development association Farm Concern Market value chains, conservation Area River, on the Valleys of Ngutwa and groups Nduenguu. Deals with issues of household livelihoods/food security, Just closed down and moved to water preservation and catchment Machakos Provide seed animal (small stock) to improve local breeds-Toggenberg goats and KenBro chicken Work with 30 groups, total of 800 households They cover 3 locations;-Kikumini, Muvau and Wote central conservation. Has an active membership Provides regulatory services on any projects affecting Natural resources Works in the Kaiti river valley in a small section along around Kilala Aspiring to register as WRUA training agriculture, Capacity building through Knowledge knowledge of traditional water None on Natural preservation resource issues practices and Medium level understanding of natural resource related issues contemporary Good knowledge strategies of dealing of natural resource with weather issues. Not so much variation problems knowledgeable on social issues at Very good knowledge on the water and natural resource community level promotion An agribusiness Relevance to focal issues of the study Medium Medium Medium-high Low resourced, promising Capacity potential N/A Not fully registered government, CFA Local Alliances members County With government, community Min NaRE, groups and community donors. Little members network with county government CFA, members, WRUA Nduenguu Ngutwa Organization Nduenguu WRUA Africa Harvest Biotechnology Foundation NEMA Kaiti Riparian Resource development association Farm Concern Market value chains, conservation Area River, on the Valleys of Ngutwa and groups Nduenguu. Deals with issues of household livelihoods/food security, Just closed down and moved to water preservation and catchment Machakos Provide seed animal (small stock) to improve local breeds-Toggenberg goats and KenBro chicken Work with 30 groups, total of 800 households They cover 3 locations;-Kikumini, Muvau and Wote central conservation. Has an active membership Provides regulatory services on any projects affecting Natural resources Works in the Kaiti river valley in a small section along around Kilala Aspiring to register as WRUA training agriculture, Capacity building throughKnowledge knowledge of traditional water None on Natural preservation resource issues practices and Medium level understanding of natural resource related issues contemporary Good knowledge strategies of dealing of natural resource with weather issues. Not so much variation problems knowledgeable on social issues at Very good knowledge on the water and natural resource community level promotion An agribusinessRelevance to focal issues of the study Medium Medium Medium-high Lowresourced, promising Capacity potential N/A Not fully registeredgovernment, CFA Local Alliances members County With government, community Min NaRE, groups and community donors. Little members network with county government CFA, members, WRUA Nduenguu Ngutwa PAFRI They also link the farmers to markets Work with communities in the dryer management issues. Professionals High Moderately CFA, KFS, PAFRIThey also link the farmers to markets Work with communities in the dryermanagement issues. ProfessionalsHighModeratelyCFA, KFS, National and credit providing communities Monitors drought impacts at household parts of Makueni. They mainly provide Well knowledgeable in environment Medium Medium resourced in County WRUA, WRMA, Nationaland credit providing communities Monitors drought impacts at household parts of Makueni. They mainly provideWell knowledgeable in environmentMediumMedium resourced inCounty WRUA, WRMA, Drought level capacity building services to community on weather conservation  resources HR, limited government, Droughtlevel capacity building services to communityon weather conservationresources HR, limitedgovernment, Management Their pilot project ends in June 2013 based organizations variation issues issues, capacity  finances CFA, ManagementTheir pilot project ends in June 2013 based organizationsvariation issues issues, capacityfinancesCFA, Authority Will be initiating contingency measures Not a community based organization using the anticipated early warning itself systems building, resource mobilization and community   community members AuthorityWill be initiating contingency measures Not a community based organization using the anticipated early warning itself systemsbuilding, resource mobilization and communitycommunity members World Vision Work in most parts of Makueni's dryer areas. Not a community based organization Organization Not a membership, Community Based Mainly provide relief and low knowledge of community mobilization Low N/A Not much the G. S. activity with World VisionWork in most parts of Makueni's dryer areas. Not a community based organization Organization Not a membership, Community BasedMainly provide relief and low knowledge of community mobilizationLowN/ANot much the G. S. activity with Heifer Works in Kibwezi, Nzaui, Makueni natural resource Good knowledge Low Restricted Community HeiferWorks in Kibwezi, Nzaui, Makueninatural resource Good knowledgeLowRestrictedCommunity International central, Mbooni issues on livestock  financial members, Internationalcentral, Mbooniissues on livestockfinancialmembers, Ukambani Christian Churches Society They work in Wamunyu and Wote Central Work with farmer groups resistant varieties include sorghum and 30 households Improvement of traditional drought Deals with groups with an average size of building and extension services Livestock (small and big stock), Capacity Enhancing food security through Good knowledge on disaster relief and sustainable enterprises development issues Medium run Medium resources. in the short closing down Programs county Little network Assessed with the G.S. government Ukambani Christian Churches SocietyThey work in Wamunyu and Wote Central Work with farmer groups resistant varieties include sorghum and 30 households Improvement of traditional drought Deals with groups with an average size of building and extension services Livestock (small and big stock), Capacity Enhancing food security throughGood knowledge on disaster relief and sustainable enterprises development issuesMediumrun Medium resources. in the short closing down Programscounty Little network Assessed with the G.S. government  cowpeas They give seed livestock to members of     cowpeas They give seed livestock to members of Department In charge of livestock activities in the a group who multiply it and sell to other Good technical on Low Medium, Within county DepartmentIn charge of livestock activities in the a group who multiply it and sell to otherGood technical onLowMedium,Within county of Livestock county members at a subsidized rate livestock production  not well and National of Livestockcounty members at a subsidized ratelivestock productionnot welland National Development  issues  resourced government Developmentissuesresourcedgovernment (Minagri) Enhancement of meat (goat, cattle and They pick on groups who are already   financially  (Minagri)Enhancement of meat (goat, cattle and They pick on groups who are alreadyfinancially  chicken meat) and dairy value chains registered with social services     chicken meat) and dairy value chains registered with social services District Agribusiness activities department and are already active Very good Low Same as  DistrictAgribusiness activities department and are already activeVery goodLowSame as Agriculture Office Water conservation Works with individual farmers grouped together for NGO administration knowledge of Agricultural issues  Livestock Development  Agriculture OfficeWater conservation Works with individual farmers grouped together for NGO administrationknowledge of Agricultural issuesLivestock Development  And leads the farmers' stakeholder purposes     And leads the farmers' stakeholder purposes  forum working groups     forum working groups  "}],"sieverID":"5fcd1747-0f7b-4c03-9c86-2c76fb8a4feb","abstract":""}
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